The Sources of Theology 219 leriving directly frorn own right; there is no privileged vantage point, no universal concept of "reason," which can pass judgment them. ations do not seem to upon Having considered Scripture and reason as theological resources, we may consider the idea rely human reason is now turn to of tradition. t principles, and, by omplete system? Just some sort of appeal to Tradition of his five principles, system. Philosophers, naybe they could use The word "tradition" implies not merely something that is handed ertain assumptions, 4 down, but an active process of reflection by which theological or spiritual ld be erected. But the insights are valued, assessed, and transmitted from one generation to lian geometry during another. Three broad approaches to tradition may be detected within analogy. It turned out Christian theology. :ach just as internally uestion cannot be an- m special merits and A Single-Source Theory of Tradition rncerning rationalism In response to various controversies within the early church, especially Le single rational prin- the threat from Gnosticism, a "traditional" method of understanding rys have been - many certain passages of Scripture began to develop. Second-century patristic appear to have been theologians such as Irenaeus of Lyons began to develop the idea of ions of their historical an authorized way of interpreting certain texts of Scripture, which he the classical western argued went back to the time of the Apostles themselves. Scripture ed. At the end of his could not be allowed to be interpreted in any arbitrary or random 'r, Alasdair Maclntyre way: it had to be interpreted within the context of the historical continuity of the Christian church. The parameters of its interpretation were historically fixed and "given." "Tradition" here means simply successors proved "a traditional way of interpreting Scripture within the community of :iples were which faith." This is a single-source theory of theology: Theology is based upon rons. One kind of Scripture, and "tradition" refers to a "traditional way of interpreting clopddie, a second Scripture." .ant, a fifth by the The mainstream Reformation adopted this approach, insisting that their French and traditional interpretations of Scripture such as the doctrine of the y diminished the - Trinity or the practice of infant baptism - could be retained, provided ;acy of the Enlight- tional justification they could be shown to be consistent with Scripture. On the basis of this observation, it will be clear that it is incorrect to suggest that the magis- terial reformers elevated private judgment above the corporate judgment :h-vaunted benefits. It of the church, or that they descended into some form of individualism. rote scathingly of the This is, however, unquestionably true of the radical Reformation (see :nment, as artificial as below). :y" is today viewed by This approach may also be discerned within the 7994 Catechism of the has argued that there Catholic Church, which draws attention to the close connection between ; to be respected in its Scripture and tradition. r

220 Sources and Methods

In keeping with the Lord's command, the Gospel was handed on in position against the tJ two ways: Scripture could not be - orally, by the apostles who handed on, by the spoken word of their was a vital suppleme preaching, by the example they gave, by the institutions they estab- saving truths and rule lished, what they themselves had received whether from the lips of - and in the unwritten I Christ, from his way of life and his works, or whether they had self or from the apostl learned it at the prompting of the Holy Spirit. Vatican Council (1961 in writing, by those apostles and other men associated with the - favor of the apostles who, under the inspiration of the same Holy Spirit, commit- "traditio ted the message of salvation to writing. In order that the full and living Gospel might always be preserved in the Church the apostles left bishops as their successors. They gave them their own position of teaching authority. Indeed, the apostolic teaching, which is expressed in a special way in the inspired books, "Anabaptism," and su, was to be preserved in a continuous line of succession until the end to the Unlightenment.[ of time. This living transmission, accomplished in the Holy Spirit, is I called Tradition, since it is distinct from Sacred Scripture, though i closely connected Through Tradition, the Church, in her doc- to it. The i trine, life, and worship perpetuates and transmits to every generation i all that she herself is, all that she believes. . . . The Father's self-com- For radical theologiani munication made through his Word in the Holy Spirit remains and Caspar Schwenld present and active in the Church. Scripture as he or shei Note the emphasis which is placed upon the role of the church as a living For the radical Sebastl organism, which passes down the content of the faith, based in Scripture, seals which none canl to each generation. "Tradition" is here understood as a living and active illumination of the Si judgl process of passing on the Christian faith, rather than as a static source of with the private revelation, independent of Scripture. judgment of the churi baptism (to which tht' non-scriptural. (Therel A Dual-Source Theory of Tradition Testament.) Similarlyl Christ were rejected i no In ihe fourteenth and fifieenth centuries a somewhat different under- The radicals had P, standing of tradition from that noted above developed. "Tradition" was wrote in 1530: "Foolisi understood to be a separate and distinct source of revelation, in addition not one even knew tl to Suipture. Scripture, it was argued, was silent on a number of points - teach. Rather, theY w; but God had providentially arranged for a second source of revelation to This approach w{ supplement this deficiency: a stream of unwritten tradition, goingback to which was anxious ti the Apostles themselves. This tradition was passed down from one gen- cal emanciPation fro; eration to another within the church. This is a dual-source theory of French Revolution) nl religious ideas of thel theology: theology is based upon two quite distinct sources/ Scripture "placed and unwritten tradition. e.s such a hiJ A belief which is not to be found in Scripture may thus, on the basis them of the need to a1 justified appeal unwritten ing about were accesr of this dual-source theory, be by an to an "A tradition. This position was defended strongly at the Council of Trent, respect for tradi' which was charged with stating and defending the Roman Catholic of the past, a seff-inl

\l \ f The Sources of Theology 221, was handed on in position against the threat posed by the Reformation. Trent ruled that Scripture could not be regarded as the only source of revelation; tradition oken word of their was a vital supplement, which Protestants irresponsibly denied. "All butions they estab- saving truths and rules of conduct . . . are contained in the written books rer from the lips of and in the unwritten traditions, received from the mouth of christ him- whether they had self or from the apostles themselves." Interestingly, however, the Second Vatican Council (1962-5) seems to move away from this approach, in ssociated with the of Scripture" approach, noted oly Spirit, commit- favor of the "traditional interpretation above. ways be preserved These two approaches just discussed affirm the value of tradition. A cessors. They gave third approach, which in effect rejected tradition, came to be influential leed, the apostolic within the radical wing of the Reformation, often known as he inspired books, "Anabaptism," and subsequently was developed by writers sympathetic ssion until the end to the Enlightenment. the Holy Spirit, is Scripture, though hurch, in her doc- The Total Rejection of Tradition o every generation Father's self-com- For radical theologians of the sixteenth century, such as Thomas Miintzer rly Spirit remains and Caspar Schwenkfeld, every individual had the right to interpret scripture as he or she pleased, subject to the guidance of the Holy spirit. "is a book sealed with seven : the church as a living For the radical Sebastian Franck, the Bible :th, based in Scripture, seals which none can open unless he has the key of David, which is the as a living and active illumination of the Spirit." The way was thus opened for individualism, the corporate ln as a static source of with the private judgment of the individual raised above judgmenf of the church. Thus the radicals rejected the practice of infant baptism (to which the magisterial Reformation remained committed) as non-scriptural. (There is no explicit reference to the practice in the New dition Testament.) Similarly, doctrines such as the Trinity and the divinity of Christ were rejected as resting uPon inadequate scriPtural foundations. The radicals had no place whatsoever for tradition. As Sebastian Franck 'vhat different under- rped. "Tradition" was wrote in 1530: "Foolish Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, Gregory - of whom revelation, in addition not one even knew the Lord, so help me God, nor was sent by God to a number of points - teach. Rather, they were all apostles of Antichrist." source of revelation to This approach was developed further during the Enlightenment, :adition, going back to which was anxious to liberate itself from the shackles of tradition. Politi- I down from one gen- cal emancipation from the oppression of the past (a key theme of the dual-source theory of French Revolution) meant a total abandoning of the political, social, and nct sources, Scripture religious ideas of the past. One of the reasons why Enlightenment think- ers placed such a high value upon human reason was that it relieved nay thus, on the basis them of the need to appeal to tradition for ideas; any ideas worth know- peal to an unwritten ing about were accessible to reason alone. the Council of Trent, A respect for tradition was thus seen as capitulation to the authority the Roman Catholic of the pist, a self-imposed bondage to outdated social, political, and 222 Sources and Methods religious structures. "Modern thought was born in a crisis of authority, that worship took shape in flight from authority, and aspired from the start to au- theologians. tonomy from all traditional influence whatsoever" (Jeffrey Stout). Or, as In recent times, Michael Polanyi puts it: tween liturgy and Geoffrey Wainwright We were warned that a host of unproven beliefs were instilled in us motifs were from earliest childhood. That religious dogma, the authority of the times. The liturgy of ancients, the teaching of the schools, the maxims of the nursery, all purely emotive in were united to a body of tradition which we tended to accept merely because these beliefs had been previously held by others, who wanted us to embrace them in our turn. In his On Aidan Kavanagh The Enlightenment thus represented a radical rejection of tradition. Rea- stimulus of son required no supplementation by voices from the past. between primary reflection). This sugge$ But what happens if 1il. .l Theology and Worship: The Importance of theology have a role rt Liturgical Tradition relative authority of t1 explored, and is likel One of the most important elements of the Christian tradition is fixed come. forms of worship, usually known as "liturgy." In recent years there has been a rediscovery of the fact that Christian theologians pray and worship, and that this devotional context shapes their theological reflections. This point has been appreciated since the first centuries of the Christian church. The tag lex orandi, lex credendi, which could be translated roughly as "the way you pray determines what you believe," "Experience" is an im1 expresses the fact that theology and worship interact with each other. well understood: It dq What Christians believe affects the manner in which they pray and be interpreted as "t{ worship; the manner in which Christians pray and worship affects what (ex-perientia). In this I they believe. knowledge, arising tl Two controversies within the early church, centering on Gnosticism speaks of "an experi and Arianism, illustrate the importance of this point particularly well. On implication is that thi the basis of their radical dualism between the "physical" attd the "spir- first-hand application; itual," the Gnostics argued that matter was inherently evil. In refuting Yet the term has d( this position, Irenaeus pointed to the fact that bread, wine, and water concerns us here. It h, were used in the Christian sacraments. How could they be evil, if they which those individu were given so prominent a position in Christian worship? and emotions. It relate' Arius argued that Christ was supreme amongst God's creatures. as opposed to the out His opponents, such as Athanasius, retorted that this Christology was including William Ja totally inconsistent with the way in which Christians worshipped. Exp erience (1902), hav, Athanasius stressed the theological importance of the practice of praying of religion in generali to Christ and worshipping him. If Arius was right, Christians were guilty simply about ideas (ai of idolatry, through worshipping a creature, rather than God. Where migii suggest); it is d Arius believed that theology should criticize liturgy, Athanasius believed inner life of the indl

I The Sources of Theology 223 n a crisis of authority, that worship patterns and practices had to be taken into account by from the start to au_ theologians. (Jeffrey Stout). Or, as In recent times, there has been renewed interest in the relation be- tween liturgy and theology. In his Doxology, the Methodist writer Geoffrey Wainwright drew attention to the way in which theological vere instilled in us motifs were incorporated into Christian worship from the earliest of re authority of the times. The liturgy of the church includes intellectual elements, and is not of the nursery, all purely emotive in character. As a result, the close relationship between :d to accept merely theology and liturgy, noted above, is entirely natural, in that worship I by others, who and theological reflection are linked together organically. In his On Liturgical Theology (1984), the Roman Catholic theologian Aidan Kavanagh argued that worship was the primary source and :tion of tradition. Rea- stimulus of Christian theology. Kavanagh drew a sharp distinction .he past. between primary theology (worship) and secondary theology (theological reflection). This suggests that worship has the upper hand over theology. But what happens if liturgical development becomes irresponsible? Does ortance of theology have a role in limiting or criticizing liturgy? This question of the relative authority of the lex orandi and lex credendi remains to be further explored, and is likely to be the subject of lively debate for some time to tian tradition is fixed come. ln recent years there theologians pray and pes their theological the first centuries of Religious Experience endi, which could be es what you believe," "Experience" is an imprecise term. The origins of the word are relatively :ract with each other. well understood: It derives from the Latin term experientia, which could vhich they pray and be interpreted as "that which arises out of traveling through life" worship affects what (ex-perientia). In this broad sense, it means "an accumulated body of knowledge, arising through first-hand encounter with life." When one tering on Gnosticism speaks of "an experienced teacher" or "an experienced doctor," the t particularly well. On implication is that the teacher or doctor has learned her craft through ysical" and the "spir- first-hand application. ently evil. In refuting Yet the term has developed an acquired meaning, which particularly ead, wine, and water concerns us here. It has come to refer to the inner life of individuals, in J they be evil, if they which those individuals become aware of their own subjective feelings 'orship? and emotions. It relates to the inward and subjective world of experience, rgst God's creatures. as opposed to the outward world of everyday life. A series of writings, this Christology was including William fames's celebrated study The Varieties of Religious ristians worshipped. Experience (1902), have stressed the importance of the subjective aspects he practice of praying of religion in general, and Christianity in particular. Christianity is not lhristians were guilty simply about ideas (as our discussion of Scripture, reason, and tradition rer than God. Where might suggest); it is about the interpretation and transformation of the ", Athanasius believed inner life of the individual. This concern with human experience is

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