Canadian Professional Chefs' Perceived Value of Formal

CANADIAN PROFESSIONAL CHEFS’

PERCEIVED VALUE OF FORMAL CULINARY EDUCATION

AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH INDUSTRY SUCCESS

Colin Philip Roche

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The College of Education

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida

August 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The journey of earning a doctorate can at times seem lonely and difficult, leaving

the writer to wonder if it will ever come to a successful conclusion. Throughout my own

specific journey, I have been blessed to be the beneficiary of assistance, guidance,

prayers, and well-wishes from a countless number of family, friends, colleagues, and mentors. To all of you, I offer my sincere thanks and appreciation. Your efforts mean

more to me than you may realize.

In the matter of expressing my gratitude and appreciation to specific individuals, I

would first like to thank Dr. Deborah L. Floyd, Professor of Educational Leadership at

Florida Atlantic University, who served as my doctoral advisor and doctoral committee

chair. I would not have completed my journey if it were not for you. Your guidance, patience, prodding, critiquing and encouragement provided the impetus for me to continue and push forward. I feel that I am a better person in many ways because of you.

I am most appreciative of the members of my doctoral committee: Dr. John Dan

Morris and Dr. Robert Shockley. Your enthusiastic acceptance of my dissertation topic and willingness to offer thoughtful, insightful, and prompt feedback and suggestions throughout the dissertation process provided me with a tremendous amount of confidence and assurance.

I would also like to extend a special word of thanks and appreciation to everyone at Johnson & Wales University who supported me on my journey, including Dr. Veera

Gaul, Dr. Larry Rice, and Dean Bruce Ozga.

ABSTRACT

Author: Colin Philip Roche

Title: Canadian Professional Chefs’ Perceived Value of Formal Culinary Education and its Relationship with Industry Success

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Deborah L. Floyd

Degree: Doctor of Philosophy

Year: 2012

Hundreds of universities, colleges and institutions graduate students yearly with

some form of culinary education. To date, limited research has been conducted to examine the perceived value of formal culinary education on industry career success from

the perspective of those who conduct the majority of the hiring of culinary positions. This

dissertation examined the perceived value of formal education in culinary arts and its

relationship with industry success from the perspective of Canadian professional chefs.

The study used a survey methodology to examine the perceptions of professional

chefs throughout Canada. Data were collected and subjected to quantitative analysis.

Results showed that Canadian professional chefs believe there is value and benefit in

having formal culinary education and that it can increase a culinarian’s success and

income potential in the industry. Their current opinion recommends that the minimum

level of formal culinary education an entry level culinarian should have today is a

diploma or certificate in culinary arts.

Though the population for this study was Canadian professional chefs who were

members of the Canadian Culinary Federation, the results of this study may be useful to both current and future culinarians who are pursuing or contemplating pursuing formal culinary education in other countries, especially the United States. Canadian professional

chefs not only value formal culinary education but also give preferential hiring to those

who have it in their background and often provide a higher starting pay rate.

This study provides evidence that Canadian professional chefs need and want an

educated workforce and believe the value and benefits one receives from their formal

culinary education is worth the costs of obtaining that education. Institutions that provide

formal culinary education will find this important as they come under increased scrutiny

from stakeholders to demonstrate the value of the investment students make in terms of

tuition and associated costs.

vii

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my family, including my three children, Jameson,

Charles and Finnegan. Lastly and most importantly, I would like to offer a special dedication to my wife, Hilary Martin Roche. There were times that I thought of ending the journey before reaching the destination. I have no doubt that it was the love, prayers and caring encouragement from this special person that caused me to abandon such thoughts and continue on. The aforementioned love, prayers, encouragement, support and compassion did not suddenly appear when this project started. Rather, these elements were an intense magnification, amplification and replication of what I have been the recipient of throughout our entire marriage together. It is for that reason I consider myself the luckiest human alive. Thanks for everything Hilary. This accomplishment could not have been realized without you. We are a team, and we accomplished this together.

Thanks so much for your love and support. You have made many sacrifices these past six years for the good of our family. You are my rock. I love you.

In closing, I offer a special memorial to my mother Maureen, who always told her children that they can be anything and do anything they want if they just put their mind to it. Her unyielding love, care, and guidance has been a great inspiration and support throughout my life. Thanks to both you and Dad for encouraging me to set goals and follow my dreams. I am so blessed to have such supportive parents. Thank you both for

viii

always “being there”. I realize now more than ever the sacrifices you made for the good of your kids. Thank you! I love you both.

CANADIAN PROFESSIONAL CHEFS’

PERCEIVED VALUE OF FORMAL CULINARY EDUCATION

AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH INDUSTRY SUCCESS

LIST OF TABLES ...... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xiv

CHAPTER 1 ...... 1

Introduction ...... 1

Background of the Study ...... 2

Statement of the Problem ...... 3

Purpose and Scope of the Proposed Study ...... 4

Rationale for the Study ...... 5

Research Questions and Hypotheses ...... 6

Significance of the Study ...... 8

Definitions...... 9

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ...... 10

Limitations of the study...... 11

Delimitations of the study...... 11

Role of the Researcher ...... 12

Conceptual Framework ...... 13

Chapter Summary ...... 13

viii

CHAPTER 2 ...... 15

Review of the Literature ...... 15

Cook versus Chef ...... 20

Overview of the Value of Formal Culinary Education ...... 30

The Rise of the Professions...... 35

Vocational versus Academic ...... 36

Value of Education ...... 45

Employment Outlook ...... 49

Culinary Education ...... 51

Chapter Summary ...... 53

CHAPTER 3 ...... 55

Methodology ...... 55

Review of the Research Problems ...... 55

Selecting and Qualifying the Sample of the Study ...... 56

Creation and Dissemination of Questionnaire ...... 57

Expert Review ...... 58

Research Design and Procedures ...... 58

Research Questions and Analysis ...... 59

Analysis of Questionnaire ...... 61

Chapter Summary ...... 61

CHAPTER 4 ...... 62

Analysis and Evaluation ...... 62

Data Analysis ...... 62

Response Rate ...... 62

Demographics of Respondents ...... 63

Analysis of Research Questions and Null Hypotheses ...... 68

Question 1...... 68

Question 2...... 70

Question 3...... 72

Question 4...... 74

Question 5...... 76

Question 6...... 77

Question 7...... 79

Respondents Comments / Suggestions ...... 82

Chapter Summary ...... 82

CHAPTER 5 ...... 83

Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations ...... 83

Summary of Research Problem, Questions, and Methodology ...... 83

Study Limitations ...... 84

Summary of Results ...... 85

Research question 1 and hypothesis...... 85

Research question 2 and hypothesis...... 86

Research question 3 and hypothesis...... 86

Research question 4 and hypothesis...... 87

Research question 5 and hypothesis...... 87

Research question 6 and hypothesis...... 88

Research question 7 and hypothesis...... 89

Significance of the Study ...... 90

Significance for Future Culinarians ...... 91

Significance for Culinary Educational Institutes ...... 92

Significance for Canadian Higher Education Policy Makers ...... 93

Higher Education Return on Investment ...... 95

Recommendations for Further Research ...... 96

Conclusion ...... 97

APPENDICES ...... 100

Appendix A - Survey Instrument ...... 101

Appendix B - The Culinary Journey ...... 107

Appendix C - Letter requesting assistance from Canadian Culinary Federation 108

Appendix D - Letter of support from Canadian Culinary Federation ...... 110

Appendix E - Content Validity Expert List and Letter with Questions ...... 111

Appendix F - Cover Letter to Respondents with Instructions ...... 113

Appendix G - Initial Email to Canadian Culinary Federation members ...... 114

Appendix H- Follow-up / Reminder E-Mail to Non-Respondents ...... 116

Appendix I - Survey Instrument Descriptive Statistics...... 117

REFERENCES ...... 120

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Total Foodservice by Province (Commerical + Non-commercial) ...... 16

Table 2. Employment by Industry, 2007-2011 ...... 17

Table 3. Employment by Three-Digit Occupations, 1987-2015 ...... 18

Table 4. Average Employment Income, by Age Group and Education Level,

Canada 2006...... 29

Table 5. Hourly Wage Detail – Chefs British Columbia ...... 31

Table 6. Hourly Wage Detail – Chefs and Cooks Alberta ...... 32

Table 7. Hourly Wage Detail – Cooks and Chefs Edmonton Region ...... 32

Table 8. Analysis Used for Questions and Survey Items ...... 60

Table 9. Age of Respondents ...... 63

Table 10. Highest Level of School/Degree Achieved ...... 64

Table 11. Highest Culinary Degree Earned ...... 64

Table 12. Formal Culinary Training Provider ...... 65

Table 13. Job Titles of the Chef Respondents ...... 65

Table 14. Respondents Total Compensation ...... 66

Table 15. Industry Segments ...... 66

Table 16. Canadian Province/Territory Chef Respondents Currently Work ...... 67

Table 17. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 1 ...... 69

xii

Table 18. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding the Value of Formal

Culinary Education……………………………………………………………... 70

Table 19. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 2 ...... 71

Table 20. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Formal Culinary Education

Benefits……………………………………………………………………..…... 72

Table 21. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 3 ...... 73

Table 22. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Success and Income Potential .....74

Table 23. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding the Value Relationship …………76

Table 24. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 5 ...... 77

Table 25. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 6 ...... 79

Table 26. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Formal Culinary Education

Quality Levels ...... 79

Table 27. Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 7 ...... 81

Table 28. Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Future Levels of Formal

Culinary Education ...... 82

Table 29. Frequency of Comments Regarding the Survey ...... 82

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 - Conceptual Lens ...... 13

Figure 2 - Private Colleges Lost Ground in the Postsecondary Market ...... 23

Figure 3 - Cumulative Rate of Postsecondary Participation ...... 24

Figure 4 - Employment Growth by Education Attainment, Ontario, 1998-2008 ...... 26

Figure 5 - Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008 Unemployment and Earnings by Degree .... 28

Figure 6 - Employment Indexes by Educational Attainment for the 25-64 Year Old

Age Group, 1990-2009 ...... 33

Figure 7 - Average Weekly Wage Ratio by Educational Attainment, Relative to

High School Graduates, Ontario, 1997-2009 ...... 34

xiv

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

According to the Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association (CRFA), the restaurant industry employs more than 1.1 million people (6.5% of the Canadian workforce) who work in approximately 81,400 establishments, making it the fourth- largest private sector employer in Canada (Elliott, 2012) .

In 2010, the Canadian food service industry had an estimated $61 billion in total sales (nearly 4% of Canada’s gross domestic product), and that is expected to increase close to 4% yearly for the next five years (CRFA, 2011). All of this growth is expected to increase the demand for employees, including cooks and chefs.

Though formal culinary education is not required for employment in a professional kitchen, it has been shown to assist a worker with placement in a higher entry-level kitchen position and can help a worker advance more quickly (Occupational

Outlook Handbook, 2010). Canadian students have a wide range of educational institutions at which they can pursue formal culinary education that are both private and public, including trade and vocational schools, community colleges, career and business colleges, and universities.

Canadian postsecondary institutes offer diplomas, certificates, associates, and bachelor degrees in culinary arts and related services (food production, culinary management, etc.). These schools are extremely diverse and vary by numerous criteria, 1

including type of degree offered, curricula, student selectivity, and costs. This variety poses a challenge to the potential culinary student who wishes to determine which school to attend, as well as the employers of the culinary graduates from these programs looking

to recruit new employees.

Though the literature contains numerous articles written about the importance of

formal education and its influence on the economic status of individuals, industries and

nations, limited research has been conducted to examine the perceived value of formal

culinary education on industry career success from the perspective of those who conduct

the majority of the hiring of culinary positions.

Hundreds of universities, colleges, and institutions, at every level, are graduating

students with some form of formal culinary education; however, does the industry need

or want such an educated workforce?

Background of the Study

In order to determine whether higher education is worth the investment, it is useful to examine what is known about the value of higher education and the rates of return on investment to both the individual and to society.

Based on 2008 data, statistics show that earnings of university graduates were

70% higher on average than graduates of high school or trade/vocational programs in

Canada (Statistics Canada, 2011). College graduates also have higher levels of savings, increased personal / professional mobility, improved quality of life for their offspring, better consumer decision-making and more hobbies and leisure activities (Institute for

Higher Education Policy, 1998). Non-monetary benefits of higher education include the

tendency to become more open-minded, more cultured, more rational, more consistent 2

and less authoritarian (Rowley & Hurtado, 2002). In general, the overall level of returns to investments in higher education is a profitable investment for the individual and society.

The ability to relate costs to potential earnings is a valuable tool for students in their school selection and course of study, as it has become an accepted measure of the value of education. In addition, it can also assist students in determining their ability to finance their education and service any debt they undertake.

However, are the salaries and wages high enough today in Canada to provide a good enough return on investment to the culinarians who are entering the food service industry there? What value or benefit does formal culinary education have to those in the industry in Canada who are doing the hiring today?

There are no regulatory requirements that one has a degree or any formal culinary education what-so-ever in order to enter the culinary profession today in Canada. Any educational requirements are at the sole discretion of the employer. Therefore, it would be valuable to ask the professional chefs in the industry for their perspective on formal culinary education today and what effect or influence it has, if any, on their hiring preferences.

Statement of the Problem

What value do culinarians with formal culinary education add to the industry from the perspective of those who are doing the hiring of these graduates? Is there a perceived difference in value from the point of view of these professional chefs on the different levels of formal culinary education available today and/or the types of institutions the formal culinary education was derived from? Is there a relationship between the 3

perceived values Canadian professional chefs place on their own formal culinary education, or lack of, and the value they place on the education of the candidates they hire? From the perspective of Canadian professional chefs, do they believe having a formal culinary education increases a chef’s career success and income potential in the industry, and do they think their education, or lack of, has benefited them in their life and career? Therefore, the problem statement is what value, if any, do Canadian professional chefs give to formal culinary education and is there a relationship with industry success.

Purpose and Scope of the Proposed Study

The purpose of this proposed study is to examine the perceptions of Canadian professional chefs relative to their formal culinary education and the value they give to that education, and to then see what effect that value has on their hiring practices, and if there is any relationship to the formal culinary education they require, or desire, from the candidates they hire.

The secondary purpose is to see if there is consensus among Canadian professional chefs on the level of formal culinary education they believe is needed, if any, for those who are entering the profession today, and if that level of formal culinary education will be less, the same, or greater in the future.

The researcher will attempt to show through the scope of the study if there is a relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs give to their own formal culinary education and to their own career success. In addition, will look to see if there is a correlation between the chefs’ level of formal culinary education and that in which they prefer in the culinarians they hire, thus showing a possible effect on their hiring practices.

The researcher also seeks to know if there is agreement among Canadian professional chefs on what the level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian entering the job market today should have, and if that level of formal culinary education changes as one advances in their career.

At the same time, the researcher will try to determine if Canadian professional chefs perceive a difference in the quality of the formal culinary education graduates receive today based on the type of institutions providing the education. The findings and summations of this study will assist the researcher in identifying directions for further research on the topic.

Data will be collected using a survey instrument completed by Canadian professional chefs who are members of the Canadian Culinary Federation.

Rationale for the Study

The relationship between degree cost, the debt incurred to finance that cost and post-graduation earnings is emerging as a measure of accountability, especially for the private for-profit institutions. In the United States of America, the meaning of “gainful employment” has come under the scrutiny of the Department of Education, as it seeks to keep vocational programs and most programs at for-profit schools from taking advantage

of students who face high debt and low paying jobs after graduation (Information for

Financial Aid Professionals, 2011).

The rationale for this study is to attempt to answer the question of whether the

high cost of tuition, the opportunity cost of choosing college over full-time employment,

and the potential accumulation of thousands of dollars in debt is, in the long run, worth

the investment in formal culinary education from the viewpoint of Canadian professional chefs.

This essential question has become the focus of litigation by students, as well as a concern by various government bodies and taxpayers, as students today are more and more unable to meet their debt obligations and become saddled with tuition debt. A prime cause of this is due to the fact that the jobs they obtain after graduation do not pay enough to allow the student to make the required loan payments as well as meet their day-to-day living expenses, resulting in loan default.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The following research questions and hypotheses will frame the study. The corresponding survey item number(s) used to gather the data to address the research question are listed after the hypotheses (See Appendix A for the survey instrument).

1. Do Canadian professional chefs believe there is value and benefit in having

formal culinary education?

H01 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that there is value and benefit in

having formal culinary education either for themselves or for the candidates they

hire. (Survey item 1, 3, 4, 11, and 24)

2. Do Canadian professional chefs believe their formal culinary education, or lack

of, has benefited them in their life and career?

H02 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that formal culinary education has

benefited them in their life and career. (Survey item 20 - 23)

3. Do Canadian professional chefs believe having formal culinary education

increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry? 6

H03 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that having formal culinary

education increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry.

(Survey item 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, and 19)

4. Is there a relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs give to their

education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire?

H04 There is no relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs give

to their education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they

hire. (Survey item 8 and 25)

5. Do Canadian professional chefs have a preferred level of formal culinary

education (diploma/certificate, associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree or higher, or

no formal culinary education is needed) for the entry level culinarians they hire?

H05 Canadian professional chefs do not have a preferred level of formal culinary

education for the entry level culinarians they hire. (Survey item 26 and 29)

6. Do Canadian professional chefs perceive a difference in the quality of the formal

culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution (university;

college; institute; public; private; not-for-profit; for-profit) that provided the

education?

H06 Canadian professional chefs do not perceive a difference in the quality level

of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of

institutions providing the education. (Survey item 12, 14, 16 and 28)

7. Do Canadian professional chefs believe that future culinarians will need higher

levels of formal culinary education than they do today?

H07 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that future culinarians will need a

higher level of formal culinary education than they do today. (Survey item13, 15,

17 and 27)

Significance of the Study

This research study contributed to the current literature by asking Canadian

professional chefs if they believe having formal culinary education increases a

culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry, and if they give preferential

hiring to those who have it. In addition, it asks the Canadian professional chefs if they have a preferred level of formal culinary education that entry-level culinarians should have, and if it matters what type of institution the formal culinary education was received from.

The research study may be useful to those contemplating seeking formal culinary education by providing the viewpoint of professional chefs from the industry who have obtained a level of career success, revealing the value they place on their own formal culinary education, or lack of, and the value they place on the formal culinary education of the candidates who apply for employment with them.

The institutes that provide formal culinary education will also find the study significant because of the industry insight it reveals, the level of value the industry gives to the formal culinary education they provide, and the employment outlook for their graduates.

Lastly, the study expects to further the knowledge by revealing the value this segment of the food service industry gives to the formal education of the job candidates that seek employment from it. 8

Definitions

The following are definitions of key terms and organizations that were relevant to this study.

Associate’s Degree: This vocational degree typically takes about two years of full-time study to complete. Students take an in-depth look into culinary arts, or focus on one aspect of training, such as catering or pastry arts.

Bachelor’s Degree: Students explore a wide range of training with a bachelor’s degree program. This degree generally requires four years of full-time study to complete, and often focuses on a range of culinary topics, such as business, general culinary arts, and management.

Canadian Culinary Federation: This is the premier professional chef’s organization in Canada and is dedicated to advancing the professionalism of the culinary industry through education, apprenticeships and certification while creating a bond of respect and integrity among all culinarians (Canadian Culinary Federation, 2011).

Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association (CRFA): Founded in 1944, the Canadian Restaurant and Foodservices Association currently has more than 30,000 members across Canada representing every sector of Canada’s food service industry, including restaurants, bars, cafeterias, coffee shops, industry suppliers and contract and social caterers.

Coursework / Certification: Targeted coursework programs typically take a few months to complete and cover one specific skill in the culinary arts, such as knife skills or bread-baking. Certification courses are popular among culinary workers, who must be legally certified in fields like food service safety or beverage sales. 9

Diploma / Certificate: These training programs can often be completed in a year or less and provide training for entry-level positions. Students may choose to hone their skills through a brief, focused diploma or certificate program.

Entry-level Culinarian: Entry-level culinarians work in a variety of places where food is served, such as restaurants, hotels, resorts, grocery stores, schools and hospitals.

They perform routine, repetitive tasks under the direction of chefs, head cooks, or food preparation and serving supervisors, and assist higher level cooks and chefs by performing tasks, such as peeling and cutting vegetables, trimming meat, preparing poultry, keeping work areas clean, and monitoring temperatures of ovens and stovetops.

Specifically, they measure, mix, and cook ingredients according to recipes, using a variety of equipment, including pots, pans, cutlery, ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and blenders. These workers prepare the ingredients for complex dishes by slicing and dicing vegetables, and making salads and cold items. They weigh and measure ingredients, retrieve pots and pans, stir and strain soups and sauces, and clean work areas and equipment.

Formal Culinary Education: Formal culinary education is any program of study in an accredited educational institution that offers a series of courses that provide a program of instructions in the skills necessary to become a cook and/or chef.

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study

Like all research, this study will have limitations and delimitations. Limitations of a study are those characteristics of methodology that are a result of problems external to the study and that were, in most cases, outside the researcher’s control. In contrast,

delimitations are boundary conditions that the researcher puts on the study through conscious exclusion or inclusion within the proposal.

Limitations of the study.

The following issues were seen as potential limitations of this study.

1. The possible bias of those participants who do not have formal culinary

education. They may be of the opinion that if they “made it” in the industry

without formal culinary education, so can others.

2. The possible bias of those participants who do have formal culinary education.

They may be of the opinion that if they “were schooled” before entering the

industry, then so should others.

3. The possibility of the instrument being completed by an individual other than the

one for whom it is intended.

4. Given the relatively new status of the electronic survey method of collecting data

(compared to pencil-and-paper surveys), members of the sample may be wary and

concerned about issues regarding anonymity and confidentiality.

5. Researcher bias as the researcher is employed by a college that grants degrees in

formal culinary education.

Delimitations of the study.

Researcher controls were placed on the study through the following delimitations.

1. Only individuals belonging to the Canadian Culinary Federation could participate

in this study. This organization is the leading professional organization for

culinarians in Canada (Canadian Culinary Federation, 2011).

2. The following criteria were established for inclusion of subjects: a) currently a

member of the Canadian Culinary Federation and b) does, or has done, the hiring

of culinarians for their place of employment.

Role of the Researcher

The researcher is currently the Department Chair for the College of Culinary Arts

at Johnson & Wales University in North Miami, Florida, a position he has held since

2003. From 2000 to 2003, he was the Department Chair of Culinary Arts at Florida

Culinary Institute in West Palm Beach, Florida. Prior to entering academia, the researcher

worked in various management and executive chef positions in the hospitality industry

(since 1985). The researcher has been an active member of many culinary, hospitality and educational professional associations, including the American Culinary Federation and the National Restaurant Association. He has chaired and served on numerous professional

committees, including certification chair, newsletter and public relations chair, etc.

This specific set of employment, education and professional memberships has allowed him to observe the lack of formal culinary education and preparation of both

current and future culinarians entering the industry today. Upon entering the world of

formal culinary education at both the institutional and university levels, the researcher

has further observed the various differences in formal culinary education curriculums and

instruction from both a teaching and administration point-of-view, including the lack of

professional training and/or qualifications by some individuals who are doing the

teaching. The two aforementioned observations give the researcher the impetus and the

opportunity to conduct this research study.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework guiding this study is shown in Figure 1. The three key factors affecting hiring of culinary candidates are as follows: The value the hiring manager gives to their own formal culinary education, the value the hiring manager gives to candidate’s formal culinary education, and the level of the candidate’s formal culinary education. Though a candidate may be hired with or without these three factors, the study expects to show that the greater the three factors are, the greater the overlap, and thus the greater chances a candidate has in being hired.

The candidates level of formal culinary education

Candidate Hired The value the The value the hiring manager hiring manager gives to their own gives to the formal culinary candidates formal education culinary education

Figure 1. Conceptual lens. Chapter Summary

Over one million people (6.4% of the Canadian workforce) work in the food service industry in approximately 81,400 establishments, making it the fourth-largest employer in Canada. With over $61 billion in total sales in 2010, the food service industry accounts for nearly 4% of Canada’s gross domestic product. Even more

incredible, between 2011 and 2014 commercial food service sales in Canada will increase by an average of 3.6% per year (CRFA, 2011).

With hundreds of universities, colleges, and institutions, at every level, graduating students with some form of formal culinary education, what value do they offer the industry from the perspective of the chefs who are doing the hiring of these graduates? Is their education of any value to Canadian professional chefs? Do these hiring chefs perceive a difference in the various levels of formal culinary education potential candidates bring with them to the hiring table? Does it matter to these hiring chefs what type of institution a candidate’s formal culinary education was received from?

This chapter included an introduction to the research question, the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions associated with the study, significance of the study, definition of terms pertinent to the study, delimitations and limitations of the study, role of the researcher, and the conceptual framework in which the study was grounded.

Chapter 2 discusses the current literature relating to the purpose and significance of the study. The literature review covers topics that were relevant to this study of the perceived value of formal culinary education and its relationship with industry success from the perception of Canadian professional chefs.

Chapter 3 discusses the research method used in this study and outlines the sample, procedure, survey instrument, and the research design used for data collection.

Chapter 4 presents the results of the study and Chapter 5 presents the recommendations, summary and conclusions of the study.

CHAPTER 2

Review of the Literature

The term “food service industry” encompasses commercial and non-commercial

eating and drinking establishments, including quick-service and full-service restaurants,

taverns, hotel food and beverage operations, on-site food service for business, education,

and transportation companies, social caterers, and military food service. With over $60

billion in total sales in 2010, the food service industry accounts for nearly 4% of

Canada’s gross domestic product (CRFA, 2011).

With over one million people (6.4% of the Canadian workforce) working in the

food service industry in approximately 81,400 establishments, food service has become

the fourth-largest employer in Canada (CRFA, 2011). Restaurants directly employ approximately 1,118,600 people in Canada, more people than finance, insurance, agriculture, forestry and logging combined (Elliot, 2012).

According to the Canadian Restaurant and Foodservice Association (CRFA), between 2011 and 2014, commercial food service sales in Canada will increase by an

average of 3.6% per year (CRFA, 2012). Canada’s $60-billion food service industry is a

major contributor to the economy in every community across the country. Table 1 shows

the total food service sales breakdown by Province.

Table 1 Total Foodservice by Province (Commercial + Non-commercial)

Province Sales (2010 forecast) Employment Newfoundland and Labrador $747 million 13,100 Prince Edward Island $224 million 5,300 Nova Scotia $1.6 billion 30,600 New Brunswick $1.2 billion 24,200 Quebec $12.2 billion 248,300 Ontario $22.5 billion 404,200 Manitoba $1.7 billion 39,000 Saskatchewan $1.6 billion 32,100 Alberta $8.4 billion 124,900 British Columbia $9.8 billion 162,700 Canada $60.1 billion 1,084,500

Note. Source: Statistics Canada, Foodservice by province, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

All of this growth in the food service industry is expected to increase the demand for employees, and research shows a need for restaurateurs to refocus their human resource strategies in order to compete (National Restaurant Association, 2010).

As indicated in Table 2, since 2007, the total number of jobs in Canada has increased. Employment in the service-producing sector grew, while the rate in goods- producing sector went down. This is not unusual because the service-producing sector in total employment has been on the rise for several decades. We can also see that the accommodation and food service industry sector has also increased from 2007 to 2011

(Statistics Canada, 2012).

Table 2 Employment by Industry, 2007-2011

Employment by industry 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Thousands All industries 16,805.6 17,087.4 16,813.1 17,041.0 17,306.2 Goods-producing sector 3,975.7 4,013.4 3,724.3 3,740.0 3,804.9 Services-producing sector 12,829.9 13,074.0 13,088.8 13,301.0 13,501.3 Accommodation and food services 1,073.8 1,080.6 1,056.6 1,058.4 1,093.4

Note. Source: Statistics Canada, CANSIM, table 282-0008, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

Table 3 shows the breakdown of this sector into specific food service occupations.

From it, we can see that there was not only an increase in all occupations listed from

1988 to 2005, but also in their expected future growth (Human Resources and Skills

Development Canada, 2011).

Table 3 Employment by Three-Digit Occupations, 1987-2015

Past Growth Future Growth Non-student Employment 1988-2005 2006- (000s) (AAGR1) 2015(AAGR1) 1987 2005 2015 000 Total 11,242.9 14,566.0 16,263.7 1.4% 1.1% 624 Chefs and cooks 132.0 174.7 207.4 1.6% 1.7% 625 Butchers and 45.2 62.0 72.3 1.8% 1.5% bakers 645 Occupations in food and beverage 140.5 185.1 215.8 1.5% 1.5% service 664 Food counter attendants and 153.7 169.9 185.2 0.6% 0.9% kitchen helpers

Note. Source: Statistics Canada, Employment by occupation, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

The food service industry growth is also true throughout Canada’s provinces. For example, in Calgary, the five occupations that will need the most food service workers in the coming years are servers, managers, cooks, assistants and chefs. The Calgary

Economic Development office reported nearly 29,000 food service workers in January

2008, a number that continues to grow. Their 2007-2017 forecasts predict increases of

976 more chefs and 2,469 more cooks during that timeframe (Alberta Employment and

Immigration, 2009).

The food service industry is also a major source of entry-level and part-time jobs.

The industry also provides nearly 1 in 5 youth jobs in Canada. In fact, the industry employs approximately 462,000 young people between the ages of 15 and 24, which accounts for 43% of all food service employees (CRFA, 2012). As these young people mature, they often leave the industry, which causes additional hiring to be needed. 18

According to a survey of twenty national and regional food service chains in

Canada, the average annual turnover rate for an hourly paid employee is 104.8% at a

quick-service restaurant and 62.5% at a casual / family dining restaurant (CRFA, 2012).

This is not unique to just Canada. In the United States of America, industry’s

demand for employees is expected to outpace the growth of the U.S. workforce. Research

shows a need for restaurateurs everywhere to refocus their human resource strategies in

order to compete (National Restaurant Association, 2010).

The labor-intensive nature of food service causes eating and drinking

establishments to have the lowest sales per full-time equivalent employee of any retail

trade. The NRA projects the need for food service managers to increase by 8% and the

number of cooks, food preparation workers, and food preparation supervisors to increase by 12% during the next decade in the United States. The NRA also predicts that much of this increase will occur in the casual dining segment, defined as table service restaurants with average checks of $8 to $25 (National Restaurant Association, 2010).

A NRA survey of table service and quick service operators found that recruiting and retaining employees was a leading challenge for operators. Half of the table service

operators said that finding qualified cooks was a major problem, while one-third cited

kitchen managers as difficult to recruit (National Restaurant Association, 2010).

According to the Canadian Culinary Federation, the best trained chefs and cooks are in high demand. Opportunities for employment are expected to be average to good over the period 2009 to 2013 for both occupations (Employment Ontario, 2009).

Cook versus Chef

What is the difference between the two titles cook versus chef? The term chef is a

general category that includes various types of chef’s titles, such as chef, chef de cuisine,

chef de partie, executive chef, pastry chef, sous chef, executive sous chef, head chef,

master chef, and corporate chef. Chefs plan and direct food preparation and cooking

activities and prepare and cook meals and specialty foods. They are employed in various

settings such as restaurants, hotels, hospitals, commissaries, and ships. Chefs of all kinds

typically work long hours, especially if they own their own business. Pay varies

according to the establishment and their experience.

According to Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, employment as a chef may require a combination of education, experience or other attributes.

Completion of an apprentice program, formal training abroad, or equivalent training and

experience are required. Chef de cuisine certification, which is administered by the

Canadian Culinary Institute of the Canadian Culinary Federation, as well as an

interprovincial trade certification (Red Seal), is available to qualified chefs (Human

Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2012).

The title cook includes titles such as apprentice cook, cook, dietary cook, first

cook, grill cook, hospital cook, institutional cook, journeyman / woman cook, licensed

cook, line cook, second cook, and short order cook. Cooks prepare and cook a wide

variety of foods and may specialize in preparing and cooking ethnic cuisine or special

dishes.

Both cooks and chefs are employed in the same type of properties and work

similar hours and shifts with pay variations. Human Resources and Skills Development 20

Canada reports that employment as a cook may also require a combination of education, experience or other attributes. Completion of secondary school is usually required, with

the completion of an apprenticeship programs for cooks, or completion of college or other program in cooking, or several years of commercial cooking experience is desired.

Trade certification is available in most provinces, including interprovincial trade

certification (Red Seal) for qualified cooks (Human Resources and Skills Development

Canada, 2012).

Although not required for employment at this time, according to the Occupational

Outlook Handbook, formal culinary education can assist a worker with placement in a higher entry-level kitchen position, employment at a higher quality restaurant, and more rapid advancement. Globally today, many cooks, kitchen managers, chefs, and other food service workers and managers received their professional training at schools offering associate’s degrees in culinary arts (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010).

In Canada, a visual pathway has been developed and coordinated through the

Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council in cooperation with Canadian chefs, educators, learners, tourism regional human resource councils and key stakeholders titled

The Culinary Career Journey (see Appendix B.) The pathway is described as “an evolving qualifications framework for the Culinary Industry of Canada” (Canadian

Tourism Human Resource Council, 2010), and shows two ways a future culinarian can obtain the level of chef. One is mainly through industry employment and workplace training, and the second is through post-secondary general education and industry specific courses (Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council, 2010).

Canadian students have a wide range of educational institutions at which they can

pursue postsecondary education, including formal culinary education, such as publicly

funded trade and vocational schools, community colleges and universities. There is also a large group of private colleges, sometimes referred to as career colleges, which provide professional and vocational training for profit.

Unlike public institutions, there is little information on the size and composition of the enrollment in these private career colleges, or on the labor market outcomes of their graduates. However, there is more and more of a demand globally for transparency these days. Ontario alone has more than 500 registered private career colleges, according to the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. The major focus of these independent businesses is on stressing practical skills, and offering courses that prepare students for clearly defined occupations (Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities,

2009).

In the last decade, data from Statistics Canada’s Survey of Labour and Income

Dynamics showed that private colleges lost ground in the postsecondary education market between 1993 and 2003 (Figure 2). The number of young adults aged 25 to 34 holding a certificate from a private college has plunged by almost one-half during this ten-year period. In contrast, the proportion of individuals with university degrees has climbed steadily during the same period (Li, 2006).

Figure 2. Private colleges lost ground in the postsecondary market.

In a Canadian study completed in December 2005, close to eight out of every ten young people whose major transitions in life were tracked over a six-year period (since

1999) had gone to a postsecondary institution, such as a college, university or other type of institution. This represents a large increase in the postsecondary education participation rate compared to 1999, when these young people were between the ages of

18 and 20 (Shaienks & Gluszynski, 2007).

This growth in postsecondary participation during the six-year period was mainly attributable to gains in university attendance. As of December 2005, 40% of these young people were attending university, double the rate of 21% six years earlier. During the same period, participation rates for both college/CEGEP and other postsecondary institutions increased by only 3 percentage points from 23% to 26%. Figure 3 shows the cumulative rate of postsecondary participation in 2007 by various age brackets (Shaienks

& Gluszynski, 2007).

Figure 3. Cumulative rate of postsecondary participation. Source: Statistics Canada, Shaienks, Daniell et Tomasz Gluszynski, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

Today there are many postsecondary institutes in Canada offering diplomas, certificates, associates, and bachelor degrees in culinary arts and related services (food production, culinary management, etc.) These schools are extremely diverse and vary by numerous criteria, including type (public, private, or for-profit), type of degrees offered, number of students, number of faculty, faculty characteristics, size of facilities, curricula, student selectivity, student services, and cost. This variety poses a challenge to the potential culinary student who wishes to determine which school to attend as well as the employers of the culinary graduates from these programs looking to recruit new employees (Culinaryschools.org, 2011).

Nation’s Restaurant News, one of the leading food and beverage industry publications, featured an article in 2005 entitled, “Growing field of culinary schools difficult to evaluate” (Berta, 2005). The article stated that because the number of programs has increased dramatically over the past ten years, “it is difficult to assess and 24

compare how well schools are teaching, retaining and preparing students in the industry”

(Berta, p. 16). This comes at a time when quality assessment has become a buzzword in higher education as federal and state lawmakers, students and their parents, employers, and educators seek to determine education’s return on investment (Ewell, 2002).

The number of new jobs requiring college degrees across every industry sector is growing. The same is true in terms of the skill and educational requirements for existing jobs in the Canadian economy. Nearly three-quarters of the demand for workers with post-secondary education comes from skill upgrade requirements within each occupation

(Carnevale, 1999).

With the education level and skills required for most occupations increasing over time, high school and post-secondary education and training are more important than ever today. In fact, as the world changes so quickly, many occupations require continuous learning throughout one’s life. Though there are still many low skilled, entry-level occupations, the basic skills required to enter these occupations have increased. Figure 4, for example, shows how educational requirements have increased over a decade in the province of Ontario (Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities, 2011).

Figure 4. Employment growth by education attainment, Ontario, 1998-2008.

As shown in Figure 4, the proportion of workers in Ontario with post-secondary qualifications increased sharply between 1998 and 2008. By 2008, two-thirds of adult workers had completed post-secondary education, up from 56% in 1998. The chart also shows that the proportion of workers with only a high school education fell slightly (to

one in five), and the share with less than a high school education experienced a steep decline (from 15% to 8%) (Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities, 2011).

Similarly, research in the area of hospitality education has shown that going to

college and getting a degree has proved its worth and can make a recognized contribution

to career development. In his research, Adele Ladkin highlighted the continuous industry

debate on whether it is still possible today for a person “to work their way up from the kitchen sink to become general manager, or if the preferred course is to go to college”

(2000). He concluded, “the college route has won the debate” (Ladkin, 2000).

The 2010 edition of Education at a Glance provides a rich, comparable and up-to- date array of indicators on the performance of education systems and their implications in policy decisions. The indicators look at who participates in education, what is spent on it, how education systems operate and what results are achieved. Among other points, the document reveals that on average across OECD countries, 35% of 25 – 35 year-olds have completed tertiary education, compared with 20% of 55 – 64 year-olds, with Canada and

Japan in the lead (Education at a Glance, 2010).

Unemployment rates among people with a tertiary level of education have also stayed at or below 4% on average across OECD countries during the recession. For people who failed to complete upper secondary education, by contrast, unemployment rates have repeatedly exceeded 9%. At the launching of the report in Paris, OECD

Secretary-General stated, “With the worldwide recession continuing to weigh on unemployment levels, education is an essential investment for responding to the changes in technology and demographics that are re-shaping labour markets” (Education at a

Glance, 2010).

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, as workers’ education attainment increases, so does their earning potential (Figure 5). Over a work-life, individuals who have earned a bachelor’s degree will earn an average of $2.1 million, about one-third more than workers who do not finish college and nearly twice as much as workers with only a high school diploma (Occupational Employment and Wages, 2009).

Figure 5. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008 unemployment and earnings by degree.

Statistics Canada also reminds us that, on average, it pays to get a postsecondary

education in Canada. As seen in Table 4, the group by far that is most represented in the highest earnings category in 2006 are those with a university education. The table also shows that this is true across all age groups with the exception of the 20 to 24 age group

(Statistics Canada, 2011).

Table 4 Average Employment Income, by Age Group and Education Level, Canada 2006

Age groups Less Than High School High School Trades College University 2005 dollars All age groups 20,833 28,038 34,670 36,785 57,495 20 to 24 14,882 14,288 20,371 16,581 15,037 25 to 29 21,826 25,231 28,728 29,312 32,974 30 to 34 25,328 31,023 33,097 35,209 47,376 35 to 39 27,795 34,743 35,830 39,698 58,624 40 to 44 29,779 37,030 38,600 44,182 68,990 45 to 49 31,682 39,628 41,943 46,695 76,420 50 to 54 31,401 39,597 42,101 46,769 78,320 55 to 59 28,805 35,932 38,578 42,273 72,277 60 to 64 24,868 29,031 31,448 33,629 64,233 Note. Adapted from source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census of Population, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada. According to a 2000-2001 study reported by Crosby, in the hospitality industry,

the earnings premium percentage for food service and lodging managers with bachelor’s

degrees over those without degrees was 69 percent, and for managers with a master’s degree, it was 27 percent (Crosby, 2000/2001). Some analysts posit that the need for formal degrees for hospitality managers is escalating as well, due to the increasing complexity of hotel and restaurant operations (Lang, 1991). Indeed, the hospitality industry has been undergoing significant change in the recent past.

Traditionally, chefs around the world had a very low status in society, even in

Western countries. Recently, however, they have enjoyed a higher status due to social and cultural changes, with more and more people with higher educational backgrounds entering the profession. Many believe that as the overall quality of chefs improves, the reinforcement of the higher social status of chefs will also, which will in turn draw even more talented and educated people into the profession (Horng & Lee, 2009).

Overview of the Value of Formal Culinary Education

Though the literature contains numerous articles written about the importance of

formal education and its influence on the economic status of individuals, industries and

nations, limited research has been conducted to examine the perceived impact of formal

culinary education on industry career success from the perspective of those who conduct

the majority of the hiring of culinary positions.

According to a 2006 article in Restaurants and Institutions, enrollment in culinary schools has more than doubled in the last ten years with now more than 90,000 students attending in the U.S. alone compared to just 35,000 in 1996. The article goes on to say

“professional programs continue to pop up everywhere to meet the seemingly endless demand for culinary education even though tuition increases every year” (Leahy, 2006).

The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that in the United States in

2007, the number of culinary arts and related services awards conferred, including the

number of sub-baccalaureate career/technical education awards conferred by Title IV

postsecondary institutes, was 23,757. For the same year, they also reported the number of

Title IV postsecondary institutions that offered culinary and related services in the U.S. to be 523. Out of the 523, 435 offered certificates and 343 offered associate’s degrees

(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2011).

However, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average hourly wage for restaurant cooks in 2009 was $11.11, making it tough for graduates looking to repay 30

student loans (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010). While chef salaries are higher, it

is commonly accepted that high-paying chef positions require years of honing skills in

lower-paying positions. A recent salary survey by StarChefs.com revealed that sous

chefs took an average of eleven years to get to their positions and executive chefs took close to twenty (StarChefs, 2009).

Of course, wages also depend on what area of the world one is working in.

According to the Labour Market Information and Research on wages and salaries put out by the Government of Canada, wages vary even within a province ( Labour Market

Information & Research, 2010). For example, chefs in the province of British Columbia can vary over $2.00 per hour on average 2008 wages and almost $20 per hour in the high

2008 wage categories (Table 5).

Table 5 Hourly Wage Detail – Chefs British Columbia

Area ($ / hour) Average Wage High Wage Low Wage Northern British Columbia 15.66 43.16 10.48 Thompson Okanagan Kootenay Area 14.93 27.03 9.53 Vancouver and Lower Mainland 17.02 24.09 10.50 Vancouver Island and Victoria 16.97 24.00 11.21 Note. Adapted from “Labour Market Information and Research,” Statistics Canada, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

As shown in Table 6, the province of Alberta is no different, with the average

2008 wage for chefs and cooks varying greatly from low to high wage.

Table 6 Hourly Wage Detail – Chefs and Cooks Alberta

Position ($ / hour) Average Wage High Wage Low Wage Average Annual Salary Chef 17.70 33.00 11.05 $35,294 Cook 13.69 20.69 10.00 $26,576 Note. Adapted from “Labour Market Information and Research,” Statistics Canada, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

It was reported that cooks and chefs in the Edmonton region’s wages were very

similar (Table 7). Employment Ontario reported that cooks working full-time year round

had an average salary of only $22,932, compared to an average of $56,033 for all

occupations combined (2010).

Table 7 Hourly Wage Detail – Chefs and Cooks Edmonton Region

Position ($ / hour) Average Wage High Wage Low Wage Average Annual Salary Chef 24.33 28.92 17.31 $47,063 Cook 13.69 20.69 10.00 $26,481 Note. Adapted from “Labour Market Information and Research” Statistics Canada, Alberta Learning Information Service, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

To compound matters, graduates are entering an industry that does not necessarily

require formal education. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 50% of all

chefs and head cooks in the United States have only a high school diploma or less (32.3%

of all chefs and head cooks only have a high school diploma, with 18.4% reporting they

have less). Another 17% report having an associate’s degree, with bachelor’s 11.2%,

master’s 1.4% and doctoral/professional degree .6% reported by the rest. Educational

attainment is even lower for a cook’s position, with over 75% reporting having a high

school degree or less (43% high school diploma or equivalent with 33.4% reporting less

than a high school diploma). The question then becomes a matter of value and return on

investment to many (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009).

Educational attainment in Canada is on the rise across the board. Ontario’s labor

market has steadily become more knowledge intensive, with the fastest employment

growth occurring among workers having post-secondary education. Figure 6 shows

employment in Ontario more than doubled for jobs requiring a university degree during

the 1990 – 2009 period, and rose by 82% for jobs requiring a post-secondary certificate

or diploma. In contrast, employment growth among workers without high school

education declined by 58% (Labour Market Information & Research, 2010).

Note. Source: Statistics Canada, Labour Market Information and Research, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

Figure 6. Employment indexes by educational attainment for the 25-64 year old age group, 1990-2009.

On average, the higher level of education achieved, the higher the earnings. The

average weekly wage rate of college graduates or apprentices in Ontario was $850 in

2009, 25% higher than the average weekly wage rate of high school graduates. The 33

average weekly wage rate of university graduates was $1,100 in 2009, 62% higher than the average weekly wage rate of high school graduates. Figure 7 shows the average

weekly wage rate by educational attainment, relative to high school graduates in Ontario

from 1997 – 2009 ( Labour Market Information & Research, 2010).

Note. Source: Statistics Canada, Labour Market Information and Research, 2011. Reproduced and distributed on an "as is" basis with the permission of Statistics Canada.

Figure 7. Average weekly wage ratio by educational attainment, relative to high school graduates, Ontario, 1997-2009.

In addition, more and more culinary schools are now adding baccalaureate

programs. Bachelor’s degree programs in culinary arts have seen significant growth and

success over the past several years (Harrington, Mandabach, Thibodeaux, &

VanLeeuwen, 2005). According to Dr. Kathy Merget, the dean of liberal and

management studies at the Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park, New York, the

initial reason her school developed the bachelor’s degree program was due to industry

demand (Leahy, 2006).

Does the Canadian food service industry demand higher levels of formal culinary education for those entering the industry today? Do those with higher levels of formal culinary education achieve industry success faster? Are the average weekly wages currently being paid to those entering the industry today justify and offset the added expense of a formal culinary education? The current literature does not have the answers to these questions.

The Rise of the Professions

In the early 20th century, American higher education came to define itself in terms of its direct application to specific occupations. Nowhere was this more apparent than in the explosive growth of professional schools teaching law, medicine, business, engineering, education, social work, nursing, and dentistry. This huge growth in the number of professional schools made it very clear that vocational education was the dominant mode of preparation for the professions and that the way for an occupation to become a profession was by connecting it to higher education.

Until this point, no profession, including medicine, law, and engineering, required college graduation to practice. The primary form of professional preparation took place on the job, sometimes under apprenticeship arrangements, but often on one’s own with on-the-job training and learn-as-you-go (Grubb & Lazerson, 2005).

The movement of the professions into colleges and universities was closely tied to the growing authority of science and the importance of specialized knowledge. Since professional expertise required greater scientific understanding, school-based knowledge came to be more highly prized than work-based knowledge. The conception of the professional rooted in specialized knowledge and formal schooling, rather than practical 35

on-the-job experience, stressed a deep conceptual understanding, not merely the manual

skill or the procedural knowledge of vocational education (Grubb & Lazerson, 2005).

Higher education provided the necessary expertise and then standardized it by using easily recognized criteria to certify professional knowledge, such as entrance exams, formal courses of study, degree requirements, and licensing exams. This shift effectively changed America for the most part from education on the job into a belief that going to school was the most important form of education (Grubb & Lazerson, 2005).

Vocational versus Academic

Vocational education has been in existence since the Middle Ages when craftsmen’s guilds controlled the practice of all skilled occupations. Students were called apprentices and worked for a number of years under master craftsmen in order to learn the skills necessary to conduct the trade. This organization of masters and apprentices continued throughout the world for hundreds of years and is still used today in parts of the world.

Under the terms of the Canadian Constitution, each province and territory has the responsibilities for education and training, which includes apprenticeship. Therefore, in

Canada, apprenticeship programs are generally administered by provincial and territorial departments responsible for education, labor and training under the direction of the provincial or territorial Director of Apprenticeship with authority delegated from legislation in each province and territory. The legislation also permits each jurisdiction to designate occupations for apprenticeship, and they all have designated a cook as one of these occupations (Red Seal, 2011).

The skilled trades in Canada are classified as either compulsory or voluntary.

Generally, compulsory trades require workers to be certified or registered as apprentices in order to work in the occupation. Voluntary trades involve voluntary apprenticeship training and certification as workers are not required to be registered or certified to work in the trade. Cooking is considered a voluntary trade (Red Seal, 2011).

Apprenticeship in Canada is an agreement between a person (an apprentice) who wants to learn a skill and an employer who needs a skilled worker. Often called “earning while learning”, apprenticeship is a proven industry-based learning system that combines on-the-job experience with technical training to produce a certified journeyperson. Upon completion of the specified training period, apprentices receive a Certificate of

Qualification. On average, 85% of the apprentice’s training, which usually takes two to five years, is spent in the workforce, and the rest is spent at a training institute. Cooks need to accumulate 6,000 hours of on-the-job experience, of which 1,440 hours are in- school hours (Stratford Chefs School, 2011).

For those in more of a hurry and who don’t have the time for an on-the-job apprenticeship, culinary schools across Canada offer another option. Students can not only complete a one-year certificate, which would be combined with on-the-job apprenticeship, but can also stay at the school and continue on for a two-year diploma.

Called the co-op diploma apprenticeship, students bypass the on-the-job apprentice training and do it right at the school. Once completed, they can then write the journeyman cook exam (Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities, 2011).

Since the legislation permits provinces and territories to designate trades and develop apprenticeship programs for their own requirements, they are not all the same. 37

This could be a problem for apprentices trained in one part of Canada who then want to

go work in another part. The Interprovincial Standards Red Seal Program was developed as a solution for just this problem.

The Red Seal Program represents industry’s recognition of an interprovincial standard of excellence for the skilled trades. Through the program, apprentices who have completed their training and become certified journeypersons are able to obtain a Red

Seal endorsement on their provincial or territorial Certificate of Qualifications and

Apprenticeship by successfully completing an interprovincial Red Seal examination (Red

Seal, 2011).

The program does this by encouraging harmonization of provincial and territorial apprenticeship training and certification programs by developing and maintaining

interprovincial standards of qualification for Red Seal trades, in partnership with

apprenticeship and certification stakeholders (Red Seal, 2011).

The apprenticeship system in the United States is primarily a private institution,

separate from vocational and technical schools. Apprenticeships establish their own

guidelines as to the required course of study and do not get licensed until they

successfully complete a written and practical exam. The most widely recognized apprenticeship in the United States for cooks is that of the American Culinary Federation

(VanLandingham, 1995).

The development of the workforce is a matter of perennial interest in most societies, and in the past few years, we have seen a heightened interest in this issue with many states passing legislation aimed at workforce development.

“From an historical perspective, early culinary education objectives in the United

States mirrored the basic objectives and content of the European system of apprenticeship and training with very little theorizing of other educational perspectives or cuisines”

(Harrington et al., 2005).

According to Antun (2008), research suggests that what is included in the curriculum of our nation’s culinary programs seriously impacts the outcomes of our students’ careers. With this in mind, changes to the curriculum need to be “industry- centered” and made in a timely fashion. He states that “culinary education has been traditionally designed to vocationally train cooks for the food service industry and therefore current trends and business development should drive the curriculum” (Antun,

2008, p. 21).

Students are future human resources and are investments in human capital. In this context, some believe that the food service industry needs to be involved in curriculum development to ensure that their needs and requirements have been addressed (Williams,

2005).

Much criticism has been voiced over the failure of professional cookery programs in the United States to prepare students more actively for the “real world of restaurant work.” Education and training for work in the industry has been associated with the preparation for jobs, tasks, and skills that would improve economic and industry performance, but “the academic traditions of undergraduate education are said to have neglected or downgraded such preparation” (Hegarty, 2004, p. 139). This “contributes to the views expressed by many culinary and restaurant practitioners that theoretical

engagement with the subject is worth little in comparison with learning on the job”

(Hegarty, 2004, p. 139).

VanLandingham points out in his research comparing postsecondary vocational

programs versus apprenticeship that there is too much emphasis placed on earning a

college degree when many jobs do not require it. He does concede however, that large culinary schools do expose students to a variety of chefs, cuisines, menus and training styles that one would most likely not get as an apprentice who only trains in one property

(VanLandingham, 1995).

However, there are others who believe the curriculum is more than just that and

“the curriculum developer must allow for consideration of values outside the immediate area of the subject, and of the values of society” (Hegarty, 2004). In his book Standing the Heat, Hegarty states that the curriculum is constructed for a number of purposes, including “embracing the arts, business, science, and technology”. He is a proponent of higher levels of education for culinarians, including the validation of not only a bachelor’s degree but also a master’s, and doctorate in culinary arts (Hegarty, 2004 p.19).

Recent legislative changes in the areas of food safety, sanitation, truth-in-menus, and labor laws are other examples that can help drive the growth in formal culinary education globally, along with technology changes, such as high-tech kitchen equipment, point-of-sale systems and cook-hold-and-chill cooking techniques (Harrington et al.,

2005).

Colleges today carefully watch a variety of indicators to see how their institution compares with competing institutions, numbers such as their student enrollments,

graduation rates, and national student surveys. Colleges want to enroll the most desirable

students, graduate more of them, and ensure that they are satisfied with their education.

The pressure is even greater today and growing because of an increased need for

accountability. External groups, including parents, taxpayers, employers, and government agencies, are demanding reform in higher education. Parents want more for their tuition money. In 2005, the U.S. government report The Test of Leadership called for a higher percentage of students to graduate and for those students to demonstrate greater proficiencies upon graduation (Spellings, 2006). It is no longer sufficient that more students are simply going to college; they need to have more impressive skills when they leave.

Formal culinary education is no different, as the recent class action lawsuit in the

U.S. against Western Culinary Institute has shown. The lawsuit, filed in 2008, alleges the

Career Education Corporation owned school engaged in fraud and unfair business practices by overstating the value of its culinary education and providing misleading job- placement rates (Hunsberger, 2009).

For-profit schools across the United States have faced a stream of such suits partially causing the Department of Education to clamp down with new rules that could limit federal loans for schools with lots of unsuccessful students. Career Education

Corporation, worried that its cooking schools will have a hard time complying with the new federal rules, recently announced major changes meant to ensure that students graduate and repay their loans. Attorney Michael Kelly represents a group of California students suing Career Education Corporation, the parent company of Le Cordon Bleu cooking schools. He says that the school has promised something it cannot deliver. 41

Cordon Bleu is in the process of paying a $40 million settlement from a similar

California class action suit in which students said they were deceived and saddled with

debt (Abramson, 2011).

Interest in student loan debt has also heightened in Canada in recent years, starting in the early 1990’s when the average tuition fees in Canada jumped by 10% two

years in a row. This rise in tuition fees in most provinces brought increased attention to

levels of student borrowing and associated debt loads (Luong, 2010). The rise in average tuition fees is the result of a substantial shift in the funding of postsecondary education, a

change requiring students to pay proportionally more while governments pay

proportionally less.

Increased borrowing also leads to greater default rates on student loans. A 2011

report by The Chronicle of Higher Education found the average three-year default rate

for all for-profit colleges was 24%, compared to a 7% average for private non-profit

institutions. Looking specifically at for-profit corporations that own culinary schools, the

report shows that Career Education Corporation’s (Cordon Bleu) student default rate was

over 24%, and Education Management Corporation (Art Institutes) was over 18%. Many

federal higher-education policies and regulations use default rates as a proxy for

measuring an institution’s quality (Blumenstyk & Richards, 2011).

Culinary education has seen substantial growth and significant change over the

past several years. Harrington states that the external forces of change have created new academic degree opportunities in the marketplace for culinary education, including four- year culinary degrees (Harrington et al., 2005).

Traditionally, practical work in culinary arts generally involved simple tasks, such

as cooking, making dishes, and working under instruction from a teacher. Such approaches have often been criticized and that “cookery by such means is taught as a craft and is based on a utilitarian, traditional-based, craft apprenticeship tradition”

(Hegarty, 2004, p. 110).

He goes on to say that the guiding philosophy of the bachelors of art in Culinary

Arts that was developed at his school, the Dublin Institute of Technology’s School of

Culinary Arts and Food Technology, was to improve formal culinary education by moving it “toward a more academic and scholarly approach that reflected high status, academic and practical (liberal-vocational) knowledge” (Hegarty, 2004, p. 105).

Hegarty is an advocate of upper level education in culinary arts and believes that formal culinary education must move beyond the basic craft-based foundation that is being taught currently in most schools around the world. He believes that the graduate degree becomes “the passport to a permanent well-paid career” and thinks the time is right for formal culinary education to begin offering graduate qualifications to the industry (Hegarty, 2004 p. 133).

Hegarty believes that the establishment of a doctoral curriculum would assist the professional and academic development of the field as it has for other industries, such as agriculture, business, education, health, and public administration (Hegarty, 2004).

The belief that education should attempt to meet the needs of employers and employment is not a new one, and has been around for a very long time. However, there has often been some tension in such policy initiatives between addressing the alleged requirements for “work” and meeting the accepted criteria for “education.” 43

This tension may be expressed both in terms of control and language, as groups representing educational and industry interests compete for involvement and influence while expressing themselves in words with different meanings. It is also likely to precipitate debate over the kind of curriculum appropriate for both types of concern. Such tensions and problems have led to contrasting beliefs and differing philosophies about the purpose of education (Hegarty, 2004).

“In the traditional craft-based, apprentice vocational training in culinary arts, the emphasis has been on instrumental tasks (or task-element) performance, with heavy reliance on behavioral or instructional objectives delivered in a didactic form to demonstrate unspecified competence(s)” (Hegarty, 2004, p. 27).

There are many critics of this competence approach to learning who, after following a review of numerous studies, point out that such education and training lags behind. These critics have formed a consensus that vocational education and training has not worked, either for a majority of the trainees, or in meeting the perceived needs for a better workforce (Hegarty, 2004).

In culinary arts, the competence-based curriculum has come to be regarded as mechanistic and reductionist, and unlikely to foster the fullest possible potential of human development. Others believe that in the undergraduate curriculum in culinary arts, the emphasis needs to be placed on recognizing and fostering the intellectual development of the students rather than fragmenting learning into measurable chunks

(Hegarty, 2004).

Does an emphasis on the vocational aspects of the profession result in a restriction on development? Hegarty and others believe it does by tying curriculum development too 44

closely to the needs of the industry. The terms ‘liberal’ and ‘vocational’ are “often

employed to denote two different paradigms in education, two distinct educational

philosophies in which the former values knowledge for its own sake, while the latter

places a premium on application or on the way knowledge is used in practice” (Hegarty,

2004, p. 5).

Hegarty believes there should be more emphasis on fusing these two aspects of

learning rather than trying to push them apart (Hegarty, 2004, p. 9). According to the

approved program standards for both two and four semester culinary programs approved by the Ministry of Education and Training for Ontario colleges, all graduates of culinary

programs must have met the stated general education requirement, something one may

not get in an apprentice program (Ministry of Education and Training, 1997).

Today, there are some indications that the traditional distinctions between liberal

and vocational education are becoming irrelevant. Holistic education is one new thought

process that reflects the best in both traditions, with a curriculum designed to eliminate

the distinctions between academic and vocational.

Value of Education

In the contemporary Canadian political context, economic vitality is central to

many social programs, particularly education. For example, as part of the 2006 federal

budget cycle, the Canadian federal government released a multi-year economic plan

titled, Advantage Canada: Building a Strong Economy for Canadians. The plan outlines

five ways (referred to as “advantages”) in which Canada can maximize or increase its

advantage over other G7 countries, including in the educational sector. They define their

“Knowledge Advantage” as “the best-educated, most-skilled and most flexible workforce in the world” (Department of Finance, 2006, p. 1).

Statistics show that there is a direct correlation between education and better earnings. It follows that one of the best ways to increase earnings is to invest time in a higher education program. In simple terms, you make more money with an education.

According to a recent U.S. Census report on educational attainment, adults with a college degree average more than $20,000 a year more than adults with only a high school education (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Over the course of a typical work life, that adds up to almost $1 million more.

According to the 2010 report titled The Condition of Education, young adults with a bachelor’s degree earned 28 percent more in 2008 than young adults with an associate’s degree, 53 percent more than young adult high school completers, and 96 percent more than young adults who did not earn a high school diploma. The percentage of young adults working full-time, full-year was also generally higher for those with higher levels of educational attainment (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2010).

For actual numbers, the report notes that in 2008, the median of the earnings of young adults with a bachelor’s degree was $46,000, while the median was $36,000 for those with an associate’s degree, $30,000 for those with a high school diploma or its equivalent, and $23,500 for those who did not earn a high school diploma or its equivalent. In 2008, the median of the earnings of young adults with a master’s degree or higher was $55,000, 20 percent more than young adults with a bachelor’s degree

(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2010).

The statistics from this same report also show that a bachelor’s degree is not the

only advanced education that can pay off. Professional schools and associate’s programs also offer valuable skills and training that is also guaranteed to improve income. Culinary education is most likely to be taken at a professional school or at a community college /

university within a two-year associate’s degree (National Center for Educational

Statistics, 2010).

College graduates also enjoy benefits beyond increased income. A 1998 report

published by the Institute for Higher Education Policy listed the individual benefits that

college graduates enjoy, including higher levels of saving, increased

personal/professional mobility, improved quality of life for their offspring, better

consumer decision-making, and more hobbies and leisure activities (Institute for Higher

Education Policy, 1998).

According to a report published by the Carnegie Foundation, non-monetary

individual benefits of higher education include the tendency for postsecondary students to

become more open-minded, more cultured, more rational, more consistent and less

authoritarian; these benefits are also passed along to succeeding generations (Rowley &

Hurtado, 2002).

Research has also consistently shown a positive correlation between completion

of higher education and good health, not only for oneself, but also for one's children. In

fact, "parental schooling levels (after controlling for differences in earnings) are

positively correlated with the health status of their children" and "increased schooling

(and higher relative income) are correlated with lower mortality rates for given age

brackets" (Cohn & Geske, 1992). 47

A number of studies have shown a high correlation between higher education and

cultural and family values, and economic growth. According to Elchanan Cohn and Terry

Geske (1992), there is the tendency for more highly educated women to spend more time

with their children; these women tend to use this time to better prepare their children for

the future. They report that those who have graduated from college appear to have a more

optimistic view overall of both their past and future personal progress (Cohn & Geske,

1992).

Public benefits of attending college include increased tax revenues, greater workplace productivity, increased consumption, increased workforce flexibility, and decreased reliance on government financial support (Institute for Higher Education

Policy, 1998).

There is considerable support for the notion that the rate of return on investment in higher education is high enough to warrant the financial burden associated with pursuing a college degree. Though the earnings differential between college and high school graduates varies over time, college graduates, on average, earn more than high school graduates. Statistics Canada reminds us that, on average, it pays to get a postsecondary education in Canada, because by far, the group that is most represented in the highest earnings category (more than two times the median) are those with a university education (Statistics Canada, 2008).

These sizeable differences in lifetime earnings put the costs of college study in realistic perspective. Most students today, about 80 percent of all students, enroll either in public 4-year colleges or in public 2-year colleges, which have lower tuition costs than similar private colleges. According to the U.S. Department of Education’s report Think 48

College Early, a full-time U.S. student pays on average $1,479 for tuition only at a public

2-year college, $4,059 for tuition only at a public 4-year college ($9,828 for in-state

tuition, room and board), and $16,948 for tuition only at a private 4-year college ($23,940

for tuition, room and board) (U.S Department of Education, 2009).

These statistics support the contention that, though the cost of higher education is significant, given the earnings disparity that exists between those who earn a degree and those who do not, the individual rate of return on investment in higher education is sufficiently high to warrant the cost.

While it is clear that investment in a college degree, especially for those students in the lowest income brackets, is a financial burden, the long-term benefits to individuals as well as to society at large appear to far outweigh the costs. Therefore, the overall level of returns to investments in higher education, in general, is a profitable investment for the

individual and for society. But does this pertain to those in the culinary arts profession

who pursue a formal culinary education?

Employment Outlook

The food service industry is one of the fastest growing sectors of the Canadian

and United States economies. The restaurant trade in particular is booming and employs

an estimated 12.7 million people, or 9 percent of the U.S. workforce. The restaurant

industry is expected to add 1.3 million jobs over the next decade, with employment

reaching 14 million by 2020. Americans are eating out more than ever, with industry

sales projections to exceed $580 billion in 2010, up 2.5% over 2009. The overall

economic impact of the restaurant industry is expected to exceed $1.5 trillion in 2010

(National Restaurant Association, 2010). With over one million people (6.4% of the 49

Canadian workforce) working in the food service industry in Canada in approximately

81,400 establishments, food service has become the fourth-largest employer in Canada

(CRFA, 2011).

The healthy state of the food service industry is good news for anyone training in the culinary arts today. The Labour Market News, which covers all provinces and

territories in Canada, reports an increase in all food service occupations, predicting

thousands of more jobs will be created during the decade 2006 – 2015 (Statistics Canada,

2011). The U.S. Department of Labor reports that job opportunities for cooks and food preparation workers are expected to be good, with employment of these workers increasing over the 2008 -18 decade (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010).

Though job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to increase through the next decade in both countries, competition will be intense for jobs in the top kitchens of higher end restaurants and hotels. Furthermore, although job growth will create many new positions, the overwhelming majority of job openings will stem from the need to replace workers who leave this large occupational group (Occupational

Outlook Handbook, 2010).

Many chef, cook, and food preparation worker jobs are attractive to people seeking first-time or short-term employment, additional income, or a flexible schedule.

Employers typically hire a large number of part-time workers, but many of these workers soon transfer to other occupations or stop working, creating numerous openings for those entering the field. At higher end restaurants, the fast pace, long hours, and high energy

levels required to succeed also causes some top chefs and cooks to leave for other jobs, creating job openings (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010). 50

Therefore, job opportunities for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to be plentiful because of the continued growth and expansion of food service outlets, but also because of the large number of workers who leave these occupations and need to be replaced.

Culinary Education

In 1976, the United States Department of Labor elevated cooks and chefs from a domestic category to a profession after strong lobbying by the American Culinary

Federation. Cooking quickly became a highly skilled profession within a multi-billion dollar industry that is one of the largest employers in the United States and Canada.

However, the earnings of chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers has not been elevated as quickly and varies greatly by region and type of employer (VanLandingham,

1995).

Earnings usually are highest in elegant restaurants and hotels, where many executive chefs are employed, and in major metropolitan and resort areas. The mean annual wage earnings of chefs and head cooks in the United States was $44,240

(Occupational Employment and Wages, 2009) and approximately $35,294 in Canada in

2009 (Alberta Government, 2010).

Cable television food shows and celebrity chefs may be driving some of the growth, but many operators and educators say that the industry itself is demanding an educated workforce. Food service is expected to add 1.3 million jobs in the next 10 years, including an eight percent increase in food service management positions in the United

States according to the NRA (National Restaurant Association, 2010). In Canada, the industry is expanding as well. 51

To turn out better job candidates, schools and universities have expanded their course offerings and degree programs. Programs often include externships that put students into real-life restaurant environments, providing opportunities to gain practical know-how and make valuable contacts within the industry.

Today, chefs globally are increasingly more educated than ever before, and industry leaders predict that learning professional culinary skills through a formal education system will become a leading trend in the future for culinary training (National

Restaurant Association, 2010). They anticipate a continuing growth in the formal culinary degree education system and increasing enrollment.

According to the NRA, there are now more than 1,000 post-secondary restaurant and hospitality management / culinary arts programs available today just in the United

States (National Restaurant Association, 2010). The ShawGuide’s Guide to Cooking

Schools counts 556 career cooking and wine schools (ShawGuides, 2009), whereas

CookingSchools.com lists approximately 1,100 career and recreational cooking and culinary schools that one can search (CookingSchools.com, 2008).

Even high schools are expanding their culinary career programs. The Careers

Through Culinary Arts Program, a nonprofit organization that promotes and provides career opportunities in the food service industry for underserved youth through culinary arts education and employment, currently works with over 170 public high schools and has assisted 240 high school teachers in training more than 12,000 students per year

(Careers through culinary arts program, 2010).

The ProStart program is a school-to-career curriculum that is sponsored by the

National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation which combines classroom 52

instruction with mentored work-site experiences. Today, there are over 80,000 high school juniors and seniors students in more than 1,650 high schools in 47 states, territories and districts that are enrolled in ProStart programs (National Restaurant

Association, 2010).

Many positive things have come out of this educational growth. Not only are the quality of people who are entering the food service industry today much better educated than they ever were, but there is no longer the stigma that went along with being in a vocational type industry from mainstream society.

However, does the industry need or want such an educated work force, and are salaries and wages high enough to provide a good enough return on investment to the culinarians who are entering the industry today in Canada?

Chapter Summary

The research shows there has been an increase in enrollment in formal culinary education programs and that the industry is hiring more than 90% of all culinary school graduates. However, with an average starting salary for culinary graduates being only

$23,914, is the return on investment justified, especially when the mean cost for school is

$10,126 per year? (Food Institute Report, 2006).

Furthermore, Canadian professional chefs who are currently in the industry have not been asked if they think their own formal culinary education, or lack of, has benefited them in their life and career. Though chefs have been asked what they look for in formal culinary education curriculums (Hertzman & Ackerman, 2010), they have not been asked what level of formal culinary education they require, if any at all, of the culinarians that they hire. 53

In addition, with the number of institutions providing formal culinary education

increasing dramatically every year, it has become difficult to assess and compare how

well they are teaching and preparing students for the industry. However, this study asked

Canadian professional chefs if they believe the value of formal culinary education differs

based on the quality of the institution that is providing that education.

A review of the literature did not indicate what the average chefs’ perceived value

of formal culinary education is. This study has attempted to understand if preferential hiring is given to those with formal culinary education over those without, and if the value Canadian professional chefs’ place on their own formal culinary education influences that decision. Chapter 3 will discuss the methodology used in this study, and the results and findings of this study will be discussed in chapters 4 and 5.

CHAPTER 3

Methodology

This chapter presents the methods used to provide baseline data about the perceptions of Canadian professional chefs’ perceived value of formal culinary education and if that value has any impact on their hiring decision of culinarians for their establishments. This chapter describes the research problems, the selection of the population to be studied and the sampling frame, the development of the research

instrument, the data collection techniques, and the data analysis procedures.

Review of the Research Problems

The comprehensive research problem this study addressed was determining the

perceptions Canadian professional chefs have of formal culinary education and if they give value to that education, both theirs and that of the candidates they hire. This problem

was divided into sub-questions as follows:

1. Do Canadian professional chefs believe there is value and benefit in having

formal culinary education?

2. Do Canadian professional chefs believe their formal culinary education, or

lack of, has benefited them in their life and career?

3. Do Canadian professional chefs believe having formal culinary education

increases a person’s chances of success and income potential in the industry?

4. Is there any relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs give

to their education and the value they give to the education of the candidates

they hire?

5. Do Canadian professional chefs have a preferred level of formal culinary

education for the entry level culinarians they hire?

6. Do Canadian professional chefs perceive a difference in the quality of the

formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution

that provided that education?

7. Do Canadian professional chefs believe that future culinarians will need

higher levels of formal culinary education than they do today?

Selecting and Qualifying the Sample of the Study

The population for the study consisted of Canadian professional chefs who conduct the hiring of culinarians for their establishments. The researcher obtained permission from the national administrator of the Canadian Culinary Federation, a national organization of culinarians, to use their chef members as a sample of the population. A formal letter seeking assistance was sent to the Canadian Culinary

Federation (see Appendix C) and a letter of support from the national administrator of the

Canadian Culinary Federation was secured (see Appendix D).

The Canadian Culinary Federation sent their approximate 1800 members a link to the survey by email, requesting that only chefs directly responsible for hiring personnel in their establishments participate in the survey (see Appendix G). The Canadian Culinary

Federation’s National Administrator estimated that at the time of the mailing, approximately 400 of their members would qualify as chefs who currently do the hiring 56

of culinarians for their establishments. Based on the demographics of the Canadian

Culinary Federation’s member profiles, he believed the sample would be a diversified

group representing all segments of the industry, from all provinces and territories

throughout Canada.

Creation and Dissemination of Questionnaire

The survey instrument (see Appendix A) consisted of two parts. The first part

focused on the research questions and asked the chefs questions, using a Likert-type

scale, regarding their beliefs and perceptions of formal culinary education, and if it is of

value and/or needed by culinarians entering the workforce today. This section also asked

questions to ascertain where the chefs saw formal culinary education fitting into career

success, and if a job candidate’s formal culinary education, or lack of, affects their hiring decisions of that candidate. In addition, the chefs were asked to reflect on their own culinary training / education and, in hindsight, if they feel it was valuable and adequate.

The researcher used a rating scale as follows: 1 = strongly disagree (SD), 2 = disagree

(D), 3 = feel neutral (N), 4 = agree (A), or 5 = strongly agree (SA).

The second part of the survey focused on the demographics of the respondents, asking questions regarding age, sex, geographic location, the extent of their formal culinary arts education, the degree/certificate/diploma granted, years in industry, current

position / title in industry, segment of the industry, and yearly compensation.

The survey instrument was embedded as a link into an email that was sent to

registered members of the Canadian Culinary Federation. The link to the survey brought

the respondents to the Internet-based survey that the researcher created and housed inside

of the Survey Monkey web-page. 57

Expert Review

To ensure the content validity of the instrument, a two-step testing process was performed before the data collection began. First, seven culinary educators / industry experts were asked to take the survey. Second, they were asked to analyze the survey and provide feedback. The list of experts and the letter the researcher sent can be found in

Appendix E.

The participants were asked how much time it took them to complete the survey, if they experienced any problems with the wording of the questions, if the order of the questions were appropriate, if they believed that the questions could determine a chef’s perceived value of formal culinary education, and if they thought any other questions should be added to the survey.

The process was conducted by first e-mailing the experts and asking for their participation in taking the survey and second, asking them to provide feedback to the researcher on their experience by answering the posed questions. This process established the content validity of the survey and provided a basis for revising the instrument. The feedback from the experts was all positive and no change to the survey was made.

Research Design and Procedures

After the draft instrument was tested for content validity by the group of subject matter experts comprised of industry professionals and educators, a cover letter with the survey link (see Appendix F) was sent to the administration of the Canadian Culinary

Federation for distribution to its members by email.

The cover letter contained the statement of informed consent that the sample was required to read prior to responding to the questionnaire. A participant’s continuation 58

with the survey implied that the respondent was aware of the scope and intent of the study, as well as any risks and benefits associated with the study. The participants continuation on to the questionnaire was their consent to participate in the study.

On November 15, 2011, the national administrator of the Canadian Culinary

Federation sent out the initial email (see Appendix G) to its members with the survey link embedded into the announcement.

As of November 28, 2011, only 45 respondents had taken the survey. The researcher contacted the national administrator of the Canadian Culinary Federation asking if he could send out another email to the chef members thanking those who had already taken the survey and encouraging those who had not to please do so as soon as possible. A reminder letter from the researcher (see Appendix H) was included in the email.

The administrator complied with the request and a reminder was sent out to the

Canadian Culinary Federation membership. The survey instrument was closed on

December 15, 2011 after being open for a total of thirty days with 115 chefs having attempted it. After eliminating the partially completed surveys, the researcher received

102 usable surveys for an overall response rate of 25.5%.

Research Questions and Analysis

Each survey item was designed to help answer one of the seven research questions. The survey items were analyzed using a variety of statistical analyses through

SPSS PASW Statistics 19. Table 8 indicates the analysis that was used for each research question and shows the corresponding survey items.

Table 8 Analysis used for Questions and Survey Items

Research Question Items on Analysis Survey 1 Do Canadian professional chefs believe 1, 3, 4, 11, 24 Descriptive statistics: Scores there is value and benefit in having formal will range from 1 to 5. SD = culinary education? 1; D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = 5; Symmetry test for Likert- type items 2 Do Canadian professional chefs believe 20, 21, 22, 23 Descriptive statistics: Scores their formal culinary education, or lack of, will range from 1 to 5. SD = has benefited them in their life and career? 1; D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = 5; Symmetry test for Likert- type items 3 Do Canadian professional chefs believe 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, Descriptive statistics: Scores having formal culinary education increases 10, 18, 19 will range from 1 to 5. SD = a culinarians success and income potential 1; D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = in the industry? 5; Symmetry test for Likert- type items 4 Is there a relationship between the value 8, 25 Descriptive statistics: Scores Canadian professional chefs give to their will range from 1 to 5. SD = education and the value they give to the 1; D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = education of the candidates they hire? 5; Symmetry test for Likert- type items; Correlation coefficient 5 Do Canadian professional chefs have a 26, 29 Descriptive statistics: Scores preferred level of formal culinary will range from 1 to 5. SD = education (diploma/certificate, associate’s 1; D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = degree, bachelor’s degree or higher, or no 5; formal culinary education is needed) for Symmetry test for Likert- the entry-level culinarians they hire? type items table continued

Table 8 (continued) Analysis used for Questions and Survey Items

Research Question Items on Analysis Survey 6 Do Canadian professional chefs perceive a 12, 14, 16, 28 Descriptive statistics: Scores difference in the quality of the formal will range from 1 to 5. SD = 1; culinary education graduates receive based D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = 5; on the type of institution (university; Symmetry test for Likert-type college; institute; public; private; not-for- items; Chi-square test for profit; for-profit) that provided the goodness of fit. education? 7 Do Canadian professional chefs believe 13, 15, 17, 27 Descriptive statistics: Scores that future culinarians will need higher will range from 1 to 5. SD = 1; levels of formal culinary education than D = 2; N = 3; A = 4; SA = 5; they do today? Symmetry test for Likert-type items

Analysis of Questionnaire

The researcher summarized the variables with frequency distributions and examined correlations among variables. Data analysis is reported in Chapter 4.

Chapter Summary

Chapter 3 discussed the purpose of the study as well as the proposed research questions. The sample, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis were also discussed. Chapter 4 provides the findings of the study and Chapter 5 reviews the recommendations and conclusions of the study.

CHAPTER 4

Analysis and Evaluation

Data Analysis

The goal of this study was to hear the collective voices of Canadian professional chefs on a variety of issues related to formal culinary education. Chapter 1 outlined the background of the problem and identified seven specific research questions. This chapter will answer those research questions by providing analysis of the data obtained by surveying the Canadian professional chefs. The next section will discuss the response rate and the demographics of the respondents. The complete descriptive statistics of the survey instrument can be found in Appendix I.

Response Rate

As discussed in Chapter 3, the researcher utilized the Canadian Culinary

Federation’s member email list to distribute the survey. It was sent out as an email blast by the Canadian Culinary Federation’s National Administrator. The Canadian Culinary

Federation has a membership of approximately 1800; however, based on the pre-

established criteria for participation in this study that the respondents are Canadian

professional chefs that currently hire culinarians, the National Administrator believed that

approximately 400 would qualify and be asked to take the survey.

Of the 400 total possible respondents, the researcher received 115 for an overall response rate of slightly under 29%. Thirteen of these responses were incomplete and discarded for a final, valid response count of 102, or 25.5%. Heretofore, this N of 102 will be referred to as “respondents” or the “respondent group”.

As an incentive for the respondents to complete the survey, the researcher offered to send copies of the study results to them in the form of an executive summary. The last item on the survey asked them to include an email address where they would like the executive summary sent. Fifty-five chefs (53.40%) indicated that they would like to receive a summary of the results.

Demographics of Respondents

Analysis of the demographic questions showed that 80.4% of the respondents were male and 19.6% female, with 50% of the respondents falling into the 30 to 50 age category. Table 9 provides a frequency and percentage breakdown of the respondents’ age grouping.

Table 9 Age of Respondents

Age Group Frequency Percentage

18 -20 3 2.9 21 - 29 8 7.8 30 - 39 23 22.5 40 - 49 28 27.5 50 - 59 30 29.4 60 or older 10 9.8 Total 102 100

In regards to their highest level of school / degree achieved, 45.1% of the respondents reported apprenticeship or other trade certification / diploma. Table 10 provides a frequency and percentage breakdown of the respondents’ highest attained

level of formal education.

Table 10 Highest Level of School / Degree Achieved

Highest Level of Education Frequency Percentage

Less than a high school degree 2 2 High School degree 2 2 Registered apprenticeship or other trades certificate / diploma 46 45.1 Some College 9 8.8 Associate Degree 19 18.6 Bachelor Degree 14 13.7 Graduate Degree 10 9.8 Total 102 100

When asked what the highest culinary degree earned was, again apprenticeship or

other culinary trade certificate / diploma came in at the highest as shown in Table 11 with

70.6%.

Table 11 Highest Culinary Degree Earned

Highest Culinary Degree Frequency Percentage

None, no culinary degree 4 3.9 High School culinary degree 1 1 Apprenticeship or other culinary trade certificate / diploma 72 70.6 Associate Degree in Culinary 15 14.7 Bachelor Degree in Culinary 5 4.9 Graduate Degree in Culinary 5 4.9 Total 102 100

As far as where they obtained their culinary training from, Table 12 shows that

college was the greatest response with 62.7%, followed by apprenticeship / certificate programs at 24.5%.

Table 12 Formal Culinary Training Provider

Culinary Training Frequency Percentage

High School 3 2.9 Apprentice / Certificate 25 24.5 Military / On-the-job 10 9.8 College / private or public 64 62.7 Total 102 100

Almost three-quarters of the respondents (72.5%) reported their current position

as chef, followed by educator / consultant (8.8%) and food and beverage / manager

(6.9%). Table 13 provides a frequency breakdown of the respondents’ job titles.

Table 13 Job Titles of the Chef Respondents

Job Title Frequency Percentage

Chef 74 72.5 Baker / Pastry Chef 2 2 Food & Beverage / Manager 7 6.9 Educator / Consultant 9 8.8 Cook / Student 7 6.9 Retired / Unemployed 3 2.9 Total 102 100

Over 83% (85) of the respondents had at least one type of culinary certification.

The participants had been employed in the culinary industry for a mean of 22.53 years,

with a range from 1 to 47 years and a standard deviation of 12.21 years. The chef’s total

compensation ranges fluctuated as shown in Table 14, as did the segment of the industry

that they worked in.

Table 14 Respondents Total Compensation

Total Compensation Frequency Percentage

20,000 to 29,999 10 9.8 30,000 to 39,999 13 12.7 40,000 to 49,999 13 12.7 50,000 to 59,999 14 13.7 60,000 to 69,999 8 7.8 70,000 to 79,999 14 13.7 80,000 to 89,999 14 13.7 90,000 to 99,999 6 5.9 100,000 or more 10 9.8 Total 102 100

Table 15 provides a frequency and percentage breakdown of industry segments

showing that the largest group (32.4%) were employed in hotels/resorts/country clubs, followed by restaurants / bakery (21.6%).

Table 15 Industry Segments

Industry Segment Frequency Percentage

Restaurant / Bakery 22 21.6 School / University 13 12.7 Hotel / Resort/ Country Club / B&B 33 32.4 Caterer / Personal Chef / Private Chef 7 6.9 Business / Industry / Supermarket 9 8.8 Military / Airlines / Cruise Lines 1 1 Hospital / Health Care/ Correctional Inst. 12 11.8 Unemployed / Retired 5a 4.9 Total 102 100 Note. Respondents were asked to choose all that apply. aUnemployed / Retired is greater than reported in Table 13 (5 vs. 3) and was likely caused by two respondents being currently unemployed.

Table 16 shows that the chef respondents were working all over Canada with the

largest group (33.3%) coming from Ontario.

Table 16 Canadian Province / Territory Chef Respondents Currently Work

Province / Territory Frequency Percentage

Alberta 15 14.7 British Columbia 19 18.6 Manitoba 9 8.8 New Brunswick 1 1 Northwest Territories 1 1 Nova Scotia 3 2.9 Ontario 34 33.3 Quebec 1 1 Saskatchewan 14 13.7 Yukon 1 1 Outside of Canada 3 2.9 Not currently working 1 1 Total 102 100

Tables 9 through 16 offered the following general profile of the respondent group.

The group was predominantly male in the 30 to 60 age range whose highest degree level

overall was a trade certificate / diploma. The respondents had been employed in the

culinary industry for an average of 22 years with over 32% currently working in

hotels/resorts/country clubs followed by 21% currently working in restaurants/bakeries.

Over three-quarters of the respondents reported their current position as chef with

close to 50% reporting their total compensation to be in the $50,000 to $90,000 range.

Though the chef respondents were working all over Canada, over 33% reported Ontario

as their current place of employment followed by British Columbia at 18.6%.

There were seven research questions to the study. Each research question had a variety of survey items asked in order to help answer the research question. In the next 67

section, each of the research questions are listed, followed by the corresponding survey

item and their results. Of the 29 survey items in part one of the survey instrument

(outside of the demographic section), consensus was reached for all items.

Analysis of Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to analyze the data. Survey items

1-25 were based on a Likert-type scale with scores ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. Survey items 26 - 41 were a mix of multiple choice and short answer questions. A symmetry test for Likert-type items was utilized on the survey items for each research question. In addition, research question 4 utilized a correlation, and research question 6 utilized a Chi-square test for goodness of fit.

Question 1.

Research Question 1: Do Canadian professional chefs believe there is value and benefit in having formal culinary education?

H01 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that there is value and benefit in

having formal culinary education either for themselves or for the candidates they

hire. (Survey item 1, 3, 4, 11, and 24)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various

survey items that relate to research question 1. For survey item 1, eighty-three chefs

(81.3%) either agree / strongly agree that they would “prefer to see more culinarians

working in the industry that have formal culinary education”.

For survey item 3, eighty-five chefs (83.4%) either agree / strongly agree that “the

value and benefits a culinarian receives from their formal culinary education is worth the

costs of obtaining that education”. Eighty-four chefs (82.4%) either agree / strongly agree 68

for survey item 4, that if a person important to them wanted to work in the culinary industry, they “would encourage them to pursue formal culinary education.”

For item 11, seventy-one chefs (69.6%) either agree / strongly agree that the value they give to a culinarian’s formal culinary education increases based upon the level of education they have achieved. Lastly, eighty-six chefs (84.3%) either agree / strongly agree to survey item 24 that if they had the opportunity to increase their own level of formal culinary education, they would do it.

Table 17

Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 1

Survey Item M SD

SI-1 4.17 .96 SI-3 4.13 .88 SI-4 4.21 1.14 SI-11 3.66 .98 SI-24 4.20 .81

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for value and benefit of formal culinary education, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976) and Whitney (1978) was performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979) to test the null hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 18 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 18 Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding the Value of Formal Culinary Education

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-1 8.367 0.000 101 12.386 0.000 SI-3 8.087 0.000 101 13.069 0.000 SI-4 8.647 0.001 101 10.751 0.000 SI-11 4.726 0.001 101 6.820 0.000 SI-24 8.577 0.000 101 14.996 0.000

Based on this information, the null hypothesis was rejected and the researcher concluded that Canadian professional chefs do believe there is value and benefit in having formal culinary education for both themselves and for the candidates they hire.

Question 2.

Research Question 2: Do Canadian professional chefs believe their formal culinary education, or lack of, has benefited them in their life and career?

H02 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that formal culinary education has

benefited them in their life and career. (Survey item 20 - 23)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various survey items that relate to research question 2. For survey item 20, seventy-one chefs

(69.6%) either agree / strongly agree that they are satisfied with the level of formal culinary education they have achieved. For survey item 21, ninety-four chefs (92.1%) either agree / strongly agree that the formal culinary education they have received has been and / or is of value to their career.

For item 22, fifty-five chefs (54%) either agree / strongly agree that if they had had more formal culinary education when they were starting their culinary careers, they 70

would have achieved industry success quicker. Lastly, fifty-two chefs (50.9%) either

agree / strongly agree to survey item 23 that if they had more formal culinary education

than they currently have, they would have greater industry success.

Table 19 Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 2

Survey Item M SD

SI-20 3.76 1.00 SI-21 4.36 .79 SI-22 3.57 1.17 SI-23 3.43 1.11

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for formal culinary education

benefits, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976) and Whitney (1978) was

performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979) to test the null

hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 20 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 20

Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Formal Culinary Education Benefits

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-1 8.367 0.000 101 12.386 0.000 SI-3 8.087 0.000 101 13.069 0.000 SI-4 8.647 0.001 101 10.751 0.000 SI-11 4.726 0.001 101 6.820 0.000 SI-24 8.577 0.000 101 14.996 0.000

Based on this information, the null hypothesis was rejected and the researcher

concluded that Canadian professional chefs believe that their formal culinary education

has benefited them positively in their life and career.

Question 3.

Research Question 3: Do Canadian professional chefs believe having formal

culinary education increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry?

H03 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that having formal culinary

education increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry. (Survey

item 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, and 19)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various

survey items that relate to research question 3. For survey item 2, eighty-nine chefs

(87.3%) either agree / strongly agree that formal culinary education increases an entry-

level culinarian’s chances of success and income potential in the industry.

For survey item 5, eighty-six chefs (84.3%) either agree / strongly agree that they prefer to hire culinarians that have received some form of formal culinary education.

Seventy-four chefs (72.6%) either agree / strongly agree for survey item 6, that the company / employer they currently work for gives preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education. For survey item 7, eighty-five chefs

(83.4%) either agree / strongly agree that they give preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education in their background.

For survey item 9, sixty-four chefs (62.7%) either agree / strongly agree that they

offer a higher starting pay rate to entry-level culinarians who have formal culinary education. Seventy-four chefs (72.5%) either agree / strongly agree for survey item 10, 72

that the majority of culinarians they currently hire have some form of formal culinary

education in their background. For survey item 18, ninety-five chefs (93.1%) either agree

/ strongly agree that when hiring upper level culinarians, it is important for them to have

some form of formal culinary education. Lastly, ninety chefs (88.2%) either agree / strongly agree to survey item 19 that in the future, chefs will need some level of formal culinary education in their background.

Table 21 Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 3

Survey Item M SD

SI-2 4.18 .98 SI-5 4.17 .94 SI-6 3.86 1.08 SI-7 4.04 .82 SI-9 3.64 .99 SI-10 3.85 .81 SI-18 4.48 .73 SI-19 4.32 .80

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for formal culinary education

increasing success and income potential, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976)

and Whitney (1978) was performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979)

to test the null hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 22 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 22 Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Success and Income Potential

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-2 8.437 0.000 101 12.186 0.000 SI-5 8.367 0.000 101 12.523 0.000 SI-6 6.196 0.000 101 8.104 0.000 SI-7 7.456 0.000 101 12.866 0.000 SI-9 4.586 0.000 101 6.532 0.000 SI-10 6.126 0.000 101 10.654 0.000 SI-18 10.607 0.000 101 20.618 0.000 SI-19 9.487 0.000 101 16.812 0.000

Based on this information, the null hypothesis was rejected. The researcher

concluded that Canadian professional chefs believe that having formal culinary education

increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry.

Question 4.

Research Question 4: Is there a relationship between the value Canadian

professional chefs give to their education and the value they give to the education of the

candidates they hire?

H04 There is no relationship between the value Canadian professional

chefs give to their education and the value they give to the education of

the candidates they hire. (Survey item 8 and 25)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various

survey items that relate to research question 4. For survey item 8, sixty-seven chefs

(65.7%) either agree / strongly agree that they give preferential hiring to culinarians

whose formal culinary education is equal to or greater than their own. For survey item 25, 74

eighty-six chefs (84.3%) either agree / strongly agree that because they value their own formal culinary education, they prefer the culinarians they hire to have some form of culinary education.

The researcher then ran a correlation coefficient on survey item 8 and 25. The data revealed the value Canadian professional chefs give to their education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire were significantly related, r = .619, n = 102, p < .01.

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for the value relationship, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976) and Whitney (1978) was performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979) to test the null hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 23 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 23 Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding the Value Relationship

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-8 5.706 0.000 101 8.248 0.000 SI-25 7.737 0.000 101 14.036 0.000

Based on this information, the null hypotheses was rejected. The researcher concluded that there is a positive relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs gives to their education, and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire.

Question 5.

Research Question 5: Do Canadian professional chefs have a preferred level of formal culinary education (diploma/certificate, associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree or higher, or no formal culinary education is needed) for the entry level culinarians they hire?

H05 Canadian professional chefs do not have a preferred level of formal culinary education for the entry level culinarians they hire. (Survey item 26 and 29)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various survey items that relate to research question 5. For survey item 26, eighty-seven chefs

(85.3%) selected diploma / certificate as the recommended minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have today to be successful in the industry. Of the rest of the choices, eight chefs (7.8%) selected that no formal culinary education was needed, and seven (6.9%) selected associate degree.

For survey item 29, seventy-four chefs (72.5%) selected formal culinary apprenticeship program as the training track they believe provides culinarians today with the greatest chances overall for industry success and income potential. Of the rest of the choices, thirty-seven chefs (36.3%) selected post-secondary formal culinary education, fifteen (14.7%) learning skills on the job, and five chefs (4.9%) culinary training in the military.

Table 24 Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 5

Survey Item M SD

SI-26 1.30 .83 SI-29 2.93 2.15

Based on this information, the null hypothesis was rejected. The researcher

concluded that Canadian professional chefs do have a preferred minimum level of formal

culinary education for the entry-level culinarians they hire and that is a diploma /

certificate.

Question 6.

Research Question 6: Do Canadian professional chefs perceive a difference in the

quality of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution

(university; college; institute; public; private; not-for-profit; for-profit) that provided the

education?

H06 Canadian professional chefs do not perceive a difference in the quality level

of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of

institutions providing the education. (Survey item 12, 14, 16 and 28)

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various

survey items that relate to research question 6. For survey item 12, forty-four chefs

(43.2%) either agree / strongly agree that it matters to them what type of institution the

entry-level culinarians they hire received their formal culinary education from. Thirty-

eight chefs (37.3%) felt neutral, and twenty chefs (19.6%) either disagree / strongly

disagree.

For survey item 14, fifty-eight chefs (56.9%) either agree / strongly agree that

from an educational standpoint, it does matter what type of institution a culinarian today

gets their formal culinary education from. Twenty-three chefs (22.5%) felt neutral and

twenty-one chefs (20.6%) either disagree / strongly disagree. For survey item 16, sixty-

four chefs (62.8%) either agree / strongly agree that they would give high overall ratings

to at least one of the local formal culinary education programs within their immediate

hiring area. Twenty-five chefs (24.5%) felt neutral, and thirteen chefs (12.7%) either

disagree / strongly disagree.

For survey item 28, the chefs did not have a strong preference for which post-

secondary institutions provided graduates with the highest quality of formal culinary

education overall.

A chi-square test for goodness of fit was used on each of the survey items by the

researcher to test the null hypotheses. For survey item 12, 14 and 16, the Canadian

professional chefs showed significant preferences around the five Likert-type scale

choices X2(4), for each question was significant (p < .05) and were respectively 41.43,

49.67, and 35.35. For survey item 28, the Canadian professional chefs again showed significant preferences around the choices X2(6) = 30.44, p < .05.

Table 25 Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 6

Survey Item M SD

SI-12 3.30 .99 SI-14 3.44 1.03 SI-16 3.74 1.08 SI-28 (N=85, 17 missing) 3.80 1.56

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for formal culinary education

quality levels, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976) and Whitney (1978) was

performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979) to test the null

hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 26 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 26 Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Formal Culinary Education Quality Levels

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-12 2.205 0.027 101 3.141 0.002 SI-14 3.186 0.001 101 4.374 0.000 SI-16 5.286 0.000 101 6.920 0.000

Based on the chi-square values in the critical region and the symmetry test results

leaning in a positive direction with small probability values, the null hypothesis was

rejected. The researcher concluded that Canadian professional chefs do perceive a difference in the quality of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution that provided the education.

Question 7.

Research Question 7: Do Canadian professional chefs believe that future culinarians will need higher levels of formal culinary education than they do today?

H07 Canadian professional chefs do not believe that future culinarians will need a

higher level of formal culinary education than they do today. (Survey item 13, 15,

17 and 27) 79

The researcher used SPSS PASW Statistics 19 to assist in answering the various survey items that relate to research question 7. For survey item 13, thirty-three chefs

(32.3%) either agree / strongly agree that they are satisfied with the level of formal culinary education culinarians entering the workforce / job market today have. Twenty- three chefs (22.5%) felt neutral, and forty-six chefs (45.1%) either disagree / strongly disagree.

For survey item 15, seventy chefs (68.6%) either agree / strongly agree that to be successful in the future, culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today. Eighty-eight chefs (86.3%) either agree / strongly agree for survey item 17, that in the future, they would like to see more culinarians with formal culinary education applying for positions at their place of employment.

Lastly, for item 27, seventy-five chefs (73.5%) selected diploma / certificate as the preferred minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian in the future should have to be successful in the industry. Seventeen chefs (16.7%) selected associate degree, six chefs (5.9%) selected no formal culinary education will be needed, and four chefs (3.9%) selected a bachelor degree or higher. When answering survey item

26, eighty-seven chefs (85.3%) selected diploma / certificate as the recommended minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have today to be successful in the industry, with only seven chefs (6.9%) selecting associate degree.

This indicates a slight increase in the number of Canadian chefs who believe that future culinarians will need higher levels of formal culinary education than they do today.

Table 27

Means and Standard Deviations for the Indicators – Question 7

Survey Item M SD

SI-13 2.83 1.03 SI-15 3.75 1.01 SI-17 4.15 .71 SI-27 1.42 .83

To better evaluate the distribution of responses for future levels of formal culinary

education, a symmetry test developed by Cooper (1976) and Whitney (1978) was

performed using a computer program designed by Morris (1979) to test the null

hypothesis that the responses were symmetric. Table 28 summarizes the findings, with the results showing that the distribution of responses leaned in a positive direction and were not symmetric.

Table 28

Symmetry Test of Survey Items Regarding Future Levels of Formal Culinary Education

Survey Item Cooper Whitney

z p df t p SI-13 1.155 0.248 101 1.593 0.111 SI-15 5.426 0.000 101 7.603 0.000 SI-17 8.227 0.000 101 16.406 0.000

Based on this information, the null hypothesis was rejected. The researcher

concluded that Canadian professional chefs do believe that future culinarians will need a

higher level of formal culinary education than they do today with the majority believing

that level to be a diploma / certificate.

Respondents Comments / Suggestions

The final survey item 41 was open-ended and asked respondents if they had any

comments and / or suggestions that they would like to share. Thirty-one of the chefs

(30%) answered this item. However, four of those who answered the item responded

“no”, “none” or “none it was a good survey”; the researcher, therefore, assumed they were satisfied with the survey. The remaining comments were positive with sixteen specifically commenting that more education is needed in the industry. Table 29 summarizes the comments about the survey.

Table 29

Frequency of Comments Regarding the Survey

Comment Frequency Percentage

No Comment 4 13% Good or Good Job 2 6% Irrelevant comments regarding the industry or CCF 7 23% Survey needs to be given to chefs outside the CCF 1 3% Need more education in this industry 17 55% Total 31 100%

Chapter Summary

This chapter provided the results of the research study including participant demographics. Quantitative analyses were presented and discussed by individual research question. Of the seven research questions, all of the null hypotheses were rejected.

Chapter 5 presents the findings of the study, recommendations, and conclusions of the research study.

CHAPTER 5

Summary, Discussion, and Recommendations

This chapter contains a summary of the research questions, methodology and findings of the study. It includes the results of the analysis of the data and how it compares and contrasts with the previous research presented in Chapter 2. It discusses the significance of the study and provides recommendations for future research about culinary education.

Summary of Research Problem, Questions, and Methodology

The researcher designed this study to provide a comprehensive perspective of

Canadian professional chefs’ thoughts on formal culinary education and what impact it may have on their hiring decisions. The study addresses the general research question:

What value, if any, do Canadian professional chefs give to formal culinary education and

is there a relationship with industry success? The researcher developed seven specific questions:

1. Do Canadian professional chefs believe there is value and benefit in having

formal culinary education?

2. Do Canadian professional chefs believe their formal culinary education, or

lack of, has benefited them in their life and career?

3. Do Canadian professional chefs believe having formal culinary education

increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry? Is there

a relationship between the value Canadian professional chefs give to their

education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire?

4. Do Canadian professional chefs have a preferred level of formal culinary

education for the entry-level culinarians they hire?

5. Do Canadian professional chefs perceive a difference in the quality of the

formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution

that provided the education?

6. Do Canadian professional chefs believe that future culinarians will need

higher levels of formal culinary education than they do today?

To address the research questions, the researcher developed a survey instrument asking Canadian professional chefs to agree or disagree of various strengths to a variety of statements on a five point Likert-type scale. The survey was sent to active chef members of the Canadian Culinary Federation who conduct the hiring of culinarians within the scope of their jobs. The researcher received 102 complete surveys for an overall response rate of 25.5%. The researcher performed statistical analysis on the survey data using SPSS PASW Statistics Version 19 in order to determine the importance of formal culinary education and the perceptions of the Canadian chefs.

Study Limitations

Limitations always exist about the extent to which the findings can be generalized. No matter how diverse a sample, it will never be inclusive of everyone. The sample limitations in this study are the generalizability of the sample and an insufficient number of participants. The Canadian professional chef respondents were all members of the Canadian Culinary Federation. There are many professional chefs in Canada who do 84

not belong to this organization, and their opinions would be valuable. In addition, for a sample to be representative of a population, it is essential that the response rate be as high

as possible. This study had a low response rate of 25.5%, which increases the potential

for a biased sample. Future studies should attempt to increase the response rate.

In addition, this was a Canadian study, and the results may vary by country,

including in the United States, due to the different educational tracks. In Canada, the

apprenticeship system is very strong, as it is in Europe. Apprenticeship would therefore

have a strong influence on where one receives their formal culinary training, the

perceived quality of that training and the value certification has over degrees. Future studies in other countries and locales would need to take into consideration the

educational / workforce training cultures and habits culinarians pursue there.

Summary of Results

This section summarizes the results of the data analysis.

Research question 1 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected and Canadian professional chefs do believe there is value and benefit in having formal culinary education for both themselves and the candidates they hire. They not only reported that they would prefer (81.3%) to see more culinarians working in the industry that have formal culinary education over those that don’t, but they also believe (83.4%) the value and benefit one gets from their formal culinary education is worth the costs of obtaining that education.

In addition, they overwhelming agreed / strongly agreed (82.4%) that if a person important to them, such as a child, relative or friend, wanted to work in the culinary industry, they would encourage them to pursue formal culinary education. They would 85

also (84.3%) pursue increasing their own level of formal culinary education if the opportunity presented itself.

Research question 2 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected because Canadian professional chefs do believe that formal culinary education has benefited them in their life and career. Over 92% of the respondents agreed / strongly agreed to survey item 21 which stated “the formal culinary education I have received has been and / or is of value to my career.” The other

7.9% of the respondents did not, with five respondents answering that they feel neutral to the question, one disagreeing (their formal culinary education was obtained in the military), and two strongly disagreeing (the formal culinary education for one respondent was received in high school and the other received theirs through an apprenticeship.)

Research question 3 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected because Canadian professional chefs do believe that having formal culinary education increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry; 87.3% of the respondents answered agree / strongly agree to survey item 2 that asked if, “Formal culinary education increases an entry-level culinarian’s chances of success and income potential in the industry.” Respondents also agreed (84.3%) that they “prefer to hire culinarians that have some form of culinary education”, and that they (83.4%) “give preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education in their background”. In addition, 72.6% stated that the company they work for “gives preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of culinary education”, and 62.8% “offer a higher starting pay rate to entry-level culinarians who have formal culinary education”. 86

The majority of respondents (72.5%) agreed / strongly agreed that “the majority of culinarians they currently hire have some form of formal culinary education in their background”. When hiring upper level culinarians, 93.1% agree / strongly agree that it is important for them to have some form of formal culinary education, while 88.2% agree / strongly agree that in the future, chefs will need some level of formal culinary education in their background.

Research question 4 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected because there is a relationship between the value

Canadian professional chefs give to their education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire. For survey item 25, 84.3% of the respondents agree

/ strongly agree that because they valued their own formal culinary education, they prefer the culinarians they hire to have some form of formal culinary education. A correlation coefficient that was run on the two survey items which relate to this research question also revealed that the value Canadian professional chefs give to their education and the value they give to the education of the candidates they hire was significantly related (r =

+.619, n = 102, p < .01, two tails).

Research question 5 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected because Canadian professional chefs do have a preferred level of formal culinary education for the entry-level culinarians they hire, with

85.3% of the respondents indicating that level to be a diploma / certificate. Only 7.8% of the respondents stated that, “no formal culinary education is needed”, with the other 6.9% picking an associate degree. Interestingly, none of the respondents chose a bachelor degree or higher. 87

When asked which training track they believe provides culinarians today with the greatest chances overall for industry success and income potential, 72.5% chose a formal culinary apprenticeship program. This was not surprising considering the strong apprenticeship and Red Seal programs in Canada. Of the remaining respondents, 36.3% selected post-secondary formal culinary education and 4.9% chose the military.

Research question 6 and hypothesis.

The null hypothesis was rejected because Canadian professional chefs do perceive a difference in the quality level of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institutions providing the education. For survey item 12, forty-four chefs

(43.2%) either agree / strongly agree that it matters to them what type of institution

(university; college; technical school; public; private;) the entry-level culinarians they hire received their formal culinary education from. Thirty-eight chefs (37.3%) felt neutral and twenty chefs (19.6%) either disagree / strongly disagree.

For survey item 14, fifty-eight chefs (56.9%) either agree / strongly agree that from an educational standpoint, it does matter what type of institution a culinarian today gets their formal culinary education from. For survey item 16, sixty-four chefs (62.8%) either agree / strongly agree that they give high overall ratings to at least one of the local formal culinary education programs within their immediate hiring area.

With survey item 28, the data indicates that Canadian professional chefs do not have a strong preference for which post-secondary institutions provided graduates with the highest quality of formal culinary education overall. Though 28.4% selected public, community college and another 27.5% selected public, vocational / technical institutes,

18.6% selected “I don’t know”. 88

Research question 7 and hypothesis.

The null hypotheses that “Canadian professional chefs do not believe that future

culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today” was

rejected. Forty-six respondents (45.1%) either disagree / strongly disagree that they are

satisfied with the level of formal culinary education culinarians entering the workforce /

job market today have. Though this does not necessarily speak to the future in that culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today, it is an indication of dissatisfaction of those doing the hiring in regards to the current levels of formal culinary education candidates in their immediate hiring area have.

For survey item 17, eighty-eight chefs (86.3%) either agree / strongly agree that in the future, they would like to see more culinarians with formal culinary education applying for positions at their place of employment. Though one could infer that this means the chefs are not satisfied with the level of formal culinary education those entering the industry today have, it does indicate that they believe that future culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today.

Survey item 15 provides further evidence that the null hypothesis is rejected when seventy chefs (68.6%) either agree / strongly agree that to be successful in the future, culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today.

In addition, when survey item 26 and 27 are compared, the results confirm the rejection of the null hypothesis. Item 26 asks, “What would you recommend is the

minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have today to be successful in the industry?” The highest response (85.3%) was diploma / certificate

with only 6.9% selecting associates degree and 0% selecting bachelor’s degree or higher. 89

Item 27 asks, “In the future, I believe the preferred minimum level of formal culinary

education an entry-level culinarian should have to be successful in the industry is?” with

73.5% selecting diploma / certificate, 16.7% selecting associate’s degree, and 3.9% selecting bachelor degree or higher.

Significance of the Study

This study sought to provide comprehensive answers to the questions of what value, if any, do Canadian professional chefs give to formal culinary education; do they believe having formal culinary education increases a culinarian’s success and income potential in the industry, and do they give preferential hiring to those who have it.

The study is significant to those contemplating seeking formal culinary education by providing the viewpoint of professional chefs from the industry, revealing the value they place on their own formal culinary education and the value they place on the formal culinary education of the candidates who apply for employment with them.

The institutes that provide formal culinary education will also find the study significant because of the industry insight it reveals, the level of value the industry gives to the formal culinary education their institutions provide, and the employment outlook for their graduates.

This study is also significant to Canada’s higher education policy-makers because it shows that culinarians with formal culinary education are in need and demand by the industry, which can have implications on funding and overall support for training, certification and credentialing in the culinary arts.

Lastly, the study furthers the current knowledge on the topic by revealing the

value this segment of the food service industry gives to the formal education of the job

candidates that seek employment from it.

Significance for Future Culinarians

What value do culinarians with formal culinary education add to the industry from

the perspective of those who have come before them and are now doing the hiring of

these graduates? Canadian professional chefs not only value formal culinary education

but also give preferential hiring to those who have it in their background and often provide a higher starting pay rate.

Though Canadian professional chefs do perceive a difference in the quality of the formal culinary education graduates receive based on the type of institution that provided the education, a consensus was not reached on which institutions provided the highest quality of formal culinary education. The majority of chefs did indicate the minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have today is a

diploma / certificate in culinary arts and that educational requirements will increase in the

future.

The study also showed there is a relationship between the perceived value

Canadian professional chefs place on their own formal culinary education and the value

they place on the education of the candidates they hire. Therefore, Canadian professional

chefs who have formal culinary education in their background are more likely to value it in those they hire.

In addition, the majority of the chefs reported that their highest culinary degree earned was a culinary trade diploma / certificate and they had received their formal 91

culinary training from a certificate/ apprenticeship program. The majority also selected formal culinary apprenticeship programs as the training track they believe provides culinarians today with the greatest chances overall for industry success and income potential.

This study also answered the basic question of whether the high cost of tuition, the opportunity cost of choosing college over full-time employment, and the potential accumulation of thousands of dollars in debt is, in the long run, worth the investment in formal culinary education from the view-point of Canadian professional chefs.

This essential question was answered at the surface that yes, the value and benefits a culinarian receives from their formal culinary education is worth the costs of obtaining that education. However, what we do not know is what is the cost of that education; where was the education obtained from; what is the starting pay for those with formal culinary education, as well as what the long term pay difference is between those with formal culinary education and those without. These are all questions to be answered by future research.

Significance for Culinary Educational Institutes

The institutes that provide formal culinary education will also find the study significant because of the industry insight it reveals. Knowing that Canadian professional chefs value the formal culinary education that their institutions currently provide, a positive employment outlook for their graduates has been proven.

The study is also significant to formal culinary educational institutes because it shows that, though there might be a suspicion by Canadian professional chefs that there is a difference in the quality of formal culinary education between various post-secondary 92

institutions, the chefs do not know what that difference is, or which type of institution provides a higher quality education overall. Institutions that can show that their graduates are of a higher quality, and can articulate that differentiation to the industry, may have a future advantage in placing their graduates over the graduates of other institutions.

Lastly, over 86% of the Canadian professional chefs who responded to the survey stated that in the future, they would like to see more culinarians with formal culinary education applying for positions at their place of employment. This is significant from a placement point of view for institutes looking to place their current students and graduates into position out in the industry. This could also provide an opportunity for experiential learning, new internship / externship sites, work-study, cooperative learning, apprenticeships and potential advisory board members.

Therefore, higher education leadership at institutes that provide formal culinary education would be well served to seek out and develop relationships with the Canadian food service industry.

Significance for Canadian Higher Education Policy Makers

This study is also significant to Canadian higher education policy-makers because the results of the study indicated that culinarians with formal culinary education are in need and demand by the industry. One chef respondent stated it this way on the comment section of the survey:

Although I enjoy what I do, our profession is very quickly going to the wayside as

restaurants and hotel owners are more apt to hiring individuals with no formal

training and little experience “as they work cheaper”. Our profession is not given

the same credibility or respect as other professions such as welders, plumbers, etc. 93

I spent the same amount of time in school and have spent many years in the field

and in no way do I receive the same wage or tax benefits as other red seal

professions. We need to change this industry and lobby our provincial & federal

governments to extend the same tax breaks and wage benefits as other

professions. If that means only red seals or higher are allowed to cook then so be

it, there are too many non-professionals in the industry giving the rest of us a bad

reputation.

Another chef respondent stated in the comments section of the survey,

“Mandatory certification should be the ultimate goal of the profession.” The policy

implications one could derive from these comments and this study is that there possibly needs to be more dialogue between the various stakeholders and government to discuss funding and overall support for training, certification and credentialing in the culinary arts.

The food and beverage sector faces many challenges in attracting and retaining its workers, including competition for labor, falling birth rates, and the aging baby boomer population. However, misconceptions about occupations in the food service industry and a lack of awareness about existing education, training, and qualifications options available also hamper the attraction of new workers. As the demand for food and beverage services continues to grow in Canada, it will become more and more difficult to ensure an adequate supply of labor. Labor shortages in the Canadian food and beverage sector are projected to increase substantially by 2025 (CTHRC, 2012).

The understanding and respect of food and beverage occupations as a career choice and not simply a job is just one of a number of urgent issues that food and 94

beverage stakeholders and all levels of government should continue to address in order to

plan effectively for potential labor shortages. According to the Canadian Tourism Human

Resource Council, 70.7% of people working in the food and beverage services industry group in Canada have only a high school certificate or less. In addition, only 19.2% have an apprenticeship/trades/college/certificate/diploma educational level, with another 7.2% holding a university certificate or degree (2012).

This may indicate an opportunity for Canada’s education policy to invest more in the training, education and credentialing of food service occupations, as well as in the marketing and promoting of the culinary industry to communicate to potential employees the various options available today within the industry.

Higher Education Return on Investment

The ability to relate costs to potential earnings is a valuable tool for students in their school selection and course of study, as it has become an accepted measure of the value of education. A variety of studies have been undertaken to measure both the private and public rates of return from higher education. There is general agreement with most studies that the time and money invested in postsecondary education delivers a substantial rate of return between 5 and 10 percent (Auld, 2005).

All forms of education and training have a degree of both private and social benefit. Private direct benefits are generally measured in terms of higher lifetime

earnings, while social, or public, benefits are reflected directly in higher tax revenues for

governments, lower unemployment rates, and reduced welfare costs.

The current research and the findings from this study showed that the benefits for

culinarians with formal culinary education who are looking for employment in Canada 95

are that the demand for such trained labor is there, with even the possibility of higher

starting wages. The long-term forecast remains the same with increased labor shortages

predicted.

Recommendations for Further Research

The researcher concludes that further research is needed in order to thoroughly

understand and assess the value of formal culinary education from the point of view of

those doing the hiring. This would include what specifically the hiring chef values in

those with formal culinary education. In other words, what is it that culinarians with formal culinary education bring to the table that the hiring chef desires? Is it some

specific skill, or is it knowledge, be it general or specific?

Future research could expand this study and explore in detail the demographic variables of the Canadian professional chefs in order to determine if they play a significant role in determining the perceived value of the subject’s formal culinary education, as well as that of the entry-level culinary candidates they hire.

The Canadian professional chefs’ reported salary ranges are another area that could be studied further, including categorizing it by current position, industry segment, and location within Canada. The salaries could then be compared to the average salary for that position as reported by the Labour Market Information & Research wages and salaries put out by the Government of Canada. One could then look to see if formal education and / or certification had an influence on the salary and if those with formal culinary education are above, below or at the reported levels.

The relationship between degree cost, the debt incurred to finance that cost, and post-graduation earnings is emerging as a measure of accountability, especially for the 96

private for-profit institutions. Future studies could explore the return on investment of

formal culinary education and the differences in the educational quality the graduates

receive based on the type of institutions providing the education, the costs of tuition and

the salary levels of their graduates.

The researcher also believes that it would be advantageous to replicate this study

in other countries. There are numerous professional chef organizations around the world

whose members could easily be surveyed to gather similar data which could then be

shared with the various stakeholders, including higher education students, leaders,

institutes, and policy-makers.

In the United States of America, for example, the American Culinary Federation

promotes itself as the premier professional chefs’ organization in North America with

more than 20,000 members in over 200 chapters (American Culinary Federation, 2012).

Since this study not only has implications in Canada, but also in North America overall, it

is believed that the American Culinary Federation would find such a study valuable to not

only its members, but to all of the stakeholders in the United States.

This study also lends itself to replication in a variety of professional trades and industries, especially those industries that were once strictly vocational or trade-based in the past but now have some amount of formal education as part of their training (i.e. auto mechanics, hair stylists, photographers, the building/construction trades, etc.)

Conclusion

This study provides outcomes supporting the value and demand for formal

culinary education today in Canada. Results of this study answer the questions posed in

Chapter 1, that Canadian professional chefs have a demand for entry-level culinarians 97

who have formal culinary education in their background. This study concurs with the

Canadian Culinary Federation who was quoted in Chapter Two as stating, “the best trained chefs and cooks are in high demand” (Employment Ontario, 2009).

The results of this study are also in agreement with and support the 2010

Occupational Outlook Handbook statement that “formal culinary education can assist a

worker with placement in a higher entry-level kitchen position, employment at a higher

quality restaurant, and more rapid advancement” (Occupational Outlook Handbook,

2010). The study results also recognize the statement in Chapter Two by Employment

Ontario which stated, “Opportunities for employment are expected to be average to good over the period 2009 to 2013” (2009).

The 2010 Occupational Outlook Handbook also reported that though job openings for chefs, cooks, and food preparation workers are expected to increase through the next decade, competition will be intense for jobs in the top kitchens of higher end restaurants and hotels (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010). As revealed in this study, one way a culinarian can get preferential hiring is to obtain some form of formal culinary education.

This research study contributed to the current literature by attempting to answer the overall question of what value do Canadian professional chefs give to formal culinary education. As derived from the mean importance ratings assigned by Canadian professional chefs in this study, the overall conclusions of the study are that the culinary

industry in Canada needs and wants an educated work force; and according to these same

Canadian professional chefs who are doing the hiring, the value and benefits a culinarian

receives from their formal culinary education is worth the costs of obtaining that

education. 98

The study highlights the prediction that not only will opportunities for

employment be there, but labor shortages as well. It is predicted that demand for goods

and services in the food and beverage industry could grow from nearly $46 billion in

2007 to almost $64 billion in 2025, with the strongest demand occurring between 2010 and 2015. Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council states, “The consequences of the predicted labour shortage, such as the inability of tourism sector business to meet demand, could cost Canada billions of dollars” (2012). They go on to say that, “By 2025,

demand for labor could support over 1.16 million jobs in the food and beverage industry

if there were enough employees to fill them.” The prediction is that in 2025, Canada will

be short 16,216 cooks (2012).

It is currently unknown how the various stakeholders in Canada, including

industry, government, regulatory officials, Tourism Education Councils, private training

institutes and community colleges, are going to address both the expected growth of the

industry and the predicated shortage of labor. A recommended first step in addressing the

serious labor issue of finding qualified, reliable food service employees now and in the

future may be a collaboration of all stakeholders involved.

APPENDICES

100

Appendix A

Survey Instrument

Section 1 The table below contains 40 statements. Please indicate whether you strongly disagree (SD), disagree (D), feel neutral (N), agree (A), or strongly agree (SA) with each statement by placing an X in the appropriate column (SD, D, N, A, or SA) to the right of each statement. Response Statement SD D N A SA Example: Milk is my favorite beverage. X 1. I would prefer to see more culinarians working in the industry that have formal culinary education rather than culinarians who have none. 2. Formal culinary education increases an entry-level culinarian’s chances of success and income potential in the industry. 3. The value and benefits a culinarian receives from their formal culinary education is worth the costs of obtaining that education. 4. If a person important to me (a child, relative, friend, etc.) wanted to work in the culinary industry, I would encourage them to pursue formal culinary education. 5. I prefer to hire culinarians that have received some form of formal culinary education. 6. The company / employer I currently work for gives preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education. 7. I give preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education in their background. 8. I give preferential hiring to culinarians whose formal culinary education is equal to or greater than my own. 9. I offer a higher starting pay rate to entry-level culinarians who have formal culinary education. 10. The majority of culinarians I currently hire have some form of formal culinary education. 11. The value that I give to a culinarian’s formal culinary education increases based upon the level of education they have achieved (diploma / certificate vs. associate degree vs. bachelor degree vs. master’s degree, etc.).

101

12. It matters to me what type of institution (university; college; technical school; public; private;) the entry-level culinarians I hire received their formal culinary education from.

13. I am satisfied with the level of formal culinary education culinarians entering the workforce / job market today have. 14. From an educational quality standpoint, it does matter what type of institution (university; college; technical school; public; private;) a culinarian today gets their formal culinary education from. 15. To be successful in the future, culinarians will need a higher level of formal culinary education than they do today. 16. I would give high overall ratings to at least one of the local formal culinary education programs within my immediate hiring area. 17. In the future, I would like to see more culinarians with formal culinary education applying for positions at my place of employment. 18. When hiring upper level culinarians (sous chefs, garde manger chefs, pastry chefs, etc.) it is important for them to have some form of formal culinary education. 19. In the future, chefs will need some level of formal culinary education in their background. 20. I am satisfied with the level of formal culinary education I have achieved. 21. The formal culinary education I have received has been and / or is of value to my career. 22. If I had had more formal culinary education when I was starting my culinary career, I would have achieved industry success quicker. 23. If I had more formal culinary education than I currently have, I would have greater industry success (for example, a higher position, greater salary, more recognition, etc.). 24. If I had the opportunity to increase my own level of formal culinary education, I would do it. 25. Because I value my own formal culinary education, I prefer the culinarians I hire to have some form of formal culinary education.

102

26. What would you recommend is the minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have today to be successful in the industry? 1) diploma / certificate 2) associate’s degree 3) bachelor’s degree or higher 4) no formal culinary education is needed 5) other – please specify

27. In the future, I believe the preferred minimum level of formal culinary education an entry-level culinarian should have to be successful in the industry is? 1) diploma / certificate 2) associate’s degree 3) bachelor’s degree or higher 4) no formal culinary education will be needed 5) other – please specify

28. The post-secondary institutions that provide graduates with the highest quality of formal culinary education overall are the: 1) private, not-for-profit institutes, universities and colleges. 2) private, for-profit proprietary institutes. 3) public, vocational / technical institutes. 4) public, community colleges. 5) public universities and colleges 6) I don’t know 7) Other – please specify

29. Which training track do you believe provides culinarians today with the greatest chances overall for industry success and income potential. 1) Post-secondary formal culinary education 2) Formal culinary apprenticeship program 3) Culinary training in the military. 4) Learning culinary skills on the job (school of hard knocks) 5) Other – please specify

Section 2 Demographics

30. Are you male or female? ______Male ______Female

103

31. Which category below includes your age? ___ 17 or younger ___ 18 – 20 ___ 21 – 29 ___ 30 – 39 ___ 40 – 49 ___ 50 – 59 ___ 60 or older

32. What is the highest level of school you have completed or the highest degree you have received? ______Less than high school degree ______High school degree or equivalent (e.g., GED) ______Registered apprenticeship or other trades certificate or diploma ______Some college but no degree ______Associate degree ______Bachelor degree ______Graduate degree ______other – please specify

33. What is the highest culinary degree you have earned? ______None, I do not have any degrees in culinary ______High school culinary degree or equivalent ______Registered apprenticeship or other culinary trade certificate or diploma ______Associate degree in Culinary Arts ______Bachelor degree in Culinary Arts ______Graduate degree in Culinary Arts ______Other (please specify)

34. Where did you receive your formal culinary training? (check all that apply) ______High School Culinary program ______Apprenticeship Program ______Certificate program ______Military ______On-the-job ______Private Culinary College ______Public Culinary College ______Other college or university ______I don’t have any ______Other (please specify)

104

35. Your Current Position (check all that apply) ______Chef ______Baker / Pastry Chef ______Food & Beverage / Manager ______Educator / Consultant ______Cook / Student ______Retired / Unemployed ______Other (please specify)

36. Do you currently hold any culinary certifications? Yes _____ No ______Please list your culinary certifications

37. How many years have you been employed in the food service industry? (Please write in your answer)

38. What is your total yearly compensation including base salary, bonuses, overtime, etc., before any deductions for your current position? ______$20,000 – $29,999 ______$30,000 – $39,999 ______$40,000 - $49,999 ______$50,000 - $59,999 ______$60,000 - $69,999 ______$70,000 - $79,999 ______$80,000 - $89,999 ______$90,000 - $99,999 ______$100,000 or more

39. What segment of the industry are you currently employed? (check all that apply) ___ Restaurant / Bakery ___ School / University ___ Hotel / Resort / Country Club / B&B ___ Caterer / Personal Chef / Private Chef ___ Business / Industry / Supermarkets ___ Military / Airlines / Cruise Line ___ Hospital / Health Care / Correctional Institution ___ Unemployed / Retired ___ Other, please specify ______

105

40. What Province or Territory of Canada are you currently working in? (check all that apply) ______Alberta ______British Columbia ______Manitoba ______New Brunswick ______Newfoundland and Labrador ______Northwest Territories ______Nova Scotia ______Nunavut ______Ontario ______Prince Edward Island ______Quebec ______Saskatchewan ______Yukon ______Outside of Canada ______Not currently working ______Other – please specify

41. Do you have any comments and/or suggestions that you would like to share? ______OPTIONAL - If you would like an executive summary report of the study findings, please include an e-mail address to send it to: ______

106

Appendix B

The Culinary Journey

107

Appendix C

Letter requesting assistance from Canadian Culinary Federation

8/23/2010

Roy Butterworth, CCC CCFCC National Administrator 30 Hamilton Court Riverview, NB E1B 3C3 Canada

Chef Butterworth,

My name is Colin Roche and I am a chef-educator who has been a member of the American Culinary Federation for over fifteen years. This is my ninth year as the department chair / associate professor in the College of Culinary Arts at Johnson & Wales University’s North Miami campus. Presently, I am attending Florida Atlantic University’s College of Education in Boca Raton, Florida pursuing my PhD in Higher Educational Leadership and I am writing to request your help with my research. The purpose of my proposed study is to examine the perceptions of Canadian professional chefs relative to their formal culinary education and the value they give to that education; and to then see what effect that value has on their hiring practices. I would also like to see if there is any relationship to the formal culinary education they require, or desire, from the candidates they hire. The secondary purpose is to see if there is a consensus among Canadian professional chefs on the level of formal culinary education they believe is needed, if any, for those entering the profession today; and if that level of formal culinary education will be less, the same, or greater in the future. My reason for writing today is to ask for permission to survey Canadian Culinary Federation chef members anonymously by email using the CCF member list. I specifically want chefs who have hiring responsibilities of entry level culinarians. The survey would be administered, and the data collected, anonymously through an electronic

108

survey in SurveyMonkey software that your chefs would access through a link embedded in the email. Attached please find a draft of that survey. My plan is to collect the data fall 2011, write up the results in the winter 2011, and then complete the study spring of 2012. An executive summary of the results would be available for the CCF and its members if you so desire. Chef, thank you for reviewing the above information and consideration of my request. If you need additional information please contact me at (561) 714-3304 or [email protected]. Please let me know if the CCF can assist me in my research.

I thank you in advance for your support,

Respectfully submitted,

Colin P. Roche

Colin Roche Department Chair & Associate Professor Johnson & Wales University 1701 NE 127th Street North Miami, FL 33181

109

Appendix D

Letter of support from Canadian Culinary Federation

110

Appendix E

Content Validity Expert List and Letter with Questions

Content Experts 1) James Griffin, Ph.D., Associate Provost; Johnson & Wales University, Providence, R.I. 2) Jean Hertzman, Ph.D., Assistant Professor; UNLV, College of Hotel Administration, Las Vegas, NV. 3) Susan Marshall, Ed.D., Department Chair; Johnson & Wales University, Foodservice Academics, Providence, R.I. 4) Samuel Glass, M.Ed., Professor; Centennial College, School of Hospitality, Tourism, and Culture, Toronto, ON 5) Bradley Ware, Ph.D., Professor; Johnson & Wales University, Foodservice Academics, Providence, R.I. 6) Joseph Lalopa, Ph.D., Associate Professor; Purdue University, Hospitality and Tourism Management, Lafayette, IN 7) Bruce Ozga, M.Ed., Dean; Johnson & Wales University, College of Culinary Arts, North Miami, FL

Hello Culinary Educators,

As you all know I am currently pursuing my PhD in Higher Education Leadership at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida. My dissertation topic is “Canadian Professional Chef’s Perceived Value of Formal Culinary Education and its Relationship with Industry Success”. I am at the point where I would like to pre-test and pilot the instrument and am writing to ask all of you as content experts to assist me with the process.

A well designed questionnaire is essential to a successful survey. The purpose of the pilot study is to test both the survey instrument and the online mechanism (SurveyMonkey) to be used in the dissertation study.

The pre-test / pilot of the survey will provide two functions. It first serves as the initial “live” test of the survey, and secondly it is the last step in finalizing the survey questions and form. The pre-test is possibly one of the most critical steps in administering a survey as it offers feedback on whether the survey’s wording and clarity is apparent to all survey respondents, and whether the questions mean the same thing to all respondents. The three basic goals of the pre-test are (Iraossi 2006, 89): 1. To evaluate the competency of the questionnaire. 2. To estimate the length of the survey or time to take the survey. 3. To determine the quality of the surveyor.

111

Therefore, if you agree to participate, I would like you all to pretest the questionnaire and respond with feedback before October 15, 2011. Here is a checklist that you can use as a guide while taking the survey:

Checklist of Concerns During the Test Run: • Did you understand the survey’s objective?  Are the instructions clear and adequate? • Is the wording in the survey clear? • Did any of the questions require you to think too long or hard before responding? If so, which ones? • Are any questions too personal or of a potentially embarrassing nature? • Did any of the questions produce irritation, embarrassment, or confusion? If so, which ones? • Did any of the questions generate response bias? If so, which ones?  Are any of the words or phrases loaded or leading in any way?  Is there any ambiguity in any of the questions?  Are all the questions clearly worded and the response options clearly identified?  Are any words or phrases vague?  Are there any implied alternatives within the questions?  Are the questions sufficient to generate the required information?  Do you think the wording of the questions will have the same meaning to all respondents?  Will the question be understood by the type of individuals taking the survey (Canadian chefs)?  Are the questions placed in the best order?  Are there any additional or specifying questions needed?  Should any of the questions be eliminated? • Did you feel comfortable answering the questions? • Have any other important issues been overlooked? • How long did it take to complete the survey? • Is the survey too long?

Thank you for your time and valuable feedback. I appreciate your help with this process and look forward to your input. Please click on this survey link to begin: (Link embedded here)

Sincerely,

Colin P. Roche, MBA, CEC, CCE, FMP, CHE, ACE Department Chair, Culinary Arts Johnson & Wales University College of Culinary Arts 1701 N.E. 127th Street North Miami, Florida 33181 Office: (305) 892-7576 [email protected] http://www.jwu.edu/

112

Appendix F Cover letter to respondents with instructions Dear Fellow Chef, Thank you for clicking on this link. I hope you will agree to participate in this survey which should take between 5 to 10 minutes of your time. The primary purpose of this study is to assess the attitudes and opinions of Canadian Professional Chefs regarding formal culinary education. By participating you will be contributing knowledge about our profession and the value of formal culinary education. Should you agree to participate, and I hope you will, you may skip any questions you do not feel comfortable answering and are free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. If you decide to participate, I will also send you an executive summary of the report upon request. Please know that IP addresses will not be collected in order to protect your identity. The data collected will be stored on a password protected computer in a locked office, and destroyed three years after the study concludes. The risks involved with this study are minimal and no more than one would expect with any anonymous survey. This research is being conducted by me, Chef Colin Roche, PhD candidate under the supervision of my dissertation chair, Dr. Deborah L. Floyd. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact either myself (561) 714-3304 ([email protected]) or Dr. Floyd at (561) 297-2671 ([email protected]). Your completion of the electronic survey for this study will serve as your consent to participate. Thank you very much for your time and support,

Chef Colin Roche MBA, CEC, CCE, FMP, CHE, ACE Department Chair / Assistant Professor Johnson & Wales University North Miami, Florida (561) 714-3304 [email protected]

113

Appendix G Initial Email to Canadian Culinary Federation members

Administrator's Newsletter Canadian Culinary • Tweet tweet! Federation • Hiring & Education - A Thesis • WACS World Congress 201

November 15, 2011 www.ccfcc.ca The Canadian Culinary Federation - Office of the National Administrator - [email protected]

Hello Chefs,

Some time ago the CCF accepted a request from a learned Chef Culinary Chair of the famous Johnson and Wales University based in the USA. His goal is to write a thesis for his doctorate involving elements associated with educational background and its relationship to hiring practices to which end the results will be made available to the CCF and membership.

We respectfully ask that although this request is part of a National mailing, that only chefs directly responsible for hiring personnel in their establishments facilitate responses to the survey. ______Dear Fellow Chef,

I really need your help!

I am conducting a study to assess the attitudes and opinions of Canadian Professional Chefs regarding the formal culinary education of those entering the industry today. As a professional chef myself, I would really appreciate your assistance with this study by completing an online survey (click on link below) that should take no more than ten minutes to complete. The survey will be open until December 15th so your timely response is most appreciated and IP addresses will not be collected in order to protect anonymity.

The study has been approved by the administration of the Canadian Culinary Federation and outcome results will be made available in an executive summary report to the CCF and its members for internal analysis.

114

Thank you very much for your time, support, and honest answers! If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me. Please click on the survey link now to start: https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/canadianchefs

Sincerely,

Colin P. Roche, MBA, CEC, CCE, FMP, CHE, ACE Department Chair, College of Culinary Arts Johnson & Wales University

115

Appendix H

Follow-up / Reminder E-Mail to Non-Respondents

Dear Chef,

I just wanted to send you this brief reminder regarding my request for your industry expertise and participation in the study I am conducting that will share the value

Canadian professional chefs give to formal culinary education.

Hundreds of Canadian professional chefs have already taken the approximately 10 minutes to respond. However, for the results to have a meaningful purpose there needs to be many more responses.

If you have not already done so today, I would greatly appreciate it if you would please click on the link below and complete the short 10 to 15 minute survey. You will truly be doing a great service to the food service industry, as well as the industry's future cooks and chefs.

If you have any questions or concerns please feel free to contact me [email protected] or 561-714-3304. Thanks again for your help and participation. You may access the survey here: {SurveyLink Inserted Here}.

Sincerely,

Chef Colin Roche

Colin P. Roche, MBA, CEC, CCE, FMP, CHE, ACE Department Chair, College of Culinary Arts Johnson & Wales University

116

Appendix I

Survey Instrument Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Response ( N = 102) Survey Item Dev. SD D N A SA (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. I would prefer to see more culinarians working in the industry that 4.17 .96 4 0 15 39 44 have formal culinary education rather than culinarians who have none. 2. Formal culinary education increases an entry-level culinarian’s chances 4.18 .98 4 4 5 46 43 of success and income potential in the industry. 3. The value and benefits a culinarian receives from their formal culinary 4.13 .88 2 3 12 48 37 education is worth the costs of obtaining that education. 4. If a person important to me (a child, relative, friend, etc.) wanted to 4.21 1.14 5 7 6 28 56 work in the culinary industry, I would encourage them to pursue formal culinary education. 5. I prefer to hire culinarians that have received some form of formal 4.17 .94 4 1 11 44 42 culinary education. 6. The company / employer I currently work for gives preferential hiring 3.86 1.08 5 7 16 43 31 to those culinarians who have some amount of formal culinary education. 7. I give preferential hiring to those culinarians who have some amount of 4.04 .82 3 0 14 58 27 formal culinary education in their background. 8. I give preferential hiring to culinarians whose formal culinary 3.79 .98 2 8 25 41 26 education is equal to or greater than my own. 9. I offer a higher starting pay rate to entry-level culinarians who have 3.64 .99 3 11 24 46 18 formal culinary education. 10. The majority of culinarians I currently hire have some form of formal 3.85 .81 0 7 21 54 20 culinary education. 11. The value that I give to a culinarian’s formal culinary education 3.66 .98 5 8 18 57 14 increases based upon the level of education they have achieved (diploma / certificate vs. associate degree vs. bachelor degree vs. master’s degree, etc.). 12. It matters to me what type of institution (university; college; technical 3.30 .99 4 16 38 33 11 school; public; private;) the entry-level culinarians I hire received their formal culinary education from. 13. I am satisfied with the level of formal culinary education culinarians 2.83 1.03 7 39 23 30 3 entering the workforce / job market today have. 14. From an educational quality standpoint, it does matter what type of 3.44 1.03 4 17 23 46 12 institution (university; college; technical school; public; private;) a culinarian today gets their formal culinary education from. 15. To be successful in the future, culinarians will need a higher level of 3.75 1.01 3 10 19 47 23 formal culinary education than they do today. 16. I would give high overall ratings to at least one of the local formal 3.74 1.08 4 9 25 36 28 culinary education programs within my immediate hiring area. 17. In the future, I would like to see more culinarians with formal 4.15 .71 1 0 13 57 31 culinary education applying for positions at my place of employment. 18. When hiring upper level culinarians (sous chefs, garde manger chefs, 4.48 .73 1 1 5 36 59 pastry chefs, etc.) it is important for them to have some form of formal culinary education. 19. In the future, chefs will need some level of formal culinary education 4.32 .80 1 2 9 41 49 in their background. 20. I am satisfied with the level of formal culinary education I have 3.76 1.00 2 12 17 48 23 achieved. 21. The formal culinary education I have received has been and / or is of 4.36 .79 2 1 5 44 50 value to my career. 22. If I had had more formal culinary education when I was starting my 3.57 1.17 6 12 29 28 27 culinary career, I would have achieved industry success quicker. 23. If I had more formal culinary education than I currently have, I would 3.43 1.11 6 14 30 34 18 have greater industry success (for example, a higher position, greater salary, more recognition, etc.).

117

24. If I had the opportunity to increase my own level of formal culinary 4.20 .81 1 2 13 46 40 education, I would do it. 25. Because I value my own formal culinary education, I prefer the 4.08 .78 1 3 12 57 29 culinarians I hire to have some form of formal culinary education. 26. What would you recommend is the minimum level of formal culinary 1.30 .83 education an entry-level culinarian should have today to be successful in the industry? 1) diploma / certificate 87 2) associate’s degree 7 3) bachelor’s degree or higher 0 4) no formal culinary education is needed 8 27. In the future, I believe the preferred minimum level of formal culinary 1.42 .83 education an entry-level culinarian should have to be successful in the industry is? 1) diploma / certificate 75 2) associate’s degree 17 3) bachelor’s degree or higher 4 4) no formal culinary education will be needed 6 28. The post-secondary institutions that provide graduates with the 3.80 1.56 highest quality of formal culinary education overall are the: 1) private, not-for-profit institutes, universities and colleges. 12 2) private, for-profit proprietary institutes. 18 3) public, vocational / technical institutes. 28 4) public, community colleges. 29 5) public universities and colleges 19 6) I don’t know 19 29. Which training track do you believe provides culinarians today with 2.93 2.15 the greatest chances overall for industry success and income potential. 1) Post-secondary formal culinary education 37 2) Formal culinary apprenticeship program 74 3) Culinary training in the military. 5 4) Learning culinary skills on the job 15 30. Are you male or female? 1.19 .40 82 20 M F 31. Which category below includes your age? 5.01 1.23 1) 17 or younger 0 2) 18 – 20 3 3) 21 – 29 8 4) 30 – 39 23 5) 40 – 49 28 6) 50 – 59 30 7) 60 or older 10 32. What is the highest level of school you have completed or the highest 4.21 1.52 degree you have received? 1) Less than high school degree 2 2) High school degree or equivalent (e.g., GED) 2 3) Registered apprenticeship or other trades certificate or 46 diploma 4) Some college but no degree 9 5) Associate degree 19 6) Bachelor degree 14 7) Graduate degree 10 33. What is the highest culinary degree you have earned? 3.30 .93 1) None, I do not have any degrees in culinary 4 2) High school culinary degree or equivalent 1 3) Registered apprenticeship / culinary trade certificate or 71 diploma 4) Associate degree in Culinary Arts 16 5) Bachelor degree in Culinary Arts 5 6) Graduate degree in Culinary Arts 5

118

34. Where did you receive your formal culinary training? 3.32 .95 1) High School Culinary program 10 2) Apprenticeship Program 41 3) Certificate program 24 4) Military 5 5) On-the-job 39 6) Private Culinary College 17 7) Public Culinary College 39 8) Other college or university 16 9) I don’t have any 0 35. Your Current Position (check all that apply) 1.84 1.49 1) Chef 64 2) Baker / Pastry Chef 6 3) Food & Beverage / Manager 8 4) Educator / Consultant 16 5) Cook / Student 10 6) Retired / Unemployed 3 36. Do you currently hold any culinary certifications? 1.17 .37 85 17 yes no 37. How many years have you been employed in the food service 22.53 12.21 1 to 47 industry? 38. What is your total yearly compensation including base salary, 4.81 2.48 bonuses, overtime, etc., before any deductions for your current position? 1) $20,000 – $29,999 10 2) $30,000 – $39,999 13 3) $40,000 - $49,999 13 4) $50,000 - $59,999 14 5) $60,000 - $69,999 8 6) $70,000 - $79,999 14 7) $80,000 - $89,999 14 8) $90,000 - $99,999 6 9) $100,000 or more 10 39. What segment of the industry are you currently employed? 3.43 2.11 1) Restaurant / Bakery 27 2) School / University 17 3) Hotel / Resort / Country Club / B&B 32 4) Caterer / Personal Chef / Private Chef 15 5) Business / Industry / Supermarkets 10 6) Military / Airlines / Cruise Line 1 7) Hospital / Health Care / Correctional Institution 14 8) Unemployed / Retired 5 40. What Province or Territory of Canada are you currently 6.53 4.33 working in? (check all that apply) 1) Alberta 17 2) British Columbia 22 3) Manitoba 10 4) New Brunswick 1 5) Newfoundland and Labrador 1 6) Northwest Territories 2 7) Nova Scotia 3 8) Nunavut 1 9) Ontario 36 10) Prince Edward Island 0 11) Quebec 3 12) Saskatchewan 15 13) Yukon 1 14) Outside of Canada 4 15) Not currently working 2

119

REFERENCES

Abramson, L. (2011, March 15). Regulators try to light a fire under culinary schools.

National Public Radio. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org

Alberta Employment and Immigration. (2009). Labour market news - Careers that cook.

Calgary, Canada: Government of Alberta.

Alberta Government. (2010, October). Wageinfo. Government of Alberta

Employment and Immigration. Retrieved from http://alis.alberta.ca/wageinfo

American Culinary Federation. (2012, March). Who we are. Retrieved from

http://www.acfchefs.org

Antun, J. (2008, June). The great debate: Curriculum development. Chef Educator

Today, 9(2), 20-21.

Auld, D. (2005, October). Selling postsecondary education: The role of private vocational

and career colleges. C.D. Howe Institute Commentary, 219, 3.

Berta, D. (2005, September 12). Growing field of culinary schools difficult to evaluate.

Nation's Restaurant News, 39(37), 16, 71.

Blumenstyk, G., & Richards, A. (2011, March 18). For-profit colleges manage defaults to

mask problems, analysis indicates. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 57(28),

a1, a6, a8.

120

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Educational attainment for workers 25 years and

older by detailed occupation. Retrived from http://www.bls.gov/emp

/ep_table_111.htm

Canadian Culinary Federation. (2011, March). Who are we. Retrieved from

http://www.ccfcc.ca/whoarewe_en.html

Canadian Restaurant and Foodservice Association. (2011, March). Industry Statistics.

Retrieved from http://restaurantcentral.ca/researchtrends /industrystatistics.aspx

Canadian Restaurant and Foodservice Association. (2012, January). Economic impact.

Research. Retrieved from http://www.crfa.ca

Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council. (2010). Qualifications Framework. The

culinary career journey. Retrieved from http://cthrc.ca/en/research_publications

/credential_recognition/qualifications_frameworks

Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council. (2012). Labour Market Information.

Retrieved from http://cthrc.ca/

Carnevale, A. (1999). Briefing papers: Transforming postsecondary education for the

21st century. Education Commission of the States, 1-8.

Careers Through Culinary Arts Program. (2010, May). Careers through culinary arts

program. Retrieved from C-CAP: http://www.ccapinc.org

Cohn, E., & Geske, T. (1992). Private nonmonetary returns to investment in higher

education. In W. Becker & D. Lewis, The Economics of American Higher

Education (pp. 20-35). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

CookingSchools.com. (2008, October). Cooking Schools. Retrieved from

http://www.cookingschools.com 121

Cooper, M. (1976). An exact probability test for use with Likert-type scales. Educational

and Psychological Measurement, 36(3), 647-655. doi:10.1177/001316447603

600310

Culinaryschools.org. (2011). Find a top cooking school in a Canadian province.

Retrieved from http://www.culinaryschools.org/international/canada-cooking-

schools/

Crosby, O. (2000/2001, Winter). Degrees to dollars: Earnings of college graduates in

1998. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 44(4), 31-38.

Department of Finance. (2006). Advantage Canada: Building a strong economy for

Canadians. Department of Finance. Ottawa: Queen's Publisher. Retrived from

http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2006/plan/plsum-eng.asp

Education at a Glance. (2010, July 9). Education: Governments should expand tertiary

studies to boost jobs and tax revenues. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org

Elliott, C. (2012, January 31). Restaurant Central.ca. Restaurants among top job

creators in 2011.Retrieved from http://restaurantcentral.ca

Employment Ontario. (2009, January 1). 6241 Chefs. Canadian Government.

Retrieved from http://www.ontario.ca

Employment Ontario. (2010, March 16). 6242 Cooks. Canadian Government.

Retrieved from http://tcu.gov.on.ca

Ewell, P. (2002). An emerging scholarship: A brief history of assessment. In T. Banta

(Ed.), Building a Scholarship of Assessment (pp. 3-25). San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Food Institute Report. (2006, October 16). Culinary graduates getting snapped up. 122

Grubb, W., & Lazerson, M. (2005). The education gospel and the role of vocationalism in

American education. American Journal of Education, 111(3), 297-319.

Harrington, R., Mandabach, K., Thibodeaux, W., & VanLeeuwen, D. (2005). The

institutionalization of culinary education: An initial assessment. Journal of

Culinary Science and Technology, 4 (4), 31-49.

Hegarty, J. (2004). Standing the heat: Assuring curriculum quality in culinary arts and

gastronomy. Binghampton, N.Y: The Hawthorn Hospitality Press.

Hertzman, J., & Ackerman, R. (2010). Evaluating quality in associate degree culinary arts

programs. Quality Assurance in Education, 18(3), 209-226.

Horng, J., & Lee, C. (2009). What environmental factors influence creative culinary

studies? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 21(1),

100-117.

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2011, March). Ten-year outlook

for the Canadian labour market (2006-2015). Retrieved from

http://www5.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/ publications_resources/research/ categories

/labour_market_e/sp_615_10_06/page06.shtml

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. (2012, February 19). Unit Group.

6321 Chefs. Retrieved from http://www5.hrsdc.gc.ca/noc/2011

/prfilequickserch.aspx?val=6&val1=6321&val65=*

Hunsberger, B. (2009, December 17). Suit against Portland culinary school gains class-

action status. Retrieved from http://www.oregonlive.com /business/ index.ssf/

2009/12/suit_against_portland_culinary.html

Information for Financial Aid Professionals. (2011). Federal Student Aid. NSLDS gainful 123

employment user guide. Retrieved from http://ifap.ed.gov/nsldmaterials

/nsldsgainfulemploymentusedguide092211.html

Institute for Higher Education Policy. (1998). Reaping the benefits: Defining the public

and private value of going to college. Washington, DC: The new millennium

project on higher education costs, pricing, and productivity.

Labour Market Information & Research. (2010). Working in Canada. Wages and outlook

report. Retrieved from http://www.workingincanada.gc.ca

Ladkin, A. (2000). Vocational education and food and beverage experience: Issues for

career development. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

Management, 12(4), 226-233.

Lang, J. (1991, August 10). Making the grade: Foodservice education comes of age.

Restaurant Business, 90(12), 101-120.

Leahy, K. (2006, May 15). Epicurean edge: As The Culinary Institute of America turns

60, a new era dawns for students of culinary education. Restaurants &

Institutions, 116(10), 56-64.

Li, C. (2006). Canada's private colleges: The lesser known players in postsecondary

education. Minister of Industry. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.

Luong, M. (2010). The financial impact of student loans. Perspectives on Labour and

Income, 11 (1), 5-18.

Ministry of Education and Training. (1997). Culinary Program Standards. Ontario:

Ontario Ministry of Education and Training.

Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. (2009, November 18) Private Career

124

Colleges. Retrieved from http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/pepg/audiences/pcc

/private.html

Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. (2011, March 25). What education and

skills are needed for today's jobs? Retrieved from http://www.tcu.gov.on.ca/eng/

labourmarket/ojf /skillsNecessary.html

Morris, J.D. (1979). Two recent statistical developments that aid in the analysis of

Instructor evaluation instruments. Paper presented at the Florida Statewide

Conference on Institutional Research, Fort Myers, FL.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2010). Condition of Education. Washington:

U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe

/analysis/2011-section1.asp

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2011). Career / Technical Education (CTE)

statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/tables/p92.asp

National Restaurant Association. (2010, June 15). National Restaurant Association.

Retrieved from National Restaurant Association: http://www.restaurant.org

Occupational Employment and Wages. (2009, July 15). Occupational Employment

Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov /oes/current/ oes351011.htm

Occupational Outlook Handbook. (2010, October 14). U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco /ocos331.htm

Red Seal. (2011). About the Program. Red Seal. Retrieved from

http://www.red-seal.ca

Rowley, L.L., & Hurtado, S. (2002). The non-monetary benefits of an undergraduate

125

education. University of Michigan: Center for the Study of Higher and

Postsecondary Education.

Shaienks, D., & Gluszynski, T. (2007). Participation in postsecondary education:

Graduates, continuers and drop outs, results from YITS cycle 4. Culture, Tourism

and the Centre for Educational Statistics. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.

ShawGuides. (2009, April 3). The Guide to Career Cooking & Wine Schools. Retrieved

from http://cookingcareer.shawguides.com

Spellings, M. (2006). A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher

Education. Washington: U.S. Department of Education.

StarChefs. (2009, June 20). 2009 starchefs.com salary survey. Retrieved from

http://starchefs.com/features/editors_dish/salary_survey/2009/index.shtml

Statistics Canada. (2008). Survey of Canadian career college students - March 2008.

Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. Ottawa: Canadian

Government.

Statistics Canada. (2011, December). Fast Facts – Education.. Statistics Canada. Ottawa:

Canadian Government. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca

Statistics Canada. (2012, January 6). Employment by industry. Statistics Canada. Ottawa:

Canadian Government. Retrieved from http://www40.statcan.ca/101/cst01

/econ40-eng.htm

Stratford Chefs School. (2011, March 25). The Red Seal. Retrieved from

http://www.stratfordchef.com/becomeastudent/theredseal/tabid/110 /default.aspx

U.S. Census Bureau. (2005, October 13). Educational attainment in 2005. Retrieved

from http://www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/files/ 126

dynamicEdAttainment.pdf

U.S Department of Education. (2009, June 23). Think college early. Retrieved from

http://www.ed.gov/students/prep/college/thinkcollege /early/ students/edlite-

college-costs.html

VanLandingham, P. G. (1995). How has vocational culinary arts changed as a result of a

redesign of the educational system. Educational Resources Information Center

ERIC , 1-8.

Whitney, D. R. (1978). An alternative test for use with Likert-type scales. Educational

and Psychological Measurement, 38(1), 15-18. doi:10.1177/0013164478038001

Williams, D. (2005). Contemporary approaches to hospitality curriculum design.

Consortium Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 9(2), 69-83.

127