37376 Zionism in Iran *: A Historical Perspective, 1917–79 Reported form Iran Nameh, Volume 29, Number 3-4, Fall/Winter 2014-2015, pp. 44-79.

By: Dr. Nahid Pirnazar [email protected] Lecturer at UCLA Iranian Studies Department: Near Eastern Languages and Cultures

Zionism and Its Variations To study the impact of Zionism in Iran, we need to clarify the definition and the major variations of Zionism. Zionist ideas, as a European movement, evolved over time and influenced by circumstances as well as by social and cultural movements popular at different periods and the country of origin of the thinkers and intellectuals. The termZionism derived its name from Zion, the name of a hill in Jerusalem where Solomon built his temple and was coined in 1891 by the Austrian publicist Nathan Birnbaum, to describe the ideology that ”Jews as a nation and people“ should

* This article is dedicated to the memory of my teacher and mentor, Professor HosseinZ iai, who encouraged the publication of this article, originally presented as a lecture for the Jahangir and Eleanor Amuzegar Chair of Iranian Studies Lecture Series at UCLA in April 2011. The intent of this study is to describe the impact of Zionism on Iranian Jewry from a sociocultural and historical perspective. In order to provide the necessary background for this study, a brief description of Zionism, a his- torical background of the territory, and a brief look at Jewish life in Iran, particularly during the twentieth century, is given to assist the reader in understanding the course of events as described in this study.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 37277 gather together in a single homeland.1 initiated as a reaction to the waves Among the original variations of of anti-Semitism in the French press Zionism were Cultural Zionism, following the Dreyfus Affair.3 which believed that a successful establishment of a Jewish state Political Zionism is not a religious required the revitalization of Jewish movement, although it certainly was culture and the Hebrew language; meant to include religious Jews. As Socialist Zionism, or Labor Zionism, nonobservant Jews, the founders and which strove to fuse Zionism with leaders of this movement approached socialism for the creation of a Jewish Zionism as a ”NATIONAL“ issue state; Religious Zionism, which was rather than a ”RELIGIOUS“ one, supported by a fraction of Orthodox Intending to Establish A National Jews and justified Zionist efforts as a Home for World Jewry Within the means and stage to build a Jewish state Biblical Land. Finally, it should be ”based on biblical Judaism“ at a later realized that Zionists are not always time; and Christian Zionism, which is Jewish, nor are all Jews necessarily applied to Evangelical Christians who Zionists. The common element among believe that the return of Jews to an all is Concern Regarding The Impact established Jewish state will hasten the Of Anti-Semitism Worldwide And second coming of the Messiah. Israel’s Role As The Voice Of and A Safe Refuge For Jews Wherever The last of all the variations, Political In The World They May Choose To Zionism, was first introduced by Live.4 Theodore Herzl, supporting the self- determination of the Jewish people in The Impact of World War I on a sovereign Jewish national homeland.2 Palestine Political Zionism, hereafter referred The territory of Palestine, captured to in this article as Zionism, was from the Ottoman Empire by the Allies during the First World War, 1- For causes of the rise of Zionism in modern was administered by the British times, see Michael A. Myers, Jewish Identity in the Army until 1920. Eventually, in July Modern World )Seattle: University of Washington 1920, Sir Herbert Samuel, the first Press, 1990(, 59–82. 2- For different variations of Zionism, see Moshe 3- S. Ettinger, ”The Modern Period,“ in Jewish Peo- Maor, Jewish Virtual Library, ”Israel Studies an ple, ed. Haiym H. Ben-Sasson )Cambridge: Har- Anthology: The History of Zionism,“ May 2009, vard University Press, 1976(, 878–80. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/isdf/text/ 4- Myers, Jewish Identity in the Modern World, maor.html )accessed December 15, 2013(. 62–63. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 37178 high commissioner for Palestine to Britain.7 The terms of the mandate )including the territory to the east were also discussed with the United of Jordan River(, initiated civilian States, although it was not a member control of the area. Whereas, during of the league.8 This mandate, ”which the final years of the war, as attested incorporated the historic association of in the correspondence between Sharif the Jewish people with Palestine,“ was Husain, the Ottoman cogovernor of approved by the League of Nations on Mecca, and Sir Henry McMahon, the July 24, 1922, dividing the land into high British commissioner for Egypt two national communities—Zionist and Sudan, the British had supported Jews on the one hand and Palestinian the establishment of an independent Muslims and Christian Arabs on the Arab State under Hashemite rule.5 other.“ In the meantime, in response At the same time, as ”promised“ before, to the endeavors of the Zionist the administration of the territory east Organization, a letter known as the of the Jordan River, named Transjordan, Balfour Declaration of November was granted to the son of Sheriff Hussein 2, 1917, approved by the cabinet, was of Mecca, Prince Abd Allah in 1921. sent to Lord Rothschild. In this letter Thus, in 1922 the League of Nations the British government viewed ”with Council exempted Transjordan from favor the establishment in Palestine the mandate of Palestine, particularly of a National Home for the Jewish in respect to the Balfour Declaration people.“6 and Zionist settlement. Nevertheless, Britain remained in control in many Period of the British Mandate for ways.9 The mandate was finally Palestine confirmed by theCouncil of the League , The principal Allied Powers, other than of Nations on June 24, 1922 and came the United States, held a conference in 7- For details see: http://www.princeton. San Remo, Italy, from April 19 to 26, edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/British_Man- 1920. On April 24, 1920, the conference date_of_Palestine.html; http://www.jewishvirtu- resolved to assign the Mandate for allibrary.org/jsource/History/Palestine_Mandate. html. Palestine under the League of Nations 8- The Israel-Arab Reader, ed. Walter Laqueur 5- William Ochsenwalrd and Sydeny Nettleton )New York, 1976(, 34–42. Fisher, Middle East: A History, 7th ed. )New York: 9- Ochsenwalrd and Nettleton Fisher, Middle East, McGraw Hill, 2011(, 378, 447–48. 453; Middle East Research and Information Proj- 6- Ettinger, ”Modern Period,“ 991, 995; www. ect, ”The British Mandate in Palestine,“ January avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp )ac- 2001, www.merip.org/palestine-israel_primer/ cessed August 12, 2014(. brit-mandate-pal-isr-prime.html.

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,The Zionist Organization of Iran (ha-Histadrut ha-Ṣiyyonit be-Paras) , Teheran :עברית 1919. Shemu'el Haim (third from the left), Soleyman Kohan Ṣedq (seven from the left), Dr. Ayyūb Loqmān Nehūrāy (eight from the eft), Dr. Habib Levy (nine from the left) into operation when Turkey accepted as its first chairman. Although the the terms of the September 29, 1923 Arab Executive attempted to parallel Treaty.10 the activities of the Zionist executive, it never had the Zionists’ resources or In addition, once France gained personnel.11 control over Syria, the Arabs of Palestine who ”initially considered The Challenging task of governing their land to be part of Syria“ leaned the Mandate for Palestine was to face toward the aspirations of ”the eventual all the conflicts among the variety of Arab national state.“ They became the its population in terms of religious, voice of the Muslim and Christian national, and socio-political aspirations Arab population in Palestine, who and ideologies. Thus, on February 14, went ”for a local patriotism added to 1947, the British Foreign Secretary Pan-Arab nationalism.“ announced that ”Britain could not reconcile the interests of the different Following a large Arab congress in peoples residing in Palestine and had December 1920, the Arab Executive therefore ‘decided to refer the whole was born with Musa Kazim al- problem to the United Nations.’“ Husaini, former mayor of Palestine, 10-http://israeltruthweek.org/origi- 11- Ochsenwalrd and Nettleton Fisher, Middle nal-two-state-solution )accessed August 15, 2014(. East, 44849, 379. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English & آورد« Persianشامره ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان 1399RAHAVARD 36980

As a result, on November 29, 1947, BCE( the ”Persian Period“ in Jewish the UN Assembly approved the history.13 The continued cooperation partition of the Palestine Mandate and support of the Achaemenid into two states by a majority of Empire was later redirected toward thirty-three to thirteen, with eleven fighting Hellenism during the abstentions. According to this vote, Seleucids and against the Romans Britain had to pull out its troops by during the Sasanids.14 August 1, 1948. Friendly relations between the Sasanid On May 14, 1948, a day prior to the Empire )225–651 CE( and Jews termination of the British Mandate, continued during the early half of that David Ben-Gurion and his fellow dynasty, resulting in the compilation ministers of the National Council of the Babylonian Talmud )which proclaimed the establishment of the should have been called the Iranian Jewish State of Israel in Palestine. Talmud( by the Jewish academies Following that proclamation on May located in Iran. The support of the Jews 15, 1948, the Arab League, having against the Romans in the conquest of previously declared that it would Jerusalem )614–628 CE( by Khosrow not recognize the state of Israel, Parviz marks the latest Pre-Islamic was ”encouraged to intervene in collaboration between the two and Palestine“ and started the war against another instance of Jewish migration Israel.12 to Iran.15 Historical Background of Jewish In Islamic Iran up to the turn of the Life in Iran 13- HayimTadmor, ”The Babylonian Exile and the Restoration,“ in History of Jewish People, ed. The roots of Jewish life in Iran and the Hayim. H. Ben Sasson )Cambridge, MA, 1976(, relation between the Iranian Empire 166–72; Jon D. Berquist, Judaism in Persia’s Shad- and Judea are documented in the ow )Minneapolis, MN: Fortress , 1995(, 48–65. Bible, and in the Edict of Cyrus as 14- Amnon Netzer, ”Tarikh-e Yahud-e Iran,“ early as the rise of the Achaemenid in Padyavand, vol. 1, ed. Amnon Netzer )Costa Empire. Achaemenid tolerance, and Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1966(, p17; Ehsan Yarshater, ”The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods,“ in their effort for the reconstruction of The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3)2(, ed. Ehsan the Temple and the city of Jerusalem, Yarshater, )Cambridge: Cambridge University resulted in naming the era )559–331 Press. 1991(, 912. 15- S. Stern, ”The Jewish Diaspora in the Second 12- Ettinger, ”Modern Period,“ 1052; Ochsen- Tmeple Era,“ in History of Jewish People, ed. Hayim. walrd and Nettleton Fisher, Middle East, 449–50, H. Ben Sasson )Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1976(, 537–39. 281; Netzer, ”Tarikh-e Yahud-e Iran,“ 28, 35–36.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 81368 twentieth century, Jews, recognized as apparatus. Gradually the stereotypical the ”People of the Book,“ lived under image of Jews, and even their own self- the ”Protection of Islam.“16 image, changed. Their spiritual connection to the The attraction of young Jews to biblical land, like other Jews in the positions in the government increased Diaspora, was mostly biblical and their desire for further education in spiritual. However, at the dawn of existing non-Jewish institutions such as the twentieth century, the Iranian Dar al-Fonun, the polytechnic school of Tehran, which fulfilled the role of a Constitution )1906–09( brought 19 citizenship and civil protection to university at the time. Some Jewish religious minorities, including the youths who had the financial ability Jews )this privilege was not extended to do so even traveled to Europe to to the followers of Bahai faith(. Their establish foreign trade relations or attended universities, mainly in various emancipation in accord with the 20 constitution allowed them to have fields of medicine. one representative in the National 17 From among this group emerged the Assembly. later reformists and Zionist activists, As a result of the adoption of the Iranian including Dr. Habib L e vy, a dentist, and Constitution a new page turned, and Dr. Morteza Yehudayan )Mo‘alem(, a the religious minorities of Iran found a physician. As Levy remarks, the socio- new socio-economic life. Although the educational opportunities for Jews concept of ”impurity“ within the Shi’ite resulted in decreased religious interest tradition still dominated many Muslim in general, as well as an abrupt decline Iranians, especially in the provinces, the of volunteer conversions to other socio-economic condition of Iranian faiths.21 Jews began to improve.18 Jews, who up to that time had been traders and With the outbreak of the First World peddlers, now held positions in the state War in 1914, in spite of the economic crisis, the French school system 16- Sorour Soroudi, ”Jews in Islamic Iran,“ in Jeru- established by Alliance Israelite in salem Quarterly 21 )Fall 1981(: 101. Iran since 1898 continued its generous 17- Habib Levy, Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran )Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1999(, 448–94. support and kept its schools in Iran 18- Sorour Soroudi, ”The Concept of Jewish Im- purity and its Reflection in Persian and Judeo-Per- 19- Levy, Comprehensive, 489. sian Traditions,“ in Irano-Judica, vol.3, ed. Shaul 20- Ibid., 489–90. Shaked and Amnon Netzer )Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi 21- Ibid., 490. Institute, 1996(, 143. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 36782 open.22 It was during this era of a Iranian Jewry following centuries of Jewish progressive movement that three suppression.25 The first goal of those stages of enlightenment developed for Iranian Jews was to promote knowledge Iranian Jews in the intervals of 1915–25, of the Hebrew language and Jewish 1941–53, and 1953–78. The publication awareness, which had faded away except of Shalom newspaper under the among members of the observant management of Mordecai Morad with community. his brother, Asher Morad editorial assistant in March 1915, was the first The very first assembly of elite Jewish step toward this development.23 leaders and intellectuals met on December 18, 1917. Upon establishment, Zionism and Zionist Aspirations the organization named itself the in Iran Association for the Empowerment of the Hebrew Language and planned to The political concept of Zionism, revive its community’s Jewish identity culturally a Western movement, by learning Hebrew as the first step.26 introduced to Iran, through the Balfour However, within a year’s time, in Declaration on November 2, 1917. order to create closer ties and to be in This event was the next leap along direct contact with world Jewry and the path to enlightenment for Iranian broaden their objectives, the group Jews. The Balfour Declaration in Iran renamed itself the ”Iranian Zionist served as a cohesive means to gather Association.“27 As documents show, the the intellectuals and created social 24 association was not established as an awareness among youth. underground movement but rather as an overt transparent movement that was The Balfour Declaration, and its permitted to continue by the Iranian express support for the establishment government.28 of a national homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine, aroused feelings of The initial activities of the organization pride and a sense of self-esteem among included teaching Hebrew and publishing the first textbook in Hebrew, 22 - Ibid., 451–52. 23- Ibid., 492; Amnon Netzer, ”Shalom, Nak- 25- Ibid. hostin Nashrieh-ye Farsihud,“ in Padyavand, vol. 26 - Ibid., 510–11. 1, ed. Amnon Netzer )Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 27- Ibid., 513. 1966(, 299–309; Jaleh Pirnazar, ”Iranian Jews, Na- 28 - Amnon Netzer, ”Zionist Activity in Iran in the tional Identity, and Journalism: 1915–1979, The Years 1920–26…“, trans. Miqqedem u-Miyyam, History of Contemporary Iranian Jews, vol. 4, ed. Studies in the Jewry of Islamic Countries, vol.2 Homa Sarshar and Houman Sarshar, 2000, 13–37. )Haifa,1986(, 237–50; Levy, Comprehensive, 518. 24- Levy, Comprehensive, 510.

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The_Jewish_Community_of_Hamadan as well as the Persian translation of other publications of the organization Theodore Herzl’s pamphlet, ”The was the weekly Judeo-Persian paper Jewish State,“ in History of the Zionist Ha-Geulah, )Redemption(, which Movement, written in Judeo-Persian in was published from December 1920 to 1919. The book on Zionism, written in June 1923 as the first link between the 1920 by ‘Aziz Allah ben Yona Na‘im, community and events then current in gave a survey of the Zionist movement world Jewry.30 and the organizations and colonies in Palestine. References made to numerous Zionist aspirations were seen among biblical quotations from Isaiah and women in some cities. Iranian Jewish Psalms indicated the strong religious Women Zionist Associations were and messianic character of the Persian organized in Hamedan and Tehran. Jewry’s conception of Zionism.29 Among The association in Hamedan, founded 29-Walter Fischel, ”Jews of Persia:1795–1940: The 30 - Amnon Netzer, ”Iran,“ in Zionism in Tran- Revival in Tehran“, in Jewish Social Studies, vol. 12, sition, ed. Moshe Davis )New York: Amo, 1980(, no. 2 )New York: Jewish Socila Studies, 1950(, 159. 225–32. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 36584 independently in 1920, was under the the standard of living and education leadership of Khanom-e Kokhabi, of its community that frequently its known as ”Arous Khanom,“ who Zionist goals were called into question. named the association Hadassah. The Nevertheless, it did not refrain from its association held weekly cultural activities activities, to establish foreign ties and for women.31 In Fall 1921, Anjoman-e propagating Zionism.35 Siyonist-e Nesvan-e Yahudi-ye Iran, Among their specific Zionist activities )The Iranian Jewish Women’s Zionist was the celebration of the San Remo Association( was organized in Tehran Resolution. Upon the receipt of the under the honorary leadership of s resolution made by the principal Hajieh enobar, monitored and advised Allied Powers and the support of the by one of the Men’s Association board 32 United States, the first reaction of members, ‘Aziz Allah Na‘im. By the Association was to mail letters of 1922, the Zionist Association, having appreciation to Senator Henry Cabot had branches in various cities drafted a Lodge, the US Chairman of the Foreign new charter in order to unify its newer 33 Relations Committee, on May 15, branches. 1922, thanking him and US President From the day of its establishment in Warren Harding for their support of Tehran and the provinces, the Zionist the Balfour Declaration. Association sought relief for whoever In Tehran, this letter was handed to would turn to them for aid, especially the US Ambassador, Joseph Kornfeld from the state authorities. One such )1921–24(, who was also a Jewish rabbi case is the report and the request for and a friend of President Harding. help from Tabriz on June 28, 1922, Same gesture, reportedly, had been regarding the pogrom of Sa’in Ql ‘eh.34 made, by the Tehran Women’s Zionist The Association was so active in raising Committee as well. A fter the final confirmation of the Council of the 31 - Nina Aharoni Springer, ”Early Zionist Ac- )June 24, 1922(, tivities in Iran: Women Zionist Associations in League of Nations Hamedan and Tehran“ )Zionist Archive, 1924– the motion supporting the San Remo 66(, report. Kopolovitch, Jewish Agency; Hana Resolution was finally passed by the Shasha, ”Zionist Archive,“ interviewed by Nina US Congress and signed by President Aharoni Springer, 2010. Harding on September 11, 1922.36 32- Levy, Comprehensive, 518. 33- Ibid., 519. 34- Pirnazar, ”Minutes,“ samples: 5 August 1921, 35- Pirnazar, ”Minutes,“ 19 July 1919. 19 May 1922, 28 June1922, 14 July 1922; ”Min- 36-http://israeltruthweek.org/original-two-state- utes,“ 29 May 1922, Levy, Comprehensive, 505–07. solution )accessed August 15, 2014(.

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The largest and most widespread According to the ”Minutes of the Zionist activity of the Association was Association,’ two separate celebrations the celebration of the international were held, first a communal event endorsement of the San Remo held on July 26, 1922 )1 Av 5682( at Resolution by the League of Nations, the private home of the president of approved on 24 June 1922. the association, Soleyman Kohan Sedgh. On that occasion, the president In spite of the request received from announced a nationwide Jewish London to have a week of celebration celebration scheduled for August 9, in all cities, the board members did not 1922 )15 Av 5682(.38 consider the time and the atmosphere ready for such celebration and voted The second celebration held for two to postpone the event. Nevertheless, nights, on August 9–10, 1922 )15–16 as recommended by the Jewish Av 5682( at the site of Alliance Israelite Congressman Dr. Loghman Nehoray, School, with entertainment provided by permission, was requested from the incumbent prime minster, Ahmad second term of service as Prime Minister )11 June Qavam, and granted.37 1922–30 January 1923(. 38- Levy, Comprehensive, 530–31. See n. 28. This 37- Nahid Pirnazar, ”Minutes of Zionist Organi- date has wrongfully been reported as August 19, zation,“ 28 April, 1920: During Ahmad Qavam’s 1921. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English & آورد« Persianشامره ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان 1399RAHAVARD 36386 a military band. Official invitations for and formal or regular representation the first night sent to a select guest list at world conferences was not feasible including cabinet members, assembly for the Iranian Jewish community due delegates, foreign ambassadors, leading to traveling difficulties, cost, and lack merchants, journalists, and Islamic of qualified representatives to attend.41 clerics. Based on the ”Minutes of the Another expected role of the Association Organization,“ the guest list included was to facilitate voluntary emigration to Reza Khan, then Sardar Sepah, the Holy Land. Whereas, at the time, the Minister of Defense, and later founder motivation for most emigrants was to of the Pahlavi Dynasty, representative escape their severely difficult economic, the incumbent prime minister Ahmad social, and legal status in Iran, the World Qavam. Zionist Organization would only grant permission to professionals in the arts According to Habib Levy, an active and sciences to emigrate to Jerusalem. member of the Organization, ”General Reza Khan had attended the event.“ Such restrictions turned away Statesmen and Iranian dignitaries tradesmen such as tailors, shoemakers, delivered speeches in support of the or carpenters. Thus, few Iranian occasion. The second night was open to Jews would fit the criteria of the the members of the Jewish community.39 Zionist Organization for emigration.42 Nevertheless, from 1923–25, as many During the 1920s, the greatest difficulty as 1500 individuals were reported the Zionist Association in Tehran had to have emigrated from Iran. Some with the World Zionist Organization local newspapers in Tehran, including was a general lack of communication. It Shafaq-e Sorkh, )Red Twilight(, wrote is clear from their documents that the harsh articles against Jewish emigration, primary concern of the London and although with little impact.43 Jerusalem Zionist Organizations was the incorporation of the Iranian Jewish In the following years, some emigrants, community into the activities of the chose to return to Iran, because of the World Zionist Organization. Palestinian Residents uprisings who had One such activity was the selling of Zionist number of shekels sold in every country was an shekels in order to be represented in the indicator of the number of delegates to be sent 40 from that country. organization. However, selling shekels 41- Netzer, ”Zionist Activity in Iran,“ 237–50; 39- Levy, Comprehensive, 531–32. Levy, Comprehensive, 519. 40 - The term Zionist shekel is based on the cur- 42- Netzer, ”Zionist Activity in Iran,“ 237–50. rency of biblical times known as the shekel. The 43- Levy, Comprehensive, 521.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 36287 rejected the San Remo Resolution. The was due first to the internal policies of resentment against Jewish emigrants Reza Shah and second to the division resulted in the killing of Jews in the among members of the community 1920s in Hebron given the lack of regarding the 5th parliamentary security and protection from the British election competition between the two authorities then ruling Palestine.44 candidates, Dr. Legman Nehoray from Tehran and Mr. Shemuel Haim from As records show, the ties of the Iranian Kermanshah.47 Jewish community to the World Zionist Organization, were not limited to the The prohibitions on communal activities Central Association in Tehran, there also led to the demise of intellectual were also individuals who had direct, activities at the communal level. personal contact with the organization Nevertheless, it is during this period that sending shekels either as membership the result of the Jewish emancipation dues or as subscriptions to the Hebrew and enlightenment started to bloom. monthly publications of the World Zionist Organization.45 The eminent Jews of this era are Soleyman Haim )1897–1969(, one Reza Shah Pahalvi )1925-41(: Decline of the founders of the Zionist of Zionism in Iran Association and later compiler of the series of Haim’s English, French, and The rise of thePahlavi Dynasty in 1925 Hebrew Dictionaries, Rabi‘ Moshfegh led to a prohibition of all organized Hamedani )1912–2009(, journalist political parties and all activities and translator, and Habib Levy )1896– connected to foreign organizations. 1984(, dentist, military officer, and Although Reza Shah primarily targeted compiler of the three-volume History communists and groups opposing his of Iranian Jews. reign, Zionist activity was affected as well.46 As a result, despite the initial Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi’s enthusiasm, the Zionist Association Reign of Iran was not able to pursue its activities or maintain its ties with the By the 1940s, the need of the Allies to World Zionist Organization. This break supply aid to the Soviet army led to the invasion of Iran for the use of the 44- Habib Levy, Khaterat-e Man )My Memoirs(, newly built Iranian railroad connecting )Los Angeles, 2002(, 199. the Persian Gulf to the borders of the 45- Nina Aharoni Springer, Biography of Moshe Cohen Yazdi-Haroni )Jerusalem, 2010(. 47- Netzer, ”Zionist Activity in Iran,“ 237–50; 46- Netzer, ”Zionist Activity in Iran,“ 227. Levy, Comprehensive, 529. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 36188

The Alliance Israelite Universelle girls› school in Tehran in 1947 )Photo: AIU/ Diarna(

Soviet Union, as it provided the shortest Iranian passports issued to them.49 route. The invasion of September 1941 As early as 1943, groups of young ended with the exile of Reza Shah to intellectuals, including high-school Johannesburg and the establishment students and those in liberal professions, of the reign of his son, Crown Prince 48 had formed Kanun-e Javanan-e Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. During the ”Iranian Youth Club,“ led by this period, Zionist activities resumed Mussa Kermanian. The same year saw with the formation of the Sokhnut, the the foundation of the ”Society of the ”Jewish Agency“ that helped Polish Sons of Zion,“ Bashgah-e Baradaran, Jews, including children, escape from and later Bashgah-e Khaharan for the Nazi-occupied Poland to Israel via female members, who would arrange Iran. These refugees came to be known seminars and communal activities for as the ”Children of Tehran.“ Jewish youth.50 Among those who should be Following the early years of the reign acknowledged for having saved lives 49- Fariborz Mokhtari, In the Lion’s Shadow: during the Holocaust is Abdol- Sardari the Iranian Schindler )United Kingdom, Hossein Sardari Qajar, the Iranian The History Press, 2011(; www.bbc.co.uk/persian/ diplomat stationed in Paris, who iran/2011/12/111222_l78_iranian_schindler_ saved approximately 1,500 to 2,000 mokhtari.shtml )accessed December 23, 2013(. individuals, Jews and non-Jews, 50- Heshmatollah Kermanshahchi, Iranian Jewish Community, Social Developments in the Twentieth Iranian and non-Iranian, by having Century )Los Angeles: Ketab Co., 2007(, 134–36; 48- Elton L. Daniel, The History of Iran) Westport, Meir Ezri, The Legacy of Cyrus, My Iranian Mis- CT: Greenwood Press, 2001(, 141–48. sion, trans. Philip Simpson )Jerusalem, 2011(, 48.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 36089 of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahalvi, the In 1917, Zionism had been viewed notions of equality found in communist as more of a Religious And Cultural ideology, attracted many Jewish youths Movement for Iranian Jews; by the away from Zionist activities, toward 1940s, however, both the country communist causes. This trend presented and the Jewish community had a direct threat to the spread of Zionism grown more secular and Zionism in Iran. Nevertheless, due to the was interpreted more politically. government’s concerns about the spread This change in conceptualization of communism, the Jewish community, was reflective of the modern and in spite of possible local resentment, nonreligious education of the was able to receive permission to renew Alliance Israelite Schools as well as Zionist activities under the name ha the Pahlavi’s Secular-Nationalistic Khalutz, the “Pioneers.“ Doctrine. Finally, in early 1944 Sazman-e Interest in Zionism gradually Khalutz-e Javanan, the ”Union of diminished due to the rapid Young Pioneers“ was founded by modernization of Iran and because some individuals, among them Jacob of the Iranian government’s concerns Melamed. These movements and not to inflame the Iranian and Arab groups were united early on in 1945 Muslim clergy with the emigration of as Jonbesh-e Javanan-e Yahudi, the Iranian Jews to Palestine.53 As noted ”Movement of Hebrew Youth,“ but by the envoy of the National Jewish failed to make any large-scale impact Agency in the 1940s, the Iranian on their target group.51 The founding of parliamentary representatives were The State Of Israel in 1948 inspired the more concerned about the condition Young Pioneers and thousands of other of Iranian Jewry than the State of Jews to organize a series of conferences Israel or helping with emigration to and activities. Palestine.54 Their most important activity was The By the 1950s, stronger ties and deeper Third National Conference held in involvement between the Jewish 1949. 127 delegates represented Tehran community representatives and the State and provincial cities alike and 300 of Israel developed. The apogee of this invited guests attended the opening symbiotic relationship between Israel ceremony.52 53- Moshe Yishy, ”An Envoy without Title“ in Padyavand vol. 3, ed. Amnon Netzer )Costa Mesa, 51- Ezri, Legacy, 48–49. CA: Mazda, 1999(, 127. 52- Ezri, Legacy, 52–53. 54- Ibid., 127. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 90359

Reza Shah visiting the students and teachers of Hamadan schools, 1936 and the Iranian Jewish community, as August 1947, the Special Committee, well as with the Iranian government, is based on the previous resolutions of the seen in the de facto recognition of The San Remo Conference and the Council Jewish State of Israel by Iran in 1950, of the League of Nations, recommended marked by the diplomatic mission of that Palestine, already divided into two Meir Ezri, the Iranian-born Israeli, countries of Palestine and Transjordan, first as a journalist in 1958 and later as be divided again into two independent Consul General to Iran in 1960.55 The states, Jewish and Arab. friendly relationship between the two David Ben Gurion and his partners governments was not openly publicized took this opportunity and accepted the to the Iranian public due to the existing suggestion of UNSCOP and, on May resentment toward the statehood of 14, 1948, announced the independence Israel. of the Jewish State, named Israel.57 Period of Israel’s Independence Following this date, referred to nakbah )”disaster“( by the Palestinians, Egypt, The United Nations Special Committee Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq on Palestine )UNSCOP( formed on April immediately declared war on the State 27, 1947. This committee was comprised of Israel. In this war, local Palestinians of eleven members, among them, chose to stay while others decided the Iranian representative Nasrollah 56 General Assembly in July 1947, unispal.un.org/ Entezam. In its report published in UNISPAL.NSF/0/7735B7DC144807B985256E8B- 55- Ezri, Legacy, 79-81. 006F4A71 )accessed 23 December 2013(. 56- Official records of the second session of the 57- www.archives.gov/education/lessons/us-israel )accessed 23 December 2013(.

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Zionist_Federation_in_Iran to leave as refugees in the hope of financial support.58 But the uproar died returning soon upon the defeat of Israel down owing to the intervention of the by its Arab neighbors. Iranian government as well as a number Although Iran was neither an Arab of Muslim clergy, and the diplomacy of the incumbent Jewish representative to country nor a neighbor to confront 59 Israel, uproar broke out domestically. the National Assembly, Morad Arieh. The Iranian press attacked the dowlat-e In March 1949, the Cabinet of pushali )”Puppet State“( of Israel as the Mohammad Sa‘ed sent a representative crisis took on an Islamic tone in support to Israel to adjudicate ”Property Claims of Arab countries. At the Friday Prayer Of Iranian Subjects In Palestine“ and a on May 21, 1948, at Shah Mosque in Tehran, Ayatollah Kashani gave a 58- Donyay-e Islam, ed. Abu al-Qasem Mar‘ashi, sermon against the UN Resolution and, special flier published as attachment. No date is seen on the attached flier, but the content reports encouraging Iranians to stand with o n t h e e v e n t o n M a y 2 1 , 1 9 4 8 . their fellow Muslim brethren, asked for 59- Levy, Comprehensive, 549.

of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 35792 year later granted it de facto recognition relations with Iran and guarantee a but would not agree to receive a regular supply of oil from Iran to Israel delegation from Israel in return because later on, even if only tacitly.62 Meir Ezri of an expected disapproval by certain was sent on his first diplomatic mission Iranian groups. In July 1951, Prime to Iran in April 1958, in the guise of the Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, editor of a Persian Newspaper published hoping to gain the support of the Arab in Israel named Setare-ye Sharq )”Star countries for the Nationalization of of the East“( to bring back to Iran news the oil industry, recalled the Iranian of the Iranian expatriates and of Israeli representative to Israel. government policies.63 Another medium for influencing Iranian public opinion, In so doing, he also pleased domestic especially in the educated circles, was sectarians, who at that time had once Radio Seday-e Israel, broadcasting in again entered the political arena. But Persian from Jerusalem, launched in Iran’s failure to gain support from the April 1956.64 Arab countries for its struggle against Britain and against Egypt’s anti-Iranian As for the links between SAVAK, Iran’s activities in the Persian Gulf led the Secret Service, and Israel’s Mossad, Iranian government to review its relations the first contact was established with Israel later on.60 Nevertheless, due at the instigation of Iran with the to fear of the Arab countries and some encouragement of the United States Iranians, Iran avoided establishing full in September 1957, long before the diplomatic relations and the details establishment of political or economic of the diplomatic relations were kept relations, when General Teymur classified.61. Bakhtiar travelled to Paris and asked to meet Yaakov Zur, the Israeli ambassador In the summer of 1956 Dr. Zvi Doriel to France.65 was sent to Iran, officially as the representative of a Tel- Aviv Trade Office The request was conveyed toZ ur by Dr. charged with establishing a commercial Mohammad Sadriyeh, First Secretary bridge with Iran; he also had another at the Iranian embassy in Paris and important role, which was to assess Iran’s future diplomat in Israel.66 With the prospects of promoting diplomatic 62- Ezri, Legacy, 78, 81. 60- Ibid., 550. 63 - Ibid., 75–76. 61- Abdolrahman Ahmadi, Savak and Intelligence 64- Ibid., 77, Service of Israel, 3rd ed. )Tehran: PSRI, 2008(, 148. 65- Ibid., 90; Ahmadi, Savak,149-150 )original: This book is mainly valued for the original, not 470–71(. revised documents and correspondence. 66- Ezri, Legacy, 90.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 35693 the skill of the Israel Defense Force was the exchange of information and )IDF( demonstrated in the Suez assessments, which continued until the Campaign of 1956, and in the name of fall of the monarchy.70 the Shah, Bakhtiar offered cooperation in information exchange and analysis In an effort to develop mutual relations of ”Nasserisms“ in the region, as well between Iran and Israel, numerous as the Soviet threat.67 As stated by Ezri Iranian journalists, educators, and as well as the intelligence provided by distinguished figures visited Israel in SAVAK 68 there were also advantages for 1956–57, including the editor of the Israel in cooperating with a Non-Arab weekly Tehran Mossavvar, Abdollah Muslim State, one of the most important Valla, then–Tehran University in the Middle East, the channel for most Professor Mansour Ekhtiar, and of Israel’s oil supplies. Abbas Shahandeh, editor of Farman Newspaper.71 Among the journalists In October 1957, a meeting held in opposing Israel was ‘Abd al- Rahman Rome between Teymur Bakhtiar and Faramarzi, Chief Editor of Keyhan Issar Har’el, Head of the Mossad, and daily newspaper, whose editorials Yaakov Karuz, who paid his first visit castigated Israel as the servant of to Tehran in December 1957. Thus, imperialism, especially of the United the practical foundations of a strategic States.72 cooperation between the two states was laid.69 Teymur Bakhtiar and Issar On August 15, 1960, as reported in Har’el and their successors, maintained SAVAK archives, The Mission Statement a close working relationship and kept and the Goals Of Collaboration up the program through reciprocal Between The Two States was discussed visits. The principal area of cooperation and finalized in a meeting that included Teymur Bakhtiar, Issar Har’el, Yaakov 67- Ibid., 90; Ahmadi, Savak, 149 )original: 470– , and 71(. Karuz, General Hassan Pakravan 68- Ezri, Legacy, 90; Ahmadi, Savak, 379: One ex- General Hassan Alavikia. ample was the request made by Israelis to borrow a film of a military parade shown on Baghdad It is in this agreement that Issar Har’el television on May, 4, 1975 )original: 542–442(; elaborates on the common interests of Ahmadi, Savak, 67–69: the two countries and the position of Savak extended assistance toward saving the Israe- Iran in the region, expecting neither li oil tanker ”Omega,“ stuck in mud in the sea of reciprocation nor immediate and full ‘Amman, followed by the thank-you note sent by General Khofi of Israel to Savak authorities )orig- 70- Ibid.; Ahmadi, Savak, 149 )original: 470–71(. inal: 459–60(. 71- Ezri, Legacy, 78. 69- Ezri, Legacy, 90–91. 72- Ibid., 211. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 355

diplomatic relations between Iran and campaign against illiteracy, medical Israel.73 assistance, modernization of agriculture,75 tourism, combat against drug addiction, Upon the establishment of an cooperation in botanical research, and Intelligence Relationship between the infrastructure development. One of two states, General Haj-Ali Kia, head nd the most important of these activities of the ”2 Bureau“ of The Iranian was the partial rebuilding of the city of Military General Staff, organized the Qazvin following the large earthquake cooperation between Israel and Iran, of September 1962 in Bo’in Zahra.76 followed by General Mehdiqoli ‘Alavi Moghaddam, Chief of Police.74 In November 1966, General Hassan Toufanian, an air force pilot in charge Throughout the years, relations between of purchasing Iran’s military industry, the two countries grew in the areas of visited Israel together with Chief of Staff security and intelligence, media, the Fereydun Jam. They received a warm 73- Ahmadi, Savak, 150–56 )original: 469–71(. 75- Ezri, Legacy, 408–26; Levy, Comprehensive, 74- Ezri, Legacy, 140–69; Ahmadi, Savak, 60–61 550. )original: 472–80(. 76- Ezri, Legacy, 395–407.

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diplomatic relations between Iran and campaign against illiteracy, medical welcome from then–Israeli Chief of The first transaction involving military Israel.73 assistance, modernization of agriculture,75 Staff General Yitzhak Rabin.77 Among weapons started with the purchase of tourism, combat against drug addiction, other authorities who visited Israel in Uzi rifles from Israel upon the request Upon the establishment of an cooperation in botanical research, and that era were General Ne‘matollah of the Iranian Police Department in Intelligence Relationship between the infrastructure development. One of Nassiri, Chief of SAVAK, who visited March 1965. The transaction went two states, General Haj-Ali Kia, head 78 nd the most important of these activities Israel in January 1966, General ‘Aziz- through, in spite of Golda Meir’s initial of the ”2 Bureau“ of The Iranian was the partial rebuilding of the city of Allah Palizban, head of Iran’s military apprehension about Israeli weapons Military General Staff, organized the Qazvin following the large earthquake intelligence, and Captain ‘Ali-pour, falling into the hands of opposition cooperation between Israel and Iran, of September 1962 in Bo’in Zahra.76 ranked a private in the military. forces in case of a regime change.80 followed by General Mehdiqoli ‘Alavi This relationship was expanded to 74 In November 1966, General Hassan Moghaddam, Chief of Police. In 1966, SAVAK and Mossad developed other military, police, and intelligence Toufanian, an air force pilot in charge a collaborative relationship in regard to 81 of purchasing Iran’s military industry, areas. Dariush Homayoon, editor Throughout the years, relations between intelligence on Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, , visited Israel together with Chief of Staff 79 of the daily newspaper Ayandegan the two countries grew in the areas of titled ”Crystal Operation.“ visited Israel during the security and intelligence, media, the Fereydun Jam. They received a warm Six Day War

73- Ahmadi, Savak, 150–56 )original: 469–71(. 75- Ezri, Legacy, 408–26; Levy, Comprehensive, 77- Ibid., 156. 80- Meir Ezri, Yadnameh, vol. 1 )Jerusalem: Meir 74- Ezri, Legacy, 140–69; Ahmadi, Savak, 60–61 550. 78- Ibid., 134. Ezri, 2000(, 132–33. )original: 472–80(. 76- Ezri, Legacy, 395–407. 79- Ahmadi, Savak,157–92 )original: 472–80(. 81- Ahmadi, Savak, 467 )original: 467(. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130 ، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD 1399 2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/ 131Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 35396 in June 1967.82 Prime Minister later in 1978.89 The Marvdasht Project undertaken by Other dignitaries who visited Israel Israeli technicians in Shiraz marked the as guests of the State included beginning of agricultural innovations academicians, intellectuals, journalists, in Iran.83 The Israeli National Air and musicians. The list of visitors Carrier, El-Al, had regularly scheduled includes prominent Iranian scholar, flights to Tehran.84 Other projects literary writer, and bibliographer completed in Iran by Israeli experts Professor Sa‘eed Nafisi, in 1957; included providing an Agricultural Professor Abdul Hossein Hashtrudi, Dean of the Faculty of Sciences, Tehran Irrigation System for the Cotton Fields 90 in Khorasan, Construction Of The University, in 1958; Badi‘olzaman Sad-E Tarik Dam on Se fid Rud near Frouzanfar, distinguished scholar 85 of Persian literature, linguistics, and the city of Fuman by the Caspian Sea, 91 Canal Digging and Drainage Work culture, in 1958; Professor Ebrahim for Isfahan’s Sewage System,86 and The Pur-Davoud, expert on Pre-Islamic Iranian languages, literature, and Construction of the Dariush Dam on 92 the river Kor In Marvdasht, west of history, in the fall of 1958; and Shiraz )1971(.87 Professor Ali-Asghar Azad, Head of the Department of Nuclear Science at Among the top Iranian military officials Tehran University. who had close relations with the Israeli government, some of whom visited Professor Azad headed a delegation Israel, were General Mohammad of Iranian scientists visiting Israel to Khatami, Head Of The Iranian Air participate in a tour arranged by the Force )Khatami was the Shah’s brother- Israeli Foreign Ministry.93 Among others in-law whose wedding General Herzog, who later visited Israel were engineer Israel’s Chief of Army Intelligence, Abdollah Riazi, later Speaker of the had attended(; General Fereydun Jam, National Assembly;94 Professor Davood Head of The Iranian Military Forces;88 Behnam, Chair of Literature and and his successor General Gholamreza History, Tehran University, who visited Azhari, who briefly served as Iran’s Israel in 1962;95 Dr. Ahmad Farhad, 82- Ibid., 53 )original: 458–59(. 89- Ezri, Legacy, 156–57. 83- Ezri, Legacy, 408–26. 90- Ibid., 308. 84- Levy, Comprehensive, 548–50. 91- Ibid. 92- Ibid., 308–10. 85- Ezri, Legacy, 435–36. , 86- Ibid., 435–36. 93- Ibid. 309. 87- Ibid., 435–36. 94- Ibid. 88- Ezri, Yadnameh, vol. 1, 136–38. 95- Ibid.

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Chancellor of Tehran University, who with whom he had excellent amiable did in 1963;96 Professor Farhang Mehr, relations.100 the Chancellor of Pahlavi University in Shiraz, in 1964;97 and Professor Sajjadi, General Yitzhak Rabin visited Tehran of the School of Medicine at Tehran in 1976 as Prime Minister. In his University, in July 1967, immediately thank-you note to the Shah, Rabin after the Six Day War.98 examines the situation of the Middle East, especially the impact of Syria’s later years, in addition to the heads of interference in the ongoing Lebanese the Mossad, other cabinet members Civil War, requesting the Shah to and even Israeli heads of state visited discuss and evaluate the situation with or tried to visit Iran. Except Moshe President Sadat in his upcoming visit Dayan’s first publicly announced trip, to Iran.101 other trips were not shared with the public. Moshe Dayan visited Iran and Uri Lubrani, Head of the Diplomatic met with the Shah twice, first as the Mission to Iran in his last visit with minister of agriculture in 1955 to set the Shah in the rank of ambassador up the basis of diplomatic relations, and )1973–78(, and introducing Yossef the second time in 1977, for twenty-four Harmelin as his successor, delivered hours, accompanied by General Khofi, two messages from Menachim Begin Head Of Mossad.99 at Camp David, sent on September 16 and 18, 1978; the first note expressed Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel, concern about the upheavals in Tehran visited Iran and met with the Shah in and the second expressed condolences May 1972, for a few hours when she flew for the recent earthquake in the eastern to Tehran in her special plane and was parts of Iran.102 received by General Nassiri and Meir Ezri. She met the Shah at the o fficial On September 27, 1978, Menachim guest residence at the airport and they Begin requested a date for a private visit spoke about ”East-West Relations“ and with the Shah through his Diplomatic regional problems. As Ezri reports, the Corps to report on the Camp David Shah had urged Golda Meir to show negotiations. The response to this flexibility and moderation toward request, due to the upheavals in Iran, Anwar Sadat, the Egyptian President, was that the date ”shall be announced 96- Ibid., 310. 97- Ibid., 311. 98- Ibid., 315. 100- Ezri, Legacy, 137. 99- Ahmadi, Savak, 386–92, 529 )originals: 456– 101- Ahmadi, Savak, 393–95 )original: 542–43(. 57, 548(. 102- Ibid., 395–96 )original: 550(. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 35198 later.“ 103 Katsav, Israel’s past president; Meir Ezri, the Ambassador to Iran; Amnon According to Meir Ezri, in spite of Netzer, Professor of Hebrew University; all the propaganda around the nature David Menasheri, a professor formerly of intelligence collaboration between at Tel Aviv University and presently Mossad and SAVAK, Mossad never at the Academic Center of Law and offered Iranians training in techniques Business in Ramat Gan; Lt. General of interrogation, the use of torture Shaul Mofaz, who served in the included. In fact, no indication of Israeli capacities of Minister of Defense, training has yet been found either Deputy Prime Minister, and Minister in records of prosecutions mounted of Transportation and Roads Safety; against numerous SAVAK personnel Eyton Ben Eliahou, Major General in published since 1978, or in any other the Israel Defense Forces; Menashe documentation of the activities of 104 Amir, political commentator; SAVAK. Furthermore, according and contemporary poet Masroor to the SAVAK Archive, edited by Mr. Kermanshahi. Abdolrahman Ahmadi, throughout years of collaboration, ”no indication of However, emigration later slowed due any anti-Iranian activity by the Mossad to the impact of the liquidation of has been reported.“105 Jewish assets in the Iranian economy, the improvement of diplomatic relations The de facto recognition of Israel by between the two countries, and the Iran in 1948 allowed and encouraged sudden rise of the socio-economic status mass emigration of Iranian Jews to of Iranian Jews in the 1950s through the Israel, mostly among the middle and late 1970s. lower classes in the provinces with a low standard of living. Between 1948 Status of the Iranian Jewish and 1951, thirty thousand Iranian Jews Community Post 1948 voluntarily emigrated and an estimated While in the 1920s the Iranian Jewish forty-seven thousand Iraqi Jews left for 106 community felt responsible for Israel via Iran. Among this wave of celebrating Zionist occasions, in the emigrants were the families of Moshe 1960s and 1970s this responsibility 103- Ibid., 391–92 )original: 551(. was passed on to the Israeli Consulate 104- Ezri, Legacy, 93. and the diplomats. The rebirth of 105- Ahmadi, Savak, 423 )original: 531–32(. the State of Israel celebrated at the 106- Ezri, Legacy, 71; David Yerushalmi, Light and Israeli Consulate in Tehran with the Shadows, The Story of Iran and the Jews )Tel Aviv: attendance of Iranian dignitaries at The Museum of the Jewish People, 2010(, 207. different diplomatic, journalistic,

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 35099 and academic levels, as well as of the Communist Tudeh Party in military personnel and cabinet the late 1940s. It is at this point that members.107 the intercession of the incumbent parliamentary representative Morad Unlike Jews who had come out of Aryeh, with the state authorities, helped Tehran’s Jewish ghetto at the turn of the free the leftist Iranian Jews from jail.108 century and whose support for Judaism Thus, political activities diminished in and Zionism were inseparable, by the Iranian Jewish communities from the early 1950s some elite, modernized Jews early 1950s for a decade. had begun to deviate from the older Jewish generation. By that time the The economic, cultural, civil, and social urban Jewish community had started benefits available to Jews in Iran in the to divide into three different groups in late 1950s not only left little incentive their views regarding Zionism: for emigration to Israel, but even caused the return of some of the past émigr és. 1. First, the majority of Also, life in the early years of the State the community, with of Israel as it struggled to provide new a messianic concept of immigrants with livelihood was not easy, Zionism; while, Iran offered better opportunities for socio-economic growth. The two 2. Second, the intellectual decades of the 1960s and 1970s brought Zionists interested in the great advances in modernizing Iran in political nature of Zionism; the areas of commerce, foreign trade, and industry, and infrastructure. 3. Third, the intellectual Attachment to a national Iranian leftist Jews, interested in identity was another aspect of the socialist and Marxist society that blossomed at this aspects of Zionism. time. Following their social and cultural emancipation—although Many Iranian Jews with communist not benefiting from all privileges of inclinations, like other Iranians, found citizenship, such as appointment to themselves in jail with the banning high posts in the military and judicial 107- Various pictures and reports in Ezri’s Yad- and political positions—Iranian Jews nameh and Legacy of Cyrus document such dip- found themselves equal to others in lomatic, cultural, economic, and agricultural acquiring positions in the civil, socio- relations, as well as urban planning and infra- 108- Nahid Pirnazar, ”Morad Aryeh“ in Jewish structural services rendered by Israeli experts in Communities of Iran, ed. Houman M. Sarshar the 1960s and 1970s. )New York: Columbia University, 2011(, 392. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 349100 academic, and cultural domains. At the same time, Anti-Zionist sentiments began growing among Even within the restricted domains, some members of the younger Jewish however, there were exceptions: Dr. generation. In fact, it was considered to Habib Levy served as the personal be ”sophisticated“ and ”intellectual“ to dentist to Reza Shah as a military join the ”Anti-Shah“ and ”Anti-Zionist“ officer, and Dr. Shokrollah Amini, voice or be a member of ”leftist Iranian“ a physician and later graduate of the groups rather than appear involved Iranian Military Academy, was elevated in Jewish social groups and activities. to the rank of Major General and Following the nationwide suppression served as the head of military hospitals 109 of communist sympathizers after the fall in different parts of Iran. of Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953, the political leanings of a limited number The rapid impact of acculturation of Iranian Jewish youth were for the to Iranian identity, especially upon first time moved toward Zionism and the younger generation—university the development of )” students, young professionals, and ha Khaluts Youth Scouts“(— activities whose effort was intellectuals—created a sense of focused on emigration to Israel. social solidarity and ideological empathy among Jewish and non- Among the first generation of Jewish Iranian intellectuals, including intellectuals who opposed the those sympathetic to Dr. Mohammad government during the 1930s through Mossadegh and his party, Jebhey-e the mid-1950s, the foremost was Rabi Melli )”National Front“(. Moshfegh-e Hamedani. In addition to his position as a journalist and daily The draw of Iranian nationalism was news translator for Reza Shah during such that from the 1950s to 1970s many World War II, he was the founding chief Iranian Jews began to change their editor of the leftist magazine Jewish names to names of Iranian origin Kaveh and, for seven years, chief editor of the in an effort to fit in more closely with . the larger Iranian society. For example, Keyhan daily newspaper the Jewish family name Cohen would be Moshfegh was a publisher, owner pronounced Cohan, meaning ”ancient“ of Nashr-e safi ‘Ali Shah, as well in Persian, or the suffix Kalimi, meaning as a translator of Western classical ”Jew,“ following many family names, was literature such as the works of Fyodor changed to Hakimi, meaning ”scholar.“ Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, and Lawrence Lockhart.110 Accused as a 109- Elias Eshaghian, Hamrah ba Farhang, ed. Goel Cohen )Los Angeles: Sinai, 2008(, 288–89. 110- Lawrence Lockhart was the scholar and pho-

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 101348 supporter of Mohammad Mossadegh, ideologists such as Parviz )Haroun( Moshfegh chose self-exile in Italy in Yashayaee, then a student of philosophy 1953. While there, he learned Italian at Tehran University and later a film and was engaged in translating Italian producer and community activist.113 literature and motion pictures into ‘Azizollah Daneshrad was another Persian until he immigrated to Los activist in this group; he later became Angeles in 1979, where he died in a professor at the Polytechnic School, 2009.111 now called Amir Kabir University. He From the mid-1960s, a new generation also served as chief executive officer during the construction of the Isfahan of university students in Tehran 114 developed a student association. Steel Mill Plant. The group with no organized or Kanoon-e Pishbord )The Center for political ties with active nationalists the Advancement of Iranian Jews(, and antiregime ideologies, sought a founded, as a branch of the Iranian democratic government without feeling Jewish Students Association in the any conflict between theirZ ionism and mid-1970s. The new group was setup Iranian Nationalism. The Sazman-e in a more exclusive environment Daneshjuyan-e Yahud-e Iran )Iranian in northern Tehran by a younger Jewish Students Association(, which generation of university students such included many male and female as Hamid Sabi, son of a pioneering members from Tehran University and and prominent Iranian Jewish attorney other institutions of higher education, Musa Sabi, and Albert Dardashti. This was officially registered in 1963 as group had greater social and secular a nonpolitical organization, with leanings. They therefore chose to remain educational, literary, scientific, and independent and were not affiliated Judaic studies committees.112 with the older Jewish organizations of 115 Among this group were some leftist the community. The infamous 1968 tographer of Iran who was an employee of the Asian Cup Anglo-Persian Oil Company: www.iranicaonline. Soccer Tournament, held in Tehran, org/articles/lockhart-laurence )accessed Decem- was a turning point in the modern ber 23, 2013(. 113- Parviz Yashayaee chose to use his Jewish 111- Biography of Rabi’ Moshfegh-e Hamedani, name Haroun after the Islamic Revolution in offi- www.7dorim.com/cultures/hamedany.asp )ac- cial publications and media. cessed December 23, 2013(. 114- Biography of ‘Azizollah Daneshrad, ww- 112- Faramarz Naim, M.D., and Kamran Broukh- w.7dorim.com/tasavir/daneshrad.asp )accessed im, M.D., ”The Center for Advancement of Ira- December 23, 2013(. nian Jews,“ interview by Nahid Pirnazar, March 115- Hamid Sabi,”The Center for Advancement of 2010. Iranian Jews,“ interview by Pirnazar, April 2012. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 347102 history of Iranian Jewry. The public moving to Israel. demonstrations and chanted slogans on the streets of Tehran after the Others elected to sell their interests final round between the defending in their businesses to foreigners, champion, Israel, and the host country, purchase property outside Iran, and Iran, revealed the lower middle establish overseas bank accounts, all class’s anti-Jewish feelings. Such a in preparation for the day when they development in the aftermath of the Six might have to leave Iran. The cause of Day War of June 1967 was elicited by emigration this time was not Zionism, the frustration many Iranian Muslims but primarily fears of an unknown felt at the outcome of the war and also future involving bigotry, loss of reflected intolerance of the minorities security, for some of them, a lack of by the mob.116 political freedom. Nevertheless, the comfortable and booming economic The mob’s anticipation of the result of conditions in Iran prevailed and, the soccer game served as a warning. for most families with business Coupled with other political, social, attachments, life continued half in Iran and economic factors, this event was and half in their second residence of incentive enough for the Iranian Jewish choice elsewhere. community to contemplate alternative places to live, this time not necessarily The long list of individuals who left Iran in Israel. in the years before and after 1979 includes Jewish academicians and intellectuals Although the total number of families such as Professor Mussa Broukhim, who voluntarily left Iran did not exceed a Chair of the French Department at couple of hundred, for the first time many the School of Humanities at Tehran intellectuals and affluent Jews, including University and also chief editor of the physicians, other professionals, and daily French newspaper Journal de owners of large industries and trades, Tehran. considered departure. Some decided to liquidate their assets and leave the In the areas of science and medicine the country, mostly heading to Europe and list includes Professor Shamuel Rahbar, the United States, with 2 or 3 percent M.D. and Ph.D. in Immunology, Head of the Department of Applied Biology 116- For details of the Six Day War of June 1967, at the Tehran University School see Isi Leibler, The Case for Israel )Australia, of Medicine, the world renowned 1972(, 18, 60. For full details of this war, see www. jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/67_War. immunologist and hemoglobin html )accessed December 23, 2013(. molecular researcher whose work

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« ,131/130شامره ی Studies،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 346103 has had global impacts in the field and non-Jews, at various levels, such of diabetes medicine, and a member as among merchants, governmental of Iran’s Royal Academy; Professor professionals, and academicians. Iraj Lalehzari, Dean of the School of Relations between classmates, members Pharmacology at Tehran University, of certain professions, and even renowned pharmacologist and organic occasional cases of intermarriage chemist117. reflect this atmosphere. The same solidarity, seen if not at large scale, Professor Jaccob Aynehchi, Head of among university students opposing the Department of Pharmacology, the government who demanded a more Tehran University; Professor Iraj democratic regime. Such activities put Tabibzadeh, Director General of Parviz Yashayaee in prison together ”Malaria Eradication,“ at the Ministry with Islamic antiregime opponents such of Health; Professor Hushang Amini, as Ayatollah Taleghani in the early Tehran University School of Dentistry; 1960s. This companionship played an and Dr. Isaac Noormahmoodi, Head of integral role in the destiny of Iranian the Department of Textile Industries, Jews in general, some individuals, as Polytechnic School of Tehran )Amir friends of the future leaders of the Kabir University( are some other names Islamic Republic. in this long list. One of the major results of unity and Following the close economic, friendship among Iranian Jews and some agricultural, intelligence, and academic of their Muslim counterparts in 1978 relations developed in the 1950s–1960s is demonstrated by the role of Kurosh with the State of Israel, the camaraderie Kabir Hospital, named after Cyrus the between Iranian Jews and Muslims Great, founded in 1949 by Kanoon-e developed in different areas and fields. Kheryrkhah )The Benevolent Society(, Having had the same educational mainly funded by the Iranian Jewish and social opportunities, the younger community and the American Jewish generation of Iranian Jews, especially Joint Distribution Committee.118 after the 1960s, felt comfortable participating in nontraditional social The hospital, under the presidency of and political activities. Dr. Kamran Broukhim in 1976, )who at the same time held an executive Such relationships brought about position in preventative medicine at tolerance and friendship among Jews 118- This is a worldwide Jewish relief organiza- 117- ”Hmadan viii. Jewish Community,“ Encyclo- tion, established in 1914 with its headquarters in paedia Iranica. New York. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English & آورد« Persianشامره ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان 1399RAHAVARD 345104 the Isfahan steel mill( went through there. 120 major renovation using loans from the government and the financial help of Through Ayatollah Taleghani’s some of the affluent people in the Jewish headquarters and based on an old community. Among those participated friendship with Parviz Yashayaee, who in the renovation project, was Parviz still shared the same antigovernment Yashayaee, who helped upgrade visions, Sapir Hospital became a safe the hospital with modern facilities, haven for the treatment of the wounded including four surgery rooms. who did not wish the government to learn their identity. The four surgery In May 1978, when a student cleric was rooms of Sapir Hospital and its medical killed in Qom in front of Ayatollah staff were at the service of the people Shari’at Madari’s House, some of the injured on September 15, 1978, known wounded were sent to Kurosh Kabir as Black Friday. Hospital, which did not release their identities to the government, thus The hospital was able to save the lives creating an atmosphere of trust and of all the patients brought in by the goodwill between the hospital and the opposition. As a token of appreciation, opposition group.119 an elaborate flower arrangement was sent to the hospital, from Taleghani’s Immediately after the change of regime, Headquarters while he himself was in early 1979, the opposition wished to in jail. From then on, ties between change the name of the hospital from Taleghani’s Headquarters and that of the ancient Persian Emperor some of his Jewish comrades were to Shahid Khosrow Golsorkhi, an strengthened. activist executed at the time of the Shah and considered a martyr by the Those who expanded relations with the opposition. Thanks to prompt action Jewish community included individuals by the Benevolent Society, the name like Ahmad-Ali Baba’i, Taher was changed overnight to that of Dr. Ahmadzadeh, the first governor of Ruhollah Sapir, one of the founding the Islamic Republic in Khorasan, Haj physicians of the hospital, who had Agha Shanehchi, and some members of lost his life treating typhoid patients Ayatollah Taleghani’s family, including Mehdi Taleghani and his daughter 121 119- Broukhim, ”Kurosh Kabir Hospital,“ inter- A‘zam Taleghani, a pharmacist. view by Pirnazar, April 2012; Joseph Cohen, Re- 120- Broukhim, ”Name Change of Hospital,“ in- ports and Memoirs )Los Angeles: Joseph Cohen terview by Pirnazar, April 2012. Found, 1993(, 312. 121- Broukhim, ” Relations with Taleghani’s sup-

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From December 1978 through February With regard to policy, the community 1979, some Iranian Jews and majority of also benefited from continuous Iranians filled with fear of the unknown, consultation with Rabbis Yedidia left the country temporarily. For the first Shofet and Uriel Davidi.123 time since the independence of Israel and the mass emigration of the lower By mid-November, the office of Ayatollah economic classes, thousands of Iranian Taleghani placed a request to Parviz Jewish families flew to Israel, for free, by Yashayaee through Ahmad-Ali Babai to El Al airlines. encourage Jewish community members to join the Anti-Shah demonstrations As early as October 1978, since many as a group. Upon Ayatollah Taleghani’s members of Tehran’s Jewish Community release from prison, some supporters of the were leaving the country and the opposition, headed by Parviz Yashayaee leadership of the group was left in the and accompanied by Dr. Kamran hands of Dr. ‘Azizollah Daneshrad, Broukhim and Dr. Hushang Melamed, as President of Anjoman-e Kalimian went to visit him. At this meeting,Ayatollah )The Iranian Jewish Association(, and Taleghani expressed his appreciation for the Dr. Heshmatollah Kermanshahchi, one cooperation of Sapir Hospital.124 of the elder board members and a socio- political and Zionist activist since 1940. Ayatollah Taleghani’s Headquarters requested the Jewish community Daneshrad, in private consultation to participate in the Pro-Ayatollah with Rabbi Yedidia Shofet, represented Khomeini demonstrations on December Jewish laws and traditions in Majles-e 11, 1978, on the occasion of Ashura, the Khobregan )the Assembly of Experts( martyrdom of the Shi‘ite Imam Hossein.125 that drafted the Islamic Republic’s Constitution. This group met regularly The leadership of the Jewish Community to consult on emergency issues, when knew not many people would join the they arose. Later, Hamid Sabi, who demonstration without the participation of was then a successful young attorney, Rabbi Yedidia Shofet. When presented with representing foreign diplomats and view by Pirnazar, April 2012. clients, joined the group. With his legal 123- Kermanshahchi, ”Consultation with Rabbis,“ knowledge and sophisticated command interview by Pirnazar, March 2010. of English, Hamid Sabi acted as one 124- Kermanshahchi, Broukhim, Melamed, and of the group’s spokespersons with the Sabi, ”Visit with Taleghani,“ interview by Pirnazar, foreign media.122 A p r i l 2 0 1 2 . 125- Ashura, on the tenth of Moharram of the Is- porters,“ interview by Pirnazar, April, 2012. lamic calendar, marks the martyrdom of Hossein 122- Sabi, Broukhim and Hushang Melamed, ibn Ali, the grandson of Mohammad, at the Battle M.D., ”Relations with the new leadership,“ inter- of Karbala. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399 343106 this request, Rabbi Shofet found himself relationship developed between Rabbi before a difficult decision. However, for the Shofet and Ayatollah Taleghani. The sake of the community’s safety and despite extent of this relationship was so close that the loyalty both he and his son,Ra bbi David upon the death of Ayatollah Taleghani’s Shofet felt toward the Shah, they agreed to wife, Rabbi Yedidia Shofet attended the memorial service held in the mosque to participate in the Ashura demonstrations, 127 on the condition of the absence of anti- extend his personal condolences. Zionist banners or slogans. Their friendship was further extended to Owing to the Shofet family’s participation, the point that Rabbi Shofet visited him about two thousand Jews gathered once before the Friday Sermon at Tehran within twenty-four hours to join the University, asking him not to antagonize demonstration. The walk started from the people against Zionism. The other Abrishami Synagogue, on then Kahkh-e cleric who showed tolerance toward the Shomali Avenue, through Elizabeth Jews was Ayatollah Makarem-e Shirazi. Boulevard to Soheil Avenue, and Rabbi Yedidia Shofet visited him also at eventually joined the main stream of the Friday Prayer at Tehran University and asked for reassurances about the the demonstration on then Shah Reza 128 Boulevard, marching toward Shahyad Jewish community of Iran. )now Azadi( Square. Upon the arrival of Ayatollah Khomeini The banners readPeyvand-ma ba Nehzat-e in Tehran, the Jewish delegates who Mellat-e Iran Na-gossastani Ast, ”Our tie welcomed him at Mehrabad Airport with the movement of the Iranian nation were Rabbi Yedidia Shofet, Rabbi is unbreakable.“ Jewish participation was Uriel Davidi, Haghnazr Farahnik, Dr. joyously welcomed by other participants, Kamran Broukhim, Parviz Yashayaee, who tried to open the way and place them and Hamid Sabi, all in the very first ahead of the line as they chanted ”Yahudi, row of the welcoming groups. Two days Mosalman, Payvandetan Mobarak, ”Jews after the arrival of Ayatollah Khomeini and Muslims, congratulations on your in Iran, a ten-thousand-strong silent unity.“126 demonstration on Thursday, February 1, 1979 arranged to march along the same With Parviz Yashayaee’s mediation route as on December 11. on behalf of the Jewish community with Mohsen Rezai and others at the From that date on, chants of ”Death to opposition headquarters, a close personal Israel“ marked a turning point in the 126- Rabbi David Shofet, Sabi, Broukhim and History of Zionism in Iran. Melamed, ”Participation in demonstrations,“ in- terview by Pirnazar, April 2012. 127- Interview: Shofet, 2012. 128- Interview: Shofet, 2012.

2020 فصلنامه ی »ره Spring/Summer آورد« شامره ,131/130 ی Studies ،130/131 Issue بهار/ of Iranian تابستان RAHAVARD Quarterly Persian & English 1399 Journal 342107 Conclusion scholars and intellectuals were the likes of Sa‘eed Nafisi, the renowned The Zionist Association of Iran was professor at Tehran University, Dean a publicly recognized organization of Humanities, poet and writer, who since its inception in 1917, as in his visit to Jerusalem in 1957 historically recorded; however, for spoke of ”The enduring relationship religious, political, cultural, and socio- between Iran and the Land of economic reasons the notion was not Israel.“129 Professor Farhang Mehr, fully embraced at the time, either by Chancellor of Pahlavi University in Iranian Jews or by other Iranians and Shiraz in 1964, in one of his speeches members of government. in reference to finding a means for development and modernization in However, with the establishment Iran, stated: ”What could be better of the Islamic Republic, Iranian than Israel?“130 The friendly relations Jews were forced to choose between may not have been supported by Zionism and their Iranian nationality, all Iranians, yet between the two a choice they had never had to make governments, the relation was based in the past. To date, those who have on mutual respect and interest in remained in Iran use every occasion the areas of agriculture, irrigation, to distance themselves from Israel infrastructure, and illiteracy, as well and Zionism. Of those who left as the sale of military supplies. The Iran for Israel after 1978, they were exchange of intelligence services, driven by fear of the unknown rather as was originally requested by than because of Zionist aspirations. the Iranian government, always As history shows, neither the served as a block against outside Balfour Declaration of 1917 nor opponents, including the pro-Soviet the independence of Israel in 1948 Nasser regime in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, was a strong motivation for most and the Communist Soviet Union Iranian Jews to depart. in the north. What has remained During the time that diplomatic untouched is the ties of Iranian Jews, relations were in effect between whether living in Iran or abroad, Iran and Israel, many non-Jewish with Iran and Iranians in terms Iranian scholars praised and valued of their Iranian identity, heritage, the relation and found it beneficial language and culture. for both countries, in spite of the opposition expressed by clerics and some Iranians. Among such 129- Ezri, Legacy, 307. 130- Ibid., 311. of Iranian Studies Issue 130/131, Spring/Summer 2020 فصلنامه ی Journal »ره English &آورد« شامره Persian ی Quarterly/131 130، بهار/ تابستان RAHAVARD1399