Pesticide-Induced Environmental Risks: A field study in Ghana

Michael Onwona-Kwakye

Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr Paul J. van den Brink Personal chair, Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Wageningen University & Research

Co-promotor Dr Jonathan Hogarh Environmental Scientist Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi, Ghana

Other Members Prof. Dr Peter Oosterveer Wageningen University & Research Dr Joost Lahr National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven Prof. Dr Martina Vijver Leiden University Dr Michiel Daam New University of Lisbon, Portugal

This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School for Socio-Economic and Natural Sciences of the Environment (SENSE).

Pesticide-Induced Environmental Risks: A field study in Ghana

Michael Onwona-Kwakye

Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Thursday 11 June 2020 at 11.00 a.m. in the Aula.

Michael Onwona-Kwakye Pesticide-Induced Environmental Risks: A field study in Ghana 172 pages.

PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2020) With references, with summary in English

ISBN: 978-94-6395-362-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/518456

The author Michael Onwona-Kwakye was sponsored by a PhD grant from the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund). Financial support from NIH R01 Grant number R01AI116914, the Molecular Basis of Infectious Diseases Training Grant from the NIH Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (T32AI055449), and the Gillson-Longenbaugh Foundation for working on chapter 5 is extremely indebted.

Dedicated to my beloved late parents, Benson Onwona and Faustina Asomaning

Contents

Chapter 1 General Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….9

Chapter 2 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana………………………..17

Chapter 3 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana…………49

Chapter 4 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana…………………..89

Chapter 5 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields…117

Chapter 6 General discussion and concluding remarks…………………………………………………….137

Addendum References………………………………………………………………………………………………………144

Summary (English)………………………………………………………………………………………….163

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………………………….166

Curriculum Vitae…………………………………………………………………………………………….169

List of publications………………………………………………………………………………………….170

Colophon……………………………………………………………………………………………………….172

9 8

Chapter 1

General Introduction

10 9 Chapter 1

Pesticides

ncee n demnd o ood thoghot the wold h mde me to ncee the podcton e t epected tht hmn poplton cn ech ot 10 llon 00 A 017. h ntencton o gclte h elted n the e o petcde to gow moe ood on le lnd potectng cop om pet dee nd weed well ng podctt pe hecte. echnologcl dnce ptcll n the om o chemcl podct led to the ceton o hgh ecenc petcde nd etle enlng lge ncee n cop eld Clho 017. thot petcde moe thn hl o o cop wold be lost to pests and diseases. Between 26 and 40 percent of the world’s potential crop podcton lot nnll ece o weed pet nd dee C 008 hng et al. 011 CA 01.

n hn gclte one o the mot mpotnt ecto o the econom conttng 30 to o ometc odct nd emplong moe thn hl o t wokoce who e mnl mll lndholde. odcton o mo cop h een nceng n ecent e mnl elt o etene cltton n d to meet th chllenge A 011. etcde e mong me n hn h eched t pek n ecent e epecll o contollng weed pet nd peeton o heted cop on et al. 008 moo et al. 019. eentl thoghot the gloe ppomtel mllon tonne o petcde e tled ot o whch 47. e hecde 9. e nectcde 17. e ngcde nd . e othe petcde e et al. 014. oeoe t h een etmted tht th e 00 the glol petcde ge wll ncee p to 3. mllon tonne hng 018. n hn petcde e ml to the glol tend nd thee ted ncee n mpotton nd conmpton o petcde g. 1.1.

Pesticide law of Ghana hn h legl pocede o petcde egtton peced t etcde Contol nd ngement o the nonmentl otecton Agenc Act 1994 Act 490. th th Act nme o petcde podct he een egteed o e n oth gclte nd plc helth ecto A CCC 01. he A h the mndte to eglte ll petcde tht e old dtted nd ed n hn. he Act dene petcde

11 10 General Introduction as a a sbstance or itre of sbstances intended for preentin destroin repellin or redcin the destrctie effects of pests or b a sbstance or itre of sbstances intended for se as a plant relator desiccant or wood preseratie. t incldes all of the followin herbicide insecticide which a inclde insect rowth relators teriticides etc. 1 neaticide ollscicide piscicide aicide rodenticide bactericide insect repellent anial repellent antiicrobial and fnicide. he obectie of relatin pesticides is to protect societ fro the aderse effects of pesticides withot denin access to the benefits of their se. eistration of pesticides enables athorities to eercise control oer alit se leels clais labellin pacain adertisin and disposal of pesticides ths ensrin that the interests of endsers are properl protected. part fro the reistration of pesticides the ct proides reireents for pesticide dealership and safeards for the safe se of pesticides. eistration of pesticides started in 200 and opened a new econoic boo with a resltant increase in reistration and iportation of pesticide prodcts for se in hana i. ..

00

600

00

400 200 00 20 200 20 Number of of Number pesticides

00

0 nsecticide erbicide nicide ther otal Pesticide type

Figure 1.1: ber of forlated pesticide prodcts reisteredproisionall cleared in hana 20020. “Other1” includes rodenticides, nematicides, fumigants and other conentional esticides, and other chemicals used as esticides such as sulhur, etroleum oil and sulhuric acid

Pesticide evaluation procedure of Ghana Basic scientific data reireents inclde aalian toicit ecotoicolo enironental fate phsical and cheical properties fie batch analsis reside cheistr if

2 11 Chapter 1

sed on food or feed crop fish and wildlife if applicable phtotoicit if applicable and bio efficac. alation of pesticides is condcted on their enironental toicolo ecotoicolo han toicolo bioefficac labels and adertiseent. oplete data proided for pesticide prodct is assessed and ealated based on acceptabilit criteria 202.

esticide reistration in hana is based on international data and prospectie ris assessents 202. ince the operationaliation of the ct oer a decade ao no std has been condcted to establish how protectie the pesticide leal procedre is to the enironent and occpational health. o enironental ris assessent has been condcted in the fields of se. he ct prescribes controls on iport and se nder sections 2 and 40 as well as safeards for se of pesticides with reards to occpational health nder section 44. his notwithstandin the ct proides an opportnit nder section 62 a f to establish relations that can onitor effect of pesticide se in the field where the se of ecoloical ris assessent becoes e.

Environmental impacts of pesticides esticides enerall are anfactred to be er toic for their intended tarets and once the spread in the enironent a hae effects on other related and nonrelated non taret oraniss. esticides a end p in the enironent ia a cople of rotes lie spra drift rnoff leachin throh the soil once applied in the field and a reach water bodies adacent to the aricltral fields where the can pose ris to nontaret aatic biota ere ca 20 Bonatin et al 20. esticide sae in ost deelopin contries incldin hana are characterised b ris to hans and other life fors and nwanted side effects to the aatic and terrestrial enironent and safe anaeent is sall not proinent cobichon 200 tar 200 202 nwonawae et al. 20. n rope for eaple to safeard the aderse effects of pesticides etensie ris assessent is condcted to ensre that neatie effects on the enironent drin pesticide reistration are factored into the recoended se e. 20a b. ith this the field of coloical is ssessent is er iportant in rope and ais at assessin the potential aderse effects resltin fro arios han actiities lie the ipact of cheical coponds on the enironent. esticides are related nder elation o 0200 200 where

12 General Introduction protection oals data reireents and ris characterisation are defined for the enironental copartent whereas in hana it is practicall noneistent.

Overall aim of thesis 1 he ai of the thesis was to reiew the pesticide law and reistration procedre of hana and to establish how effectie it has been in protectin the enironent and sers in hana sin post reistration onitorin. rther the std soht to se odels sch as esticides iss in the ropics to an nironent and rade pecies ensitiit istribtion and epirical data obtained fro the field to assess the ris of pesticides and deterine the threshold leels protectie of ecoloical conities. he thesis also inestiated the effects of these pesticides on abndance and diersit of bacteria poplations in the soil enironent. Based on this oerall ai the followin research obecties were set . o reiew releant portions of the hanaian pesticide law the reistration procedre in relation to actors perspectie of its ipleentation to establish whether it has achieed its intended prpose and indicate adstents needed for frther consideration and iproeent 2. o perfor ris assessents sin epirical data and odels to establish the riss of pesticides to the aatic and terrestrial enironents of aricltral fields accordin to farers’ pesticide se reies in hana and . eterine the water alit of water bodies in hana sin phsicocheical paraeters pesticide concentrations and bioloical indicators.

Outline of thesis Chapter 2 reviews Ghana’s pesticide polic pesticide law which was adopted to achiee safe se of sch prodcts. his chapter proides a brief oeriew of the pesticide relator polic fraewor pesticide law the pesticide reistration and licensin procedre as well as the theoretical fraewor ealation odel for the std. he ain part of the std deals with how the polic has deeloped oer tie. he std also discsses the farmers’ pesticide se in datoda far practices and distribtion in the contr in relation to the polic and also the interactions of state relators and nonstate actors pesticide

4 13 Chapter 1

istritrs eaers an farmers ne the st issses a nmer f initiatives that nee t e initiate t verme rems enntere

Chapter 3 esries the se f the me an en rin et al st ier t assess the riss f estiies t the aati an terrestria envirnments this en emiria ata taine frm farmers in their aiatin f estiies an ther aati waterwa arameters reaisti fr a tria senari see e an en sh et al were se ests frm st tier shwin ris were then frther refine sin me at et al an en rin et al at et al n ier t estimate estiie nentratin eves rtetive f the aati envirnment

Chapter 4 esries a mnitrin arah sin a variet f tehnies t assess the water ait f ta iver t hemias an estiies his invve the samin an anasis f water sames frm seete atins an the anasis f the nentratins f estiies se in the areas as taine frm an earier srve chapter 3 his was then ine t the hsihemia harateristis f the samin atins as we as the marinverterate seies ientifie ina an eanatin is iven an inferenes mae n the heath f the water an resente as a water ait assessment t fr se in Ghana

n Chapter 5 the st investiate the effet f estiies se in irriatin farms n ateria anane an iversit reative t aritre he st as fses n ateria aae f erain iverse asses f estiies se in these farms he are envisae t e isate fr ftre wrs an e tiie in a variet f envirnmenta ean senaris as a mtirse remeiatin fr tin an entaminatin f heavi te sites sh as i fies anfis an sewae etrs as has een ssie in ther risitins a et al

Chapter 6 rvies a enera isssin f the rests an nsins f this thesis he finins f the thesis an an vera isssin an nsin n hw the estiie aw e enhane t effetive rtet the envirnment frm their neative effets the rea effet f the estiies in se n the envirnment an the ssiiit f isatin a variet f ateria whih an metaie estiies are issse

14 General Introduction

1

15 16 Chapter 2

Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

nwna wae ihae ea enistie hn fsnim eaner etteh er

a an en rin

ati an ater ait anaement Gr aeninen niversit aeninen niversit an esearh aeninen he etherans

nvirnmenta rtetin en ra Ghana

ant eath eatr iretrate inistr f ritre an atra esres is aa thiia

ee f asi an ie ienes h f ritre niversit f Ghana G en Ghana

nstitte f ria ritre masi Ghana

aeninen nvirnmenta esearh terra aeninen niversit an esearh aeninen he etherans

This chapter has been published in Environment, Development and Sustainability (2019), 21: 2667– 2691.

17 Chapter 2

Ghana has imemente reatin n the reistratin istritin an sae f estiies in rer t evaate their envirnmenta an hman heath effets wever envirnmenta mnitrin an ertifie aratries fr estiie anasis are ain estiie misse misaiatin ntaminatin f the envirnment an hman esre sti ntine an itte is nwn t what etent estiie reistratin istritin an se is rer imemente in Ghana his st aime at investiatin hw the estiie i erates in Ghana hw state i natinaa an nnstate (importers, dealers’ and farmers staehers fntin what their haenes are an t whih eten the i etives are ahieve

neta framewr ase n the nteta interatin ther was developed and a review of Ghana’s pesticide policy implementation with two empirical field sties n state i an nnstate i atrs was nte semente with senar ata an a nmer f interviews nte with staehers an infrmants ests iniate that estiies are reistere in miane with the aw nstate atrs sre w with reset t their manate whih ie rests in envirnmenta an hman heath riss inifiant assiatin eiste etween eatina eve attaine an nwee (χ 3.614; P ≤ 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming also significantly influenced the nwee f resnents 0.001), as well as attitude (χ r eeriene ratin f farmin as sinifiant infene attite at nfiene eve an ratin f farmin was sinifiant assiate with farm manaement raties at eve f sinifiane ≤ 0.05) whie state atrs are nt mtivate an resre t is remmene t erfrm a reiminar ris assessment t the aati envirnment t erive thresh eves whih are rtetive f mmnities t sreen farmers fr estiie esre an isnin t eve wetarete trainin rrammes fr estiie retaiers an farmers n estiie se ersna rtetive eiment se as we as estiie manaement an aw itina estiie i imementers have t e mtivate an resre t arr t their manate ie t eete the estiie eisatin

18 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

esticides se in aricltre in Ghana has reslted in redced crop loss (lare et al here has een a continos increase in the importation and se of pesticides (, his incldes oth the nmer of chemicals and antities reistered as well as recorded y the competent athorities and relators sch as the ood and rs thority (, nvironmental rotection ency ( of Ghana, Ghana tandards thority (G and the inistry of ood and ricltre ( his increase is prevalent de to epansion 2 of cltivation areas for food and cash crops in a id to meet the increasin demand for food (, he increase can also e attrited to the lieraliation of the economy and the government’s aim of attaining a middle income economy as enshrined in the country’s ision aenda rther, the relation and the reistration of pesticides opened a new economic oom with the resltant increase in the reistration of pesticide prodcts for se in Ghana he se of pesticides, however, has not een withot deleterios effects on people, sch as farmers, traders and consmers, which are involved in the food spply chain oor nowlede of farmers on the types of pesticides, their se and associated riss, ineffective governmental enforcement of pesticides’ regulations and stron incentives amon pesticide traders and sers to mae profits, have een reported to leadin to an increased se of cheap, mislaelled and adlterated pesticides in Ghana (, G, nstances of over se and misse on crops have een reported with the accompanyin neative effects on prodctivity, environment and hman health (Geren et al nham et al moao et al illiamson et al ( descried chlorpyifos, endoslfan and lamda cyhalothrin ein associated with instances of ill health amon Ghanaian farmers tow ( detected endoslfan and lindane in water and sediment of streams in areas of intensive tomato farmin, while other oranochlorine pesticide resides were also fond in sediment imilar reslts were recorded y tow ( for the olta ae in Ghana

With these problems, there has been a shift to the use of relatively “safer” pesticide alternatives which ave irth to the implementation of the pesticide reistration process of Ghana in he pesticide law at the time was the esticide ontrol and anaement ct, ct of he law has een consolidated to ecome art of the main Ghana nvironmental rotection ency ( ct, ct of his law incldes the whole

19 Chapter 2 pesticide life cycle, so the registration and procurement of pesticides, their import, distribution and retail to farmers, their monitoring for uality control and aste management

ince the implementation of the pesticide registration process, a number of interventions such as training courses on pesticide storage and handling and their proper use have been organied for importers, distributors, retailers and farmers by the state and a number of nonstate organisations s oever, little is non regarding ho and to hat etent the registration, distribution and use of pesticides is properly implemented in hana t is also not clear hether these actions by the registration authorities have yielded the necessary improvements in pesticide management and their use his is so because the operationaliation of the pesticide la lacs etensive and reliable information that could be available to eperts, scholars, researchers and practitioners in this field of enuiry he main obective of this study as to eamine ho pesticides are registered, distributed and used and to assess ho different state policy implementers and nonstate distributors and the farmers pesticide actors can improve the pesticides management in order to increase their environmental sustainability as well as workers’ health in Ghana.

hana has a pesticide legislation, part of the nvironmental rotection gency ct ct , hich governs the hole pesticide life cycle he legislation helps to ensure that pesticides are used in a safe and responsible manner in the country he hana is responsible for the registration of pesticides as ell as their management hey do this to ensure that the pesticides are properly labelled, distributed, stored, transported, used and applied by folloing accepted procedures and processes he hana further monitors pesticide use and, if needed, reacts against illegal use, and issues pesticides importation and use licences he registration of pesticides is headed by a esticides egistrar ho ors ith a esticides echnical ommittee hich is dran from a ide bacground of epertise and institutions section of the ct ho advises the hana oard on hether pesticides should be registered or not

he lant rotection and egulatory ervices irectorate , of the inistry of griculture through the esticide and ertilier egulatory ivision ct

20 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

omliments the Ghana . hey suervise an train estiie insetors reister an inset estiie ealers an rovie inormation materials an trainin on estiies amon others or retailers an armers.

o takle illeal trae in estiies the ustoms ivision o the Ghana evenue uthority reulates all imorts into Ghana inluin hemials uner t . ner the ausies o the Ghana the ustoms ivision eamines ouments an ertiiates issue by the Ghana . he aim is to valiate the laims rearin estiie imortation. 2 he law t ives ustoms oiers the urisition to searh ertain ersons remises an baae an seie rohibite items inluin estiies.

Ghana in the eerise o its uty on estiies reonises international leal areements relatin to estiies. hese inlue the nternational oe o onut on the istribution an se o estiies i.e. the oe o onut. Ghana is also a sinatory to the otteram onvention on rior norme onsent ratiie in whih ailitates the sharin o inormation between ountries an thus revents banne or severely restrite estiies are eorte an imorte. urthermore the tokholm onvention on ersistent rani ollutants whih aims at saeuarin human health an the environment rom eets o ersistent orani ollutants s is subsribe to by the ountry ratiie in .

Ghana’s pesticide registration is a stewise roess i. . whih assesses available an submitte ata an results in a inal eision to rant or eny reistration. he roess aims to ientiy otential risks that may arise rom the sale an use o estiies uner Ghana’s conitions an ulture G .

he roess inlues the aliation or reistration ata on hemial an hysial roerties toioloy eiay resiues an ate in the environment o the ative inreient an ormulate rout several seii reuirements like an aeny areement between the aent an the manuaturer a bath ertiiate o analysis loally enerate eiay ata orm samles o the estiie a manuaturin liene in the ountry o oriin an the akae label in nlish G .

21 Chapter 2

CCMC/EPA, National Competent Authority (-day) Applicant/Registrant Completed form + comprehensive dossier + efficacy trial (-day)

Registration Officers check Completeness of dossier (-day) Pesticide certificate issued: Product officially registered (by 90 days)

Completeness confirmation (Day 0) Registrar informs applicants of decisions and issue Relevant information copied and distributed to invoices (by day 85). Applicants who have refused experts of sub-committee (by day 10) applications have 14 days to appeal to the decision

Experts evaluate information and prepare reports EPA Board endorses recommendation of PTC and recommendations of the ff: and certificates issued (by day 80)  Bio-efficacy  Risk to humans/environment  Labels, Packaging, Advertisement (by day Executive Director/EPA presents to 31) recommendation to EPA Board for consideration and approval (by day 75)

Sub-committee meet at plenary, submit reports Registrar summarizes recommendation for the and proposals to registrar (by day 34) Executive Director/EPA (by day 67)

Registrar submits sub-committee Registrar and PTC deliberate and make reports/proposals to PTC (by day 40) recommendations for (by day 60)

esticide appicatin and registratin stepise prcess G

ppicatin r the registratin a pesticide ines the sissin a prdct dssier ith the necessar anneres t the registrar G he cpete appicatin is scientiica scrtinied technica scittees n enirnenta and han ticg ieicac aeing and adertiseents n eaatin reprt and recendatins n the appicatin are then sitted t the esticide echnica ittee

he eaates the reprt and prpses a registratin decisin r deieratin the Ghana ard he decisins cd e registratin aid r three ears and can e reneed prisina cearance perit asts eteen si nths t ne ear in hich case the appicant is sppsed t sit additina inratin r rther cnsideratin n eperienta perit can as e issed r the prpses research ecisin n anned prdcts anned r se ca r internatina r sspensin the registratin inaiit the ard t reach a decisin can as e reached G hese perits can as e reneed pn epir egistered pesticides are sseent gaetted int pic cnicatin channes as the edia

he Ghana is respnsie r eriing the registratin and the iprt pesticides issing a cearance perit ater the iprter sitted an appicatin hich incdes the

22 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana data as requested by the Ghana EPA. Under the Ghana EPA Act, “a person shall not import, eprt anactre distrite adertise r se a pesticide ecept in accrdance ith a icence issued under this Act” (GEPA r the strage pesticide prdcts a pesticide icence is reired esticide icences are issed ased n the presence a satisactr catin the strage aciit pn inspectin the Ghana

esticide cearance perits are reired r an iprter t cear cnsignents r the prt ased n aaiaiit pesticide icence and i the iprted pesticide prdct is 2 registered

cncepta raer ased n the cnteta interactin ther as deeped r the std r the reie pic ipeentatin iteratre an rn and an eter aatier iar he ther as descried ressers indicates that ipeenting a pic is a scia prcess here the tpt and tce are deined interactins its actrs he raer eaates h a pic perates in practice h state registratin athrities and nnstate pesticide deaers and arers actrs are nctining and hether the pic ecties are achieed tpts are the tangie rests a easre r the nticeae eects shrt ater r een dring ipeentatin ressers he Ghana pesticide registratin ers a ner tpts that are sppsed t e ipeented state actrs and the tpts are sppsed t ied certain desired tces the nnstate actrs he ths ers an pprtnit t eaate hether the desired tce has een achieed r nt he rings t the re a cpe actr characteristics incding inratin tiatin and resrces hese ere seected r the prpse this std t etter nderstand their ipact n the ieihd t ipeent a pic he gernance apprach cses n the interactin taing pace eteen gerning actrs ith inratin tiatin and resrces engistie et al he interactin shapes actrs and actrs shape interactin patterns he three ariaes inratin tiatin and resrces a ta inence each ther as e ce and etha arai ressers arder gan

23 Chapter 2

any research eorts hae shon that the characteristics o a policy netor may be a useul base or elucidatin the unctionin o a policy instrument and its desin (e.. de ruin and uen, . he concept o policy netors enerally contains the assumption that there are both lins and actors (arlsson, b. he implementation process o the policy ets its particular shape throuh such netors. his conceptual rameor (ealuation model is used to lin the reistration and policy on the one hand and use practices at arm leel on the other hand.

his policy ealuation rameor is realied by the dierent oernance approaches ocusin on the interaction beteen oernin actors so the output depends on actor perormance. hese actors are brouht into perspectie in the three ey inredients o this study

. Policy input and obectie. hat is the pesticides policy and hat are its obecties hich are used by the administration to produce outputs uch resources ould include personnel, inance, pesticides reistration documents (international chemical conentions, reulation, dossier or pesticides reistration, amon others and hat the policy says about state and nonstate actors o pesticides reardin enironment and human health saety and sustainability.

. Policy implementation process. his reers to the roles o authorities, companies, non oernmental oraniations and indiiduals. normation on ho, hy and under hat circumstances these actors are inoled in the course o policy implementation is important. here is the need to identiy ho are important actors and staeholders and hat they are doin related to sae pesticides reistration, distribution and use. here is the need to ocus on aricultural and enironmental oices rom national to local leel. his should inole the importers in the country, pesticides inspectors, etension orers, holesalers, retailers (since they are important source o pesticides or armers and armers’ associations.

. Policy output. his entails the issues and challenes listed by the taret roups (armers ho are aced ith, e.. selection and use o certain products. his is the roup here the noticeable eects occurrin shortly ater or een durin implementation can be obsered.

24 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

state (importers, dealers’ and farmers) actors a

2 This study was based on Ghana’s pesticides law and two empirical field

Fieldwork was conducted on 30 randomly selected pesticides’ retailers in Kumasi

25 Chapter 2 conducted from ay 03 to anuary 0 at seen sites comprisin of si irriation sites from fie reions and one plantation area for the farmers These were the kyereko (K) irriation site ( respondents) in the entral reion, the eia () and the shaiman () irriation sites ( respondents) each in the Greater ccra eion, the kuse (K) irriation site ( respondents) and cocoa plantations in ew Tafo kimTontro (T) (3 respondents), the astern reion, the komadan () irriation site ( respondents) in the shanti reion and the Tono (T) irriation site ( respondents) in the pper ast reion The study sites were chosen to reflect the increasin importance of farmin in the country and where pesticides are used intensiely These reions were selected as representatie of Ghana in terms of economic prosperity, aricultural adancement, crops rown, eoraphy and climate amon others (ickson and enneh, F, 0) rops rown in K and included eetables (tomato, pepper, onion, okro, arden es, cabbae, cucumber, tinda, cowpea, soybean, lettuce, and roundnut) and rice, while eetables were rown in , and T, rice in K and cocoa in T

uestionnaire was pretested in the field on some farmers. The focus was on farmers’ understandin of aricultural pesticides used, and possible risks for human beins and the enironment when pesticides are used This allowed for corrections and adustments to the uestionnaire before the final surey ther information reuired included the pesticides used, their purity and use dosaes, time of application and poisonin symptoms nformation on the use of by farmers whilst applyin pesticides was also obtained The source of information for farmers on new and banned pesticides was noted Farmers were also asked whether they hae been screened for pesticide poisonin ata were subseuently collected by completin the uestionnaire durin semistructured (personal and roup) interiews and discussions (in nlish and local dialects) with local farmers t least one arochemical dealer in each site was also interiewed concernin pesticides usae and safety The reistration status of the identified pesticides used by farmers in Ghana was determined from the reistration authorities (nironmental rotection ency, Ghana)

rior informed consent from each respondent was ained and permission to carry out research at the sites was obtained from the scheme manaers of the irriation sites and from the owners of cocoa farms total of farmers oluntarily responded to the uestionnaire in the survey. We also observed farmers’ practices as they work to validate some of the

26 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

uestionnairebased data because most interviews were conducted when farmers were workin in the field. urther interviews were conducted with a total of etension staff local state actors in the course of data collection with the farmers. These interviews centred on the problems they encounter in the runnin of their daily activities with respect to their access to information the available resources and their motivation whilst workin with the farmers. t involved uestions uestions on motivation three on resource and five on information. 2 second survey included a total of etensive interviews with national state actors policy implementers. They included nine pesticides reistration eperts from the hana and five persons from the . The interview focused on the pesticides policy implementation the reistration process pesticides inspections and pesticides uality control and available observation in terms of information motivation and resources. iscussions were also held with the oison ontrol enter of the inistry of ealth o on pesticides poisonin related issues. Two officers of the ustoms ivision of the hana evenue uthority were interviewed on import and eport controls access to information resources and their motivation. or this a uestionnaire containin uestions motivation resource and information uestions reardin available observation in the implementation process was used. n addition results of secondary data collected from the reistration authority in hana were used to verify the authenticity of the findins of the pesticides law art of ct .

The response for the nonstate policy actors were mostly “yes” or “no” and the results were presented as percentaes. ivariate analysis usin the chi suare was used to determine statistically significant associations between the demographic characteristic and farmers’ knowlede attitude and practices. n addition multicriteria statistical cluster analyses was used for responses of the national state policy actors’ (Ghana EPA and PPRSD on pesticide overnance. The respondents had the task of assinin a rade between and insinificant uite insinificant sinificant very sinificant most sinificant to a particular uestion. nalysis of the data accepts the eneral knowlede that state policy actors responded to the same uestions reardin implementation of the policy. The answers to the uestions provides ordinal ualitative variables yieldin a classic multidimensional matri consistin of obects policy implementer and uestions which has attributes referred to as

27 Chapter 2 obserations in the form of either a motiation information or resource uestion Responses obtained for particular uestion form clusters which are mutuallyinterdependent he clusters are formed using a hierarchical agglomeration procedure which progressiely clusters groups of elements starting with the grouping of the most similar ones and in the following steps group less similar clusters

he analysis identifies groups with similar compositions of needs to defined possible solution options (remediations based on similarities between the responses to the main uestion SPSS statistical software (ersion was used for all the analyses

Farmers’ pesticides use practices

able shows the summary statistics of the demographic characteristics of the respondents ut of the total of farmers that were gien a uestionnaire all uestionnaires were filled and returned gien a response rate of Almost all of the farmers interiewed were males and those aged more than years formed the maority among the respondents he maority had wored for a period between years representing of the respondents and had some form of basic education

Demographic characteristics of respondents Variable Frequency(N=156) Percentage Age (years) 18-35 50 32.1 36-50 48 30.8 >50 58 37.2 Educational level No formal education 49 31.4 Basic 91 58.3 Secondary 13 8.3 College 3 1.9 Duration of work (years) <10 34 21.8 10-20 67 42.9 21-30 20 12.8

28 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

>30 10 6.4 Stagger planting 25 16.0

All interiewed farmers sprayed their crops with a pesticide to control pests and diseases an obseration that is shared by tow et al ( Dinham ( estimated that of Ghana egetable farmers use chemical pesticides for pest and disease control hirty three different pesticide products made up different actie ingredients from the combined 2 study sites were recorded able shows the products with their applied doses recommended doses actie ingredient concentration and their groupings hese included insecticides fungicides herbicides and nematicides All the used pesticides had been registered for use (able in compliance with section ( of the Act his is an improement from a decade ago since tow et al ( found in a similar study that of the used pesticides were not registered ur findings are in line with gowi et al ( who reported that insecticides are predominantly used for egetables in anania oweer a pesticide registered to control fungi pest on cocoa ie ocide (opper hydroide was found in eia being used for fungi pest on egetables his finding is consistent with a study by Amoao et al ( who mentioned ocide as a product used for the cultiation of egetables (cabbage in Ghana and in iolation of section ( of the Act igure presents a summary of the origin of pesticides imports encountered at the study sites per the label information during the field study. These were subsequently verified on Ghana’s pesticides register of the Enironmental Protection Agency he erification confirmed the products as registered and deried from authentic sources satisfying section of the pesticides Act he identified products are therefore not liely to pose problems with regards to faing and adulteration

Synthetic pesticides recorded in the study and approed by the Enironmental Protection Agency of Ghana to control the most important pests in agriculture including their actie ingredients purity applied and recommended dosages Active Active Group Applied dose, Recommended dose Ingredient Ingredient L/ha, kg/ha on label, L/ha, kg/ha Conc. Herbicide *Glyphosate 360 g/L Phosphonate 1.2-9.8 L 0.5-2.5 L 480 g/L *Paraquat 200 g/L Bipiridillium 1.5-8.33 L 1.5-3.0 L *Butachlor 500 g/L Acetanilide 6.67 L 4.0 L

29 Chapter 2

*Pendimethalin 400 g/L Dinitroaniline 3.0-9.8 L 2.5-3.0 L Propanil 360 g/L Acetanilide 2.0-3.7 L 8.0-10 L *Bensulfuron 30% Sulfonylurea 0.42 kg 0.003-0.10 kg methyl *Bispyribac 400 g/L Pyrimidinyl oxybenzoic acid 0.10 L 0.015-0.05 L sodium Propanil + 360 g/L + Acetanilide 2.0-3.7 L 4.0 L 2,4-D 200 g/L Phenoxy acid *Pretilachlor + 30% + Chloroacetamide 2.0 L 1.0-1.5 L Pyribenzoxim 2% Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate *Oxyfluorfen + 300 g/L + 1.5-2.0 L 0.75-0.90 L Glyphosate 360 g/L Phosphonate Insecticide *Lambda- 25 g/L Pyrethroid 1.0-14.8 L 0.6 L Cyhalothrin 50 g/L 0.4 L *Chlorpyrifos 480 g/L Organophosphate 1.0-1.67 L 0.6-1.0 L *Emamectin 1.9% Avermectin 0.62-1.85 L 0.25-0.30 L benzoate Imidacloprid 200 g/L Neonicotinoid 0.15 L 0.6 L *Lambda- 16 g/L + Pyrethroid 1.5 L 1.0 L cyhalothrin + 20 g/L Acetamiprid Neonicotinoid Acetamiprid 200 g/L Neonicotinoid 0.37 L - Novaluron 35 g/L Insect growth regulator 0.45 L - Thiamethoxam 240 g/L Neonicotinoid 0.125-0.150 L 0.125-0.150 L Bifenthrin 27 g/L Pyrethroid 0.50 L *Cypermethrin + 36 g/L + 400 g/L Pyrethroid 2.5-9.8 L 0.5 L Dimethoate Carbamate Bifenthrin + 30 g/L Pyrethroid 0.45 L - Novaluron 35 g/L IGR Bifenthrin + 30 g/L Pyrethroid 0.055-0.075 L - Acetamiprid 16 g/L Neonicotinoid Nematicide Carbofuran 3% Carbamate 0.6 kg 20-25 kg Fungicide *Mancozeb 800 g/Kg Dithiocarbamate 5.93-9.88 kg 0.8-2.0 kg *Carbendazim 500 g/Kg Benzimidazole carbamate 0.8-1.6 kg 0.13-0.26 kg *Sulphur 800 g/Kg 0.8-0.988 kg 0.67 kg *Maneb 800 g/Kg ethylene 9.88 kg 2.0-4.0 kg bisdithiocarbamate Copper 77% 0.74-1.5 kg 2.0-4.0 kg Hydroxide

30

Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

Metalaxyl + 8% + Phenylamide 1.0 kg 2.0-2.5 kg Mancozeb 64% Metalaxyl-M + 12% + Phenylamide 0.25-4.94 kg 1.0 kg Cuprous Oxide 60% Cuprous Oxide 86% - 0.15 kg - nordox Cupric hydroxide 53.8% - 0.8 kg - Copper + 35% + 15% 0.75 kg - Metalaxyl Phenylamide 2 (*) Pesticide Products that showed over dosing in their application

.

.

.

.

.

. % Pesticide % Pesticide product Imports

Country of Origin

rigin of estiide iorts at the study sites

ro the first eirial survey inforation on the safe handling and use of estiides aeared to be liited to the farers. eventeen estiides were overdosed Table . an assertion desribed by several other earlier studies lare et al. tow et al. ensah et al but reent studies are issing. ur results show that estiides use by this ategory of resondents ontravenes setion of the t. oe of the farers attributed the reason to overdose to the resene of dew on the leaves of lants eseially during the ornings. s a result they usually inrease the volue of estiides rodut to aly. n their estiation this ould oensate for the eess water on the leaves and this

31 Chapter 2 is liely to ontribute to the overdosing. This assertion needs attention and the neessary orretive intervention by state oliy ileenters.

yntheti estiides reorded in the study whih were overdosed estiides as well as the sites where the overdosing too lae. Glyhosate .. . .. . araquat .. . .. . ensulfuron ethyl . g .. g . g retilahlor . .. . yribenoi yfluorfen .. . .. . Glyhosate endiethalin .. . .. . isyriba sodiu . .. . utahlor . . abdayhalothrin .. . .. . aetin benoate .. . .. . abda yhalothrin . . etairid yerethrin .. . . iethoate hloryrifos .. . .. . anoeb .. g . g .. g . g arbendai .. g . g .. g . g ulhur .. g . g . g aneb . g .. g . g shaiman, use, eia, ereo, ontro

arers indiated that they i the estiides lose to the rivers streas and anals Table .. ll the interviewed farers indiated that they leaned their sraying equient after estiides use by rinsing with water and that anals and drains have soeties been oroised by etying the rinse water into nearby water bodies. raties of iing estiides and washing tans near and in the river as well as throwing estiide ontainers after use in the river or forests ould ose environental riss to aquati environent.

32 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

uestions on farers and srayers nowledge attitude raties during estiide use and ourrene of reent sills n a ave you ever silt estiide i on your body whilst woring i. eause of iroer fitted lid ii. uring ouring loading iii. rong wind diretion iv. eaing equient v. alling in the field 2 vi. rong oveent with the srayer vii. ray above the body b ow an you hel a olleague during estiide slash i. dvie washing ii. Go to health enter iii. dvie drin water iv. dvie drin red al oil v. o roble no idea hat rotetive easure did you tae to rotet yourself at your last sray oeration i. ore overall ii. ore safety shoe iii. sed resirator iv. sed gloves v. sed goggles vi. sed aron vii. sed a hat viii. ratied areful woring i. Tied the sraying e.g. early orning d hat did you do during and after sraying the estiide i. ash your hands after sraying ii. atdrinsoe during wor with estiides iii. ee eals near estiides iv. rin water near estiide treated fields v. hower after estiide eosure vi. hange lothing before and after estiide eosure e here do you reare estiide i for aliation i. heial store ii. utdoors iii. lose to dariverstrea iv. n the house v. herever f ow did the ost reent aidental sill that you eeriened tae lae

33 Chapter 2

i. hilst iing idental ii. uring rearation for sraying iii. nferior equient iv. hile storing v. ther strong wind g ave you ever been sreened for estiide oisoning before

The ossible environental riss have been deonstrated in other studies by ao et al and Telu et al. in osta ia and thioia resetively. There is therefore a need to erfor environental ris assessents of urrent estiides use in Ghana to identify estiides that ose the highest riss to the aquati environent and to deterine threshold levels of the estiides that are rotetive of the environent.

The data indiated that aidental sills too lae in the field during estiides aliation as a result of inferior equient when reoving ressuried tubes and noles due to strong winds together while one farer reorted an aidental sill during iing Table .. arers are robably the ators having the greatest ris of estiides oisoning due to their intiate ontat with estiides. tow et al. found that nasa srayer is rone to leaage eseially when it is getting old. atthews et al ehasises the need to rovide betterquality affordable and ofortable equient.

oule of farers wash theselves after aidentally being eosed to estiides while others hanged lothing before and after estiides eosure while the reaining farers did not do anything Table .. This la of adherene to strit safety easures under setion of the t ould lead to different health robles.

nterviewed farers indiated that they got ost inforation and udates regarding estiides usage and safety banned estiides inluding new ethods of estiide aliation through etension staff Table .. nterations with the farers revealed that inforation fro the registration authorities is not disseinated easily to the farers and inforation on the status of estiides is not regularly ublished. t is eeted that the registration authorities would seriously engage the servies and eertise of the agriultural etension staff to disseinate inforation to the farers a view shared by gowi et al .

34 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

uestions on inforation on estiide usage and safety banned estiides and new ethods of aliation n estiides sage and afety tension staff abels onsultants anned estiides tension taff 2 onsultants eetings Farmer’s Association ew ethods of estiide liation tension taff onsultants eetings Farmers’ Association

The survey showed that the interviewed farers had gained soe for of eertise on estiide aliation and safety. ost of the nowledge and eertise aquired was fro foral advie and through training on the ob. dditionally etension staff and onsultants who roote their estiides also engaged the Table ..

Generally none of the farers had reorded any estiide sill on their body as a result of wrong wind diretion leaing equient as a result of falling in the field wrong oveent with the srayer or sraying above the body. owever of farers aditted sill during ouring and loading of sray equient suggesting the need for seial attention on the orret and aroriate eans of ouring and loading sray equient in subsequent training setions. arers had ale nowledge on how to hel a olleague in the event of estiide slash and aart fro safety shoes and resirators no resondent had used rotetive easures i.e. to rotet theselves during their sray oerations Table .. ther studies have also shown that rotetive ations using s are rarely taen while handling and alying estiides erg erry et al atthews et al. . ilson and Tisdell reorts that rotetive lothing have not been used enough artiularly in less develoed ountries. la of oney to buy the and the absene of enforeent of

35 Chapter 2 reations on teir se are ose as te most imortant reasons or tis oeer in ana tis is a cear ioation o section an o te esticies Act n te sre armers comaine o te cost o s an te act tat it is ncomortae to se to et al reorte simiar inins tat te s are ar se anaian armers ecase o iscomort associate it te ot an mi eater an teir costs oeer tere is te urgent need for farmers’ attention to be drawn to the usefulness of the PPEs through practical emonstrations etension sta oo et al reorte tat te inence o etension serice on te se o is siniicant eno to strenten it in orer to increase farmers’ knowledge and awareness of the consequences of applying pesticides without PPE. e st soe tat te ae o armers a a siniicant inence on teir noee aot te se o esticies A iariate anasis sin te ci sare reeae statistica siniicant associations eteen ae an noee ariaes sc as te se o imroer itte i ientiication o ron in irection rin srain noee rin orin an oain of pesticides as well as wrong movement during spraying of pesticides (χ ere as aso siniicant association eteen ecationa ee attaine an noee (χ 3.614; P ≤ 0.05). Work experience or duration of farming also significantly influenced the noee o resonents

e st rter reeae statistica siniicant associations eteen ae an ractice sc as te asin o ans ater srain eatrin or smoe rin orin it esticies ee meas near esticies rinin ater near esticies treate ies soer ater esticies eosre an canin o cotin immeiate ater esticie eosre ere as a siniicant association eteen ecationa ee attaine an arm manaement ractices or eerience or ration o armin as siniicant associate it arm manaement ractices at ee o siniicance ≤ 0.05).

nteractions it te armers reeae tat te are not conersant it te esticies a an te roisions in it to saear tem an te enironment e reistration atorities in coaoration it te etension serices ae to ecate te armers at teir meetins o teir roes an resonsiiities rearin te esticies a its roisions an enaties esecia sections e eaior an action o armers as een motiate certain actors tat ertain to teir settin an circmstances nteriein te armers inicate tat o tem se rocts immeiate ist se te rocts

36 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana within a month. torage is limited since sales outlets are within reach of the communities the farms are small and finances are limited. he decrease in the time of storage for the use of the products is encouraging as the likelihood of eposure to the pesticides and related health effects are reduced since most farmers store pesticides in their house but not in bedrooms . ie percent of the respondents keep it somewhere on the farm for later use. wo percent and of the farmers stored the pesticides in their general stores and bedrooms respectiely. toring pesticides in the homes and bedrooms for long durations can lead to 2 eposure and risk of intoication larke et al. . imani and wanthi gowi et al. and urphy et al. report that it is ery common in many deeloping countries to store pesticides at unguarded places in their homes. n the upper East region of hana farmers died in which was attributed to pesticides poisoning mostly related to poor storage of pesticides PP . eenty percent of the farmers purchase pesticides from local dealersretailers while obtained the products from importerslocal agents in the cities. hose who purchased them from consultants of the importing companies were and remaining were those inoled in the goernments mass spraying eercise in ontro site .

eenty percent of the farmers used rate of applications recommended by the supplier retailer or dealer. his was followed by the recommended application rate or frequency on the packaging label and those who used their own application rate and frequency able .. his may be a result of the direct contact between the suppliers and the farmers and the resulting ease to conince them. tow et al howeer reports that agricultural etension officers andor pesticide labels as main source of information on pesticides application rates.

uestions on skills and knowledge for storage of pesticide and use of recommended application of pesticides n kills and knowledge of storage tored in the house not bedroom omewhere on the farm for later use tore pesticides in general stores tore in the house bedroom

37 Chapter 2

ecommended application abel recommendation upplier recommendation wn recommendation

ith regards to choice of using a pesticide able . seasonal occurrence of pest especially during land preparation weed control was the most important factor followed by preentie reasons pest density control curatie factors weather factors and defensie related use and routine application . moako et al conducted a similar study in shanti region of hana and reported a contrary obseration i.e. that choice for a particular pesticide was based on its aailability on the market in their area of operation its price and its efficacy for insect pests. rom the result it is important to encourage farmers to use pesticides only when necessary as anticipated pest occurrence and pesticides application may lead to problems of pest resistance enironmental pollution and occupational eposure among others etcalf gowi et al. amo et al. . he pesticides use and frequency by farmers are proided in able ..

ecision for selection of pesticide for use n easonal occurrence of pest Preentie reasons Pest density control uratie factors eather factors efensie related use outine application

ost farmers mentioned during the discussion that pesticides are necessary but are open and willing to use appropriate alternatie methods of pest control if they became aailable effectie and affordable. armers mentioned health problems like headaches burning sensation in the eyes itching and skin irritation among others able .. Pesticides eposure may result in physical and mental illnesses such as dermatitis aniety irritability

38 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana loss of memory and depression which ultimately may result in suicide ishi et al. oh and eyaratnam arris . t is estimated that worldwide million people are affected by pesticides poisoning annually resulting in deaths onradsen et al. . he situation calls for immediate attention for necessary solution options from the authorities. he farmers also remarked that they had not been screened specifically for pesticides poisoning before able . and therefore were prepared to subect themseles to be screened for pesticides eposurepoisoning if the opportunity is made aailable. 2

ae you eperienced any of the listed symptoms following pesticide application n eadache urning sensation in eyesface eer atering eye kin rash tching and skin irritation iiness old breathlessness andor chest pain orgetfulness oss of libido aliation and omiting bdominal paindiarrhoea eakness

Pesticides import, distribution and retail

he inolement of priate actors in importation distribution and retailing of pesticide products in hana has been increasing since the introduction of the pesticides registration. urrently the pesticides distribution in hana is performed by many smallscale priate businesses and their number increased from in to in Personal communication ffice of the Pesticides egistrar hana EP. ollowing the implementation of the law pesticides had been registered in ecember for agricultural and household uses by the EP. he registered pesticides included insecticides fungicides herbicides plant growth regulators and molluscicides rodenticides

39 Chapter 2 nematicides and aduants. t is on record that the number of registered pesticides increased from to ig. . whilst the olume of imported pesticide products was on aerage of tons of insecticides tons of herbicides and tons of fungicides from to Personal communication ffice of the Pesticides egistrar hana EP.

umber ofpesticides

nsecticides erbicides ungicides thers otal Pesticide type

umber of formulated pesticide products registered or proisionally cleared in and . ource Enironmental Protection gencyGhana, Annual Reports, Accra. “Other” includes rodenticides nematicides fumigants and other conentional pesticides and other chemicals used as pesticides such as petroleum oil

t is worth mentioning that currently there are no pesticides manufacturing and formulation plants in hana so all pesticide products are imported ig. .. he rapid increase in the amount of pesticide companies and retailers shows the lucratie nature of the pesticides business in hana. he motiation is the profit on sales as the interaction reealed. Empirical findings of this study showed that all the isited distributors had alid licences to operate and pesticides registration permits for the displayed pesticide products able ..

ompliance to Pesticide egistration icence by pesticide dealers a as this place been inspected by the EPPP mporteristributor n Pesticide etailer n b as the actiity been licensed by the EP

40 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

porteristriutor n esticide Retailer n c echnical nohose o s porteristriutor i. no the esticide a ii. o ou hae the current pesticide reistration list ec. iii. noledesill to identi sptos o pest attac i. echnical nolede on ield dianosis o pest . no the dierent pesticide application ethods 2 i. se o Retailer i. no the esticide a ii. o ou hae the current pesticide reistration list ec. iii. noledesill to identi sptos o pest attac i. echnical nolede on ield dianosis o pest . no the dierent pesticide application ethods i. se o

he displaed products ere not epired ale .. his as to e epected as their ailit to iport pesticide products are tied in to the reneal o licenses. oeer, o the retail outlets had their licenses epired or in the process o ein reneed in iolation o section o the Act. iilar oserations ere ade reardin their nolede o the pesticides la, as their appreciation o it as enerall inadeuate. he distriutors and retailers iolated section and o the Act. he proision and use o s as ell as the technical nolede on the handlin o pesticides retailers as lo ale ..

he oseration suests the proale shortae o epert adice and technical support on pesticides or arers ho a patronise these shops. his could lead to proles o indiscriinate use, hih reuenc o application and application o pesticides ith the sae ode o action, resultin in pest resistance and resurence and associated indirect costs. Gill and Gar discussed other potential anaeent options includin cultural and phsical control, host plant resistance, iocontrol, and the use o iopesticides. Althouh hain liited nolede, an arers still preer to contact a pesticides retailer instead o an etension oicial hen proles arise, ecause o their close proiit. enistie et al. reported a siilar trend hilst seein inoration arers in thiopia. iscussion

41 Chapter 2

ith oners o the shops indicated that ost o their recruited sta upon successul trainin in pesticides anaeent resin to either estalish their on usinesses or oin copanies ith etter reuneration. oeer, since the leel o noho o the retailers needs urther iproeent, riorous inoration disseination the etension serice is reuired.

he state polic actors o pesticides as considered at national Ghana A and R and local etension sta leels. he state actors are iportant to transer nolede to iporters, distriutorsretailers and arers and to increase the ipleentation o polic at oth the national and the local ar leel.

National state actors

he raned score ae an indication o ho the issues uestioned on otiation, inoration and resources had perored and shoed those that had een achieed, those ineteen and those that had underperored and needed attention. his deines the stron and ea aspects o the ipleentation process. t is clear that “salary is encourain” and “transport facilities are adequate to access pesticides dealers and users” are the least scored. his indicates the need o state polic ipleenters or iproeents in salaries and eans to reach pesticides distriutors, retailers and arers. Aon the ost stron aspects in the implementation process investigated were “knowledge of the pesticides law”, “current pesticides register”, “pesticides reistration process”, “different pesticide application methods” and “work being interesting” (ale ..

Ranin o responses to uestions and related oseration n no the esticide a o ou hae the current pesticide reistration list ec. ailiar ith the pesticide reistration process no the dierent pesticide application ethods or itsel interestin urrent o is satisactor

42 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

nowledgeskill to identify symptoms of pest attack echnical nowledge on field diagnosis of pest ob security he relation between management and employees echnical staff for risk assessment of submitted pesticide dossiers nservice training and skills development on current ob satisfaction ufficient space to work 2 esticide user manuals are available to be effectively used by pesticide dealers ccredited laboratory to test pesticide products arrier structure and promotion on current ob satisfactory ecognition, rewards, praise by supervisors inancial benefits and bonuses o. of pesticide inspectors assigned to dealers and users of pesticides proportional alary is encouraging ransport facilities are adequate to access pesticide dealers and users otivation esource nformation

igure . shows the available observation criteria for state policy implementers in policy implementation hierarchical cluster. he treediagram depicts the result of the cluster analyses of mutually dependent questions and attributes (referred to as observation – motivation (, information ( and resource ( shown in able . and responses for the cluster represents people who share similar concerns and characteristics.

he first cluster (most left are state policy actors who know the pesticides law, have the current pesticides registration list, are familiar with the pesticides registration process, know the different pesticides application methods, have knowledgeskill to identify symptoms of pest attack, have technical knowledge on the diagnosis of pest in the field, find the work itself interesting, and are satisfied with their current ob.

43 Chapter 2

Dendrogram Complete Linkage, Euclidean Distance

0.00

y 33.33 t i r a l i m i S

66.67

100.00 1 3 21 19 20 16 17 18 2 7 4 12 10 15 6 5 13 8 14 11 9 Observations

Zámečník

et al

44 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

Zámečník

Local state actors

2 et al extension officer’s involvement in farmers’ knowledge of insecticide application. The

45 Chapter 2

46 Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana

2

47

48

(2020)

49 Chapter 3

50 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

et al 3 et al but Ghana’s pesticide law does not have the necessary regulation to adequately address this et al

and 12.4 μg/L (Oda), 16.4 and 17.9 μg/L (Kowire), 20.5 and 21.4 μg/L (Atwetwe), respectively μg/L concentrations of ≤ 0.008 μg/L, respectively

51 Chapter 3

he current study evaluated whether current pesticide use by Ghanaian arers ay har the environent under daytoday ar practice by

peroring a st tier environental ris assessent to identiy pesticides that ay pose a ris to the aquatic and terrestrial environent using the esticides iss in the ropics to an nvironent and rade odel eeters et al

deterining nd tier threshold levels that are protective o aquatic counities in the study sites using the pecies ensitivity istribution concept altby et al evaluating the use o banned products and the overuse o pesticides ie higher use than recoended dose

he indings o this paper will contribute in illing the pesticide ris assessent gap with respect to available tools and procedures or especially the aquatic environent in Ghana riss are indicated it is epected that the pesticide registration authority Ghana nvironental rotection gency will use the inoration to initiate the necessary changes of farmers’ pesticide use and that of other staeholders to iprove the quality o the aquatic and terrestrial environent

survey was conducted between ay to anuary in our selected irrigation sites and a cocoa aring counity involving arers he sites were in the entral yereo Greater ccra eia and shaian and astern ontroew ao and use regions o Ghana ig he study sites were chosen to relect i the steady increase o crop aring in the country ii the regions which uses pesticides intensively and iii the regions being representative o Ghana in ters o agricultural advanceent crops grown geography and cliate aong others icson and enneh he syste o aring was ainly onocropping or each o the sites

52 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

3

eographica ocation of the stud sites in hana

rior informed consent as otained from each respondent and permission to carr out research at the sites as otained from the scheme managers of the irrigation sites and from the oners of the cocoa farms nformation on pesticides used appication dose and freuenc ere otained from the farmers a of uestionnaire administration and records of oserations of farmers hist oring in the fied he appication rate of the pesticides eing appied as particuar noted and compared to the recommended rates on the pesticide ae see ae suppementar information for uestionnaire used

he st tier ris assessment of the pesticides to the auatic and terrestria enironment as performed apping the ris assessment mode esticide iss in the ropics to an nironment and rade ersion using hpothetica eposure scenarios eeters et al o perform a ris assessment in a scenario descriing the phsica properties of the enironmenta compartment must e proided as e as data on the

53 Chapter 3 phsicochemica properties of the pesticides and the sensitiit of the organisms under eauation cenarios of actua pesticide use ere imited to appication method dosages g actie ingredient aiha appication intera d and freuenc of use reported the farmers esticide formuations that had een made of more than one actie ingredient ere separated into the different actie ingredient concentrations ae or each enironmenta compartment auatic soi ee and nontarget arthropods cacuates an eposure concentration redicted nironmenta oncentration and a threshod concentration for effects redicted o ffect oncentration from hich the posure oicit atio can e cacuated diiding the the n oer than indicates that no serious riss are epected an eteen and indicates that riss ma e present hie an of higher than indicates that riss are er ie to occur he ecision upport stem is free aaiae on primeturn and incorporated in a raphica ser nterface

n order to cacuate the eposure concentration using the mode data on each of the pesticides’ intrinsic physicochemica properties ere most aread aaiae in the mode and if not taen from iterature sources ost aaiae data ere coected for the temperate regions of urope and orth merica ut ere temperature corrected ithin the mode ae shos the pesticide phsicochemica characteristics reuired for the mode he pesticide products and actie ingredients eauated are the most used pesticides in the stud area he ariaes in ae ere otained from either the esticide roperties ataase or aread gien in the dataase

n this st tier ris assessment for the auatic ris assessment on entr ia spra drift as taen into consideration n irrigation channe ith an auatic atera of m ide at the ottom a sope of and a ater depth of m as used for the auatic scenario he ength from hich the channe receied spra drift fooing the appications as m ith a fo eocit of mda he ater phase as assumed to contain g of suspended

54 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana soids ith n ornic tter content of hie the ter tepertre s ten to e he cite of se yereo shin nd ei is of the tropic snnh type nd chrcteried y iod rinf pttern ere nn rinf rnes fro to en nn tepertre is nd decreses to in y nd st httpofohsitepeid e foontro ies in the oist sei decidos forest hich is so chrcteried y to in rinf sesons he en nn rinf is eteen nd epertres re fond to e firy nifor rnin eteen in st nd in rch nd chrcteristic of typic tropic cite n et al esticides ere ppied sin hndpressred cpc npsc atai he 3 spryin s done ith the nce positioned in front of the ppictors hie they ed throh the crops so directy net to ter corses t s ssed tht on the ere of the ont of pesticide ppied per h on the crops od rech the ter srfce y spry drift sed on epiric drift dt fro npsc spryers shon y neder et al

he dt s entered into the ode to ccte n cte nd chronic o ccte the st tier cte posre oicity tio this s then diided y cte or chronic n cte nd chronic s re sed on toicity dt in the for of nd dt for seected stndrd test species fro different trophic ees ney e priry prodcers phni inertertes nd fish ertertes he toicity dt etrcted fro these dtses ere for the cte sttic tests for freshter inertertes h ertertes h nd priry prodcers h nd h nd for the chronic the etrcted toicity dt ere phni dys nd fish dys he reent nd dt ere etrcted fro the the dtse e rt nd the esticide n oin he toicity es sed to ccte the st tier s re proided in e

hese cte so incorported n ssessent fctor for fish nd phni nd for e nd the oest restin s sed s the threshod concentrtion of effects e hese ssessent fctors ere sed to etrpote fro the ee to concentrtion t hich no effects on the orniss ere epected nd to ccont for interspecies rition n den rin et al o ccte the chronic posre

55 Chapter 3

oicity tio n tie eihted ere s for fish deft period of dys nd dphni deft period of dys ere ccted hese s ere diided y their respectie chronic for phni inertertes nd fish ertertes sin n ssessent fctor of hen the restin chronic s hiher thn the cte one the cte s sed for the chronic ris ssessent he ssessent fctors sed in the ode re rerded s consertie for ost of the cheics eted in this stdy roc nd n inrden n inrden et al roc et al n inrden nd rts ico et al

or the terrestri ris ssessents the toicity es redy incorported in the ode ere sed he terrestri soi erthors scenrio incded n cte dy nd chronic for reprodction s effect endpoints sin deft etrpotion fctor of nd for cte nd chronic effect ssessent of erthor respectiey to ccte the he eposre scenrio incded density of c y nd ernethy of the soi depth of nd the indiid pesticide dose ppied ih ner of ppictions nd ppiction inter s otined fro the fied srey

he scenrio for the ees incded the cte h nd h nd the indiid dose ih of the pesticides ppied ieise for the nontret rthropod n cte edin eth ody reside eettion scenrio ith deft distrition fctor of n etrpotion fctor for effect ssessent of ith deft e of nd deft drift fctor e of s e s the ner of pesticide ppictions ih ere sed he citic conditions for the st tier terrestri ris ssessent ere the se s tht descried nder the tic ris ssessent

seenty the ccted cte nd chronic soi s then diided y the st tier cte nd chronic to ccte the cte nd chronic respectiey or s nd ees ony n cte ris ssessent s perfored de to c of toicity dt or s n in fied nd offfied s ccted ith the tter ein fctor of oer eeters et al

56 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

o refine the threshod es protectie for ecooic ris of insecticides fnicides nd hericides to freshter ecosystes in the stdy re the species sensitiity distrition concept s sed to ccte the nd tier cte for the cheics indicted to pose n cte ris to tic ecosystes in the st tier his s copred to the st tier cte s ccted y in order to ccte the nd tier

hen ie the deried rdos oncentrtions es present in n den rin et al nd ty et al ere sed s nd tier cte s 3 e n order to constrct the s for the reinin coponds cte tic sine species ere coted fro the dtse t seection criteri fooed those of ty et al nd n den rin et al here the seected endpoints ere edin eth concentrtion or edin effect concentrtion rerdin ioiity for nis nd rerdin ioss or roth for pnts he test drtions seected ere to d for ertertes to d for inertertes to d for crophytes nd to d for e ener dt ere ony sed if no species dt ere reported for ens ch species s represented ony once per copond in the nysis he fooin dt niptions ere perfored here there ere tipe toicity es for ton

he oest e s seected here seer drtion ties tepertres ife stes ter types etc ere stdied in the se eperient

he eoetric en s ten for dt for the se species nd endpoint t fro different eperients

he enertor deeoped y s sed to enerte s

nd edin es rdos oncentrtion nd their confidence inter onor distrition ode y dener nd ors s fitted to ini of si dt points ith ode fit ein eted sin the nderson– rin oodnessoffit test

rthropod dt crstcens nd insects s incded to constrct for insecticides tic dt ertertes inertertes nd priry prodcers for

57 Chapter 3

et al et al

58

Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana – 59

3 Chapter 3 60 alues elo indicate no ris, eteen and a otential ris and aoe a definite ris indicates that the as not determined ecause toicit data ere not aailale a eresents a definite ris

Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

– – 3 – – – – – – – – – – – alues elo indicate no ris, eteen and a otential ris and aoe a definite ris indicates that the as not determined ecause toicit data ere not aailale a eresents a definite ris

61 Chapter 3

‘No risk’

For the following pesticides ‘no acute risk’ were indicated based on the calculated

–

62 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

‘Possible risk’

he predicted highest acute alues were between and for ost of the herbicides ie parauat butachlor pendiethalin propanil bensulfuron ethl pretilachlor and ofluorfen soe insecticides bifenthrin cperethrin and diethoate and alost half of the fungicides carbofuran carbendai sulphur copper hdroide and cuprous oide ll highest chronic alues predicted b for cperethrin diethoate ancoeb carbendai sulphur copper hdroide and cuprous oide were between and indicating possible risks with respect to the auatic enironent able and

he highest acute predicted b for the terrestrial soil enironent were 3 onl larger than for the herbicide butachlor the insecticide diethoate and fungicide carbendai he were also saller than and this indicating possible effects able hronic highest between and were calculated for the herbicide glphosate the insecticides chlorprifos iidacloprid and diethoate and the fungicides ancoeb carbendai aneb copper hdroide and cuprous oide ables and

cute highest s between and for bees were calculated for the herbicide parauat the insecticide bifenthrin and the fungicides carbofuran ancoeb and aneb able

ossible acute risks highest alues between and for infield s were calculated for the fungicides carbofuran sulphur and cuprous oide able

‘Definite risk’

he predicted definite acute risk highest alues alues for the auatic enironent for the insecticides labda chalothrin and chlorprifos and the fungicides ancoeb and aneb while chronic definite risks were calculated for the insecticides labda chalothrin and chlorprifos and the fungicide aneb able and

o definite acute or chronic risks highest alues were calculated for the soil copartent while definite acute risks alues for bees included those for the insecticides labda chalothrin chlorprifos eaectin benoate iidacloprid thiaethoa cperethrin and diethoate ables and For the nontarget arthropods

63 Chapter 3 calculated highest acute alues for the herbicide propanil the insecticides labda chalothrin chlorprifos and iidacloprid and the fungicide copper hdroide able

eon tier ti risk ssessent

For of the pesticides an could be calculated howeer in the case of cuprous oide onl based on data points instead of the reuired ones able he edian factor at which the went up between the st and nd tier was he highest increase in was obsered for aneb fro g to g while a decrease was obsered for copounds propanil ofluorfen and diethoate

arauat bifenthrin and cuprous oide oed fro the possible risk categor to the no risk categor while pesticides staed in the possible risk categor able nl ofluorfen oed up in its risk categor ie fro possible risk to definite risk hlorprifos ancoeb and aneb oed fro the definite risk categor to the possible risk categor while labda chalothrin was the onl cheical staing in the definite risk categor able

64 ble edian confidence haardous concentration for of species μg calculated fro species sensitiit distributions constructed for priar producers algae acrophtes inertebrates and or ertebrates eposed at different locations to pesticides and singlespecies acute with st tier alues and nd tier acute alues based on the nd tier alues For soe pesticides ultiple dosages were ealuated leading to an eual nuber of and alues per pesticide Pestiie Prot ier ier P μg PEC (μg/L) HC5 (μg/L) eferene P

Prir nerte erte Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana Proers brtes brtes Herbicide arauat his stud utachlor his stud endiethalin an den rink et al ropanil his stud ensulfuron ethl his stud retilachlor his stud fluorfen his stud Insecticide abda chalothrin altb et al hlorprifos altb et al ifenthrin his stud perethrin altb et al iethoate his stud Fungicide arbofuran altb et al ancoeb altb et al arbendai altb et al ulphur his stud aneb altb et al opper hdroide his stud uprous oide his stud indicatie, ased on secies indicates that the as not determined ecause not enough toicit data ere aailale 65

3 Chapter 3

erosin of estiies able shows that a nuber of pesticides hae been applied in ecess b farers at the stud sites as copared to the recoended dosages on the approed pesticide labels b hana pesticide registration authorities ased on the ean of the iniu and aiu applied and recoended dosages the aerage oerdose factor was with the highest alues for the insecticides labda chalothrin applied as arate ontialothrin awa and tricker and cperethrin and diethoate iture applied as ethoate and di uper forulations he lowest oerdose factor alues were obsered for the fungicides sulphur applied as ulfa the insecticide iture labda chalothrin and acetaiprid applied as ptial the herbicide iture pretilachlor and pribenoi olito forulation and the herbicide butachlor applied as eres utachlor o forulation was underdosed able

66 ble esticide forulations actie ingredients and their applied doses in this sure as well as their recoended dosages as approed b the nironental rotection genc of hana to control iportant pests in agriculture he oerdose factors are based on the aerage of the iniu and aiu of the applied and recoended dosages Pestiie forltion Pestiie tie nreients lie eoene erose ites lss ose ose on lbel ftor eresate heosate erbicide lphosate Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana oundup ower unphosate raoone uat erbicide arauat eres utachlor erbicide utachlor onda onda erbicide ensulfuron ethl g g olito erbicide retilachlor ribenoi ooer erbicide fluorfen lphosate top lligator erbicide endiethalin ount erbicide ispribac sodiu arate ontialothrin nsecticide abda halothrin awa tricker ttack nsecticide aectin benoate ptial nsecticide abda chalothrin cetaiprid ethoate di uper nsecticide perethrin iethoate enco Fungicide ancoeb g g arbendai Fungicide arbendai g g ulfa Fungicide ulphur g g aneb Fungicide aneb g g shaiman, use, eia, ereo 67

3 Chapter 3

Disssion

his stud reeals that enironental risks a be epected with regards to the use of pesticides in the case stud areas of hana udging fro the results of the enironental risk assessent in ters of s for the auatic algae daphnia and fish and terrestrial wors bees and s copartents able and his included the oerdosing of pesticides applied b farers in coparison to the recoended dosages able here was howeer no record of farers using banned pesticide products in the stud area

ti risk ssessent

uatic ecosstes proide direct goods and serices like clean drinking water fish and auatic acrophtes for consuption and indirect serices like water purification water retention and cliate regulation rietti et al t is therefore of ost iportance that auatic ecosstes are of good ecological status and not ipaired b cheicals such as pesticides ong others that was the reason for us to perfor the auatic risk assessent of the pesticide use dosages collected within this paper to ealuate the agricultural practices in the entral reater ccra and astern regions of hana

Firstl this stud applied the odel for calculating enironental ipact of pesticide use and deonstrated that pesticide use poses serious potential acute and chronic risks to the auatic enironent if auatic ecosstes are present adacent to the treated fields able and alherbe et al reported alues of and for diethoate glphosate carbendai and parauat respectiel while nsaraoss et al reported an of for pendiethalin for auatic ecosstes in outh frica n this stud the calculated acute st tier for pendiethalin ranged between and able indicating possible acute risk which is substantiated b the nd tier risk assessent able hese are uch higher than the reported b nsaraoss et al partl because of higher applied dosages up to a factor of n this stud no risk was indicated for glphosate which is coparable to the stud in outh frica alherbe et al n this stud possible risks were also calculated for parauat diethoate and carbendai as the st tier s ranged between and respectiel

68 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

able arauat showed possible acute risk based on a st tier assessent for both this stud and that of alherbe et al able his risk howeer disappears when a nd tier is used able he calculated st and nd tier s of diethoate and carbendai were uch higher copared to the stud of alherbe et al again a result of using uch higher applied dosages diethoate up to a factor of carbendai up to a factor of his is partl a result of the oerdosing recorded b this stud of a factor and able for pendiethalin diethoate and carbendai respectiel hlorprifos use st tier nd tier in this stud show definite acute risk to the auatic enironent which was also recorded b iratno et al st tier abda chalothrin showed a definite risk st tier nd tier 3 able and to the auatic enironent and cperethrin showed an acute risk to the auatic enironent st and nd tier able and and definite risk while iratno et al reported a lower alue for labdachalothrin and higher one for cperethrin but both predicting a possible risk an den osch et al proided uite siilar results for hina and ietna with etreel high first alues for cperethrin chlorprifos labda chalothrin and diethoate high ones for carbendai and lower ones for ancoeb and especiall etalal and etalal hese results atch the results of the nd tier risk assessent in our stud although the highest alues are generall lower able his points to the fact that the enironental sideeffects of pesticide in countries with a weak pesticide registration sste and enforceent needs ore attention nwona wake et al his containation of the auatic ecosste ight not onl har the ecological integrit of the water but also the ecosste serices for those who depend on such water sources for their lielihoods including reduced drinking water ualit reduced productiit eg fish kills effects on bees cattle and sall ruinants that uses surface water as drinking water altb et al

predicted no risk to the auatic enironent for the two neonicotinoid insecticides iidacloprid and thiaethoa t should be noted howeer that the standard test inertebrate ahnia magna is relatiel insensitie to iidacloprid with a geoetric mean 96h LC50 value of 34,000 μg/L (Morrissey et al while insect taa like aflies are at least four orders of agnitude ore sensitie in teperate regions h for loeon diterum = 1.0 μg/L in The Netherlands; (Roessink et al orrisse et al and een

69 Chapter 3

seen orders of agnitude ore sensitie in tropical regions h for loeon sp μg/L in Bangladesh; Sumon et al hus although the acute for iidacloprid was low in practice a risk a be present as hana is also situated in the tropics ore research on the actual risks iidacloprid and other neonicotinoid insecticides like thiaethoa poses to the auatic ecosste should be studied b testing local species hiaethoa is also nontoic to magna (96h EC50 of 42,000 μg/L; Morrissey et al and highl toic to auatic insects like aflies an den rink et al

f the pesticides for which the nd tier risk assessent indicating a risk no seifield studies are aailable in the open literature for the herbicides pendiethalin propanil and ofluorfen the insecticide diethoate and the fungicide carbofuran able an den rink et al tudies with the insecticide labda chalothrin in eperiental ecosstes hae deonstrated that it is highl toic to auatic organiss e et al eported effects of labda chalothrin on arthropod inertebrates are likel to occur at concentrations at or aboe g an ingaarden et al b while our nd tier used was g able aking the second tier risks realistic owertier assessent of chlorprifos indicates risk for surface waters ies et al iddings et al hlorprifos has also been studied etensiel using icrocos and esocos cos studies singlespecies laborator toicit tests and used as a regulator bencharks across classes of insecticides rock et al b altb et al an ingaarden et al b hese cos studies hae also broadened the scope of conclusions about chlorprifos effects on auatic counities to a wider range of locations and enironental conditions an ingaarden et al a aa et al a b peancisidor et al a b afar et al ), all supporting the conclusion that concentrations of 0.1 μg/L chlorpyrifos or less cause no ecologicall significant effects on auatic counities rock et al iddings et al which could be used as basis for control easures in this stud his threshold alue of g is close to the of g used in the nd tier risk assessent able an ingaarden et al reports for cperethrin a and based on a cos eperient ealuating ultiple applications of and g respectiel he nd tier of g is far below this alue and is epected to be protectie able eeral studies hae indicated low h alue of ancoeb to fish eg reochromis mossamicus (12 μg/L), unctius ticto (13 μg/L) and larius atracus adult (14 μg/L) and

70 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana fingerlings (14 μg/L) (Srivastava and Singh, 2013; aha et al hara et al altb et al report a and deried fro a cos stud using ultiple applications of and g respectiel his eans that the nd tier of g is on the high side when ealuating effects on fish and auatic ecosstes as a whole eaning that the nd tier risk assessent ight een hae underestiated the actual risks For carbendai altb et al reports a cos based of g and a of g due to a single application alidating the nd tier of g used in this stud n a cos eperient perfored with aneb onl a treatent of g was ealuated showing onl clear effects on biales his obseration does not disualif the of g used in this stud he also reported a cosbased and of and g for copper hdroide 3 respectiel also supporting the nd tier of g used in this stud able

oth the st and the nd tier ecological threshold alues are ainl based on toicit alues fro teperate species o it is uncertain whether teperate sensitiit data can be used for a risk assessent in warer tropical regions aa and an den rink t was howeer indicated b studies conducted b altb et al and wok et al that no ssteatic difference eisted in toicit and sensitiit between tropical and teperate species for soe of the selected pesticides chlorprifos fenitrothion and carbofuran although differences do eist eg iidacloprid uon et al

he tiered approach schee can be eploed b the hana esticide registration uthorities to support the registration of pesticides as has been deonstrated in this stud to deterine the risks associated the use of pesticide products in hana again it has successfull been used in urope for pesticide registration F b

errestril risk ssessent

here is a considerable concern about decline in biodiersit that would influence the delier of arious ecosste serices b terrestrial inertebrates ole et al ooper et al n agricultural intensification the ost affected ecosste serices at seere risk are biological pest control scharntke et al eiger et al crop pollination ieseier et al hang et al and soil fertilit aintenance ole et al ansen et al oh ande and ingh here should therefore be specific

71 Chapter 3 protection goals aied at protecting iportant ecosste serices such as food web support pest control and biodiersit altb et al iodiersit and ecosste serices ight be protected along with agroecosstes where farers get subsidies partl to produce ecological benefits lein et al

arthwors are iportant in influencing organic atter dnaics soil structure and icrobial counit dwards and ohlen Fragoso et al is and erard he actiel participate in soil aeration water infiltration and iture of soil horions and the represent an iportant source of food for an other organiss like birds or oles dwards and ohlen aelle et al so there is the need to protect the fro pesticide eposure he stud deonstrated that earthwors were also under acute risk for three pesticides butachlor diethoate and carbendai and under chronic risks for nine pesticides of which ore than half are fungicides able and he leels of risks were howeer uch lower copared to the auatic copartent able and trangel the highest acute risk is calculated for the herbicide butachlor ccording to the data base butachlor is acutel toic to earthwors with a d of μgkg hen et al howeer report a d of gkg for the sae species so its alue in the data base ight be an error n another stud b obi and unasekaran butachlor reduced the bioass and cocoon production and caused daage to epithelial tissue of earthwor isenia fetida leading to the reduction of nutrient absorption area fro food heir stud is iportant as the used concentrations – gkg releant in this stud he concentrations of diethoate and carbendai onl slightl eceeded the acute factor of iratno et al proide siilar results for ndonesia as found in our stud where labda chalothrin chlorprifos and cperethrin showed no acute risks to the terrestrial soil enironent in both studies

he chronic risk assessent indicated a sall risk for all pesticides towards the terrestrial enironent able ecept for carbendai arbendai is one of the few pesticides that has been etensiel studied using terrestrial icrocoss nacker et al nsch et al reported a and of and kg aiha while in our stud application rates of and kg aiha both probabl not leading to large aderse effects although the actual alues of the soil paraeters like organic atter content and dr bulk densit will be iportant

72 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

et al et al et al et al 3 et al

et al

et al

et al

73 Chapter 3

et al

et al et al et al

erosin of estiies

dosage et al et al et al

74 Environmental risk assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana

3

knoleeents

75 Chapter 3 76 leentr nfortion for ter

ble

a. Pesticide usage, pest(s) and frequency (farmers’ data) ro Prot tie tie ret Dose Dose interl lition lition reen re inreient inreient estisese eto strte e on

bleble Pesticide(s)Pesticide(s) used used n n crps crps and and teir teir reeant reeant appicatin appicatin rates rates tained tained frm frm surey surey f farmers. f farmers. e predicted e predicted enirnmenta enirnmenta cncentratins cncentratins in in tete ater duedue tt ne ne appicatin appicatin (P) (P) and and mutipe mutipe appicatins appicatins (Pn) (Pn) as e as e as te as tepredicted predicted n effect n effect cncentratin cncentratin (P) (P as cacuated) as cacuated y te Py te P mdemde is as pridedprided fr fr te te different different sites. sites.

saiman, use, use, eia, eia, yere, yere, ntre ntre af af eg. egetaes (mat,(mat, Pepper, Pepper, nin, nin, r, r, arden arden ggs, ggs, aage, aage, ucumer, ucumer, inda, inda, pea, pea, yean, yean, ettuce, ettuce, rundnut, rundnut, ater aten)er en)

t cereas and and egetaes egetaes Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana

epacedepaced y epaced y epaced y y acute Pacute Pacute Pacute P titi risk riskssessnet ssessnet acuatedacuatedacuatedacuateden eren eren eren er P ater,P ater, n ater n ater () () () () P aterP aterP ater,P ater,P ater,P ater,crnic crnicP ater,P ater,Pn PnPn PnP nP ater ncrnic ater crnic arm PtPt rprp PesticidePesticide ypeype agaeagaedapniadapnia fis fisapniaapniafis fis acute acutecrnicapniacrnicapniacrnicfiscrnicfisapnia apniacrnicfiscrnicfisater apniaater apniafis acutefis apniaacute apnia case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . case () paraquat ericide . . . . . . . . . case () paraquat ericide . . . . . . . . . case () paraquat ericide . . . . . . . . . casecase ice ()() utacr paraquat ericideericide . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . casecase , ice,ice egetaes()() pendimetain utacr ericideericide . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . casecase , ice,ice, egetaes egetaes()() pendimetain pendimetain ericideericide . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . casecase , , iceice, egetaes()() prpani pendimetain ericideericide . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . casecase , ,, iceice ()() prpani prpani ericideericide . . . . . .. .. .. . . casecase ,,, , iceice ()() ensufurnmety prpani ericideericide . . . .. .. .. .. . casecase ,, iceice ()() ispyriacsdium ensufurnmetyericideericide . .. .. .. .. . casecase , ice,ice aie()() , ispyriacsdium ericideericide . .. .. .. .. . casecase , ice,ice, aie aie()() , , ericideericide . .. .. .. . . casecase , iceice, aie()() pretiacr , ericideericide . .. .. .. . . casecase iceice ()() pyrienim pretiacr ericideericide . .. .. .. .. . casecase aie,ice egetaes()() yfurfen pyrienim ericideericide . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . casecase aie,aie, egetaes ()egetaes() yfurfen yfurfen ericideericide . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . casecase , ,, egetaes,aie, ()egetaes() aie amdacyatrin yfurfen nsecticideericide . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . casecase , ,,, , egetaes,egetaes,()() ice aie amdacyatrin amdacyatrinnsecticidensecticide .. . . . ... . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice amdacyatrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. case ca () imidacprid nsecticide . . . . . case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. . . . . . . . .. .. .. case egetaes() amdacyatrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . casecase egetaesca ()() acetamiprid imidacprid nsecticidensecticide . .. .. .. . . casecase egetaesegetaes()() acetamiprid amdacyatrinnsecticidensecticide . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . casecase caegetaes()() naurn acetamiprid nsecticidensecticide . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . case egetaes() acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . 77 case ca () naurn nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Chapter 3 78

case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . . . . case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes,() aie cypermetrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes,() a cypermetrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . . . case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () naurn nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . case ice () carfuran nsecticide . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes() supur ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes() supur ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . case , egetaes() mane ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() metaay ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () metaay ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() metaay ungicide . . . . . case ca () cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . case egetaes() cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . . . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . . . . case ca () metaay ungicide . . . . .

oil risk ssessent

si si si si arm Pt rp Pesticide ype eartrms eartrms acute crnic Psi Pnsi acute crnic case () gypsate ericide . . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . . case () gypsate ericide . . . . . . Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana case () paraquat ericide .. .. . . . .. case () paraquat ericide .. .. . . . .. case ice () utacr ericide . .. . .. . . . .. case , ice, egetaes() pendimetain ericide . . . . . . case , ice, egetaes() pendimetain ericide . . . . . . case , , ice () prpani ericide .. . .. . . . .. case , , ice () prpani ericide .. . .. . . . .. case ,, ice () ensufurnmety ericide .. .. . . . .. case ice () ispyriacsdium ericide .. . .. . . . .. case , ice, aie() , ericide .. .. . . . .. case , ice, aie() , ericide .. .. . . . .. case ice () pretiacr ericide . .. . .. . . . .. case ice () pyrienim ericide .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. case aie, egetaes() yfurfen ericide . . . . . . case aie, egetaes() yfurfen ericide . . . . . . case , ,, egetaes,() aie amdacyatrin nsecticide .. .. . . . .. case , , , egetaes,() ice amdacyatrin nsecticide .. .. . . . .. case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. .. .. .. .. .. .. case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide .. .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () imidacprid nsecticide . . . . . . . . case egetaes() amdacyatrin nsecticide .. .. . . . .. case egetaes() acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . . . case egetaes() acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () naurn nsecticide . . . . .

79

3 Chapter 3 80 case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . . . . . case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . case , egetaes,() aie cypermetrin nsecticide .. .. . . . .. case , egetaes,() a cypermetrin nsecticide .. .. . . . .. case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . . . . . . case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () naurn nsecticide . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . . . case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . . . . case ice () carfuran nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . . . . case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . . . . case , egetaes() supur ungicide .. .. . . . .. case , egetaes() supur ungicide .. .. . . . .. case , egetaes() mane ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() metaay ungicide .. .. . . . .. case egetaes() mance ungicide . . . . . . case ca () metaay ungicide .. .. . . . .. case egetaes() metaay ungicide .. .. . . . .. case ca () cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . case egetaes() cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . case ca () metaay ungicide .. .. . . . ..

ees risk ssessent risk ssessent

P nta P nta nta nta arm Pt rp Pesticide ype ee ee P ee ee nta nta (infied) (fffied) (infied) (fffied) case () gypsate ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case () gypsate ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case () gypsate ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case () gypsate ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana case () paraquat ericide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case () paraquat ericide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ice () utacr ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , ice, egetaes() pendimetain ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , ice, egetaes() pendimetain ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , , ice () prpani ericide . . . . . . case , , ice () prpani ericide . . . . . . case ,, ice () ensufurnmety ericide . . . . . case ice () ispyriacsdium ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , ice, aie() , ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , ice, aie() , ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ice () pretiacr ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ice () pyrienim ericide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case aie, egetaes() yfurfen ericide . . . . case aie, egetaes() yfurfen ericide . . . case , ,, egetaes,() aie amdacyatrin nsecticide . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice amdacyatrin nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . case , , , egetaes,() ice crpyrifs nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , , egetaes() mamectin enate nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () imidacprid nsecticide . . . . . . . case egetaes() amdacyatrin nsecticide . . . . . . . . case egetaes() acetamiprid nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case egetaes() acetamiprid nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () naurn nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () tiametam nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , egetaes,() aie cypermetrin nsecticide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , egetaes,() a cypermetrin nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , egetaes() dimetate nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. ..

81

3 Chapter 3 82

case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () naurn nsecticide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () ifentrin nsecticide . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () acetamiprid nsecticide . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ice () carfuran nsecticide . . . . . . . case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case , , egetaes() mance ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . case egetaes() carendaim ungicide . . . . case , egetaes() supur ungicide . . . . case , egetaes() supur ungicide . . . . . case , egetaes() mane ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . case egetaes() cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . case egetaes() metaay ungicide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case egetaes() mance ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () metaay ungicide . .. .. .. .. .. .. case egetaes() metaay ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. .. case ca () cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . . case egetaes() cpper () ide ungicide . . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . case ca () cpper ydride ungicide . . . . . . . . case ca () metaay ungicide . . .. .. .. .. .. ..

ble Pesticide type used and teir pysiccemica prperties.

Pestiie Prot tie lss olelr trte eertre olbilit eertre eertre D o inreient ss or trte l olbilit o olbilit o seient lk Pressre or s Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana P Pressre o

eresate emsate undup Per unpsate ypsate ericide . . . . . . ramne uat Paraquat ericide . . . eres utacr utacr ericide . . tmp igatr Pendimetain ericide . . . . ri Pus tarm Prpani ericide . . aier , ericide . . ensufurn nda nda mety ericide . . . ispyriac unty sdium ericide . . . . Pretiacr ericide . . it Pyrienim ericide . . . mer yfurfen ericide . . . ypsate ericide . . . . . . arate ntiatrin amda Paa tricer yatrin nsecticide . egigie . . ursan unpyrifs rpyrifs nsecticide . . . mmamectin ttac enate nsecticide . . . nfidr midacprid nsecticide . . . an cetamiprid nsecticide . . aurn nsecticide . . . . imn star ifentrin nsecticide . . . . ctara iametam nsecticide . . . cstar ate aster ifentrin nsecticide . . . . 83

3 Chapter 3 84

ypermetrin nsecticide . . . ymetate, ydim uper imetate nsecticide . . . . . uradan arfuran ungicide . . . enc ance ungicide . . . . . arendaim P arendaim ungicide . . . . . . ufa P upur ungicide . . . . . ane P ane ungicide . . . pper unguran ydride ungicide . negigie . . etaay ungicide . . ictry ance ungicide . . . . . idmi etaay ungicide . . . uprus ide ungicide . nsue rd super uprus ide ungicide upric cide ydride ungicide . nsue pper ungicide . nsue ungii etaay ungicide . . undefined

ble Pesticide(s) and teir tier acute () used fr te psure icity atis (s) cacuated y te P mde fr te aquatic, terrestria (ee), terrestria si (rms) and narget rtrpds (s) in te enirnment f te study sites.

ud undefined

tie nreient Pestiie ti errestril lss Prir nertebrtes ertebrtes oilors D ee D onret Proers (μg/l) (μg/l) (μg/kg) (μg/bee) rtroos Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana (μg/l) rtroo is n oter nt le on ertebrtes rotes rtroo ypsate ericide ud Paraquat ericide . . ud utacr ericide ud Pendimetain ericide ud Prpani ericide . , ericide ud ensufurn mety ericide . ispyriac sdium ericide ud Pretiacr ericide ud Pyrienim ericide d ud yfurfen ericide amda yatrin nsecticide . . . rpyrifs nsecticide . . . mmamectin nsecticide ud . ud enate midacprid nsecticide . cetamiprid nsecticide . ud aurn nsecticide ud ifentrin nsecticide . . . ud iametam nsecticide . ud ypermetrin nsecticide . . . ud imetate nsecticide . ud arfuran ungicide . . ance ungicide . ud

85 arendaim ungicide

3 Chapter 3 86 upur ungicide ane ungicide . . ud pper ydride ungicide . etaay ungicide ud etaay ungicide ud uprus ide ungicide

ble Pesticide(s) and teir tier crnic used fr te psure icity atis (s) cacuated y te P mde fr te aquatic, terrestria (ee), terrestria si (rms) and narget rtrpds (s) in te enirnment f te study sites.

ud undefined

tie nreient Pestiie lss ti errestril nertebrtes ertebrtes onret oilors ee NOEC (μg/l) (μg/l) (Fish) rtroos (μg/kg) (μg/bee) Dni nt ypsate ericide . ud ud Paraquat ericide ud ud ud utacr ericide ud ud ud Pendimetain ericide . . ud ud Prpani ericide ud ud ud , ericide ud ud ud ensufurn mety ericide ud ud ud ispyriac sdium ericide ud ud ud Pretiacr ericide ud ud ud Pyrienim ericide ud ud ud yfurfen ericide . ud ud amda yatrin nsecticide . ud ud ud rpyrifs nsecticide . . . ud ud mmamectin nsecticide . . ud ud ud enate midacprid nsecticide . ud ud cetamiprid nsecticide . ud ud aurn nsecticide . . . ud ud

ifentrin nsecticide . . . ud ud iametam nsecticide . ud ud ypermetrin nsecticide . . ud ud ud imetate nsecticide . ud ud arfuran ungicide . ud ud ance ungicide . . ud ud arendaim ungicide . . . ud ud Environmental assessment risk ofpesticidescurrently appliedinGhana upur ungicide . . ud ud ud ane ungicide . . . ud ud pper ydride ungicide . . ud ud etaay ungicide ud ud ud etaay ungicide ud ud ud uprus ide ungicide . ud ud

87

3

88 ter

inkin roinertebrtes n sioeil reters for ter lit ssessent in te loer bsin of te olt ier in n

nna aye, icae a,, engia, Peng a,c, natan . gar d and Pau . an den rin a,e,

a quatic cgy and ater uaity anagement rup, ageningen niersity, P.. , , ageningen, e eterands

ana nirnmenta Prtectin gency, P. . , ccra, ana

c uman imnitring esearc nit, epartment f Ppuatin eat, uemurg nstitute f eat, rue mas disn, trassen, uemurg

d epartment f nirnmenta cience, ege f cience, ame ruma niersity f cience and ecngy, P niersity Pst ffice, umasi, ana

e ageningen nirnmenta esearc, P.. , , ageningen, e eterands

nsrit is re for sbission to ornl for blition

89 Chapter 4

bstrt

e eat f te er asin f te ta ier in ana as eauated in anuary eruary and ayune using pysiccemica parameters and entic macrinerterate species as indicatrs. e measured ees f seected enirnmenta ariaes ere cmpared t accepted enirnmenta quaity standard aues ere appicae. e assciatin eteen te entic macrinerterates and pysiccemica ariaes ere anaysed trug entic macrinerterate distriutin and a principa cmpnent anaysis (P) and redundancy anaysis (). Pesticide cncentratins ere generay e te imit f detectin f . g and . g fr rganpspatesyntetic pyretrid and rgancrines, respectiey, ecept isated cases ere λcyatrin as detected at edrm () and use ana () it aues f . g and . g, respectiey and cypermetrin detected it . g at arine () during te anuary eruary samping perid. utrient ees ere as generay , eer significant differences eisted eteen te aues f pysiccemica parameters at te different samping sites and seasns (nte ar permutatin test .), as e as eteen te aundance f macrinerterates at te different sites and seasns (nte ar permutatin test .). e enirnmenta ariaes , pspate, p, sustratum ( .), turidity, eectrica cnductiity, tta dissed sids, tta sids and nitrate (. .) significanty epained te ariatin in macrinerterate cmpsitin eteen samping sites f te ta rier. oledilum fuscienne, as significanty psitiey crreated it turidity and cncentratins hsa sp, entrotilum sp, entrotiloides sp haon iridiennis and uinie fis ere psitiey crreated it nitrate cncentratin and p and negatiey crreated it turidity and . Puted sites ere dminated y te snai mnaea glara. is demnstrates tat pysiccemica parameters and macrinerterates cud e appied t descrie te ater quaity and impre te imnitring fr ater resurces management and te enirnmenta prtectin in te er ta ier system.

90 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

ntrotion

e ta ier is ne f mst imprtant rier systems in ana. t riginates frm urina as and runs mainy trug ana and cers an estimated area f , m (arry et al ). e nrtsut etent f tis transundary asin stretces frm apprimatey atitude 30’ N in Ghana to 14 30’ N in Mali, with the widest part stretcing apprimatey frm ngitude 30’ W to 2 00’ E (Gordon et al. ). e er part f te rier asin prmtes different uses incuding agricuture, aquacuture, fising, ydreectric per, ater fr dmestic (drining) and industria purpses, ater transprt, sand mining and industria actiities (e.g. tetie rs) amng ters (nda et al. u et al. ). e rier receies dmestic asteater, industria asteater, municipa and rura astes, and ter uman actiities. ig ees f rganic putants may degrade te ater quaity in receiing aters and treaten te aquatic ecsystems (rcran et al. ang et al santeaa usu et al. ). r eampe, ater may ecme puted due t a range f 4 cntaminants riginating frm agricutura actiities (da et al. e and uian, nsa sare, ). ndeed, pesticides ae een reprted t affect ater dies in ana (quaa, t, t, ian et al. ). n additin, te statistics s tat te ater surces ae een, and cntinued t e, epited speediy (santeaa usu et al. ). impre te ater resurces management and te ater quaity mnitring fr te ta ier ystem and ter ater resurces, mnitring f pysicemica parameters and aquatic macrinerterates ae een appied (rne and iiams, rne et al. aaPu et al. ).

entic macrinerterates are a uiquitus and dierse grup f ngied species tat react strngy and ften predictae t uman infuences in aquatic ecsystems. n additin, tey are sedentary, terefre dy urdens refects ca cnditins, aing detectin f a ariety f perturatins in a range f aquatic aitats (senerg and es, ). entic macrinerterates are an imprtant and integra part f any aquatic ecsystem as tey frm te asis f te trpic cascade and any negatie effects caused y putin n te cmmunity structure can in turn affect iger trpic ees ie fis and irds. n additin, aquatic inerterates ae te aiity t cean aterays as tey utiie te rganic and detritus matter. ccrding t arise et al (), macrinerterate ppuatins

91 Chapter 4 in trea and rier an ait in the aeent o the oerall health o the trea and onitorin o aroinerterate ha een liited in Ghana

he oerall oetie o thi td were to 1 ealate the ale o the hio heial araeter and etiide, and enthi aroinerterate rihne and ooition in the ower olta ier te, and 2 eaine the relationhi etween the enironental ariale and the aroinerterate onit ooition in the ealated aati te o the olta ier

terils n etos

t re

here are two ditint te o aannah in the ain woodland aannah and ra aannah he woodland aannah, otl ond in the othern art o the ain, i denel wooded with tall to edi tall rae (Ml et al 201 he liate o the olta ain i doinated the rainearin oth weterl troial aritie air a and the dr, north eaterl troial ontinental air a (ion and enneh, 1 Norall, there i a iodal rainall ro ril to l and ro eteer to Noeer in othern Ghana he inle wet eaon i ro Ma to toer in Northern Ghana, whih i ollowed dr eaon (aratan he wettet area in Ghana i the etree othwet where annal rainall i aot 2000 , the annal rainall enerall dereae ro oth to north he ontr ha a hih teeratre with the aerae annal teeratre ranin etween 24 and 30 (GE, 2011 n the oatal area o Ghana the relatie annal hidit i 100 in the ornin and aot in the aternoon n the north thee ale an e a low a 2030 drin the aratan eriod and 00 drin the rainall eriod (ndah et al 2003

he td area ha an aerae rainall o 1000 ear with ditint dr (toer–Ma and wet (Ma–toer eaon (an de Gieen et al 2010 eeratre ar etween aroiatel 1o and 40o deendin on eaon, tie o da, and eleation (eoe and oah, 2013 and all within the ahoean te whih or at the othern art o the ain olta ain, and onit o ainl etaorhi ro, inldin hornlende and iotite, neie, iatite, ranlite, and hit (arr et al 200

2 92 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

4

ire

ite seletion n slin

et al

93 Chapter 4

– –

Psioeil nlsis

eries multiarameter ater ualit meter ―

et al

94 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

Pestiie etrtion n nlsis

λ 4

microfiber filter (GF/D, pore size: 2.7 μm, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA))

μ μ

95 Chapter 4

μ ’

96 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

μ

Dt nlsis

and their relationships (Ter Braak and Šmilauer, 2012). For both the physico 4

et al

eslts n isssion

Psioeil reters

97 Chapter 4

T1, () T, T (T), (di ake e.) T, (pon) T and (kuse and innin) T10. The rest o the stations had sand content ranin rom 1100.

There as a clear separation beteen physicochemical parameters and their relatie alues in the dierent sites and seasons in the ordination diaram (Fi. .2).

DO

Turbidit

Sedorm1 Temperature Total solids

Dry Phosphate

Marine Sedorm2 AkuseBridge ATL AkuseCanal WRI TDS Kpong EC Nitrate Nitrite ADIlake BOD Wet Ammonia AkuseSand

pH

ire plot shoin the correlations beteen physicochemical parameters and their relatie alues in the dierent sites and seasons. The horiontal and ertical aes display and 1 o the ariation in physicochemical parameter alues, respectiely. onte arlo permutation tests indicated that dierences beteen seasons and sites are siniicant (p0.002), hile the dierences beteen samplin dates as not siniicant (see tet or test conditions).

dditionally, there as a siniicant dierence beteen seasons and sites hiles no siniicant dierence eisted beteen samplin dates (onte arlo permutation test 0.002). This is in contrast to the assertion by ampson et al (201) that physicochemical parameters do not ary much in terms o the samplin sites o the loer olta basin. Thus the anthropoenic actiities resultin rom the adoinin land use characteristics, may hae chaned the physicochemical parameters. ain the rainy season is characterised ith a lot o precipitation hich can inluence the physicochemical parameters o the rier. The plot shoed the larest dierence in alues beteen the stations or T, , turbidity, total

98 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana solids, ammonia, p and (Fi. .2). kuse Bride is clustered aay rom all other stations, ith relatiely hih T and alues. The ertical ais merely displays the dierences beteen the seasons, hich ere siniicant. The dry season recorded loer p alues compared to the et season (Table .2 Fi. .2). The loest p o . as recorded at the irst samplin o edorm 1 durin the dry season hich could be described as acidic (Table .2). The hihest (10.2) ere also recorded at edorm 1 and arine but durin the et season. ll the p alues determined in the et season ere ithin the recommended rane or drinkin ater (..) (Table .2) ecept the irst and third samplin o edorm 1 and the third samplin o arine in the et season. This could be due to photosynthetic actiity and microbial respiration as ell as decomposin actiities at the sites aectin the p alue. imilar alues hae been reported in the olta rier by other studies (moah and oranten, 200 ampson et al. 201). erall, ater temperature raned rom 2.1 to 2. (T, edorm) and 2. to 1. (edorm 2, edorm 1) in the dry and et seasons, 4 respectiely (Table .2). The temperatures o the samplin sites ere relatiely constant and compares to the rane (2–0) reported by moah and oranten (200).

onductiity o the ater samples ranged from 66 to 149 μS/cm (Akuse Canal, Akuse Bridge) and 68 to 165 μS/cm (WRI, Akuse Bridge) (Table .2) in the dry and et seasons, respectiely. The mean alues obtained or both seasons ere belo the recommended guideline limit of 1400 μS/cm. Conductivity is related to the concentration of Total Dissolved olids (T) (Bakhtiar et al. 201). The T alues obtained or both the dry and et season ere belo recommended limit o 001000 (m) permissible or drinkin (ais and e iest, 1). The electrical conductiity and T alues obtained here indicate relatiely lo salt contents in the study area. The mean total solids o the ater in the study area raned rom 2 (m) in the dry season and 10 (m) in the et season, indicatin ood ater uality as measured alues ere belo the prescribed permissible limit o 00 m accordin to the uropean nion (, 2001). Turbidity alues ere comparatiely hiher in the dry season and raned rom 2 to 0 T, hile the et season recorded alues o 2 T (Table .2). cept di lake, pon and kuse canal in the et season (Table .2), all the samples in both seasons had turbidity alues eceedin T, the uideline alue or turbidity in drinkin ater (, 200a, b). The hih turbidity may be attributed to the larer particles such as oranic matter, dissoled solids, aricultural runo, leachin o soil

99 Chapter 4

– – –

trients

et al et al

100 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

et al et al

Pestiies

μ μ μ λ 4 μ μ μ λ et al et al λ haoorus oscuries μ μ et al μ μ μ μ et al μ

101 Chapter 4

roinertebrte onit

oledilum fuscienne, tereo chironomus ctinogamhus accohilus entrotiloides agenius ethocerus haon ridiennis entrotiloides, ulicidae urmetra hsa mnae glara a arenaria, ithnia omacea aludosa

Marine Polypedilum fuscipenne

Dry AkuseCan AkuseBridge Mya arenaria Sedorm1 Steriochironomus sp Bithynia sp. Sedorm2 Phaon iridipennis Centroptiloides sp. WRI Physa sp. Culicidae sp. Eurymetra sp. Centroptilum sp. Ictinogomphus sp. Pomacea paludosa

Lymnaea glabra Laccophilus sp. ATL Juvenile fish Lethocerus sp. Wet ADIlake Hagenius sp. AkuseSand Kpong

ire P lot soin te orreltions beteen roinertebrte bnne les in te ifferent sites n sesons

102 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

oledilum fuscienne ithnia et al mnae glara et al mnaea glara oledilum fuscienne entrotiloides hsa tereo chironomus 4 et al hsa et al entrotiloides entrotilum

orreltion on te sioeil reters n roinertebrtes

oledilum fuscienne, hsa , entrotilum , entrotiloides , haon iridiennis

103 Chapter 4

Marine

Mya arenaria AkuseSand Rock Bithynia sp. Cobbles AkuseCanal Dry Kpong Juvenile fish Polypedilum fuscipenne Nitrate WRI AkuseBridge Centroptilum sp. Turbidity Physa sp. Centroptiloides sp. Phaon iridipennis Sedorm2 DO Total solids EC TDS pH

Sand Wet

ATL Phosphate

ADIlake Lymnaea glabra

Sedorm1

ire D bilot soin te enironentl ribles tt sinifintl eline te rition in roinertebrte oosition beteen sttions s reslt of te onte rlo erttion tests

a arenaria and ithnia mnae glara

104 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

onlsions

4

105 Chapter 4 106

ble

otion terse etres irin eettion n tre etres bstrt tre n n se nk rosion trtre no oerPsil ltertion e obbles okn

ble

ite eson ite lin eertre rbiit itrte itrite oni Poste D otl solis D D macroinvertebratesLinking parameters andphysico-chemical for water assessment inthelowerquality basinofthe Volta RiverinGhana

107

4 Chapter 4 108

ble

mnaeaoledilum a ithnia teriochirono ctinogomhaccohilentrotiageniusethocer haon entrotiulicidaeurmetr omacea ite eson ite linglara fusciennearenarias mus s us s us s loides ss us s hsa siridiennislum s s a s aludosa

macroinvertebratesLinking parameters andphysico-chemical for water

assessment inthelowerquality basinofthe Volta RiverinGhana

109

4 Chapter 4

110 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

Diinon toroos etolor no lfte no

DD DDD Dielrin nrin 4 DD α-Endosulfan

ɣ-Chlordane lrin etlor Delt

inne μ lin ite eson

ite

ble

111 Chapter 4

112 Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

Deltetrin enlerte eretrin fltrin Peretrin λ-Cyhalothrin ifentrin lletrin 4 Profenofos lorfeninos

ltion enitrotion lorrifos Pirietl Dietote lin ite eson ite

113 Chapter 4 114

Linking macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical parameters for water quality assessment in the lower basin of the Volta River in Ghana

4

115 116 ter

Pestiies Derese teril Diersit n bnne of rrite ie iels

is ter s been blise in iroorniss (2020)

117 Chapter 5

bstrt

nteroacter eromonas omamonas tenotrohomonas ordetella tahlococcus omiacillus cinetoacter seudomonas acillus

118 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

ntrotion

et al et al et al et al et al 5 et al et al et al Rice is a major source of food for more than half of the world’s population

119 Chapter 5

ito and reeniasulu oweer rice cultiation is usuall ulnerale to a ariet of pests and reuires pesticides to help control them and improe ield lthouh pesticides help increase economic ains from ariculture the also impact microial ecosstems in the soil ue to the lare amount of pesticides applied durin rice cultiation the rice field ecosstem is one of the major contriutin aroecosstems from which pesticide residues contaminate the enironment dullah et al lthouh pesticides are commonl used to improe aricultural ields little is nown aout their effects on the soil microiota in irriated rice fields he oal of this stud was to inestiate the effect of pesticides commonl used on irriated rice fields on acterial aundance and diersit n irriated rice field in hana was used as a case stud since the majorit of the rice farms in hana are irriated and pesticides are often applied on these irriated fields

terils n etos

t re he samples used in the stud were collected from the pon irriation project site at use hana where rice is cultiated all ear round under a wellmanaed irriation scheme ample collection was limited to a hectare irriated rice field with nown histor of pesticides use durin the rowin season ale he climate is the saannah tpe characteried a imodal rainfall pattern ranin from to mm annuall with a predominant wind speed of and nots and the mean annual temperature is o he soil in this area is hea dar cla with hih water holdin capacit of up to mm per meter depth of soil and an aerae dr ul densit of aout cm all ater is sourced from the pon dam upstream throuh canals and ia laterals to coer the fields asmine is the ariet of rice cultiated and taes das to mature usuall startin from uneulctoeroemer he samples analsed in this stud were collected in oemer

120 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

ble he list of pesticides application rate per hectare actie inredients formulations used on the irriation field under stud Pestiie e tie inreient lition ret est lition reen on rte eto onda ensulfuron methl electie prain ericide ilsect amda halothrin rasshoppers prain orms hrips ountaitse ispriac sodium ml electie prain ericide atio eruconaole last prain riflostroine rio plus ropanil electie prain amine ericide ursanunprifos hlorprifos rasshoppers prain orms hrips lliator endimethalin electie prain ericide

lin roere for soil et soil samples were collected from different locations alon the irriation canal from the water source upstream the rice field itself where the chemicals are applied 5 and areas downstream of the irriation canal he soil samples were collected usin soil auer cm in diameter and cm in lenth at depths etween cm and rouped as i water source upstream uneposed ii rice field where the chemicals were applied eposed iii areas downstream of the irriation line residual leen samples were collected at eual interals of meters at each depth uneposed samples from water source upstream eposed samples rice field where pesticides are applied and residual one samples and areas downstream of the irriation line he soil samples were refrierated and shipped on icepacs for analsis at niersit of eas ealth cience enter chool of ulic ealth epartment of pidemiolo uman enetics and nironmental ciences enter for nfectious iseases ouston eas

teri ltre naeroic condition was maintained in a actron anaeroic chamer heldon

anufacturin ornelius R usin and he soil samples each were suspended in m of rain heart infusion medium ecton icinson ranlin

121 Chapter 5

aes o isolate oth aeroic and anaeroic acteria in the soil the suspensions were diided into two in m culture tues and one tue m was incuated aeroicall or anaeroicall respectiel at for hours ollowin the hour incuation period the culture was thorouhl mied and freeer stoc m of each culture were made allowed to stand for seconds for the soil particles to settle and decanted reeer stocs m of each culture were made in and stored at o he remainin culture was centrifued for minutes at and the pellets were stored at for isolation and R analsis

D etrtion n ribosol r ene seenin was isolated from each of the acterial pellets usin the enlute acterial enomic it imaldrich t ouis accordin to the protocol proided the manufacturer he concentration and purit of the etracted was determined usin anorop hermocientific ilminton and the ualit was assessed aarose el electrophoresis he etracted samples were normalied and eual amounts were analsed riosomal R rR ene seuencin he reion of the acterial rR ene was Ramplified usin acteriaarchaeal primers (5’GTGCCAGCMGCCGCGGTAA3’) and R 5’GGACTACHVGGGTWTCTAAT3’ aporaso et al he conditions for amplification were ccle of for min ccles of for s for s and for s and for min aporaso et al euencin was performed at the le enter for etaenomics and icroiome Research alor ollee of edicine ouston eas on the llumina ie platform llumina an ieo usin p pairedend protocol which ielded pairend reads that almost completel oerlapped taretin at least reads per sample etracted under similar conditions ut without an acterial pellet was used as control he read pairs were demultipleed ased on uniue molecular arcodes and mered usin R dar he data was analsed usin the R analtic pipeline as descried preiousl aporaso et al aporaso et al aseawa et al he R pipeline for analsis leeraes the uantitatie nsihts nto icroial colo software pacae aporaso et al aporaso et al aseawa et al and custom analtic pacaes he rR ene seuences were clustered into taonomic operation units s at a similarit cutoff alue of usin the R alorithm in

122 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

VA ( et al 3) T T VA V ( et al 3) A T ( 5) T C A

Dt nlsis

TATA 5 W (C C C T) ( et al 3) T T H ( et al 3) T W 5

T 5 G () () (CCA) (M et al 3 ) CCA () T M C T M C A CCA () A CAC 5 (T )

123 Chapter 5

eslts T T 5 T 3 5 ( ) () ()

ffet of estiies on soil bteril bnne n iersit T acillus, omiacillus, nteroacter, cinetoacter eromonas ( 5) omiacillus nteroacter eromonas acillus, omiacillus nteroacter acillus A (T 5) T nteroacter, lostridiales (C), acillus, araclostridium lostridiales (5) nteroacter, lostridiales (C) araclostridium lostridiales (C), lostridiales (5) nteroacter araclostridium acillus ( 5)

3 124 ble

ens esirtion bitt ole in oil Potentil en itertre eferenes one of Ptoen iest cinetoacter M et al Pesticides diversity decrease andabundance ofirrigated rice bacterial fields et al eromonas M C T acillus et al et al ordetella A et al hitinohagaceae C omamonas W V A nteroacter et al M et al GG et al et al eucoacter A H 5 G et al aeniacillaceae G et al GW55 aeniacillus G et al seudarthroacter seudomonas G et al

125

5 Chapter 5 126 tahlococcus et al G tenotrohomonas A H et al scherichiahigella A et al et al omiacillus A et al alalaliacillus A et al ogesella A et al 3 et al 3 asteurella A ergeella A H et al one of highest of the stud area

5

Pesticides diversity decrease andabundance ofirrigated rice bacterial fields

ire et s of te reoinnt bteril ener etete fro te soil sles inbte ner erobi n nerobi onitions A A G 5 G 127

5 Chapter 5

( 5) () () () 5 () T

erobi nerobi

S im p s o n D iv e rs ity In d e x S h a n n o n D iv e rs ity In d e x S im p s o n D iv e rs ity In d e x 1 .0 1 .0 S h a n n o n D iv e rs ity In d e x x x e e d d n n I I

y y t t i 0 .5

i 0 .5 s s r r e e v v i i D D

0 .0 0 .0

d d e e e e r e d e d r s s s u s s u o o o o o o s x p x p p p p p e E x e x x x n E n E E U a l U l u u a id id e s e s R R

ire e ison n nnon bteril iersit inies of estiietrete irrite soil sles A A ( 3 5 ) ( 3 ) T

T (T) nteroacter eromonas omamonas tenotrohomonas ordetella tahlococcus T eromonas ( 53) scherichiahigella

128 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

T acillus nteroacter eromonas omamonas tenotrohomonas ordetella tahlococcus lostridiales (CT) aeniclostridium lostridiales (C), araclostridium, lostridiales (5) errisoroacter, lostridiales (C5) lostridiales (C), lostridiales (C) lostridiales (C3) nteroacter omamonas omiacillus seudomonas acillus eromonas

5

ire

ltirite nlses T CCA ( ) ( 5) 3 5 A CCA

129 Chapter 5

( ) 3 ( 55A) T M C ( 55) T

Site 6 Site 7

Site 4

Lachnospiraceae (CsrAlg16) Hathewaya Site 5 Aeromonas Escherichia/Shigella Clostridiales (CsrSp125) Clostridiales (CsrSeneg) Anaerosporobacter Enterobacter Site 9 Site 8 Clostridiales (CsrBo188) Bacillus Clostridiales (Unc03hv2) Clostridiales (CsrThio4) Clostridiales (CsrMagn3) Site 1 Clostridiales (CsrSac30) Anaerosporobacter Terrisporobacter Paenibac Paraclostridium Clostridiales (CsrTet12) Site 10 Anaerovibrio Pseudogulbenkiania Capnocytophaga Macellibacteroides Clostridiales (Unc00f0g) Site 11 Cetobacterium Nitrospiraceae (UncuS993) Turicibacter Tyzzerella Site 3 Site 2 Paraburkholderia Leucobacter Porphyromonadaceae (Unc46621) Ruminococcaceae (UncR5155)

Paenibacillaceae (GIWBac55)

ire nonil orresonene nlsis bilot soin te reslts of te nlsis sin sites s elntor ribles n et n bein erobi or nerobi s oribles 3 5 33 33 5

130 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

ire nonil orresonene nlsis bilot soin te reslts of te nlsis sin te intertion beteen eosre n bein erobi or nerobi s elntor ribles n et s orible 3 3 3 5 5 M C

Disssion

T ( ) T A ( 53A) (T 5)

3 131 Chapter 5

(T 5) T (omiacillus alalaliacillus, ogesella) ( et al et al 3 et al 3 et al ) omiacillus ( et al ) A ( 53) nteroacter eromonas acillus ( C et al M et al et al et al GG et al ) aeniclostridium ( et al ) atheaalostridium ( ) scherichiahigella ( et al et al ) nterococcus ( et al ) scherichiahigella eromonas acillus seudomonas ( C et al )

T nteroacter eromonas omamonas tenotrohomonas ordetella tahlococcus ( C W V M et al H et al et al et al et al ) C omiacillus cinetoacter seudomonas acillus ( et al et al et al et al et al et al )

A G tenotrohomonas maltohilia ( et al 5) ( ) ( et al ) A (M) ( T 5) maltohilia W

3 132 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

T M ( T ) (A ) T

(T 5) soil is a fundamental attenuation process, which is influenced by both abiotic and biologica processes. Different soil constituents and interactions of microbial communities and 2,4 ( et al 5) A seudomonas 5 () nteroacter () (G et al ) seudomonas is a diversified genus seudomonas utida MA1 is reported to be efficient in chlorpyrifos degradation by a rate seudomonas (G et al 5) T 3 5 35 seudomonas T ( et al ) seudomonas (H C ) A seudomonas fi ( H ) seudomonas

3 133 Chapter 5

seudomonas

V T omiacillus, acillus lostridia

knoleeent

T G T (GT) A G M H G A M T G H A (T3A55) G

33 134 Pesticides decrease bacterial diversity and abundance of irrigated rice fields

5

3 135 136 ter

enerl isssion n onlin rerks

35 137 Chapter 6

( et al ) H ( ) ( et al et al ) T ( et al 5 H et al V ) G G A (A) A A

T G MT ( T M T) ( ) A A (A) T G (CT) ( V H V M ) G A (ter ) ter H

3 138 General discussion and concluding remarks

MT ( T M T) G () T T G A G (ter ) T (ter ) ter (ters) T T 6 (ter 3C A A

ter M (ter ) 3 3

3 139 Chapter 6

et al et al ter

μ λ μ μ μ ter

140 General discussion and concluding remarks

ter ter et al et al et al et al et al et al et al et al

et al et al et al 6 ter ter

141 Chapter 6

et al et al et al et al et al ter et al et al

142 General discussion and concluding remarks

onlsion n tlook ter

et al et al et al 6 ter ter ter omiacillus, acillus lostridia ter

143 Addendum

eferenes

– arth and ace cience – nironmental oicolog and hemistr Acquaah SO. 1997. “Lindane and Endosulfan Residues in Water and Fish in the Ashanti Region of Ghana,” nterdiscilinar toicolog 2 – 1977. “Checklist of rice insect pests of Bangladesh,” in Literature Review of Insect Pests and – cotoicol niron af – rassica oleracea nternational ournal of esearch in hemistr and nironment Ampomah B. 2017. 60% of Ghana’s water bodies polluted— ater nternational ournal of limatolog Sarkodie S, Ameyo P. 2016. A review of Ghana’s water resource ogent ngineering – est frican ournal of lied colog

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18 160 References

t o ll a olcular Bolo la ol r atr ul or ratr ualt oaoa ro rotcto – col co rotal tocolo A oacllu atr tratoal oural o tatc a olutoar croolo ro ocol h – Zámečník roca ocal a Bhaoral cc – col co roc t ca col ro c –

161 Addendum

roc o th tratoal ca o colo a rotal cc troactr c ha c o

162 Summary

r

ter

ter , reviews Ghana’s A . First, the farmers’ pesticide use < 0.001), as well as attitude ( < 0.05)

163 Addendum envirnment, t derive threshd eves which are prtective f cmmunities, t screen farmers fr pesticide epsure and pisnin, t devep wetareted trainin prrammes fr pesticide retaiers and farmers n pesticide use, persna prtective device use, as we as pesticide manaement and aw. dditina, pesticide pic impementers were t e mtivated and resurced t carr ut their mandate i.e. t eecute the pesticide eisatin.

n ter we used the mde st ier t assess the ris f pesticides t the auatic and terrestria envirnment usin empirica athered fied data n pesticide use. esuts frm st tier shwin ris were then further refined usin the mde nd tier t estimate pesticide cncentratin eves prtective f the auatic envirnment. esuts f indicated that in the investiated reins in suth Ghana, amda chathrin, chrprifs, mance and mane ma pse the hihest riss t auatic ecsstems adacent t the treated fieds, utachr and carendaim t the terrestria si ecsstem, amda chathrin, chrprifs, emamectin enate, imidacprid, thiametham, dimethate and cpermethrin t ees and prpani, furfen, amda chathrin, imidacprid and cpper hdride t terrestria nntaret arthrpds. ctua pesticide use was . t times hiher than the recmmended ae instructins, indicatin a enera practice f verdsin. Fr prtectiveness, the st tier was prtective in a cases f insecticides fr inverterates and verterates cmpared t nd tier . he case stud shwed that the mde in cminatin with the cncept ma ffer pesticide reistratin authrities in Ghana a means t assess envirnmenta riss assciated with pesticide usae in a userfriend and csteffective manner.

ter descries the apprach t usin a variet f techniues in determinin the epsure f water dies t putants incudin fertiiers, pesticides and ther waste. his invved the sampin and anasis f water sampes frm catins with nwn human activit and testin fr the presence r therwise f the prae putants envisaed in the areas frm an earier surve. his is ined t the phsicchemica characteristics f the sampes frm varius catins as we as the identified macrinverterates. Genera, the water was nt puted per the phsicchemica characteristics ecept isated cases f w p eve and pesticide concentrations (λchathrin and cpermethrin. he resuts frm the pesticides were

164 Summary hwever nt incuded in the anasis due t the w eve f detectins. he presence f the few detected cud e frm aricutura putin main frm recent appicatin and run ffs thuh it ma ie affect ther ranisms. he resuts shwed that the envirnmenta variaes can ptentia e anased t mnitr the ecica status f auatic ecsstems in ecica assessment practices and ma as e used t devep new practices fr idiversit cnservatin that aims at preservin th the tanmic and functina diversit in Ghana.

he a f ter was t investiate the ptentia effects f pesticides n the aundance and diversit f si acteria in irriated rice fied and t isate acteria capae f deradin diverse casses f pesticides used in these fieds. he resuts shwed an vera decrease in acteria aundance and diversit in areas epsed t pesticides. peratina tanmic units f the enera troactr, rooa, oaoa, totrohooa, Bortlla, and tahlococcu decreased in areas epsed t pesticides, which ma impair deradatin f ranic cmpunds, pant rwth, and pant prtectin frm micres and insects. nverse, oacllu, ctoactr, uooa, and Bacllu increased in aundance in pesticideepsed areas. impsn and hannn diversit indices and cannica crrespndence anasis demnstrated a decrease in th aeric and anaeric acteria diversit and cmmunit cmpsitin in areas epsed t pesticides. ncudin, a need fr aternative was in imprvin aricutura prductivit and t educate and encurae farmers t adpt innvative interated pest manaement strateies t reduce deeterius impacts f pesticides n si ecsstems has een prpsed. A ter is the enera discussin and cncusin f the vera thesis. t ed at the pesticide aw as it pertains nw and its impementatin chaenes, and reated t the ecica riss identified in this thesis. utins t these chaenes are prescried thruh puished pen iterature and suestins frm the fied surves and servatins and cncusins are drawn fr a the resuts presented in this thesis.

165 Addendum

knoleeents

pprtunit, the sa cme ut nce his is indeed true when it cmes t m academic carrier. ear, had nurtured the desire t d a h ut wud nt have made it withut hep and supprt f man pepe. First f a, wud ie t epress m heart fet ratitude t Prof r ir Pl n en rink fr his effrt, vauae and cnstructive suestins and fr supprtin me whe hearted frm the einnin unti the end. au, than u fr ivin me this rare pprtunit. u intrduced me enerus t ur wide netwr and ur supervisin apprach fstered independent research and creativit. han u fr istenin t m ra presentatin when had the pprtunit f meetin up with u aeit shrt ntice and the enthusiasm u shwed deserves cmmendatin. am indeted t b toeter wh intrduced me t the uatic c and ater uait anaement department and loor Peeters wh ined me t au. had n cme t aeninen fr wees fr a shrt curse n nterated est anaement and Fd afet ut in additin eft with the assurance f din a h.

m cprmter Dr ontn or, than u fr a ur cmments and suestins. he awas heped me t at issues frm anther perspective. wud as ie t etend m ratitude t different pepe wh made this urne etter. enistie, than u fr cmin and hepin me with scia science aspects f the stud. t was reat t have such an insihtfu and supprtive assistance frm u. le, am s happ u were here and heped me et that scia science wr mvin s and on, than u fr assistin me in the varius surves, sampin and data cectin and tain interest in m wr ac in Ghana. Prof fos ni, than u fr ur interest, encuraement and invauae cntriutins.

m stress rup, am ratefu ur fates cincided and that we t t spend a this time tether. r, than u fr ein there, than u fr receivin me and tain me rund aeninen t et setted. erhan, u supprted me with statistica anasis. ened spendin time with u oel Dr i onilli nre k n enio – thans fr the fun memries, am happ t have spent time with u a.

166 Acknowledgement

Prine ns rit sr Pl

Dr rles Drko i it essi

beneer nel ose sfor n oele ben b n fi

n Dotie

A

chal oaa a rt u

167 Addendum

168 Curriculum Vitae

rril ite

– – Environmental Protection Agency, the same year that I completed my Master’s degree (2002). years’ worth of A National Pzone Unit (NOU) of Ghana, as part of a team implementing Ghana’s obligation unde

169 Addendum

Pblitions

Refereed Scientific Publications non ke , ogarh N, an den rin P. 2020. Environmental ris assessment of pesticides currently applied in Ghana. hemosphere 2, 2. httpsdoi.org0.0.chemosphere.2020.2

non ke , ParisPlants , eita , ee , an den rin P, ogarh N, aroh . 2020. Pesticides ecrease acterial iversity and Abundance of Irrigated ice ields. Microorganisms . httpsdoi.org0.0microorganisms00 non ke , Mengistie , OfosuAnim , etteh Nuer, A, an den rin, P. 20. Pesticide registration, distribution and use practices in Ghana. Environment, evelopment and ustainability 2, 2–2. httpsdoi.org0.00s000

o be sbittee non ke , engiao P, ogarh N, an den rin P. ining macroinvertebrates and physico chemical parameters for water uality assessment in the lower basin of the olta iver in Ghana.

170 List of publications

A

171

oloon

esis n oer lot iel nonke Printin Proefsriftkennl