A Case Study of the Riverine Islands in Bangladesh

Volume 29 Refuge Number 2

Location Security and Environmental- Induced Displacement: a Case Study of the Riverine Islands in Bangladesh

Brad K. Blitz

ABSTRACT les risques environnementaux et de s’en remettre, et par la Th is article introduces the concept of ‘location security’ to mesure dans laquelle les droits sont protégés. describe the specifi c relationship between place, environ- Cet article explore les pressions environnementales mental and human security. It argues that ‘location secur- actuelles et à venir au Bangladesh. On en conclut que la ity’ is determined by a location’s resilience to risk, under- sécurité du lieu est déterminée par les interactions entre stood in terms of the degree to which a specifi c region is les considérations environnementales et humaines, au pre- protected by virtue of geographical endowments and has mier chef l’impact sur les moyens de subsistance, et que des suffi cient infrastructure to withstand and recover from the migrations de formes et de durées diverses peuvent resul- eff ects of environmental hazards and ensure that rights ted de pressions environnementales, comme des pressions are protected. To illustrate the concept of location secur- sociales, économiques et politiques. ity, this article uses the sustainable livelihoods framework to explore actual and anticipated environmental pressures Introduction Th is article introduces the notion of ‘location security’ to that aff ect the river deltas of Bangladesh, and examines describe the uncertainties facing people in environmentally the adaptation responses developed by the inhabitants of threatened areas and the complex eff ects of their anticipated the riverine islands. A central fi nding of this article is that adaptation. ‘Location security’ recognises the interaction of fl exible migration and localised coping strategies based on multiple factors in the creation of both human and environ- acute knowledge of their local ecological and geological mental vulnerabilities. It develops the concepts of vulner- systems, enables the char dwellers to reduce their vulnerability and risk as found in the literature on human and ability. In this setting, human and environmental factors environmental security by emphasising the importance of when harnessed may enhance agency to mitigate hazards. place and agency for the protection and realisation of rights. ‘Location security’ is defi ned by a location’s resilience to risk, Résumé understood in terms of the degree to which a specifi c region Cet article propose le concept de « sécurité du lieu » pour is protected by virtue of geographical endowments (topog- décrire les incertitudes auxquelles sont confrontés les popu- raphy, quality of soil, nature of human settlements), and has lations de zones menaces par les chocs environnementaux suffi cient infrastructure to withstand and recover from the eff ects of environmental hazards. In this context, migration et les eff ets complexes de leur éventuelle adaptation. On is one of several adaptive responses to location insecurity y avance que la sécurité du lieu se mesure en fonction de and livelihoods vulnerability where people may move both la résilience de la zone considérée, determine par l’impor- on a temporary and permanent basis in order to mitigate tance de sa protection par des subventions territoriales, the eff ects of environmental hazards. par la présence d’infrastructure permettant de soutenir

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To illustrate the concept of location security, this article in terms of their inadequate living conditions or the poor presents a single case study of the riverine island dwell- quality of available infrastructure but in relation to the ers (char dwellers) in Bangladesh. It explores the ways in environmental risks they face given their physical location. which their location and relationship to their fragile eco- In such accounts, their settlement in unsustainable locations system defi nes their access to livelihoods and also how they underscores their insecurity and deepens their poverty.5 are placed to respond to environmental shocks, above all More recent studies by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) riverbank erosion and fl ooding. Developing the Sustainable further identify a strong connection between location and Livelihoods Framework (SLF), this article explores how their vulnerability to fl ooding. For example in their report on cli- specifi c location infl uences the livelihood strategies and mate risks, the ADB calls attention to the concentration of outcomes available to individuals and households, includ- poor households in low-lying areas including swamps and ing the prospect of migration. Th e SLF is used to inform wetlands where populations are exposed to potential storm the opportunities and obstacles facing char dwellers with and tidal surges.6 Susmita et. al. (2009) similarly project for- respect to fi ve key assets: physical, fi nancial, natural, human, ward to describe how both development eff orts and natural and social capital. Th is article concludes by identifying the weather events are creating unsustainable situations. Th ey ways in which char dwellers have coped with environmental argue that climate-induced extreme weather events, may stress and reviews the eff ectiveness of related livelihoods give rise to storm surges which will bring unmanageable enhancing interventions including the Chars Livelihoods levels of fl ooding to concentrated pockets of poor people Programme. in under resourced cities.7 Other comparative studies have further called attention to the risks posed by poor quality Review of Relevant Literature housing and human settlement, on the edges of megacities.8 Th e concept of ‘location security’ features implicitly in A further body of literature introduces the prospect region specifi c and country studies of environmental vul- of migration explicitly. Alam describes the relationship nerability. Hallie Eakin and Maggie Walser provide a pre- between environment and displacement and the geo-pol- liminary discussion of ‘location security’ in their entry in itical challenges this raises in the context of Bangladesh the Encyclopaedia of Earth in which she writes that environ- and India. He argues that the combined eff ects of demo- mental vulnerability ‘is neither an outcome nor a static graphic pressures on land and water resources, environ- internal condition but rather a dynamic property emerging mental change and rapid development, have given rise to from the structure of human relations, the internal attrib- widespread landlessness, unemployment, declining wages utes of specifi c populations and places, and the nature of and income, growing income disparities and degradation social-environmental interaction’. 1 Vulnerability expresses of human habitat which have encouraged the out-migration both risk and the capacity for resilience. In the context of of millions of Bangladeshis to India.9 Others have similarly ‘location security’, the specifi city of place is of paramount found that a key driver of migration in South Asia is the importance in the estimation of vulnerability. Further, just breakdown of eco-system dependent livelihoods as a result as environmental impacts may be diff erentiated across— of both human and environmental factors.10 In this context and within—geographically bounded areas, for example climate change, which is associated with the increased fre- within diff erent parts of cities, river systems, or provincial quency of extreme weather conditions, is considered to be a territories, we note that adaptive responses may also be ‘risk-multiplier’. localised,2 including migration.3 Some people chose to fl ee Th e relationship between migration and location secur- following environmental disasters, while others do not. ity, however, requires further examination. Some prom- Th e literature on human security also provides a basis for inent scholars have contested the deterministic leaning developing the concept of location security in its treatment in both the environmental and human security literature of localised risk and the growing recognition of multi-caus- briefl y described above. Gemenne, for example, argues that ality and inter-causality in the creation of vulnerabilities.4 increased water stress—when the demand for water exceeds Th ere is also a growing body of empirical work on compound the available amount during a certain period or when poor vulnerability which is relevant to this article. For example, quality restricts its use—can aff ect migration patterns in in the Voices of the Poor reports, the largest public opinion diff erent directions and may give rise to multiple types of survey conducted with approximately 60,000 people in 60 adaptation.11 Barnet similarly found that many would be countries, the participants’ responses illustrate a complex migrants do not necessarily leave situations where they are at perception of insecurity which is informed by their under- risk but rather invest in satisfying their basic needs.12 Hence standing of structural deprivation and environmental vul- while migration is one means of adaptation, it is not neces- nerability. Respondents describe their marginality not only sarily the preferred option for many living in threatened

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environments. Gemenne therefore suggests it is helpful to and strengths of individuals, households, and /or commun- diff erentiate between types of migrant in order to describe ities. Th e framework also provides for micro to macro level both the push factors and potential duration of the migra- analyses of the contexts in which these strategies must be tion. He suggests using the term environmental migrants, to implemented, including links between micro and the macro describe those whose movement he claims is voluntary and institutional and policy making and delivery structures, pro-active. By contrast, the term environmental displacees, and processes.17 describes those whose movement is forced and reactive. For the purposes of this article, location security is Similarly Renaud et al. (2010) identify three main categories defi ned as a location’s resilience to risk, understood in of environmental migrant: environment emergency migrant terms of the degree to which a specifi c region is protected where one fl ees to save one’s life; environmentally motivated by virtue of geographical endowments (topography, qual- migrant where a migrant decides not to return or decides ity of soil, nature of human settlements), and has suffi cient against taking up an alternative livelihood in impacted infrastructure to withstand and recover from the eff ects area choosing to fl ee instead; and an environmentally forced of environmental hazards. What makes a location secure migrant where following slow and ineff ective attempts is a mix of both natural and human factors. For environ- at recovery, the migrant does not return or if alternative mentally threatened populations, the degree to which they livelihood would be delayed or was impossible—or if the can enhance their sustainability by mobilising their assets impacted area no longer exists, the migrant fl ees. 13 necessarily informs their sense of security. In the context While situating the analysis within the above literature, of environmental vulnerability, the preservation of natural this article synthetically contributes to both the writings on and human capital (above all health) is especially signifi cant environmental displacement and human security. It revisits since these are frequently among the most vulnerable assets. through an empirical case study how location and agency Factors which inhibit location security include the impact on vulnerability and off ers policy considerations in destruction of natural capital and the loss of eco-dependent combating those. livelihoods as a result of deforestation, and the resulting ground water withdrawal and fl ooding, heat stress, poor Conceptual Framework housing and sanitation, soil erosion and infrastructure Th is study uses the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach development. One of the most dramatic sources of natural (SLA) to explore the ways in which char dwellers have capital depletion is in the construction of major infrastruc- responded to the environmental shocks associated with tural development projects in the form of dams, hydro-elec- river bank erosion and fl ooding. Although the SLA was tric and energy production plants. During the last 50 years, originally designed by the UK Department of International in India alone, an estimated 25 million have been displaced Development (DFID) to improve the agencies capacity to by development projects. In that same period, development contribute to poverty elimination,14 it has proved a remark- projects in China have displaced more than 40 million ably fl exible framework to analyse complex environmental people, including 13.6 million in the past 15 years.18 Most challenges and their impact on livelihoods. 15 For the pur- notably, China’s Th ree Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, poses of this study, livelihood is defi ned in broad terms to which stretches across Sandouping, Yichang, and Hubei include the capabilities, assets (including both material provinces was built in an earthquake zone and its construc- and social resources) and activities required for a means tion required the drowning of farmland, cities and towns, of living. Borrowing from DFID’s defi nition, we describe and the involuntary relocation of 1.3 million people. Th e a livelihood to be sustainable ‘when it can cope with and process of creating the dam came at considerable psycho- recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance logical stress,19 and reportedly caused massive subsequent its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while ecological damage downstream where further deforestation not undermining the natural resource base.’16 and coastal erosion rendered other areas unsustainable.20 A central feature of the SLA is the inclusion of fi ve related Other causes of the depletion of natural capital include asset types. Th ese have been described in terms of types of rapid urbanisation and unsustainable settlement in regions capital which can be converted to inform strategies to aff ect where there is inadequate urban planning and coordination livelihood outcomes which in turn may reduce vulnerabil- of civic services. Th e rapid expansion of megacities in much ity. Th e fi ve assets are described as natural, social, physical, of South Asia, East Asia and China has forced millions of human and fi nancial forms of capital. Th e strength of the migrants to exist in polluted and unsanitary living quarters, SLA is its holistic nature. It takes into account not only oft en in low lying coastal areas where infrastructure is lack- threats, challenges and weaknesses (as part of the vulnerabil- ing, leaving them vulnerable to fl ooding and displacement. ity context), but also improvised strategies, opportunities, Th ose most at risk include the urban poor concentrated in

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fl ood prone areas in and around Ho Chi Minh City, Dhaka, mangrove forest in the world—the Meghna Estuary region, Kolkata, and Manila. and South East Chittagong division. Further, the extensive demand for timber and wood has In response to the above environmental threats, migra- led to high rates of deforestation and has put great strain tion has become a feature of life for char dewellers. Riverbank on local living conditions for millions of people across the erosion is estimated to displace 600,000 people every Asia-Pacifi c region. While Asia contains only 16 percent of year.28 Poncelet argues that riverbank dwellers are at risk the world’s remaining tropical forests, approximately 25 of ‘involuntary migration’, landlessness and homelessness. percent of global forest loss is caused by deforestation,21 in She claims that since 2003 approximately 135,632 families order to clear the ground for substitute income generating became homeless due to riverbank erosion and maintains cultivation and production including other forms of agricul- that landlessness also results from the reallocation of (un) ture, palm oil and biofuel production. Some argue that the usable resources, noting that since 1973, over 158,780 hec- net eff ect has accelerated vulnerabilities since deforestation tares has been lost to riverbank erosion.29 Th is involuntary impacts on livelihoods by aff ecting watersheds.22 Examples migration stands in sharp contrast to the adaptation strat- of how deforestation has contributed to environmental pres- egies which have sustained urban migrants in Bangladesh. sures which have prompted the out-migration of vulnerable In their study of displaced urban dwellers, the IOM recorded people are illustrated by the aft er eff ects of the droughts in that 83 per cent of respondents cited unemployment due to Yunnan China and the drying out of the Paguyaman River frequent fl oods as the primary cause for the out-migration in North Sulawesi, Indonesia.23 of a household member who settled in a city nearby. Th e Th e distinct pressures mentioned above have given rise out-migration, however, served to strengthen the position of to diff erent adaptation and mitigation strategies includ- the household back home since remittances were used not ing seasonal and permanent migration as well as collective only to buy food but also capital investments, including the responses. Some governments have taken steps to protect repair of homes.30 By contrast, char dwellers who migrate their populations from climate-induced hazards, most oft en move to nearby and equally vulnerable chars where notably the Maldives which established a sea wall around there is no possibility of generating a surplus required for the main island that is claimed with protecting the popula- remittances. Sarker et al. (2003) describe the specifi c location of Male from the 2004 Tsunami. Some countries, such tional challenges for char dwellers as a result of environ- as Th ailand have also put in place schemes to reduce the mental pressures and eventual displacement: eff ects of land subsidence;24 others such as Vietnam have focused on providing alternative livelihoods to resettled People displaced by char erosion have no other alternative than to populations. settle on accreting char land elsewhere, creating a typical social For analytical purposes, we may distinguish between the and economic char environment. Th e economics of the char following location specifi c vulnerabilities. lands are largely based on agriculture, fi shing and livestock‐rear- ing. Education, health and extension services and support to cope Th e Riverine Chars of Bangladesh with the calamities of fl ood and erosion are minimal. Th is not ‘Char’ is the Bengali word for the sand and silt land masses only results in individual misery, but also in unrealized potential which form the riverine islands in the Jamuna, Padma and of resources on the chars.31 the Meghna rivers. Chars play a critical role as cultivable areas in what is a densely populated state. An estimated 6.5 We also note that by relocating from one char to another, million people (approximately 5 per cent of the Bangladeshi char dwellers remain trapped in a subsistence level exist- population) live on chars.25 Even in country where an esti- ence as landless farmers, fi shermen or agricultural produ- mated 40 per cent of the population are poor,26 char dwell- cers. Char dwellers may have access to these riverine lands ers are among the poorest of the poor and have had to but do not actually hold any natural capital and as a result adapt to survive in the ecologically fragile delta and river are tied to their environment. systems. Sarker et al. (2003), note that while chars provide Nonetheless, char dwellers remain committed to the an environment which is used for subsistence agriculture, river deltas. In some 350 interviews conducted over 8 chars, animal husbandry and fi shing they are diffi cult to access Marie-Pierre Arseneault (2012) found that in spite of the and form an extremely dynamic environment as a result risks, most people wished to remain on the chars. While of frequent and intensive fl ooding and erosion.27 Th ree of several men interviewed had the opportunity to move away the most precarious areas are the South West region and for work, such movements were temporary and the vast Sunderbans—the largest single block of tidal halophytic majority of permanent migrations were from one char to

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Table 1—Location Specifi c Vulnerabilities Location Category Affected Environmental Pressures Vulnerabilities Megacities Urban migrants Heat stress, sanitation and Destruction of natural and water, housing, disease, human capital as a result fl ooding. of pollution, over crowding, public health risk, fatalities. Tropical forests/mountain Forest dwellers Deforestation as a result of Destruction of natural and areas over logging; glacial melting. human capital as a result of changes to watershed, drought and fl ooding, increase in water and airborne diseases, infestation. Himalayas Mountain dwellers Glacier retreat; increased Destruction of natural and fl ooding, heavy precipita- human capital as a result tion as a result of climate of displacement following change soil erosion, crop destruction, damage to farming, increase in water and airborne diseases, infestation. Pacifi c basin, Pacifi c islands Coastal Villagers Flooding due to cyclones, Destructition to natural, sea-level rise, salinity, soil human and social capital erosion, as a result of cli- following fatalities, damage mate change to agricultural livelihoods, fi shing, increase in infec- tious water and airborne diseases e.g. malaria. Pacifi c islands Low Lying Island dwellers Flooding due to cyclones, Destruction of natural and sea-level rise, salinity, soil social capital as a result of erosion, as a result of cli- statelessness; and destruc- mate change tion of livelihoods. Inland Farmers Glacier retreat; increased Destruction of natural capital fl ooding, heavy precipita- as a result of changes to tion as a result of climate watershed, drought and change; fl ooding due to fl ooding; displacement, soil cyclones, sea-level rise, erosion, crop destruction. salinity, soil erosion, as a result of climate change Coastal and riverbank com- Fishermen Flooding due to cyclones, Destruction of natural capital munities; low lying island sea-level rise, salinity, soil as a result of pollution, nations erosion, as a result of cli- fl ooding, loss of fi sh and mate change related livelihoods.

another where they were still exposed to environmental risk, Arifur Rahman and Md. Munsur Rahman of the Institute sometimes greater than in their previous setting.32 of Water and Flood Management, Bangladesh University In spite of their fragile habitat, the char dwellers have of Engineering and Technology, describe how chars form developed a system of environmental adaptation suited over a 12–15 year period, during which time char dwell- to their limited assets and which draws upon their under- ers engage in several diff erent livelihoods from cultivating standing of the natural processes of accretion and sediment ground nuts to preparing the land for rice production. 34 dynamics. In response to fl ooding and coastal erosion, the Th ey describe a tradition of adaptation and fl exibility which char dwellers navigate the geological contest between loss of includes exploiting the natural processes of land accretion, land from riverbank erosion and the emergence of new land migration and the rotation of crops.35 Elsewhere, Hanna through the process of accretion and move from char to Schmuck-Widmann (2001) has found that char dwellers on char as necessary. For some, the possibility of returning to the Jamuna River follow strategies based on local-indigen- their reconstituted island home provides a source of secur- ous knowledge to produce agricultural products and rear ity.33 Writing on the development of chars and Mohammad animals.36

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In addition to informal and traditional modes of adap- has nonetheless produced a number of relevant environ- tation, the government of Bangladesh, together with the mental policies, including the National Environmental UK Department for International Development (DFID) Management Action Plan (1996), the National Water Policy and Australian Agency for International Development (1999), and the National Capacity Self-Assessment (NCSA) (AusAID) has introduced specifi c programmes which aim for Global Environmental Management (2007). Walsham’s to improve the livelihoods of char dwellers exposed to 2010 report for the IOM records that environmental and riverbank erosion and displacement. Th e Chars Livelihood climate-induced migration is now included in these policy Programme delivers both welfare and initiates human cap- documents and underlines that the NSCA now refers to ital development eff orts to support extremely poor house- the problems of ‘displacement by river bank erosion, rural- holds living on chars on the Jamuna River in Northern urban migration and the potential for out-migration from Bangladesh. Th e fi rst stage of the programme was aimed at coastal zones’. Further, he notes the Draft National Plan 90,684 households—of which 55,000 received a full package for Disaster Management (2008) makes reference to dis- of support. Women, in particular were identifi ed for assist- placement and specifi c vulnerabilities related to migration, ance which included: i) the transfer of an initial amount of including wider migration and development issues such as capital with could be used to purchase an income generat- the gendered eff ects of migration for families left behind.39 ing asset (e.g. cow, rickshaw, sewing machine), followed by further monthly stipends (over 18 months); ii) the provision Analysis of physical infrastructure including plinths to raise home- Th e above case study illustrates the pertinence of place in steads above the fl ood line, as well as latrines and tubewells our consideration of both environmental and human secur- to improve sanitation; and iii) the delivery of social develop- ity. While Bangladesh is subject to many environmental ment training and other types of technical and educational stresses and hazards, the above study of the riverine islands support. Th e programme also introduced char dwellers to provides a crucial insight into the ways in which the nat- village based microcredit and enterprise schemes and com- ural habitat can be made adaptable to support even the most munity-based health care.37 marginal livelihoods. Although the natural environment An independent review of the above programme recorded along the river deltas is extremely fragile and threatens the signifi cant gains from both the welfare and human capital lives and livelihoods of millions of char dwellers, we note development interventions. It found that, as a result of the that the river systems themselves are sites of adaptation liverlihood enhancing aspects of the programme, some by virtue of the fact that land masses both disappear and of the poor and most vulnerable households were raised reappear following fl ooding and remain potentially fertile above the extreme poverty threshold. Further it found that and cultivable islands. Even in the absence of physical or individuals supported experienced positive social benefi ts indeed civic and administrative infrastructure on the chars, in addition to improved health, sanitation, and nutrition. they are potentially agriculturally rich natural environ- DFID reports that at least 12,490 households (or 46,712 indi- ments. Th e deltas are thus both sites of environmental vul- viduals) were been lift ed above the extreme poverty thresh- nerability and arguably natural resilience. old and more than 90,000 homes were rendered physically Th e degree to which char dwellers are able to capitalise on secure as a result of this programme. Th e evaluators also the potential richness of the chars is, however, constrained record further benefi ts including a signifi cant reduction in by their own shortage of endowments, including fi nancial the prevalence of stunting among children. and human capital. Th eir homesteads are at constant risk Other organisations working with international part- of fl ooding and their health is compromised by the absence ners have focused on improving the physical security of the of medicines and a restricted diet. Yet, as noted in the char dwellers. For example, the Center for Environmental above discussion of the Chars Livelihood Programme, such and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS) and UNDP inequalities can be ameliorated as a result of welfare, liveli- initiated a project where they placed fl ags to mark out sites hood and human development interventions. Th e success of vulnerable to river erosion as a warning to villagers. Such these interventions suggests that the considerable environ- interventions have, however produced mixed results given mental challenges facing char dwellers can be managed and the diffi culties of reaching this geographically dispersed made more secure. group.38 Moreover, as noted above, many char dwellers In terms of responding to the shock of environmental have an acute understanding of their physical environment, hazards including riverbank erosion and fl ooding, the vul- including the dangers it presents. nerability of char dwellers is compounded by their relative While the government of Bangladesh has been primar- isolation from Bangladeshi society and their marginalisa- ily concerned with the displacement of urban dwellers, it tion as landless people. Although they have developed ways

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of adapting to their natural environment, by migrating of major industrial development projects, such as the large and responding to their relocation with fl exible methods of scale dams noted above where people’s freedom of move- farming and agriculture (e.g. rotating from ground nuts to ment and agency is restricted. rice), they have little or no natural capital of their own and hence may have little opportunity to move beyond the chars Conclusions: Refl ecting on possible policy and river systems. For this reason, livelihood enhance- recommendations ment programmes including Chars Livelihood Programme Th e above study illustrates the pertinence of ‘location secur- are important ways of reducing complex vulnerability that ity’ as a means to understanding the complex interplay results from environmental pressures and social inequalities. between human and environmental security. Th e specifi c Th e contested nature of the river habitat, as an environ- context of the riverine deltas of Bangladesh, otherwise sites ment where land is both lost and created from fl ooding, of considerable environmental hazard, are home to millions provides a unique context in which to revisit the above of char dwellers who have developed successful systems of discussion and defi nition of an environmental migrant. adaptation which allow them to continue their marginal As noted above, Gemenne and Renaud et al. have broken eco-dependent existence in a fertile habitat. Although their down the term environmental migrant to describe both the location is itself the site of environmental stress from fl ood- causal intention behind the act of migration and the con- ing and coastal erosion, which in turn threatens livelihoods, ditions which sustain it. Arguably char dwellers could, at it is also a place of natural resilience and renewal. Th e char various points, be classifi ed as environmental emergency dwellers have an acute understanding of their habitat and migrants (who later return), or environmentally motivated its natural endowments, which enables them to mobilise migrants though, as Arseneault’s research suggests that they their own limited asset base and migrate between chars are unlikely to fall into the category of the environmentally in order to protect themselves from the above mentioned forced migrant who leaves permanently. Th e case of the char environmental hazards. We note that where migrants have dwellers therefore illustrates the ways in which agency fea- been able to take charge of their own lives by relocating tures in response to environmental threats and the import- both in advance and following disasters, in contrast to those ance of livelihoods and access to land, as some of the factors displaced by large infrastructural projects, they have oft en driving adaptation and migration. successfully protected livelihoods. When people have free- As the above account records, the livelihood implications dom of movement, are able to adapt, plan and exploit their of environmental displacement in Bangladesh’s river deltas knowledge of the local situation, migration is easier to man- are most profoundly felt among the extreme poor, landless, age and has less environmental impact. and remote communities which enjoyer fewer assets with Th e vulnerability of the char dwellers is not limited to which to mitigate the eff ects of displacement, migration and environmental risk but is also determined by social, polit- resettlement. In terms of scale and eff ect, it is important ical, and economic inequalities which are expressed in their to note unlike rapid urbanisation and the proliferation of lack of human, fi nancial and physical assets. For this rea- development-related projects in other parts of Bangladesh son, interventions such as the Chars Livelihood Programme which may displace large numbers of people permanently, are important initiatives to reduce vulnerability. We note environmental displacement in the river deltas is oft en tem- that when migrants are given the opportunity to develop porary. Again, the reasons for this are linked to not only to their human capital base, they are better placed to divers- the limited options available to the char dwellers but also ify skill sets and are less reliant on vulnerable livelihoods. their successful exploitation of the ecological habitat. Equally, advanced planning to build up local defences by Th e notion of location security helps to inform our raising buildings on plinths, and by investing in livelihoods understanding of the ways in which vulnerabilities are diversifi cation interventions may in the long term protect structured. We note that char dwellers have managed to vulnerable populations from the compound eff ects of isola- diversify their livelihood strategies, combining agricul- tion, environmental hazards, and limited opportunities for ture, fi shing, and farming due to both the richness of the human and natural capital development. river delta and their deep understanding of their natural Th e success of the Chars Livelihoods Programme sug- environment and the geological processes which sustain gests that the considerable environmental challenges facing it. Th ey have done so because, even in the absence of much char dwellers can be managed and made more secure. physical, fi nancial or human capital, they enjoy the possi- Arguably more targeted interventions which focus on bility of migrating within a familiar environment. We note building human capital through health and nutrition pro- that the context of their migration is notably diff erent from grammes minimises disease and provides additional safe- the human-induced displacement experienced in the case guards to the char islanders. Further by promoting access to

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common land, in this instance, fertile chars, the state may Out for Change (New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press, assist vulnerable populations which themselves have little 2000); Deepa Narayan and Patti Petesch, Voices of the Poor: or no natural capital and few convertible assets. For this From Many Lands (New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press, reason, complementary development interventions which 2002). seek to protect homesteads, for example by raising them on 6. See World Bank, Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian plinths, are especially important. Coastal Megacities A Synthesis Report. (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2010). Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/Resour- ces/226300–1287600424406/coastal_megacities_fullre- NOTES port.pdf 1. Hallie Eakin and Maggie L. Walser, “Human Vulner- 7. Susmita Dasgupta, Benoit Laplante, Siobhan Murray, and ability to Global Environmental Change,” Encyclo- David Wheeler, Climate Change and the Future Impacts of pedia of Earth, J. Cutler ed. Cleveland, (Washing- Storm-Surge Disasters in Developing Countries. Working ton, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, Paper 182, September 2009. (Washington, D.C., Center for National Council for Science and the Environment, Global Development, 2009) 12. Available at: http://www. 2008). Available at: http://www.eoearth.org/article/ cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/1422836 Human_vulnerability_to_global_environmental_change 8. World Bank, Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian 2. See: Mozaharul Alam and MD Golam Rabbani, “Vulner- Coastal Megacities A Synthesis Report. (Washington, abilities and Responses to Climate Change for Dhaka,” D.C.: World Bank, 2010). Available at: http://sitere- Environment and Urbanization 19, no. 1 (2007): 81–97; sources.worldbank.org/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/Resour- and, EACH FOR, General Overview Study Short version ces/226300–1287600424406/coastal_megacities_fullre- Subpackage 3, Asia Pacifi c. (Brussels, EACH-FOR, 2008), port.pdf Available at: http://www.each-for.eu/documents/GOS_ 9. See for example, Sarfaraz Alam, “Environmentally induced Asia-Pacifi c_-_short_080510.pdf migration from Bangladesh to India”, Strategic Analysis . 3 Rita Afsar, “Internal Migration and the Development 27/3 (2003), 422–38. Nexus: Th e Case of Bangladesh,” in Regional Conference 1 0. Koko Warner, Charles Ehrhart, Alex de Sherbinin,Susana on Migration, Development and Pro-Poor Policy Choices Adamo and Tricia Chai-Onn, In Search of Shelter: Mapping in Asia, 2003, 22–24, http://r4d.dfi d.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/ the Eff ects of Climate Change on Human Migration and Dis- migrationglobpov/wp-cp2.pdf ; Sarfaraz Alam, “Environ- placement. May 2009, p. iv. Available at: http://www.care- mentally Induced Migration from Bangladesh to India,” climatechange.org Strategic Analysis 27, no. 3 (2003): 422–438; U. S. De, R. 1 1. François Gemenne, Environmental Migration (Version K. Dube, and GS Prakasa Rao, “Extreme Weather Events 11). 25 July 2008, Available from: http://knol.google. over India in the Last 100 Years,” Journal of the Indian Geo- com/k/francois-gemenne/environmental-migration/ physical Union 9, no. 3 (2005): 173–187. Tasneem Siddiqui, qrmnmkeyllpq/2. “International migration as a livelihood strategy of the 1 2. Jon Barnett, “Security and Climate Change”, Global poor: Th e Bangladesh Case”, in Migration and development: Environmental Change, 13/1 (2003), 7–17. Pro-poor policy choices, ed. Tasneem Siddiqui, (Dhaka: Th e 1 3. Fabrice G. Renaud, Olivia Dun, Koko Warner, and Janos University Press, 2005). Bogardi, “A Decision Framework for Environmentally 4. Kofi A. Annan, “We the People”s the Role of the United Induced Migration”, International Migration, 14/1 (2011), th Nations in the 20 Century, (New York: United Nations, 5–29. 2000), Available at: http://www.un.org/millennium/sg/ 1 4. See ‘Key Sheets for Sustainable Livelihoods: Overview’, report/full.htm Kofi A. Annan, “Two Concepts of Sover- Department for International Development (DFID), avail- eignty,” in Th e Economist, 18 September 1999. Avail- able at: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2339. able at http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/stories/kaecon. pdf html; World Bank, World Development Report 2000/2001 1 5. See ‘Key Sheets for Sustainable Livelihoods: Overview’, -Attacking Poverty: Opportunity, Empowerment and Security, Department for International Development (DFID), avail- (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2001), Available at: http:// able at: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/2339. web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTP pdf OVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20194762~pagePK:148956~piP 1 6. Adapted from Chambers, R. and G. Conway (1992) Sus- K:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html tainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 5. See the three global reports: Deepa Narayan, Raj Patel, Kai 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. Brighton: IDS, Schafft , Anne Rademacher and Sarah Koch-Schulte, Voices quoted in DFID, Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets of the Poor: Can Anyone Hear Us? (New York, N.Y.: Oxford 1.1:Introduction, p.1. University Press, 2000); Deepa Narayan, Robert Chambers, 1 7. DFID op.cit. Meera K. Shah and Patti Petesch, Voices of the Poor: Crying

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1 8. See: W. Courtland Robinson, Minimizing Development- 3 0. Matthew Walsham, Assessing the Evidence: Environment, Induced Displacement, (Migration Information Source Climate Change and Migration in Bangladesh. (Dhaka: 2004). Available at: http://www.migrationinformation.org/ IOM, 2010). Available at: http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/ Feature/display.cfm?ID=194 RWFiles2010.nsf/FilesByRWDocUnidFilename/MCOI- 1 9. See: Sean-Shong Hwang, Juan Xi, Yue Cao, Xiaotian Feng, 8AZEJE-full_report.pdf/$File/full_report.pdf and Xiaofei Qiao(2007), “Anticipation of migration and 3 1. Sarker et al. (2003). Op.cit. psychological stress and the Th ree Gorges Dam project, 3 2. Marie-Pierre Arseneault, (2012), Environmental migration China”, Social Science & Medicine, 65/5, (2007), 1012–1024. in Bangladesh:Th e case of the char-islands, Center for Sus- 2 0. CEDEM (2009) “China Case Study Report—Forced migra- tainable Development (CSD), University of Liberal Arts of tion and the Th ree-Gorges Dam”. EACH-FOR, Avail- Bangladesh (ULAB). able at: http://www.each-for.eu/documents/CSR_Th ree_ 3 3. See: Shafi Noor Islam, Shilpa Singh, Hasibush Shaheed, Gorges_Dam_090317.pdf Shouke Wei, “Settlement Relocations in the Char-lands of 2 1. Billy Cheng, Forestry in Asia, (Responsible Research, Padma River Basin in Ganges Delta, Bangladesh,” Frontiers 2010). Available at: http://www.responsibleresearch.com/ of Earth Science in China 4, no. 4 (December 1, 2010): 393– Forestry_in_Asia-Issues_for_Responsible_Investors.pdf 402, doi:10.1007/s11707–010–0122–5. 2 2. Ibid. 3 4. Mohammad Arifur Rahman and Md Munsur Rahman, 2 3. Working Group on Climate Change and Development “Impact of Livelihood Practices on the Char Dwellers Eco- (November 2007), cited in Cheng, 62. nomic Condition in Riverine Chars: Case Studies in Ban- 2 4. World Bank, Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian gladesh,” Journal of the Bangladesh Association of Young Coastal Megacities A Synthesis Report. (Washing- Researchers 1, no. 1 (February 7, 2011), doi:10.3329/jbayr ton, D.C.: World Bank, 2010). Available at: http:// .v1i1.6838. siteresources.worldbank.org/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/ 3 5. Ibid. p. 19 Resources/226300–1287600424406/coastal_megacities_ 3 6. Hanna Schmuck-Widmann, “Facing the Jamuna River: fullreport.pdf Indigenous and Engineering Knowledge in Bangladesh” 2 5. Environment and GIS Support Project for Water Sector (Bangladesh Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge, Planning, Riverine Chars in Bangladesh: Environmental 2001). Dynamics and Management Issues. (Dhaka: University 3 7. DFID (2011) op.cit. Press, 2000). 3 8. Alice Poncelet, “Bangladesh Case Study Report—Th e Land 2 6. Department for International Development Bangladesh— of Mad Rivers”, EACH-FOR, Environmental Change and Independent Impact Assessment of the Chars Livelihoods Forced Migration Scenarios, (Brussels: EACH-FOR, 2009), Programme—Phase 1, Final Report, August 2011. Avail- Available at: http://www.each-for.eu/documents/CSR_Ban- able at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ gladesh_090126.pdf uploads/attachment_data/file/204635/Evaluation-chars 3 9. Walsham, op.cit. 33. -livelihoods-prog-bangladesh.pdf 2 7. Maminul Haque Sarker et al., “Rivers, Chars and Char Dwellers of Bangladesh,” International Journal of River Brad Blitz is a professor of international politics and deputy Basin Management 1, no. 1 (2003): 61–80. dean, School of Law, Middlesex University. Th e author may 2 8. Sarket et al. (2003). Op.cit. be contacted at [email protected]. 2 9. Ibid, 13.