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Signifying Difference: Muslim Experiences with Dogs in Canada Signifying Difference: Muslim Experiences with Dogs in Canada by Johanne Horsfall A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2014 Abstract There is a tendency for signifiers to be constructed within intergroup tensions as a means of distinguishing "us and them". Dogs are seemingly held up as “man’s best friend” in “Western” society, and often defined as a symbol of certain cultural values not shared by “non dog-lovers” – a label commonly applied to Muslims in these intergroup tensions. Although there may be broader cultural understandings of the ways in which certain animals are conceptualized, an individual’s perspective is, in fact, mediated through the lens of their personal experiences. While dogs are generally held in Islam as unclean animals and not commonly kept as pets, individual Muslims regard them with a diverse set of viewpoints. This study finds that among Canadian Muslims, personal experience appears to exert the greatest influence on personal opinions of dogs. This research was conducted through an analysis of online Muslim forums and an online survey (54 respondents). ii Acknowledgments To make this project possible required the valued support of countless individuals. Firstly, I would like to thank my advisor Danielle DiNoveli-Lang for her tremendous assistance and feedback in initiating and polishing this thesis from start to finish. Additionally, I thank Bernhard Leistle for his valuable input for both my proposal and final draft. I am also thankful to Pum van Veldhoven for her assistance with designing the survey portion. As well, to Aisha Geissinger for lending her expertise in Religious Studies. To Graduate Coordinator Jen Pylypa for her participation in the committee, and to the Graduate Administrator Kim Mitchell for keeping the process organized. I wish to express my deepest gratitude to all those Canadian Muslims who participated in this study, as well as those who helped to pass along the survey to others. The endowment of your generous input is what made this project possible. I would like to thank my fellow Sociology and Anthropology students as well as professors, who provided meaningful discussion, inspiration, and knowledge for embarking upon this project. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their immeasurable unconditional support throughout my life and academic career. iii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ iii List of Figures ................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 “Walk your Dog in front of Mosque Day” ............................................................... 1 1.2 Negotiation within the Human-Animal Interface: Dogs within Human Society ...... 4 1.3 Cultural-Religious Negotiation by Muslims in Canada ............................................ 5 1.3.1 Acculturation...................................................................................................... 6 1.3.2 Discrimination.................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Animals as a “Signifier of Group Difference” .......................................................... 9 1.5 The Role of Personal Experience ............................................................................ 13 1.6 The Study and Methodology ................................................................................... 14 1.6.1 The Use of Online Forums – Direct Method ................................................... 14 1.6.2 The Use of Online Forums – Indirect Method ................................................. 15 1.6.3 The Survey ....................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 2 – The Place of Dogs and “Other” Animals in Western History and Thought ............................................................................................................................ 21 2.1 Dogs in Canada ....................................................................................................... 21 2.2 Western Historical and Religious Influences .......................................................... 22 2.3 The Changing Relationship with Nature................................................................. 23 2.4 The Importance of the Human-Dog Interface ......................................................... 23 2.5 Pets .......................................................................................................................... 24 2.5.1 Changes in Pet Ownership in the West ............................................................ 25 2.6 Liminality and Ambivalency .................................................................................. 28 2.7 Problems of Dog Ownership ................................................................................... 30 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 31 Chapter 3 - The Place of Dogs and “Other” Animals in Islamic History and Thought ........................................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 The Anthropology of Islam: The Role of Culture, Religion, Personal Experience, and Negotiation ............................................................................................................. 33 3.2 An Introduction to Islam and Related Terminology ............................................... 35 3.2.1 The Five Pillars ................................................................................................ 36 3.2.2 Shari’ah ............................................................................................................ 36 3.2.3 The Qur’ān and the Sunnī Hadīths................................................................... 37 3.2.4 Major Hadīth Collections ................................................................................. 38 3.2.5 Sufism .............................................................................................................. 38 3.2.6 Shī‘ism ............................................................................................................. 39 3.3 Animals in Islam – A General Introduction ............................................................ 40 3.3.1 Animal Compassion/Cruelty ............................................................................ 40 3.4. Dogs in Islam - Introduction .................................................................................. 41 3.4.1. The Dog in the Qur’ān .................................................................................... 43 iv 3.4.1.1 The Companions of the Cave .................................................................... 43 3.4.2 Criticism of Pet-Keeping ................................................................................. 44 3.5 Dogs in Islam and the Middle East - General ......................................................... 45 3.5.1 Saluki Dogs ...................................................................................................... 46 3.5.2 The Status of Dogs in Predominantly Muslim Countries ................................ 47 3.6 The Dog in the Hadīths ........................................................................................... 48 3.6.1 Dogs in the House ............................................................................................ 48 3.6.2 Ritual Purity and Uncleanliness ....................................................................... 48 3.6.2.1 Canine Uncleanliness in Different Madhab/Schools ................................ 52 3.6.3 Blocking Prayers .............................................................................................. 55 3.6.4 Working Dogs – Hunting, Herding, and Guarding .......................................... 55 3.6.5 The Loss of Qirāt ............................................................................................. 55 3.6.6 Killing Dogs ..................................................................................................... 55 3.6.7 Black Dogs ....................................................................................................... 57 3.7 Dogs in Shī’ism....................................................................................................... 58 3.8 Dogs in Sufism ........................................................................................................ 59 3.9 Rabies and Other Zoonoses in History ................................................................... 61 3.10 Dogs in Muslim Countries – Modern Times ........................................................ 62 3.11 Dogs in Zoroastrianism ......................................................................................... 64 3.12 Other Studies on
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