The Neotropical Bushmeat Crisis and Its Impact on Primate Populations
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GOING TO POT The Neotropical Bushmeat Crisis and its Impact on Primate Populations Care for the Wild International PRO WILDLIFE The Granary, Tickfold Farm, Graefelfinger Str. 65 Kingsfold, West Sussex, RH12 3SE D-81375 Munich Telephone: 44 1306 627900 Telephone: +49 (0) 89 81299-507 Fax: 44 1306 627901 Fax: +49 (0) 89 81299-706 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Web: www.careforthewild.com Web: www.prowildlife.de © 2007 Contents 1. Executive summary The devastating effects of the bushmeat1 trade on wild primates in Central and West Africa are well recognized (Damania et al. 1. Executive Summary 2 2005; Bowen-Jones & Pendry 1999; Noss 1998). In contrast, the largely uncontrolled hunting of primates in Central and South America has received little attention. As in Africa, the convergence of large-scale deforestation, increasing commercial 2. The Neotropical bushmeat crisis 3 hunting, and the capture of live animals has devastating effects on Neotropical primates, and is set to push many species to the 2.1. Why primate hunting is on the rise 3 brink of extinction. 2.2. The Impact of hunting on Neotropical primates 4 2.3. Sustainable primate hunting? 5 Drawing on almost 200 primarily scientific publications, this report comprehensively reviews the scale of primate use across 22 3. Central and South America 5 Central and South American countries. In doing so, we demonstrate that current levels of offtake are unsustainable across 3.1. Central America 5 most Neotropical primates' range and that effective conservation measures are urgently required. 3.1.1. Belize 5 In at least 162 of the 22 Neotropical nations examined (see chapter 3) hunting for bushmeat poses a critical threat to 3.1.2. Costa Rica 5 primate populations. There is a paucity of data for the remaining five countries (Argentina, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua and 3.1.3. El Salvador 6 Uruguay), However, this does of course not imply a paucity of problems. One country, Chile, does not have any primates at all. 3.1.4. Guatemala 6 3.1.5. Honduras 6 Approximately eight million people in South America regularly consume bushmeat as a source of protein (Rushton et al. 3.1.6. Mexico 6 2005). A significant portion of bushmeat from tropical forests consists of primates (Robinson & Bennett 2004; Schulte-Herbrüggen 3.1.7. Nicaragua 7 & Rossiter 2003; Robinson & Bodmer 1999). While local farmers and subsistence hunters are consumers and increasingly traders (Rushton et al. 2005; Ojasti 1996), wealthier households also consume considerable amounts of bushmeat (Peres 3.1.8. Panama 7 2000a). 3.2. South America 8 3.2.1. Argentina 8 Rural populations in the Brazilian Amazon alone are estimated to consume between 2.2 and 5.4 million primates per year 3.2.2. Brazil 8 (Appendix, table 1). Because of their slow reproductive rate and low population densities many primate species cannot sustain 3.2.3. Bolivia 9 this immense offtake (Jerozolimski & Peres 2003; Bodmer & Puertas 2000; Horwich 1998). Hunting of large and medium sized 3.2.4. Chile 10 Neotropical primates, such as woolly (Lagothrix sp.), spider (Ateles sp.), howler (Alouatta sp.) and capuchin (Cebus sp.) monkeys occurs at a rate which poses an extreme threat to their long-term survival. Although current hunting levels are lower in 3.2.5. Colombia 10 some areas, this does not necessarily indicate decreased threat. Instead, these numbers may reflect overexploitation in the past 3.2.6. Ecuador 11 that has lead to generally low population numbers (Alvard et al. 1997). The increasing commercialisation of bushmeat 3.2.7. French Guiana 12 hunting, modern hunting techniques and equipment, expanding infrastructure, and growing human populations, 3.2.8. Guyana 12 combined with serious habitat degradation and fragmentation further exacerbate the situation (see chapter 2). 3.2.9. Paraguay 12 3.2.10. Peru 13 Whereas the extent of habitat destruction in the Neotropics is widely acknowledged, the serious impact of hunting is often ignored. 3.2.11. Suriname 14 However, the hunting of primates for food, rather than habitat loss is predicted to pose the most serious threat to the survival of large primates in Central and South America within the next two decades (Wilkie & Godoy 2001; Peres 2001). 3.2.12. Trinidad 14 As in Africa, habitat fragmentation and hunting are synergistic, causing newly accessed forest regions to become available to 3.2.13. Uruguay 14 hunters (Peres 2001). 3.2.14. Venezuela 15 4. Conservation strategies 15 Data from hunted areas in many different Amazonian sites show that large primate biomass has dropped by up to 93.5%, 5. Recommendations 16 in comparison to areas where hunting is absent. The impact of this reduction goes beyond the effects on primate species. 5.1. Recommendations to range states 16 There is a domino effect on the forest ecosystem as a whole (Chapman & Onderdonk 1998). Primates are important seed dispersers (de Castro 2003; Mollison 2003). Highly mobile woolly and spider monkeys feed on fruits, and woolly monkeys in 5.2. Recommendations to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 16 particular consume the fruit of over 200 different woody plants (Di Fiore 2004; Ráez-Luna 1995). The removal of these species 5.3. Recommendations to Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 17 therefore significantly affects the ability of plants to disperse their seeds and changes the dominance relationship 6. References 18 between tree species. In the medium term this leads to changes in forest composition, structure, and biodiversity 7. Appendix 21 (Estrada 2006; Roldán & Simonetti 2001; Wilkie & Godoy 2001; Wright et al. 2000). Table 1: Volume of primate hunting in Brazilian Amazon 21 Table 2: Primate hunting by indigenous groups in Brazil 21 The hunting of Neotropical primates outlined in this report illustrates how a traditional way of life has become biologically Table 3: Primate hunting by indigenous groups in Peru 22 devastating. There are no easy answers to this dilemma, and any resolution of this continent-wide conservation crisis depends on the genuine commitment from all stakeholders. Preventing the disappearance of many primate species in the Neotropics Table 4: Primates of the Neotropics and reasons for their offtake 22 requires urgent national and international action. To protect national biodiversity and the integrity of their forests, range Table 5: Key data on habitat destruction in the Neotropics 27 states are therefore encouraged to prohibit primate hunting and strengthen the implementation and enforcement of binding protection measures (see Chapter 5). This report also provides recommendations to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Care for the Wild International and Pro Wildlife would like to thank Lucy Molleson, Shirley McGreal, and Helene Palomino, for their valuable input. Helene Palomino, Niels Starnick (BamS), and Siegfried Weisel also kindly provided photographs. 1 Bushmeat is defined as meat for human consumption derived from wild animals. 2 Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Cover photos: © Helene Palomino Trinidad, and Venezuela. 2 In addition to being hunted for food, primates are also killed for 'medicinal' purposes, and occasionally as bait for large cats, 2. The Neotropical bushmeat crisis fish or shrimp, with woolly and spider monkeys again being the mostly targeted species (Mittermeier 1987a). Furthermore, in many tourist shops throughout much of Amazonia hats from monkey-skins, necklaces from monkey teeth, skulls, bones, hands, feet or tails have been observed on sale (Mittermeier & Konstant 1996/1997). 2.1. Why primate hunting is on the rise Consequentially, once populations of larger primates are depleted, medium-sized species experience the same fate because Changes in infrastructure they are "next in line" in terms of body mass (Ward & Chism 2003; Peres 2000b). Small primate species such as marmosets Until the 1960s, when federally funded highway construction programs were initiated, large parts of the Amazon were (Callithrix sp.), Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii), squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sp.) and tamarins (Saguinus sp.) are targeted inaccessible. Since then networks of roads have penetrated formerly isolated regions. With the roads came human settlements, primarily for the pet trade, however if larger species diminish, these species are also hunted for food (Mittermeier 1987a). In which colonised previously uncharted forests. Historically, hunting activities were limited to areas on the periphery of human some areas, small species such as tamarins and squirrel monkeys are reportedly highly sought after to obtain teeth for settlements. Today all forest areas within ten kilometres of a road or navigable river are accessible on foot and are therefore necklaces and armbands rather than for food (Cormier 2006). subject to hunting pressure (Peres 2000a). More than three-quarters of the Amazon basin can now be reached on foot (Peres & Lake 2003). New roads encourage new settlements and further deforestation, which in turn provide entry points for hunters Hunting also disrupts the age and sex structure of populations: In some areas hunters actively seek out females accompanied and traders from the outside (Durand & Lazes 2004; Mäki et al. 2001). In fact, the population density of highly sought after by juveniles, so that the offspring can be sold to the pet trade (Chapman & Peres 2001, Mittermeier 1987a). The Waimiri species is strongly linked with proximity to rivers or roads (Peres & Lake 2003; Robinson & Bennett 2002; Peres 2001). The Atroari Indians in Brazil are reported to kill five times as many female spider monkeys as males, because body fat in females construction of a road in Ecuador's Yasuni National Park by an oil company, for example, increased the accessibility of is greater and their meat is considered "tastier".