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Vanessa Rauland Faculty of Humanities Curtin University Sustainability Policy Institute Decarbonising Cities: Certifying Carbon Reduction in Urban Development Vanessa Rauland This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University August 2013 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. This thesis contains no material, which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. Signature: Date: 12.07.2013 i ii Abstract There are many outstanding examples of carbon neutral, zero carbon and other forms of low carbon cities, districts and urban development around the world, which have demonstrated the vast potential for carbon abatement within the built environment. However, these concepts and approaches have not yet become mainstream. Furthermore, how each city or development defines its carbon claim, including how emissions are calculated and goals are achieved (for example, if offsets are used) varies considerably. This makes comparisons difficult, claims less meaningful and replication challenging. It also leads to concern around false carbon claims and ‘greenwashing’. Although carbon certification is now widely adopted as a voluntary carbon market instrument for a variety of sectors, it has not yet been applied to urban development. This research therefore examines the implications of certifying carbon reductions within this sector. A framework is proposed, which includes a standardised approach to quantifying emissions at the precinct-scale and five core elements that would need to be considered when certifying urban development. It is argued that certification can help to acknowledge and reward progressive developers, increase the credibility of carbon claims within the built environment and help to provide benchmarks and baselines for the sector. Certification could also become a mechanism by which a variety of incentives can be offered to developers to encourage greater uptake of low carbon design. It is expected that a combination of factors – a standard approach to quantifying emissions, carbon certification and the provision of incentives – can help to mainstream this type of development, which will be essential in addressing many global challenges such as climate change and resource depletion. iii iv Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................ v List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. ix List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ x List of Boxes ................................................................................................................................................ x Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... xii Publications ............................................................................................................................................... xiii 1 Introduction and Methodology ......................................................................... 3 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................ 3 1.1.1 Climate Change ................................................................................................................................... 4 1.1.2 Resource Depletion and Environmental Degradation ................................................................. 5 1.1.3 Population Growth ............................................................................................................................ 6 1.2 Context ................................................................................................................................................ 8 1.2.1 The Role of Cities: How Cities Contribute to the Challenges .................................................... 8 1.3 The Need for This Research ........................................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 The Global Shift to a Low Carbon Economy ............................................................................. 10 1.3.2 Voluntary Action and Carbon Claims: Increasing the Credibility ............................................ 12 1.3.3 Voluntary Carbon Abatement at the Precinct Level: The Need for a Sector Specific Framework ........................................................................................................................................ 14 1.3.4 Research Significance ....................................................................................................................... 15 1.4 Research Questions and Objectives ............................................................................................. 16 1.5 Research Design And Methods .................................................................................................... 17 1.5.1 Research Methodology .................................................................................................................... 17 1.5.2 Research Framework and Design .................................................................................................. 19 1.5.3 Data Sources ..................................................................................................................................... 19 1.5.4 Research Methods ............................................................................................................................ 20 1.6 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 21 1.7 Structure of Thesis .......................................................................................................................... 21 1.7.1 Preview Of Chapters ........................................................................................................................ 21 2 The Potential for Cities and Urban Development to Reduce Carbon ............ 27 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 27 2.2 Cities and Climate Change ............................................................................................................. 27 2.2.1 Cities and their Greenhouse Gas Emissions ................................................................................ 27 2.2.2 The Vulnerability of Cities to Climate Change Impacts ............................................................ 29 2.2.3 Why Cities are Fundamental in Tackling Climate Change ......................................................... 30 2.3 GHGs and the Built Environment – An Australian Perspective ............................................ 32 2.3.1 Urban Form ...................................................................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 Transport ........................................................................................................................................... 34 2.3.3 Materials and Construction ............................................................................................................. 36 2.3.4 The Role of Energy Efficiency ....................................................................................................... 38 2.3.5 Resource Management .................................................................................................................... 38 2.4 Centralised versus Decentralised Management Approaches .................................................... 51 2.5 Closing Resource Loops ................................................................................................................ 53 v 2.6 Green Infrastructure ....................................................................................................................... 53 2.7 Density and Urban Form ............................................................................................................... 55 2.8 Why The Precinct Level? ............................................................................................................... 56 2.8.1 Defining the Precinct ...................................................................................................................... 58 2.8.2 Key Reasons for Targeting the Precinct Scale ............................................................................ 58 2.9 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 62 3 Eco-Cities and Carbon Claims: Comparison of Case Studies Within the Built
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