COUNCIL OF EUROPE
TWELFTH COE071392
CONFERENCE OF EUROPEAN MINISTERS RESPONSIBLE
FOR FAMILY AFFAIRS
SINGLE PARENTS WITH
DEPENDENT CHILDREN
O
STOCKHOLM I - 3 September 197 1 SINGLE PARENTS WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN
22 360 INDEX
Introduction ...... '...... 1 I. Statistics ...... 8 II. , Economic Situation ...... 12 (A) Income ...... 13 ' '(JB)' ■ "Taxation ...... ;...... 15 (C) Social Security ...... 16 ■(D)' • Minimum maintenance allowance and soc 1 a*l we 11*a
22.360 03.1 ■ ' . Page
VII. Information ...... 66
(A) Socio-medicai services ...... 69 (B) Family and parents' advisory and educational centres 70 (C) Child Welfare'Services ...... 73 (]>)• ■ Other' services ...... 75 VIII. Leisure and Holiday Fàcilitiés . * 81
(A)’ Leisure’ time' ' ^ ...... 82 (B)- • Child' attendance facilities • .... 83 ■(C) • Holidays- ■ . -. v ; ...... 84 ■ - - (D-)- Agencies- and- financing ...... 85 (E) Provisions for single parents ...... 87 IX. Children's Education ...... 88
(A) Problems connected with school ...... 89 ’’(B) Educational possibilities .... . ' 91
X. Social Assistance Services ...... 92
Conclusions « • . 94
U) General remarks ...... 95 (B) Summary of the main problems ...... 100
Appendix . I . - T .Statistics .
Appendix II - Bibliography INTRODUCTION •1. , The present Report has been finalised by the Committee of Liaison Officers of the Conference of European Ministers responsible for Family Affairs. It is based on replies given by the governments of the. fifteen following States to a questionnaire drafted by this Committee:
Austria Belgium Cyprus . . Denmark Federal Republic of Germany France ' Ireland Italy Luxembourg Malta The Netherlands - -v . Norway Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom 2. This Report is submitted as a working paper to the Xllth Conference of European Ministers' responsible for Family Affairs which will take place in Stockholm in September 1971.
3- For the purposes of the present Report the term "single parents with dependent children" refers to parents not only being in charge of their children, but also actually living with them. It therefore does not apply to parents living elsewhere and paying maintenance allowance for their children. It must .also be stressed that single parents are not only unmarried mothers, but also divorced and separated mothers or fathers, widows, widowers and any parent, who, for any reason (for instance, emigration) is living alone with his/her child. It should be pointed out that the category of single parents is a very composite one and includes persons of very different legal status, age and income. Also, many of the difficulties they experience /e.g. child care, need for housekeeping aid, inadequate professional education, isolation) are not peculiar -to single parents. 4, .•Moreover»' the status- of a single parent is often temporary as it can bé-'"termina7 ted'-by marriage (in the case of 'unmarried'-1 mothers)•'0:6-: remarriage > (in certain other cases). In 'Denmark" 85% of unmarried -mothers -and approximately 66% of divorcees and younger widows and widowers ;remarry. Therefore for thé'vast ; majority of unmarried parents under forty» single parenthood is just a temporary status. In Luxembourg, for examplé» it is estimated that 25$ of the unmarried mothers subsequently marry and it has been observed that there is a decrease in the number of widows/widowers who remarry and an increase in remarriages of divorced persons. In Austria and in the Federal Republic of Germany a sharp increase in remarriages of divorced persons, both men and women,has been noted, the only difference being that most divorced men marry single women while divorced women, generally marry divorced men; on the other hand, remarriages of widowed persons have been markedly decreasing, In most countries it is reported that widowers remarry more often than widows, .because the age factor is less important for a man than for a woman and because women are usually more willing than men to accept the children of their spouse in their newly formed family. .In the United Kingdom also remarriage rates for women are high: in 1909 the rate was 526 per 1 ,0 0 0 widowed and divorced women aged 25-29 (or 562 for divorced women alone); In the Federal Republic of Germany one out of five widowers but only one out of 25 widows -remarry. The rate of new marriage among divorced persons is over 80^ for men and nearly 70$ for women. , ,, ... .
5. Although single parents include many categories, women are far more numerous., thanimen.I This is due to'several reasons.-' In'the case of childrèh born out of'wedlock, the father is-often not everi-'known‘and, in any casej usually' does-not keep the -child with him. In several countries, the number of unmarried mothers is increasing, as is also the number of such women who want to keep thèir Child with them, instead of having it - adopted by others or entrusting it to public assistance-. In Maina the number'of children born out of wedlock in 1968'was 1 .6 per cent of thé-total number of births,bas 'compared with0.7 per cent-in 1958. . This increase was partly due to a slight /ihcreasë in the nümber of- births out of wedlock and partly to'a fall-' in the total number of births. The' bulk of ‘the increase Concerned women under 25 years of age’. Oh thé contrary, -in Italy the' number of births out of wedlock has enormously -decreased; from 7 6 ,0 0 0 a year in the years I8 9I-I9O0 to approximately 2 2 ,0 0 0 in i9 6 0, 1 9 ,6 0 8 in' I965 a n d ‘19,048'in I9 6 7. Also In t6e United Kingdom there have recently been signs' of a decline in the birth rate for Children bopn out of'wedlock, but, ori thè othér hand* there has'been an increase of births out of wedlock 'to: very young girls under l6; the number of maternities among girls under l6 rosé' frbm ‘485 in I959 to 1,486 in 1969 (figures for Great Britain), despite a drop in the total population of girls aged from 12 to I5 . This trend does not apply only to the United Kingdom. But it is worth noting that in some Nordic countries there is an increase in the number of children born out of wedlock, although, as these children could hardly be considered unwanted because of improved contraceptive methods and increased facility in obtaining legal abortion, this treni should be interpreted as an increase in the number of couples who want to live together without marrying rather than as an increase in the number of single parents. When there is divorce or separation, children are in the great majority of cases entrusted to their mother. Statistics indicate that widows outnumber widowers (l). Moreover, it appears that men are often reluctant to keep custody of their children because they are not trained for it and because of their professional obligations, and with the exception of the few cases in which the fathers concerned can afford a housekeeper or when there is an older child who can take care of its younger brothers or sisters, they board them out with parents or relatives or in foster homes and thus do not fall into the category of "single parents" as defined for the purpose of this study. 6. A common trend in all countries is that in most cases the economic situation of single parents (particularly if they are. women) is far less favourable than that of married couples, even when the income comes from a single source (in fact, the housewife is able to make substantial savings in housekeeping and child-care expenses). Socially, single parents are also at a disadvantage, because they are subject to the danger of isolation., Unmarried, divorced or separated mothers often have to suffer from more or less marked social stigma. Also widespread among single parents is the feeling of increased responsibility, which is caused by the fact that they have to bring up their children on their own. It must also be taken into account that single parent families form smaller groups than two parent families and that therefore an appropriate division of work amongst members of the group is very often impossible.
7. As mentioned abcve, in almost, all countries the problem of single parents seems to be mainly a problem of "single mothers". Among the latter, three main groups can be differentiated as showing marked differences from the economic, social and legal points of view; unmarried mothers, divorced and separated mothers, widowed mothers. a) Unmarried mochers; - They seem to be in a more disadvan tageous economic situation,, They cannot always claim alimony from the father of their child.- Moreover, at the birth of the child they are usually so young that they have not yet completed their education or professional training and therefore must content themselves with lowly paid jobs. Their situation is particularly difficult when the children are very young, because nurseries for the children are often both limited and expensive, so that unmarried mothers, unless they live with parents or relatives, are often prevented from working or must content themselves with part-time jobs. They ./• (l) This is due to the fact that women have a higher life expectancy and that work and traffic accidents, professional diseases, professional stresses and wars affect men more frequently than women. are also often unable to improve their education. Their economic situation improves when the children grow up, but even then there is still the problem of leaving the children alone. In. this respect, Switzerland seems to offer particularly good job opportunities because, as a consequence of the favourable economic trend, women are able to find a job relatively easily, even without great professional qualifications and have good chances of improving their professional standingi Unmarried mothers seem also to be, except those living irutbe Scandinavian countries, in a most unfavourable position socially; because of the social stigma they are often not only unable to improve their social status but even see it lowered; their relation ships with their families undergo a deterioration, their chances of satisfactory marriage are in many countries reduced. There are, however,•signs of an improvement of such situations. For instance, a survey conducted in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1967 showed that 7 out of 10 unmarried mothers do not consider that maternity out of wedlock was prejudicial to their reputation. b) Divorced or separated mothers - By separation, women usually experience a deterioration in their financial situation, because the alimony they receive seldom allows them to keep up.with the standard of living which they were used to during their marriage. Therefore, they must either reduce it or find an employment, but, being generally housewives they often experience difficulties in getting gainful employment. In Norway, after the introduction of benefits in favour of unmarried mothers, divorced and separated women have seemed to be in the least privileged economic situation; in I97I a Bill proposing similar economic assistance also for these groups will be presented to the Storting. From the social angle, these women in most cases have to suffer from a lowering of their standing, as very frequently they find themselves excluded from the social milieu they were used to when they were married; and in some countries prejudices against divorced or separated women are still widespread. c) Widowed mothers - They are often in a less unfavourable economic situation, because in most countries they are entitled to a survivor's pension, and their children enjoy an orphan's allowance or pension. Moreover, children of widows are often older than children of w.omen belonging to the two previous categories, and therefore either require less care or are already gainfully employed. Therefore the number of women employed is lower in this than in the other categories. Widows seem also to enjoy a less unfavourable situation from a social point of view because, although they too sometimes have to undergo the stress of a sudden change in their social milieu, they can count on the understanding and compassion of society. 8. Moreover, in Italy the heavy emigration gives rise to a particular category of single parents. While usually emigration towards extra European countries involves the whole family or else the migrant worker is reached by his family after a short period of adjustment; in the case of emigration within Europe, it is often difficult to keep families united also as a conse quence of the strict rules on admission of dependants of migrant workers set forth by certain immigration authorities, often justified by a housing shortage. According to an evaluation of the Association of Emigrants' Families, out of two and a half million Italian workers who emigrated within Europe, complete families are not more than 400,000. This explains why it is so common in Italy to find families where the father is missing, with all the consequences such a situation brings about in connection with family stability, children's education and the newly earned income itself, which is more heavily burdened because of the greater expenses incurred by the worker in order to -support himself.and his family. The wife is compelled to face alone family responsibilities. Generally, especially during, the first periods, remittances are scanty and they may even stop altogether in the case where the worker creates a new family abroad. The wife, therefore, tries to make-up for such inadequacies with her own work, generally very modest, in farming.or, more frequently, as a charwoman and does not have the time to look after her children, who, already deprived of their father's presence, are left to themselves.
Moreover, if the emigrant abandons his family (and this phenomenon, according to a survey conducted by the Central Institute of Statistics in 1964, concerned, at that date, not less than 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 persons) to problems of an economic nature also problems of a moral and social nature are added.
9o The number of single parents differs widely from country to country. On the one hand, in some countries, like Cyprus, the phenomenon has just started as a consequence of a changing economic situation (increased mobility of families, emigration) and a new conception of family relationships, although social control and strong family ties still effectively bear upon family unity. On the other hand, in several countries, especially the ones economically most advanced, the number of single parents tends to increase inter alia because of the increase in divorce and separation rates and a more widespread attitude on the part of unmarried mothers to accept their responsibilities by keeping the child and not to marry at all costs the father. As for the problems these persons have to face in most countries, provisions have been taken to ease their situation. It should also be noted that in most countries children's allowances are already granted starting from the first child, and that such a provision has a favourable effect on all categories of single parents. In so far as Norway is concerned, benefit arrangements are provided for unmarried mothers and a research project was started in I969 in order to obtain a complete picture of this category. On the community side, the "Single Parents' Society" was created with the aim of bringing the specific needs of single parents to the attention of the authorities. In the . United Kingdom in 1969 the government also set up an independent committee to consider the specific problems of single parents and what further help could be given to them. In the Federal Republic of Germany^the Federal Government, in the Social Report for I9 7 0, indicated that greater attention should be given to families in particular living conditions. In this connection, attention will be given also to single mothers with dependent children who for financial reasons must combine a professional activity outside their domicile with the care of their children much more often than married womèn. It must also he underlined that in Belgium, family benefits are maintained for a period of three months for mothers who have been abandoned by their husbands and that the families of imprisoned persons benefit under certain conditions from family allowances.
10» The heterogeneity of persons who are left alone in charge of their children is probably the main réason which has prevented, and still is preventing, both authorities and society from considering them as a separate category. However, there seems to be a trend towards a greater awareness of the special problem of a material, social and psychological nature confronting single parents, and therefore of the need for special provisions. ' A prerequisite for any effective solution of this problem would seem to be a thorough socio-economic survey of the situation of single parents, which presently seems to be lacking in most countries.
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o o 11. In the course of this Report, the situation of single parents with dependent children in the above-mentioned countries will be examined:
- from the statistical standpoint; as well as under the angle of :
- their economic situation; - the housing problem; - their educational and professional background; - thè labour market problems; - the availability of information on matters relating to family and children; - the problem of leisure time and holiday facilities;' - the children's education and care; - the social services.
In the present Report each of these matters will be dealt within a separate chapter. A final chapter contains the conclusion^ of this study.
The uneven length of different chapters is due on one hand to the different importance of the subjects dealt with and on the other hand to the -fact that the subjects treated in some chapters have already been extensively examined in the course of previous Conferences of Ministers Responsible- for Family Affairs; in the latter instance reference should be made to the.Reports prepared for these Conferences which are listed in Appendix II of the present Report. • ...... ï
T' Q S T A I S _L Lv O
; 12. It must be noted that, because of different definitions given in various countries to the terms considered (e.g. single parents, dependent children), differences in dates and methods of survey and the fact that data are often missing altogether, these statistics cannot be considered either as complete or internationally comparable. They should therefore be regarded as merely providing a very broad picture of the situation in various European countries.
13. A statistical survey which was undertaken, and the results of which appear in greater detail in the charts given in Appendix I, has been oonducted on the following points;
(1) Proportion of single parents with dependent children as a percentage of the total number of families with dependent children.
(2) Age distribution for mothers at the birth of the first child (in and out of wedlock).
(3) Number of single fathers with dependent children.
(4) Number of single mothers with dependent children.
(5) Number of dependent children of single parents.
(6) Housing accommodation of single parents with dependent children, with respect to their children.
(7) Still births for children born in and out of wedlock.
(8 ) Infant mortality for children born in and out of wedlock.
14. Nevertheless, in spite of the lack of available data, some conclusions can be drawn.
15* The statistics on the age distribution of mothers at the birth of the first child seem to indicate a trend towards a decrease in the age of mothers, both for children born in and out of wedlock. In Norway■a comparison between data referring to i960 and 1968 respectively shows a sharp increase in the number of births out of wedlock for mothers between fifteen and- nineteen years of age and a slight decrease in births in wedlock for the same age category. In the Federal Republic of Germany an increase in first births among married women under twenty has been registered, as well as a notable decrease in first births among women over twenty years of age (in i9 6 0: 247 first births in wedlock for 1 ,0 0 0 married women of twenty years of age; in 1 9 6 8: 2 3 8 ). 16. Figures available on the number of single parents living on their own with their dependent children clearly indicate that fathers in these circumstances are definitely a minority. This is due to several reasons, among which is the fact that, in case of divorce or separation, young children are usually entrusted to their mother; that the number of widows is much higher than that of widowers (which confirms the statements appearingin paragraph 4); that, in the. case of children^ born.out of wedlock, in the large majority of cases, it is the mother who keeps the child; and that, in any case, because of the. traditional division of responsibilities within the family, men experience greater practical difficulties than women in bringing up a child, which are also due tp the often•inadequate preparation of men in household : duties.
17.- As for the composition of the family unit, it appears that the percentage of single parents with dependent children living with other persons is generally higher than that of two- parent families (in the Federal Republic of Germany a I9 6I survey showed that 82.2% of two-parent families lived alone, while the percentage for single parents was 64.7$). This is probably due to the possibilities of better child care and financial saving allowed by this arrangement. In Malta the census of the population held in November I967, showed that 98% of the total widow population lived in households. Of these 82% were considered to be the head of the household in which they lived. As regards separation of husband and wife, the total number of separated couples was not known. However, it was known that at the end of I969 2.8$ of all the households receiving Social Assistance were households of married women living apart from their husband. ■■ In Malta there is no divorce legislation. In Norway it seems that it is mainly young unmarried mothers who live alone with their own families and that widowers with children are also often absorbed into households composed of several families (this, however, applies less often to widows and divorced women). In Sweden, since 1955> the trend has been towards a decrease in the number of single parents with dependent children living with their own parents, and a more and more marked trend on their part to live either on their own or with persons of the opposite sex.
18. From the data available on still births and infant mortality it-could be estimated that in most European countries infant mortality is steadily decreasing, although it is still higher for children born out of wedlock than for children born in wedlock. The same conclusion applies^ to still births. As for premature births, a survey recently conducted in the Federal Republic of Germany .shows that the number for■unmarried women is almost double- that for married women.
19.* ' Life: expectancy is also generally increasing as a consequence of improved living conditions, more widespread sickness insurance and progress of medical science. No - statistics, however, are available to show the -possible differences between children born in and out of wedlook in ; this connection. However, as children born out of wedlock normally have a higher infant mortality rate, it could be inferred that their life expectancy is somewhat less favourable than that of children born in wedlock. 20. Statistical data supplied by the Commission of European Communities on family allowances transferred by social security institutions on behalf of children living in a member State other than that in which the worker is employed, give an idea of the importance of the group of single parents with dependent children in emigration countries. In 1967, for instance, 660,939 ? 087' Belgian Francs were transferred to Italy for this purpose. (1,054,743?969 Belgian Francs in 1966). The number of Italian children benefiting by these family allowances amounted to 86,060 in 1967 and to 162,371 in 1966. Such decrease might pèrhaps be explained by several reasons such as, for instance, particular developments in the economic situation of the countries concerned and further measures facilitating the reunion of families. II
ECONOMIC SITUATION
Ï (A) INCOME
PI. Although statistics on the income of single parents vis-à-vis two parent families are lacking, it can be estimated that their economic situation is generally less favourable than that of the latter. On the other hand, as indicated in the introduction, among single parents, men generally seem to enjoy a higher income than women. 'the most privileged among the latter appear to be widows, while unmarried mothers are usually in lowest income brackets.
2?. rn Austria it is estimated that the income of a single parent with dependent children is about 30-40^ lower than' that of two parent families. A survey conducted in Bergenland shows a monthly income of about S 1,200 for a widow and S 3,000 for a widower (no mention of children is made), of S 2,300 - S 3,000 for separated persons with dependent children and S 930 - SI ,300 for single women, against an average monthly income of S 5,000 for a two parent family with dependent children. In this connection, it should be noted that in Austria the thirteen or fourteen months’ system exists.
23» In 1967-68 the average yearly income fr-' women breadwinners with children in Denmark was 13,292 kr, , while for men breadwinners (married as well as single) with children it was 23,530 kr. 24. In the Federal Republic of Germany, although only empirically and on the ground of elements of a social nature, the previously made remark was confirmed, according to which, in the majority of instances, divorced, separated or widowed women are bound to face a serious deterioratxon of their financial situation, which is generally the greater the higher the previous standard of living. In 1967, 10,1 of the I divorced women and 11 i° of separated women needed social assistance. From a 1969 survey it appears that the medium monthly income of single mothers with children under fifteen , is DM 550 for divorced women, DM 590 for_widows, DM 510 for unmarried mothers, against DM 980 for'married fathers.
2 5 . In Malta where wages are not related to the civil status or family responsibilities of the employed person, the economic situation of women in employment, including single parents, is steadily improving with the gradual removal of sex differen tials in wages and salaries. Government has nearly implemented in full its decision to introduce in stages equal pay for men and women in the public service, and this trend is also developing in the private sector. 26. In Norway the average income of single mothers (unmarried, divorced, widowed) in I962 was approximately one half of the average income of family groups of the same size. 27. In Sweden,, the medium yearly income of single parents with one or two dependent children was Skr. 16,300 in I967 (Skr. 28,500 for single fathers and Skr. 15,400 for single mothers). The medium yearly income of two parent families with one person earning and one child was Skr. 25,200, with one person earning and two children Skr. 26,800, and that of families in which both spouses were earning was Skr. 54,000 with one child and Skr. 55,800 with two children. y 28. In Switzerland from a very limited inquiry, it resulted that the average monthly income was in 1957/58 Sw.Fr. 1,179 for married mothers, Sw.Fr. 9I3 for widowed mothers, Sw.Fr. 722 for divorced mothers, and Sw.Fr. 537 for unmarried - ’ mothers, It should,• however, be pointed out that this lower income could not be explained by the fact that single mothers have to take part-time jobs; in fact from a i960 survey it appears that out of 8 5 ,2 9 0 widows 38,481 had a full-time job and only 2 ,8 2 7 a part-time job, out of 46,405 divorced women 3 6 ,9 9 8 had a full-time job' and 412 a part-time job. r-’
2 9 . The remarks, made in' connection with income of single women may be explained by the fact that these women are often obliged to suddenly start or resume a professional activity, after the birth of a child in the case of unmarried mo'thers or after the death or departure of the spouse for the others. Therefore, they lack the time to attend vocational training or retraining courses and often do not even have the opportunity - of seeking a job suitable to their qualifications or their tastes. Finally, one should not overlook the fact that low salaries are normally applicable to women, especially to those who are starting employment" for the first time.
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30. These observatiphs should be related to those made in connection with women's employment rates, which show'that single parents generally live by their salaries. f'
31. In the Federal Republic of Germany,the employment rates , for mothers with children under fifteen appear to be the following; widows 3 9*3/, divorced women 7 0 .9%, unmarried mothers 8 5.5% against .-32.7 $ for married mothers with children under fifteen; 64.4% of all single women work.
32'. In France, a I962 survey showed that the percentage of single women who were employed was higher than that of married women; 60% of widows, 75% of divorced and36 % of married women under 60 have a gainful employment. The percentage of working women is lowest in the age group between 25-34 years of age; this is due to the fact that women of that age usually have very young children.
33. In Luxembourg,, where the gainfully occupied female .population represents only 26.5% of the total female population, the women’s employment rate is 62 % for divorced women and 57% for separated women, while it is only 11.7% for widows. 34. In Sweden,the women's employment rate for the various categories of single women with dependent children is the following: 6l.5$ for separated, 47% for widows, 7 8 .6% for divorced and 73>4% for unmarried women.
35» In the United Kingdom,the percentage of economically active women (i.e., those normally working outside the home, whether working full-time or part-time or temporarily unemployed) among women aged 20 but under 60 and with dependent children (i.e., children under 15 or aged 15 but under 25 and classified as students) was according, to the I966 sample census, 63% for divorced women, 60% for widows, 57% for unmarried women and 48% for separated married women.
B. TAXATION
3 6. Means tests for tax relief, social allowances and other benefits seldom make a distinction between single parents and two parent families with dependent children, but are based on certain standards; for example, the amount of the yearly income, the number of dependent persons, needy situation, affiliation to a social security scheme. It is evident that, in principle, single parents benefit from tax deductions for the persons in their charge.
However, the particularly difficult situation of single parents is sometimes taken into consideration for granting additional facilities.
37« For instance, in the Federal Republic of Germany the rules with regard to income tax are particularly favourable to certain categories of single parents. To ease the tax burden which occurs when a. husband dies, the German legislature has introduced a special procedure, called "Witwensplitting”; this procedure which leads to a reduction of the income tax is applied to the surviving spouse for the year of death and for the following year; the period may be further extended as long as an extra tax deduction for children in charge can be granted for a child born by the deceased. Separated or divorced persons are taxed like single persons and children's deductions are granted to both. Single parents, separated and divorced parents who are entitled to an income tax deduction for children,, benefit from an additional deduction of DM. 1,200 a year. The mother of a child born out of wedlock is entitled to the usual income tax deduction for the child plus the special DM. 1,200 deduction, while the father can only claim a deduction for his documented maintenance expenses, never to exceed DM. 1,200 yearly. The Federal Government is at present preparing a bill on this subject to correct this unfavourable situation.
3 8 . In Ireland, a £100 deduction on their taxable income is granted to widowed persons, married men not entitled to the tax deduction for married couples and married women not living with their husbands and engaged in a full-time job to compensate for the cost of a housekeeper taking care of their children. 59* In Norway there are two income tax categories which concern single persons and married couples, who are taxed jointly. Single parents are assessed according to the second one which is the more favourable. Moreover, with respect to deductions for children between 16 and 25 years of age whom the parents continue to support (amounting to 700 N.Cr. for the first child, 800 N.Cr. for the second child, 1,200 N.Cr. for the third and any other child), a single parent is entitled to make a deduction for one child more than he/she actually supports. Single parents can also claim deductions for documented expenses incurred in the care of children under fourteen up to an amount of 2/5ths of their income and a maximum deduction of 5,000 N.Cr. for one child and 4,000 N.Cr. for two or more children. A single parent who still has to maintain children above fourteen is allowed a deduction of l/4th of his income, up to a maximum of 600 N.Cr.
40. In the United Kingdom single parents entitled to a tax allowance for a child benefit from an additional £100 personal tax allowance.
. ' o o o 41. In this connection, it should finally be noted that in several countries family allowances - which are generally a significatn part of single parents' income - are not taxable.
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C. SOCIAL SECURITY ■ 42. It would not seem appropriate to describe in this Report all social security systems applicable to the risks which are generally covered in different States, as they are numerous and complex.'
On the other hand, in view of the fact■that this Chapter deals with the "Economic Situation of Single Parents", particular attention should be given to benefits granted to families and to survivors. In fact, the former aim precisely at securing a normal development for families, either by providing a normal and regular contribution for the maintenance of the children, in charge or by supplying special aid in certain periods of family life; and the latter make up a considerable source of revenue for an important category of single parents, i.e. widows and, to a lesser degree, widowers. However, in view of the fact that provisions relating to medical care may have an important impact ' on the family budget, they will also be mentioned, as well as some measures taken in connection with disablement and old age pensions. 43. However,, if should first, of all be noted that it. was not deemed necessary to mention the benefits which single parents receive on a completely equal footing with other insured ' persons, provided they comply with the necessary contributory requirements or even with all the residents of a country in the case of non-contributory schemes. It is for this reason that, as a general rule, with the exception of reversion pensions, only those provisions which are derogating from the general system are mentioned in this Chapter,
44. A derogatory provision of this kind exists., as already noted, in Belgium, where all married women without a profession deserted by their spouse' and having in charge one or more children, are entitled to family benefits for a three month period.
(i) Family benefits 45. Family benefits play the most important role in this connection. However, as in almost all instances such benefits are granted and computed independently of the matrimonial status or sex of the beneficiary, there are only a. few special provisions which deserve mention. 46. For example, in all countries, except the Federal Republic of Germany, France and Norway, family allowances are granted to single parents under the same conditions and in the same amount as to couples.
47. In Norway single parents enjoy family allowances for one child more than they actually support. Family allowances are paid up to and including the year in which the child attains sixteen years of age and amounted in 1970 to 500 N.Cr. for the first child, 1 ,5 0 0 for the second child, 2,000 for the third child, and for each successive child they are further increased, up to and including the fifth child.• Therefore, a single mother with one dependent child is entitled to a 2,000 N.Cr. family allowance instead of 5 0 0.
48. In France, family allowances are due starting from .the -second dependent child and are paid to the person who undertakes, under any conditions whatsoever, the actual and permanent care of the child. Consequently, these allowances are due also when the. child is placed in institutions .in order to continue its education, by the same right as when it remains at home. In order to qualify for this allowance, it is necessary either to ‘ carry on a professional activity, independent or subordinated, or to be unable to do so. Single women with two dependent children are considered as being unable to work if the children live at home. On the contrary, if children are placed in institutions, single persons are no' longer- obliged to stay at home in order to take care of their children and therefore the right to family allowances is acknowledged only if they carry on a professional activity, as, in this latter instance, their inactivity cannot be justified by the presence of a child. A more favourable treatment is granted to the widow of a person entitled-to.receive allowances, as she maintains, for her dependent children, all the family allowances to which her living spouse was entitled, irrespective of her professional situation. o o ' o 49. For other family benefits, special provisions granting single parents a more favourable treatment have been made. 5 0. In France, the single salary allowance is maintained on behalf of single parents with children in charge even after the age of five years (provided, of course, the necessary requirements are met)', while in the case of a couple such allowance ceases to be paid when the child reaches that age. Another interesting example is the fact that, in order to benefit from the orphan-'s allowance recently introduced in France by the law of •- 23 December 1970, the child whose filiation is established only on the mother's side is considered in the same way as a child whose father is dead. Therefore, unmarried mothers receive this allowance by the same right as widowers or widows. (This allowance is paid even when there is only one dependent child). 51. Another provision worth mentioning relates to Belgium where, as mentioned before, a convict, to whom family allowances, deriving from the family allowance system for employed or self-employed workers, are or could have been paid at the time of his arrest, continues to be entitled to family benefits in the amount and. under the terms fixed by the system which is applicable to him.- 52. Although there are still some rare instances of family benefits applicable only to married parents', it can be noted that they are gradually disappearing. For example, in Luxembourg a recent law relating to civil servants has extended to -single women who are breadwinners the breadwinner1s allowance from which they did not benefit previously, ; (ii) Benefits to survivors
53 • - The existing social security systems generally envisage a reversion pension on behalf of the spouse of the deceased insured or of a deceased person. Such right depends directly on the kinship with the deceased, but the presence of a dependent child may sometimes be relevant, for example, in determining the eligibility to the pension. (Children who meet the necessary requirements are, of course, entitled to a pension of their own.) 54. Divorced women with dependent children are often in a less favourable situation than married women and sometimes are altogether deprived of pensions rights in the case of the death of their spouse or former spouse, depending on the circumstances. 55. As far as widowers and divorced men are concerned, it could be said that in most countries they have no right to claim a pension on the ground that their deceased wife was insuredj however, in some countries such a right is acquired in case of inability to work but only in a minority of countries is no difference made between men and women in this connection. 5 6. In practically all countries unmarried women are excluded from .the benefits of 'a survivors 1 pension, as the conditio .sine qua non for obtaining it is the existence of a legal marriage, between the beneficiary and the deceased person. The only exception seems to be Sweden, where, as will be further explained in greater detail, a woman, who had a child without being married by the deceased, is in certain circumstances entitled to a widow’s pension.
57- An outline-of survivors’ pension regulations in various European, countries is given below.
58. In- Austria widows are eligible to pensions under' the accident and pension insurance schemes. A widower can benefit by such if he was predominantly supported by his deceased wife and is in need and unable to work at the time of her death. The fact that an insured person is divorced is irrelevant for pension purposes. Divorced women receive a pension after the’ death of the insured spouse only if the deceased was required to provide for her maintenance. Whether or not the divorcéd wife is a person with dependent children is irrelevant.
59» - In Belgium there are two different retirement systems (for employed and for self-employed persons). With respect to widows, in both systems the pension can be granted only if the widow has reached the age of forty-five (unless she has a permanent disability of at least 66% or raises a child for which she is entitled to family allowances), and has been married to the deceased for at least oné year (unless a child was born from' the marriage, or the death was due to an accident subsequent to the date of marriage). Widows who cannot benefit from a survivors'’ pension receive a lump sum equivalent to one year of the pension which the widow would have received if. she had fulfilled the necessary conditions. In the case of salaried persons’ pensions the amount allotted to the widow is approxi mately 60% of the amount of the pension the deceased received or would have received. These pensions cannot be cumulated with a personal pension to which the widow would be-entitled by her own work! in this instance she can choose the most favourable pension. For the surviving husband, the decease of his wife entails the change of the amount of the pension from a household rate to a single person rate. In the case of persons working independently, the amount of the survivors1 .pension is calculated according to a yearly basic figure (29,u00 BF in 1 9 7 0). In both systems the widow loses her right if-she remarries or, being aged less than forty-five, does no longer meet the statutory requirements; in these instances she will receive a lump sum equivalent to two years of pension.
No survivors* pension exists on behalf of the widower.
The dependent children of the widow/widower of an employed or self-employed worker receive family allowances at the increased orphan rate under certain conditions, such as, for instance, length of the professional career of the deceased, non remarriage of the surviving spouse. These increased orphan allowances amount to 1,859 Belgian Francs à month for. • each child (this rate is calculated according to a 145.75 Belgian Francs retail price index, which was in force as of 1 April 1970).
A divorced woman, in order to be entitled to a p'ension according to the salaried employees’ system, must have reached the age of sixty, have contributed after the divorce a monthly sum of at least 350 BF and not have been covered herself by a pension system during the years of married life. The amount is calculated also taking into account the duration of' the marriage and amounts up to about 60$ of an average remuneration calculated on the spouse's salary during the years of married life and the contributions paid since the divorce.
The divorced wife of an independent worker is entitled to a pension if she has reached the age of sixty and her income does not exceed a certain amount. The minimum amount of this pension is 29,000 BF (Index 110 of retail prices). The pension is reduced by the part of the income which exceeds 14,000 BF (21,000 BF if the divorced woman is in charge of at least one child for which she receives family allowances). In both systems the divorced woman is not entitled to the pension if she has remarried or she receives another survivor's pension. For the divorced husband the divorce entails the change in the amount of the pension from a household rate to a single person . rate.
As for civil servants (who are submitted to a special pension scheme), it should be noted that only the wife is entitled to a survivor's pension while, in case of divorce, the divorced wife of a civil servant loses her pension rights. However, if the divorce takes place exclusively at the husband's fault, she retains the pension rights she had acquired at the moment of the divorce, provided she has not remarried before the decease of her former husband.
60. In Cyprus, widows with dependent children benefit from an. accident pension if the husband died as a result of an accident which occurred during the course of an insurable employment, and an old age pension if the husband was insured through fhe Social Insurance Scheme and paid I56 weekly contributions, provided the yearly average of the contributions paid over the insured period was not less than fifty. A widower with dependent persons is also entitled to a pension under the above-mentioned conditions, provided he is incapable of self-support and was dependent on the wife.---Divorced persons with dependent children do not benefit from any social insurance pension.
61. In Denmark the social pension scheme does not provide for the payment of a survivor's pension to widowers or divorced men. As for women, only the categories of widows described below are entitled to a survivor's pension:
• A (i) the widow who has reached 55 years of age provided she was widowed after she had reached 45 years of 'age; (ii) the woman who has heen widowed after 45 years of age and at the time of her husband's death was liable for the maintenance and actually maintained two or more children under 18 years of age, as long as she is liable to maintain (and actually maintains) one child under 18 years of age;
(iii) a widow who at the age,of 55 receives a regular allowance under the rules on assistance to widows and who is (or has been under the age of 45) liable to maintain one or more children under 18 years of age. Moreover, pursuant to a special law, local councils with the consent of competent committees, may exceptionally award a widow's pension to widows and other single women ^divorced, separated, deserted, unmarried) who have reached 'the age of 5 0, in case of ill.health or other special circumstances. The introduction of this law _n 1959 was justified by the fact that widows and the other above-mentioned categories of single women often encounter great difficulties in re-entering the labour market, especially if they are of a rather advanced age with children and they have been unemployed for several years. This problem is not as serious for widowers and other categories of single men.
62. In the Federal Republic of Germany pensions to widows and divorced persons derive from the statutory accident insurance, the statutory old age and disablement pension, the provisions in favour, of war victims. Civil servants are subject to special regulations. In the case of death due to a work accident, the widow is entitled to a pension in the amount of 30/ of the yearly salary of the deceased husband until her death or remarriage (this amount is increased to 40/° of the yearly salary of the husband if the widow is over forty-five, or has a child entitled to orphan's pension or is incapable of working or has been at least for three months incapable of working). The widower of an insured woman receives the same .pension if the deceased woman was mainly responsible for the maintenance of the family. If the widow/ widower remarries, he/she receives a lump sum equivalent to 5 years' pension. Each orphan of the insured receives 20/ of the yearly salary of the deceased.
In the case of decease of a person affiliated to the old age and disablement scheme (workers, employees and miners' pension insurances), widows, orphans and, in certain given instances, widowers are entitled to a pension. The divorced wife has a right to the pension only if the insured, at the time of his death or in the last year previous to his death, had an alimony obligation.towards her. If there is no widow the divorced wife receives the pension even when the deceased husband did not have to pay any alimony because of the wife's income. The pension amounts to six-tenths of the insured persons's pension. If the persons entitled to survivors' pension have reached forty-five year ®f age or cannot work or have to raise at least one child entitled to orphan's pension, they receive a higher amount. If the widow/widower remarries, he/she receives a lump sum equivalent to five years' pension. The child which has lost one parent receives an orphan's pension equal to one- tenth of the amount to which the insured would have been entitled, increased by the supplements for children in charge; the child which has lost both parents is entitled to a pension amounting to l/5th of.this amount. Under the assistance to war victims scheme, a soldiers' widow is entitled to a basic monthly pension of DM 188 and, if she has no other income, up to an additional amount of DM 188 monthly. To this, an indemnity of up to DM 290 monthly can be added for diminution of income as a consequence of the death of the husband. In case of remarriage, she receives a lump sum of DM 9,400. Dor widowed and divorced men the same conditions as those set forth for old age and disablement pensions apply. The widow of a civil servant or of a retired civil servant receives 60/° of the husband's pension (or of the pension he would have received if he had retired); subsistence is assured by a fixed minimum amount. The amount is reduced if the widow is more than twenty years younger than the deceased husband, unless there is a child born from the marriage. Widowers too receive pensions under the same rules. The divorced and not guilty- spouse of the deceased receives the same amount as the widow, if the debased had to pay alimony. n3.- In France, the pension scheme for employed ana self- , employed persons provides for a survivor’s pension on behalf of the surviving spouse (wiuow or widower) provided she/he had been in.charge of the deceased at the time of his/her death or he/she is over.65 (or 6 > if unable to work), if he/she has married the decëased before his/her 60th year of age and if the marriage took place at least two years before the right of the deceased to the allowance was acquired, or if it had lasted at least four" years at the time of the death and provided he/she does not -directly benefit by an old age pension. It should be noted that the divorced spouse is not entitled to a survivor's pension even though she/he has children in her/his charge. To this rule there are the following exceptions' the divorced widow of a civil servant is entitled to a pension if the divorce wa^ granted solely as a result of the fault of the husband, -i-f the deceased husband had remarried, the divorced wife shares the survivor's pension with the widow at a rate depending on the years of the marriage and so that the widow's pension may not be less than half of the amount of the pension. In case of complementary pensions, certain pension funds grant a survivor's pension to the divorced widow provided the divorce was not given as a result of her fault, she had not remarried before the death of the divorced husband and she had been married with the deceased for at least two years during the period when he paid contributions or, if this condition is not met, six years before the divorce or three years if there are children born by the marriage.
In the case of an accident at work, the divorced or separated spouse who was entitled to alimony, benefits from a pension equivalent to the maintenance allowance she received from the deceased but this never exceeds more than 20?° of the basic salary.
64 . In Ireland, in the framework of the social insurance scheme, the widow is entitled to a pension ranging from 90/- a week for a widow without children to 152 /- for a widow with four children. Increases are paid for children, over four. There is an orphan's pension of 60/- a week. This scheme is complemented by the social assistance scheme for persons not covered or insufficiently covered by the insurance scheme, itfo contributions are required and there is a means test. The widow's pension under this scheme ranges from 85/- a week for a widow without children to 135/- a week for a widow with four children; further increases are paid for children in excess of four. The orphan's pension under this scheme is up to a maximum of 45/- a week. Where death is due to an occupational accident or disease the social insurance scheme provides for death benefit, which, ordinarily, is a weekly pension payable to a surviving dependant including widow, with increases for children; a widower who is permanently incapable of work, with increases for children; an orphan. For title there is ho minimum period of insurance.
6 5. In Italy, in the framework of statutory social security insurances, there are two different schemes of survivors' pensions: one deriving from the disablement, old age and survivors' insurance and the other deriving from the insurance against labour accidents and professional diseases.
In the first instance, the widow, the widower (if at the moment of the wife's death he was unable to work), the children of any age if unable to work or, otherwise, until they are 18 or 21 if they attend secondary or vocational schools, or 26 if they attend the university, are entitled to a pension. The amount of the pension is calculated on the pension to which the deceased insured person was entitled and is 60/ of this pension for the wife and 20 * for each orphan (or 30?° for each orphan if there is not a widow entitled to the pension). The total amount paid cannot be less than half or exceed the total amount of the pension which the insured person would have received. The minimum pension is presently fixed by law at 23,000 Lire a month. if there is no right to a pension for lack of the required insurance period and contributions, the survivors are entitled to a lump sum calculated on the amount of the contributions paid. As far as the insurance againsb labour accidents or professional diseases'is concerned, in case of death of the insured person the survivors (the same persons mentioned above) are entitled to a pension (called "rendita”) amounting to 100$ of the annual salary of the deceased within the maximum limits fixed by the law or of the conventional remuneration in the case of farmers; it amounts to 50$ for the widow and 20 $ each for the other persons entitled to it. If the pension, because of the number of survivors, exceeds the maximum amount fixed by the law, the individual pensions are proportionally reduced in order not to exceed the statutory limit and are gradually re-increased as the pensions of the various survivors cease. In addition to the pension, the survivors are entitled to a lump sum of 550,000 Lire (which, however, varies according to the number of the survivors) intended to meet their most urgent needs.
The spouse legally separated for his/her fault cannot benefit from a survivors' pension. In case of divorce (which was recently introduced in Italy) after the death of the spouse who had an alimony obligation towards the other, the Court may decide that a portion of the pension or other allowances due to the surviving gpouse be assigned to the spouse (or spouses) whose marriage with the deceased was dissolved or ceased to have civil law effects as a consequence of a judicial decision. The spouse legally separated (in Italy there was no divorce when this report was drafted) for his/her fault cannot benefit from a survivor’s pension.
6 6» Tn Luxembourg requirements for the granting of pensions to widows, widowers and survivors are the same, irrespective of children. However, in the case of dependent children, orphans' pensions and family allowances are added to the pension. The amount of the survivor's pension of a widow is 40$ of the annual salary of the deceased or 50$ if the working capacity of the widow is reduced by at least 50$. Ho pension is due when the death of the insured person occurs within the twelve-month period following the marriage (unless the death is not the consequence of an accident occurring after the marriage, or at the moment of the death there is a child boron or conceived or legitimated by the marriage,1, when the insured person at the time of the marriage was already the beneficiary of a statutory old age or disablement pension or when it 'was established, by judicial decision, that the widow had caused the death of her husband or she had criminally contributed to it. In case of remarriage, the pension is stopped; ^for widows of civil . , servants, the pension is reduced to half for the duration of the second marriage). The widow of a civil servant is entitled to a pension amounting to 2 / 3rds of the basic portion, i.e. l/6th of the basic amount plus 60$ of the rest of the pension to which the husband would have been entitled. If a divorce occurred as a result of the husband's fault or by mutual consent, the divorced and not remarried wife is entitled to the widow's pension. Widowed, divorced and separated women who are nationals of Luxembourg have a claim to a pension from the National Solidarity Fund without age limit, if they have three children in charge or 'a child who is an invalid or suffering from a chronic disease for which they receive family allowances.
6 7. In Malta, the comprehensive social insurance scheme, provided under the National Insurance Act, 1956, which applies to employed, self-employed and non-employe.d persons, provides for survivors' benefits as well as for other contingencies.'
The widow of an insured person is entitled to the widow's pension in the following circumstances:
(a) When the widow, at the time of the death of her husband, is over the age of 50 years or is permanently incapable of self-support.
(b) When the widow is over the age of 40 years at the date of her husband's death, and if since reaching that age she has had the care of a child under l6 years of her late husband, (c) A widow is entitled to a widow's pension during any period -
(i) during which she is pregnant, by her late husband% (ii) during which she has had the care of a child of her lace husband, or
(iii) where, after the date when she ceases to have the care of any such child, she is then over the age of 40 years, o>° if, being under that age, she is permanently incapable of self-support.
For the purpose of this pension 'child' means a child under l6 years of age.
In the event of the death of an insured man as a result of an occupational injury or disease, it is not necessary for the insured man to have satisfied any contribution conditions before his death. In that case the widow is entitled to a pension in the same circumstances which apply to widows of other insured persons, that is, of insured men who do not die as a result of an occupational accident or disease. However, the-.pension received by this widow -is currently 15% higher than the pension received by the widow whose husband has not died as a result of an occupational injury or disease. The pension payable to an ordinary widow - as distinct from that to the widow of a man who died as a result of an occupational injury or disease - is payable at the same rate as the basic old age pension rate. However, the widow receives an increase currently equivalent to 12% of her pension in respect of every.child of her late husband under the age of Ì6 years. ' This increase in respect of children is also payable at the same amount to the widow of a man who dies as a result of an occupational injury or disease. It is payable in all cases, even where the children have an income.
The widow who is not in any of the circumstances specified for the widow's pension is entitled to a pension at a lower * rate legally termed ’’widow's special allowance”, or "widow's allowance”. when the husband dies,as a result of an occupational injury or disease. These pensions and allowances are payable ' to widows irrespective of their means, and they remain payable even if the widow is gainfully occupied. Entitlement to these benefits ceases only if the widow marries again, in which case she receives an amount equivalent to the benefit she would receive in a whole year.
A widower is normally an insured person and should be able to earn a National Insurance Old Age Pension in his own right. However, a husband who is wholly or mainly maintained by his wife who dies as a result of an accident arising out of and in the course of her employment, is entitled to a pension. This widower's pension is also increased by an allowance in respect of each child under the age of 16 years.
The parent of an insured person who dies as a result of an occupational accident or disease is entitled to a pension for life from the date of the death, of the insured person, if at that date the parent -
(a) was being wholly or mainly maintained by the dead person, and
(b) the parent was over National Insurance pension age, or permanently incapable of self-support.
This pension is currently paid at the same basic rate as National Insurance Old Age Pension. Where both parents are alive, the husband receives the pension with a 50% increase for the wife.
The laws of Malta do not contemplate divorce. For this reason, the National Insurance Act does not make any special provisions in respect of divorced' persons.
6 8. In the Netherlands there are six main survivors' pension schemes, which may be summarised as follows.
The General Widows' and Orphans' Act is compulsory (the contribution is 1,5% of the wages, with a maximum of F.l8,800) and covers the whole population including migrant workers.. It provides for three kinds of benefits: widows' and. orphans' and temporary vv idows ' cousions. A widow's pension is granted if the widow is considerea unable to earn a living according to certain criteria (for instance the fact that she has to look after a child or has reached the age of 40 years). This pension is also granted to the divorced woman if she has not remarried and would have been entitled to a widow's pension the cUrr her husband died. The widow's pension ceases when the reasons for which she was considered unable to earn a living no longer exist or when she reaches the age of sixty-five, thus becoming entitled to the old age pension. The amount of the pension is based on wage index and since 1 January 1971 it amo-Tits to F.975»50 monthly if the beneficiary does not have children and F.532,50 if she has children below eighteen. The pensions are earnings-related, i.e. they fluctuate with the movements of the wage-index-. Moreover, the widow receives a yearly holiday bonus amounting to 6% of the whole pension and the normal children's allowances. Orphans' pensions are granted only to those who have lost both parents. The temporary widow's pension is granted to the widow who is not entitled to a pension in order to help her to overcome the difficulties of the first time of widowhood. This pension scheme does not apply to widowers.
The special pension funds, which have been set up in the various branches of industry and by certain companies form important sources of income for a considerable number of widowsi The industrial pensions funds make a distinction between widows with and without children in charge. Orphans who lost one parent are also entitled to a pension. Each pension fund has its own regulations. In many cases the amount of the widows' pensions is either expressed by a percentage of the old age pension (mostly a percentage varying between 50 and 7 0 ) or calculated on the contributions made. As regards to company pension funds the employers take upon themselves to insure their employees with private insurance companies. In general it may be said thal; the v;idow's pension is related to the old-age pension granted to the insured when he reaches the, age of 6 5. The widow's pension generally amounts to 40 or 50y° of the old age pension. The orphan's pension is usually calculated on a certain percentage of the widow's pension: ?0% for orphans who lost one parent and k0% for orphans who lost both parents. The pensions granted by these funds are not related to earnings.
Pensions for civil servants’ survivors amount to five- sevenths of the insured person's old age pension for the widow, one-seventh for the orphan who lost one parent and two-sevenths for the orphan who has lost both parents. The survivor's pension is given to the widower if the wife was the breadwinner when she died. The divorced woman is entitled to the pension if the marriage was terminated at her demand, These pensions are related to earnings. The old-age pension is a voluntary pension scheme open;-to • all ci.tisens. It can Toe in the form of a 'pension on behalf of. the insured when he reaches the age of fifty-five at the'earliest or sixty-five at the latest, or a widow’s pension. Average.' Ä T T y 1 S T ' 273. ' / The General Old Age Pension is compulsory for all the population (the contribution is 9.97° of the wages, with, a, maximum of P.18,800 a year) and becomes effective when a person has. reached sixty-five years of cage even if still working. It is related to earnings.
In view of the great number of provisions and funds,, the. question of the advisability of studying a system ensuring a - pension to all categories of workers was raised. The- ideal would be a pension of-70 / of the last earned wages. . t - 69. Every person ’living in Norway is insured against old age, disablement, death or .lo.ss of a supporter under the National - Insurance Scheme. The basic amount for 1970 was 6,800 N.Cr. and is adjusted yearly according to variations in the general income level and cost of living. In order to qualify, a person must have been insured for forty years or reached the age of-- seventy or become disabled- or have lost his/her supporter.
If the insured person leaves a spouse or has had the custody of children, a- lump sum of 45/ of the basic amount is'granted to the survivor. A widow/widower is entitled to a pension if 'the marriage has lasted at least f-.ive years or if she/he has had children by the deceased or is in custody of children of the deceased. 'The period of insurance of the surviving spouse is applicable if this is longer than that of the deceased.
In addition to the basic pension, a supplementary pension is granted when the earned income of the insured person has been in excess of the basic amount of the old age pengion for at least three years prior to the year in which the person concerned reached seventy years of age. The supplementary pension of the widow/widower amounts to 55/ of the supplementary pension which the spouse had, or would have had, on attaining seventy years of age. If the surviving spouse can be expected to earn an income which exceeds half the basic amount, the pension will be reduced by 40/ of the income which is in excess. A transitional benefit is granted to the surviving spouses who are temporarily incapable of supporting themselves, either because they have to look after children or because they must undergo training in order to find a suitable job. .Rules are the same as for the pension Sur viving spouses also qualify for education and assistance grants.
./. The divorced spouse, who has not remarried and is under seventy,' is entitled to an assistance grant- and educational grant or some other aid to enable him/her to take up employment. If he/she is in charge of the children of the deceased, he/she is also entitled to a transitional allowance. If deemed appropriate, a pension may be granted, the amount of which is calculated on the basis of the duration of the marriage, ago of the divorced person at thv. time of dissolution of the marriage, the numb or of d i n ',"on by th-° deceased, and the existence of an alimony obligation on the part of the deceased. The pension is reduced in proportion to the income which the Survivor is expected' to earn. A special supplementary pension equal to 7 1/ 2 $ of the basic amount is granted to the surviving or divorced spouse as a transitional benefit or pension to compensate for the effect of the new taxation system; moreover, a compensation supplement of 500 N.Cr, yearly is granted. They are both reduced in case of high anticipated earned income and if the period covered by insurance is less than forty years.
The surviving parent also receives a children's pension amounting to 40/> of the basic amount for the first child and 25/ tor each successive child for all children under eighteen.
In certain municipalities, an insurance is provided for single mothers and divorced or separated persons,when the benefits to which theTr -’re entitled prove inadequate.
70. In Sweden there are two kinds of national pension: a basic pension (which is paid to all persons regardless of their previously earned income) and a supplementary pension (based on gainful employment). The basic pension is generally a standard sum, while the size of the other one varies according to previously earned income. No special pensions are paid to widowers or to divorced persons.
To be eligible for a pension from the national basic scheme the widow must either have a child under sixteen living with her or have reached the age of thirty-six and have been married to the deceased for at least five years. 'The amount paid to a widow with dependent children is equivalent to that of a single old-age pensioner. The same rules also apply to a woman who, without having been married, was permanently domiciled, with the deceased, provided that she has previously been married to him or has had a child by him. A widow is entitled to a pension from the national supplementary scheme if she lias been married and has a child by the deceased (regardless of the ages of the widow1 and the child at the time of death, and regardless of whether or not the child is living with her) or has been married with the insured for at least five years, provided the marriage took place before the husband's sixtieth birthday. Children's pensions are paid to all children whose father or mother has died; regardless of marital status of parents. The pension from the national basic scheme amounts to 1,7?5 S.Kr. yearly and is given to children under sixteen. The children's pension from the national supplementary scheme is paid until the age of nineteen and consists of a percentage of the deceased parent's estimated pension. This sum is reduced if a widow's pension is also paid.
71* In~ Switzerland the pensions to widows paid in the frame work of the old age insurance'amount to 80% of the mont’ ly pension of the deceased insured (from 176 to 3 5? Sw.F.) and' pensions for orphans with only one parent to 40% (from 88 to 176 Sw.F. )• A widow’is entitled to such a pension when, at the time of the husband's death, she had one or more children (without consideration for her age or the duration of the marriage) off # if there are no children at the time of the death of the insured husband, she has reached forty years of age and was married to him for at least five years. The widow who does not fall into one of these categories receives a lump sum calculated on the basis of the age and duration of the marriage, and amounting to between two to four times the pension she whould have received. Independently of the rights of the widow, each child, born in wedlock or out of wedlock, who lost its father or mother (if she was insured) is eligible for an orphan's pension, until the eighteenth year of age or the twenty-fifth in case of professional instruction.
A divorced woman is entitled to a widow's pension if she meets the conditions required for a widow's pension, had a right to alimony and the marriage has lasted at least ten years. Neither the widower nor the divorced man have any right to a survivor's pension.
Widowers and divorced men over sixty-five and widows and divorced women over sixty-two receive a single-person old age pension. Por children up to the age of eighteen (or twenty- five) years of age they receive double children's pension (60% of the basic amount of the pension). The same conditions apply to the unmarried mother, in case the father of the child is unknown or does not comply with his alimony obligations. If conditions for a joint old-age pension exist (sixty-five years for the man, sixty for the wife), a double children's pension is granted even if the spouses live separately and therefore receive only half the amount pf the joint old-age pension.
If a parent is paid a pension on the basis of a disablement insurance, all children who, in case of his death would have benefited by an orphan's pensionare entitled to a pension amounting to bQ% of the disablement pension and to 60% if instances foreseen by an old age and disablement insurance take place with respect to both parents (e.g. invalidity of both parents, or invalidity of the mother and death of the father). The married woman, whether or not gainfully employed, in case of disablement or old age insurance of the husband has a right to a pension of her own, if she and her husband are not'entitled to a married couple’s old age pension. She can claim a' child's pension for her children until they reach eighteen years of age (or up to twenty-five years of age for educational purposes).
In the framework of the accident and professional disease insurance, the widow receives 30$ of the yearly salary of the deceased husband up to a maximum of 31,200 Swiss Francs and the orphans receive 15$ until they are eighteen years of age or twenty years if there are educational reasons. However, the widow’s and orphan's pension together cannot exceed 60$ of the yearly salary of the insured person. À widower is entitled to a pension equal to that of the widow, provided he is or becomes permanently incapable of working within five years from the death of the wife. Divorced or separated spouses are entitled to pension only if the deceased load alimony obligations. In case of remarriage, the widow/widower receives a lump sum amounting to three times the yearly amount of her/his pension. \ 72. In the United Kingdom a widow's benefit is granted if the deceased husband has paid 156 weekly contributions and has had an average of fifty contributions, either paid or credited, for each complete year of insurance until his death or the age of 65 if he died after that.age. If the widow is under 60 years of age or her husband had not retired, she would receive a weekly flat rate for the'1 first 26 weeks of widowhood. In the majority of cases, an earnings-related supplementary allowance is also paid.
Increases may be granted for children under 15 or of any age under 19 if they arc receiving education or a professional training. Increases may also be granted for children under 16 who are unable to work owing to illness. A widow with children in her charge satisfying the qualifying conditions when the period of widow's allowance ends, receives a widowed mother's allowance which includes a personal allowance for the widow herself as well as an allowance for each dependent child.
. The personal part of the pension may also be paid when the child under 19 is residing with the widow but does not qualify or ceases to qualify the widow for an increase in the pension and when the widow expects a child by her deceased husband. a woman divorced before reaching age 6 0'is not ,entitled to a survivor's pension. However, if -n she is living with a child towards whom the deceased husband £ad legal maintenance obligations and she has not remarried, she may be entitled to a special child's allowance. Moreover, the deserted or separated woman does not lose her right to her husband's pension. No widower's pension is envisaged by the National Insurance Scheme. In case of death as a result of an accident at work or an industrial disease, the Industrial Injuries Scheme includes a widow's pension irrespective of the length of insurance and the .number of contributions paid® Under the same scheme, the widower is entitled to a pension only if at the time of the wife's death he was permanently unable to support himself and his wife had been contributing towards more than half the cost of his maintenance.
(iii) Benefits in kind and in cash in case of illness and maternity
75«, Both in those States having a national health service from which all residents may benefit or in those having a system of compulsory insurance, the rights of single parents to medical care do not generally differ from those of all other residents or all other insured respectively.
7^« As far as medical care to children in charge is concerned, no problem exists in the first instance and, in the latter instance, the compulsory insurance covers, in the great majority of cases, the persons in charge.
75- Switzerland, where much room is left to "voluntary effort shows a particular situation in the field of sickness insurance. The cantons, which may also transfer this authority to the municipalities, have the power to make such insurance compulsory either in general or only for certain categories of persons. This faculty has been used differently. Thus in several cantons and municipalities, only the persons whose income is below a certain fixed level ar^ obliged to insure themselves. However, also in this connection the income of single parents is evaluated according to the same rules as those applicable to two-parent families. This insurance is based on the individual insurance principle, i.e. contrary to what generally happens in the majority of the other countries, the compulsory insurance of the breadwinner does not imply that his/her dependent children are also covered.
76. Although nowhere are there special provisions for single parents in the field of medical care, there are instances where widows (as well as other special categories of beneficiaries such as invalids, retired persons) benefit from particular advantages such as exemption from the payment of fixed contri butions against medical costs. For' instance, in Belgium widows get a full refund, while from other insured persons a sharing of the cost amounting up to ?5^>’for general medical care and a flat rate of ?0 BF for pharmaceutical preparations is required.
-/« 7 7 * As the existing situation in the field of health insurance seems to create some difficulties for separated and divorced women, some solutions adopted in this connection are mentioned below. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the social sickness insurance grants family benefits to the spouse entitled to maintenance, even when the spouses live separated. In case óf divorce, the claim to family benefits ceases when the divorce judgment comes into force. The spouse who is not covered by a sickness insurance of his/her own can however continue member ship in the insurance under the same conditions .and in the same way as any member. Likewise in Italy, in case of legal separation, the wife continues to be entitled to receive medical care if she is in charge of her husband and the latter is covered by the social security scheme.
78. As far as oenefits in cash are concerned, in some countries where allowances granted in support of the family are larger than those paid for the other cases, the higher rate is automatically applied to single parents with dependent children (Denmark, Sweden).
(iV) Disability and old age pensions
79» Also in this connection, it is evident that all persons covered by the insurance benefit from an equal treatment and therefore there is no need for envisaging special measures on behalf of single parents, as the beneficiaries of a pension (whether they are married or not), who still have children in their charge, are entitled to increases.
80» Likewise, whenever parents who have- had a certain number of children are entitled to an increase in their pension, such increase is granted irrespective of the marital status of the beneficiaries.
81. There is, however, a remarkable exception to what has been stated; in Norway?unmarried mothers receive, in connection with thé old age and disablement pension, a "mother's allowance" to which married mothers are not entitled.
82. As far as pensions are concerned, it could also be noted that in certain instances special provisions relating to contributions have been envisaged on behalf of single women. For instance, in Malta credited contributions are allowed to a widow whether she is an insured person or not, and whether ■ she is entitled to a widow's pension or not, for any period during which she has the care of a child under 16 years of age of her late husband, and during which she does not re-marry. No credits are allowed in the case of a widower. This provision enables a widow to abstain from work while she is bringing up young children, In the United Kingdom a widow with children in her charge is exempted from the payment of. contributions towards her retirement pension as' long as she receives a widow'* s allowance or a widowed mother's allowance. Moreover, . there are'provisions which allow recently widoWed: or divorced women to be credited with cohtr-ibu-t ions' so as tò "/ ' re-establish. them currently in insurance. Finally, if a. widdw: / is under' the ; age of' 5'Q when her' husband dies or when she ceases;, to qualify for a widowed mother's allowance, she does not-.have contributions' credited to her record for retirement pensipn.’ : purposes, ,but when she.qualifies for retirement she may;substitute the husband's contribution record for her own for the years' before his!death or for the years of marriage. Whichever is 11',..; the mo re/favourable. . Correspondingly, the divorced, womah'may also'substitute her former husband's contribution record for /! ;' her own, for the years before the divorce or for'the period ' of the marriage, whichever is the most favourable.
83 .'-'Other provisions'on' behalf of widows exist in several "other countries..- . . . : i
84. Always_±h’connection with pensions, it should be noted that, generally, the periods during which a father or a mother interrupt their work in order to take care of his/her child (except for periods immediately, preceding or .following.the delivery) are not taken into account to determine the acquisition of a pension right and to calculate its amount, except for persons who.have a voluntary insurance and continue' '' to pay premiums on their own.’ However, in cèrtain countries " a modification cf this rule with respect to mothers is under' discussion. •
8 5. Thus, in the Federal Republic of Germany, according to the present régulât ions ,~~a father or a mother cannot generally avoid the interruption of insurance periods unless he/she voluntarily pays the required contributions, if he/she is no longer subject to the compulsory insurance and within ten years has paid contributions for at least sixty months in connection with a profession subject to statutory insurance. Discussions presently 'in progress on the advisability of providing a better social security coverage to women show a trend towards stressing the fact that, from a point of view of family policy, it would be advisable that the periods during which a mother is prevented- from working- owing to'caring for her children be accounted for pension purposes,- --
(,v) Unemployment provisions ; .. . 86. Unemployment benefits are generally increased i.f the beneficiary■has children in charge. Moreover, 'in Ireland an increased-benefit, "is- granted to the widower' or • the single man who can prove .that- He is obliged to maintain,' totally or' partially, a person,who takes care of his dependent children. (D) MINIMUM MAINTENANCE ALLOWANCE AND SOCIAL WELFARE
87- In all countries, the right to maintenance allowances for single parents and their children is set forth by law. However, in several countries there are certain categories of parents (e.g. unmarried mothers) or children (e.g. ' adulterine children) who are barred from any alimony claim. Moreover, experience shows that, even in instances when a specific right exists, the person responsible for the payment very often does not meet his obligations and legal procedures are lengthy and expensive. In some countries (Norway, Sweden and Denmark) a public welfare agency intervenes in these instances by giving maintenance allowances to the needy parent and then- claims repayment from the debtor. A similar procedure is presently under discussion in the Federal Republic of Germany.
8 8 . A parent in need, who cannot benefit from any maintenance allowance and does not have an adequate income of his/her own, can resort to public assistance services, like any other citizen. Assistance can be given in money, often based on average subsistence standards, or in kind and is generally left to the discretion of the organisations concerned. In Belgium there is a definite obligation to assistance in favour of mothers with dependent children under sixteen on the part of the public welfare committees «
8 9. In Austria, a single parent with dependent children who does not receive alimony and finds himself/herself in needy conditions is entitled to public assistance» Every Land determines the basic monthly requirements of persons in need» For example, monthly rates in Carinthia on 1 January 1970 were as follows? 785 S. for a head of household, 500 S. for family dependents not entitled to State/family assistance, 30 S. rent allowance^ additional allowances may be granted for clothing and heating. Social welfare allowances are granted in the amount necessary to integrate the income of the needy person with respect to the basic subsistence rates or, in case of total lack of income, are granted in full. No difference is made between children born in and out of wedlock. In case of subsidies granted to persons entitled to alimony, the welfare agency granting assistance has the right to reclaim payment from the debtor. On the other hand, in this country the Vienna welfare regulations stipulate that single mothers (divorced, widowed or unmarried) who are capable of working should, however, be paid the higher rates of welfare subsidies (usually granted to persons unable to work) if, with a view to the proper education of their children they cannot be expected to accept a job, and the same rule applies if the' mother can only take a part-time job and her income is inadequate. 90. In Belgium- the- alimony rights of. single parents with dependent chiTdren—are-set forth by-the civil code. For married coupl.es, they; originate from the obligation of mutual maintenance., which spouses undertake- by the act of marriage. In the' pas.’e .of unmarried mothers, no. alimony obligation exists toward,s her on the part of the father, of her child; there is only an obligation to' reimbursement of qhildbirth expenses and maintenance' expense,s for the four weeks following the birth, if- paternity can be proved. Subsistence and .educational , - - , obligations',for .children born, in wedlock are. the responsibility of both parents.,. In the case of children born out of wedlock this obligation, exists~-only if paternity:,'and/or maternity has been legally established. Even if, for example, paternity carinot. be declared (e.g. adulterine children) an alimony- , action not' declaring paternity' can be started to obtain a maintenance and educational pension-until-the-children are eighteen years of age.
The possibility of creating a public, agency, which would .. be responsible for ensuring that subsistence allowances are ( paid regularly is presently under discussion. ' I
Of course, , in. ca.se of need,, single- parents can apply to the public assistance authorities (Commissions d*Assistance " Publique), but it is for the Commission to decide whether or not assistance should be granted. In the case, however, of mothers who are solely responsible for children under,sixteen years of age', the Commissions ar'e- obliged to give assistance. Therefore, it is the Commissions whioh, in' tliesè instances, claim the alimony from the debtors.
91* In Cyprus,there are no distinctions made for single parents. In the case where the party legally responsible for supplying alimony fails his obligation, public assistance is granted in an amount sufficient .to.guarantee a'minimum level of maintenance.
92. -Iri Denmark, persons who have children'under l8 .(women and men alike) and who lose their husband or wife or- are divorced are. eligible for a; maintenance and housing allowance ‘out of public funds up to a period of six months, after the death or divorce; but this period may exceptionally be extended. Any single parent who has the custody of a child is normally entitled, to a maintenance allowance which has to be paid by the other parent. . Such allowance may b.e advanced, out of public funds by the- competent authorities Which will then recover it from the responsible party.. In case, the other parent, is dead or unknown, the allowance will be paid out of public funds. 95. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the new legislation on the status of children born out of wedlock has also improved the situation of the mother" as far as the alimony obligation is concerned. She is presently entitled to recover the delivery expenses and other medical expenses incurred in this connection which are not covered by the social security, and she is also entitled to be supported by' the father during a period of six to eight weeks following the delivery. Moreover, if the mother of a child born out of wedlock cannot continue working because of an illness ensuing from the pregnancy or the delivery, she is entitled to be supported by the father for a longer period. The same provision applies if the mother cannot work or can only work part-time because nobody can take care of her child, The alimony obligation begins at the earliest four months before the birth and ends at the latest one year after it.
On the other hand, there are no special rules ensuring to single parents with dependent children a minimum maintenance allowance. Like all other citizens they are entitled to assistance on the basis of the Bundessozialhilfegesetz (law for social assistance) if they are unable to provide themselves for their maintenance. From a I967 survey among women entitled to alimony, it appeared that 18$ of divorced mothers, 21 $ of separated mothers and 50$ of unmarried mothers never received contributions from the father of their children, while 51$s 28 $ and 20 $ respectively received alimony with interruptions which sometimes lasted over one year.
9^-0 In France> also no provision exists to assist parents legally entitled to receive alimony for themselves and the children they have in custody outside the judicial procedure. However, when the single parents do not have a sufficient income they benefit, as in other countries, from the social- welfare provisions. Thus, independently of the orphan's allowance, which is granted automatically (see above) the families of 2 6 0 ,0 0 0 children receive children's welfare allowances. ."Out of this total, there are many one-parent families.
95. In Italy, in case of divorce or of legal separation a spouse is obliged to provide alimony to the other in.an amount fixed by the judge according to the economic situation of both spouses and the respective degree of fault resulting from the decision. In case of violation of this decision, the fulfilment of such obligation can be assured through a lawsuit. • If alimony is not paid or- if there is not a right to alimony, single parents may apply to social welfare services. The situation is particularly serious for the family of the migrant worker when, in case of abandonment on the part of the latter, the remittances are no longer received. In such instances, the wife seldom has recourse to the law because she hopes that the husband will change his attitude and because it is difficult and expensive to start a lawsuit abroad. The Italian Government, with the purpose of better protecting the interests of the families left in the country, besides signing several 'intërnational agreements, is very active on their behalf both in Italy and abroad through its diplomatic representation. Unmarried mothers (as it may happen that the father cannot be. identified or that paternity cannot.be declared) ' have,like anybody in need, an alimony right vis-à-vis their relatives, who are bound by such obligation according to the degree of kinship. If such possibility does .not, exist, the public welfare authorities help. ‘‘
9 6. In Luxembourg the alimony granted to the wife in cape of’ separation or divorce cannot exceed one-third of the ., ; , husband's salary. The National Solidarity Fund (Fond National de Solidarité) grants a pension to the divorced or separated , woman .after a minimum period of separation of six/months,, if . she has at. least three children in her charge. The same . . , fund grants a monthly pension of 3,276 ?F plus.- 6,3.6 P .for each dependent child to divorced and separated women after a minimum six..months' period of separation, if they have at least three children in their charge. .. .
In Malta the basic principle in-the administration of • Social.Assistance is to give immediate assistance to the house hold in need. . The question of liability for maintenance is then considered in accordance with the National Assistance 'Act.. This provides that»when it appears to the Director of Social Services that any person in respect of whom Social Assistance is claimed or received has relatives•(being his spouse, father, mother or children) who are able and legally liable to maintain him, the Director may take proceedings against such relatives before the competent Civil Court to compel them .either to supply maintenance to such person, or to refund any. such assistance paid -to or on behalf of such person.
9 8. In the Netherlands, all persons (including the divorced wife who does not. receive the alimony due to her by her ; husband) who are unable to meet the essential cost of their subsistence and to whom no other social measures apply, have, a right to assistance under the General Assistance Act. In the case of divorce, the public authorities are. then entitled to recover from the husband the amount 'granted. '
99» In Norway, the persons entitled to maintenance allowance s- can request that they be paid through an' official especially . appointed for this purpose. In this case, should the debtor not meet his obligations, the claims officer will pay a maximum o1 200 N.Cr. monthly until, the child has. reached eighteen ÿeairs ol age. An advanced maintenance allowance is also paid when .the question of maintenance allowance has not been settled,. A fathe.r in charge of children,,is also entitled to ah advanced .payment. ■ 100. In Sweden, in case of divorce, either , spouse is .liable to .pay alimony t.o the other one if the latter is incapable, of self.7 support. ' .In practice, this .rule , mostly . applies, t.o. women, but -.with the improvement of educational facilities and in the labour,-, market, situation, the number of evo men j.n n^,.d of- support decreasing. As for.children of married parèrits, both parents are liable to provide maintenance, according to their financial capacity, until the children have got the appropriate education and at least until they reach the age of sixteen (or indefinitely if the children are not self-supporting because of illness or for a similar reason), unless the children have property of their own.
If the parents are not married, no obligation to subsistence allowance towards the mother exists; the father is only required to pay a maintenance allowance to her for six weeks before and six weeks after the birth (this period can be extended to a maximum of four months before and nine months after the birth). As for children, the subsistence obligation exists in the same way, even if they are born out of wedlock, with the only difference that, in this case, the parent who does not have the custody of the child may free himself/herself from all further obligations through the payment of a lump sum if the Children's Welfare Committee agrees to it. An advance maintenance allowance may also be paid when the question of maintenance allowance has not yet been settled.
For all categories of children, when the parent liable to pay alimony does not pay the amount concerned or pays less than 230 S.Kr., advanced maintenance grants are paid to a maximum of ?30 S.Kr. monthly per child until the child reaches the age of eighteen. The public agency paying this allowance acquires the right to claim the amount of alimony from the parent responsible to the extent he is due to pay according to judicial decision or agreement. 101 « In Switzerland, in cases where no alimony is paid, public assistance intervenes to grant single parents and their dependent children a "social existence minimum", which is calculated also taking into account the cost of living and income data. It usually includes a monthly amount calculated on the number of members of the household, plus payment of rent and contributions for clothing, heating, medical expenses, transportation, education, etc., according to need. Minimum subsistence rates for a family composed of one or both parents plus the children have been determined at J40 - 380 Sw.F. a month, plus 80 - 90 Sw.F. for each child from one to six years, 90 - 100 Sw.F. for children from seven to thirteen years and 110 - 139 Sw.F. for children over thirteen.
102. In the United Kingdom single parents with dependent children are entitled to the benefits of the Supplementary Benefit Scheme which guarantees a statutorily defined minimum income level to any citizen over l6 years of age who is not in full-time work. People in full-time work for very low wages, if they have a child or children to support, can qualify for family income supplements.
Moreover,' when a single parent who is entitled to alimony is receiving payments under the Supplementary Benefit Scheme, arrangements can be made for the alimony to be diverted to the benefit paying authority which will then issue an allowance at the full rate of benefit entitlement. In this way, single parents entitled to Supplementary Benefit can receive a regular income whether maintenance is paid or not. / III *
ACCOMMODATION
* ( A) HOUSING STANDARDS 103. In preparing the present report it has not been possible to obtain sufficient information on the particular housing situation of single parents. However, although .the situation seems rather à^itisf actory as a whole in most European countries., it could, be assumed that, 'being often in the low income brackets, single parents tend to find themselves■in a less favourable position as far as large and comfortable dwellings and availability of playgrounds are concerned.
104. Ho survey has been made in Austria on the housing situation in connection with single parents. Regarding the number of houses in general, Austria is in a leading position among European States with 2,560,000 dwellings in 1967 giving an average of 349*4 dwellings for 1,000 inhabitants. This is, largely due to the great number of old houses (according to I960 statistics 57.7$ of all dwellings were built before 1919» 16.9$ between 1919 and 1944) and therefore, of course, reduces the number of dwellings equipped with modern facilities; according to 1968 statistics 10$ of all existing dwellings are equipped with both bath and central heating, 37$ with baths, 37$ with inside toilet or cold water supply, 16$ do not have inside toilet and cold water supply. Hew residential areas are normally equipped with playgrounds, with no discrimination between married couples and single parents. 105. pf0 sizeable differences seem to exist in the Federal Republic of Germany between single parents and married' couples as far as number of ..rooms available with respect to family size and quality of dwellings are concerned, except for unmarried mothers. For example, a 1963/64 survey shows that children having bedrooms of their own are : 29$ in two-parent families and 27$ in one-parent families (with a percentage of 20$ for children of unmarried women); the percentage of children who share their bedroom with others is 64$ in two- parent families as well as in one-parent families (70$ for unmarried mothers); children who share a bedroom.and bed with others are 6$ in two-parent families and 7$ in one-parent families (10$ for unmarried mothers). The situation • is different in respect to property of houses and-, apartments; according to a 1963/64 survey, 35$ of two-parents families and only 18$ of one-parent families own a house or an apartment, the percentage of sub-rented dwellings is 6$ for two-parent families and 17$ for one-parent families.
./. 106. In Malta the considerable reconstruction activity, weich took place after the Second World War and continued into the 1 9 5 0's, was accompanied by a population increase up to 1957. In the nine-year intercensal period ending on 50 November 1957? the population had increased by 4 .45$. The number of households had meanwhile increased by 9 .9$» In other words, the rate of formation of households was higher than that of' the increase in the -population. The same trend was accentuated in the following decade. - . "...
The census oi population heia on the 26 November 19'67, ' ■ revealed that the population had decreased by 1 .7 $ since the previous census. Meanwhile the rapid rise-in living standards, as reflected in the break-up of multi-family households and the substantial reduction in the number of shared dwellings, brought about an increase óf 1 .6$ in the total number of households, notwithstanding the decréasein .population.
Between 1957 and I9 6 7,,the stock of private dwellings in- Malta increased by over 18$. During the same period the number of households sharing a dwelling went down by not less than 56$. Home-ownership increased by 24$, so that in I967 one in - 'every three dwellings was occupied by its owners.-
During the same period the median size of dwellings increased from 5.77 rooms to 4.05. The density of occupation ' went down from I.2 9 to I .0 7 persons per room in dwellings. Although no separate statistics are available for single parent families, it is believed that their situation has improved in proportion to the general size in housing standards.
107 . In the Netherlands there are 22 residential institutions for unmarried mothers and their children and 5 residential- ... institutions especially for the children of unmarried mothers. This form of care has been organised in three national religious organisations, under the guidance of the Netherlands Federation of Societies for the Unmarried Mother and her Child.
.. The homes are subsidised (a social worker being'put at their disposal) by the Central Government; the remainder of the cost of running is paid by the unmarried mothers out of their earnings, if necessary complemented,by .public assistance.
108 . In Norway, a I967 survey showed that the number of single parents living in apartment buildings is' greater than that of married couples; however 2%$ of them live in single houses against 58$ of married couples. On the other hand, the available dwelling area per person was larger for single parents than for married couples. As for house comfort, 5 0$ of the single parents had their own bathroom against 62$ of married couples and 55$ of single adult persons. No great difference exists between single parents and married couples in connection with playgrounds for children, although it appears that the former have a somewhat more reduced access to safe playing facilities for their children. 109. In Sweden a I965 survey shows that 15$ of single parents with dependent children live in overcrowded dwellings against 10$ of married couples (according to standards .used, a household is considered overcrowded if the number of persons living in a dwelling exceeds two per room, exclusive of kitchen). The same survey shows that the standard of house equipment is lower for single heads of households than for married couples: 96$ of the former have water and drainage against 98$ of the latter; the proportion of households with central heating is 82 $ against 90$, the greatest difference being with regard to a private bathroom: four-fifths of married couples against two-thirds of single heads of households.
110. As a consequence of a liberal housing policy, Switzerland is at the top of international standards as far as number and quality of buildings are concerned. The average incidence of rent on income has been constant during the last years and is even more favourable than in pre-war years. It is estimated that only 15$ of households spend over one-fifth of their income for rent and only 4$ over one quarter. In this respect, . remarkable differences between married couples and single parents with dependent children should hardly exist, although incidence of rent is higher for lower incomes, and usually single parent's fall into this category» Overcrowding may be found in the houses of foreign workers! but, in general, the trend is opposite, as more and more grown-up people tend to live by themselves even before marrying, and more and more widowed persons tend to live alone rather than moving to the houses of their married children» It is estimated that three-quarters of widowed and divorced persons live independently in dwellings of their own. Comfortable houses are becoming more and more numerous, as a consequence of the particularly favourable economic trend and this affects almost to the same extent married and single parents» As for outside facilities- such as playgrounds, parks, etc», these are at the disposal of all citizens alike»
(B) HOUSING PROVISIONS 111. Most countries pursue a housing policy in favour of less privileged citizens mostly in the form of special term loans to purchase or build dwellings, low rent dwellings, low rent flats, rent allowances, tax exemptions. Single parents are not considered in a category by themselves in this respect, but are entitled to various benefits provided they meet the necessary requirements, as all other citizens. 112. Unmarried mothers seem to be the only possible exception. In fact, in most countries there are special houses for young unmarried mothers with small children, normally on a temporary basis. An interesting experiment has been started in Switzerland : in Zurich in large housing schemes some flats for single mothers will be included in the various houses of the compound as well as facilities for child-care during the time the mother is working. 113. -In Austria.In the framework of the WohnbaufSrderungsgesetz of 1968 (Housing Promotion Act) special facilities are granted for small and medium-sized dwellings in the form of specially favourable loans, subsidies or standing surety for borrowed capital. The Land governments'have_discretionary power to grant housing subsidies for the repayment of mortgages necessary to finance building costs at a special interest rate-. Also professional and workers' organisations grant loans to their affiliated organisations to assist in setting up homes. Special housing subsidies are given to the occupiers of "assisted" dwellings”j covering the difference between what the tenant . could be expected to pay with respect to his income and the actual housing expenses. Special houses for unmarried mothers are foreseen by the above-mentioned Act.
The expected housing costs are determined by decree of the Land government and consist of a percentage of the monthly family income and are graduated according to income classes artd. the number1 of members of the family. There is'a '' legal claim.for the granting of housing subsidies if certain' légal requirements are met.
114. In Belgium ?the following benefits are available to people with low incomes wishing to purchase a dwelling: sunk grants, State surety for mortgages, loans at special interest rates, tax reductions. Moreover, there exist low rent dwellings and, in the case of houses which.have to be demolished for sanitary reasons, special allocations are given to the owner and removal, rent and settlement allowances are granted to tenants.. Special houses are provided only for deserted mothers and unmarried mothers from the time when their pregnancy prevents them from continuing to lead their normal life until the time when a satisfactory arrangement has been found for them and their children.
H B . In Cyprûs „ there are at present- two housing schemes: a municipal one providing low rent flats for low income persons, and a State-run,project both for renting and purchasing flats on special terms.
II6. In Malta, single parent families may benefit from the various housing schemes nr^ided by the State. These include thè allocation of State-oymed, dwellings on a system of points taking into ..account economic, social and health factors, allocation, of plots of. land to families, and to persons intending to marry, coupled with money grants' and loans to enable them to build their own home, and money grants for the improvement of sub-standard houses. ' 117. In Denmark a housing scheme introduced in 1967 aims at providing everybody with a dwelling suitable for his needs through partial payment of the rent. Such subsidy is graduated according to the income and the size of the household and cannot exceed ra specified proportion of the rent. Single parents are eligible for such benefit on the same basis as two-parent families with a few favourable exceptions: for example, the minimum percentage of the housing subsidy in relation to the rent is increased by 5°/° for households composed of no more than one adult and one child, moreover, although the local councils have the power to refuse a claim for housing subsidy when the rent exceeds one half of the income of the tenant, this rule is applied only in exceptional cases to single parents. Single parents with dependent children are accorded the same preferential position as married couples with the same number of children with respect to the possibility of renting'a flat of a certain size. Moreover, single parents with dependent children are often given priority in the allocation of • hostels and flats at universities. 118 . In France some organisations responsible for housing have arranged that 10% of the flats belonging to certain building schemes be reserved for single women, particularly for those having children in their charge. Moreover, some houses for mothers accommodate unmarried mothers with their children for a period which is normally eighteen months but which is often extended for three years. The boarding expenses are borne by the unmarried mothers, but they may receive social welfare allowances if their income is insufficient.
119® The German Federal Government is pursuing a State- supported housing programme for persons whose income is below a certain standard (DM 750 a month as well as increases for family members); moreover, there are subsidies for rent or purchase of a dwelling and tax facilities. Apartment houses with small flats are provided for unmarried mothers with dependent children, usually for temporary use,
120» In Ireland.the State and the local authorities pay sub sidies in the case of low income persons to meet the difference between rents paid by the tenants of local authority dwellings and the actual cost of these dwellings, and grant subsidies and exemptions from local taxes for newly built private houses which meet certain requirements. No difference of treatment exists between two-parent and one-parent families.
121. In Italy.the housing problem is still serious, especially in the areas where a rapid industrialisation process has brought about a massive urbanisation. In this particular field an active policy of low priced houses, directed to provide a dwelling also to the less privileged classes, either in property or at a low rent, has been carried out for several years. Particular mention should be made of the contribution given by the Agency for the Management of Workers' Houses since 19^9* The allot ment of dwellings, either in property or for rent, is made according to a strict classification which takes into considera tion, among other factors, the economic situation and the composition of the family. Only on behalf of war widows and similar categories of persons are there special provisions. However, the status of single parents with family burdens is an element, among many others, for evaluating the financial need. Y?1?. J-ïi i'ULüentiours rent subsidies can ï,e obtained fron municipal welfare offices, vvidows who have not remarried can obtain loans at special interest rates for the purpose of purchasing a dwelling, if they have two children in ohargo (while the minimum number of denenHent children mouir^d from other applicants is thre-''
1 2 5 . In Norway it is possible to obtain loans for a dwelling in a housing scheme; and loans up to 100$ for the building of dwellings intended for households (such dwellings may be let without asking for a downpayment from the tenant). The local administrations have purchased flats for the use of families in difficult situations (and this, of course,- also applies to single parents with dependent children). Special flats at a low rent are available for single mothers with children in Oslo.
124« In Sweden the provisions in the framework of the housing policy include the granting of dwellings at a low rent and housing allowances to all families' with children below sixteen wnose income does not exceed a certain level. State "home-loans" on favourable terms are available for married couples, .men and women permanently living together, and single parents with dependent children for the purchase of furniture and household equipment when settling in their own dwellings. Special accommodation is provided for unmarried mothers only in the form of homes which receive them on a temporary basis to give them time to settle their personal problems and make arrangements for the future (in 1967 there were sixteen such homes, but these are' being reduced in number, as not all the available places are used), and there are also special blocks of flats for single mothers at a low rent which are equipped with day nurseries. Social workers are available to assist the mothers with their problems. (Tho flats too are meant to serve“ as an interim accommodation and their number is rather limited). It can be added that a.special State committee is at present considering the question of better service facilities for all types of household'.
■ 125- In Switzerland in several cities there are apartment houses for single mothers with one or two-roomed flats, where mothers can live with their children and go out for work. . Flats for single mothers are also being added to houses which already exist, or envisaged in new housing compounds, as mentioned above, with the idea of avoiding their isolation and to allow them to avail themselves of the help and advice of the neighbouring married mothers. .In some cantons rent subsidies- are granted to families with many children and these subsidies are also available to single parents provided they - meet the necessary requirements. ■
1 2 6 . In the United Kingdom in connection with rented houses provided,by local' authorities it has been noted that in certain areas such authorities are reluctant to accept single parent families as tenants. It is also interesting to note that,- • although no special -provisions have been taken by public authorities, certain private housing asßociations have'been formed with the purpose of providing housing accommodation for single parents with dependent children, most frequently unmarried mothers. This is generally done by ti’ansforming already existing buildings into hostels with communal cooking facilities and possibly child-minding facilities, leent rebate schemes are entirely left to the discretion of local authorities; it is, however, known that in certain areas single parent tenants are treated in the same way as two-parent tenants as far as such facilities are concerned.
f r
« IV 4
CHILD ATTENDANCE
4
/ 1 ? 7 . With regard to child attendance facilities it can he said that such facilities are generally available to all parents under the same conditions. However, as in most countries there are too few to meet the demand, priority is generally given to single parents who are working. There is a great variety of such services and institutions. More detailed information on this subject can. be found in the reports drawn up in connection with the Xth and Xlth Conferences of European Ministers in Charge of Family Affairs (1968 and I9 6 9). 128* In Austria day nurseries are available for children between the ages of six weeks and'three years, there are kindergartens for children between three and six years of age and children of school age can go to day centres and residential homes. It is interesting to note that, while day nurseries were set up to serve only in case of emergency, there has been a definite trend during the past ten years for an increasing number of parents (especially with children over one year) to make use of them as an aid in the caring for and bringing up of their children. There are presently in Austria 4,200 children in day nurseries. Out of a total of 120,596 children attending kindergartens 22,058 are three years old, 53,579 four years old and 65,159 between five and six years of age. A great effort is made to foster the building of such institutions with the purpose, if possible, of istahlish.in^ one in euth municipality. Admittance rj-quiare-^ents are the same; however, children of single parents are given preferential treatment.
1 2 9 » In Belgium9for children under school age there are the following facilities: for those up to the age of one and a half years there are day and night nurseries, which are run by both public and private organisations, with especially favourable terms for low income parents; (however, these establishments are not sufficient to cater for the existing needs and the problem of their development is under consideration); for children from one and a half to three years of age there are.the écoles pregar ennes; and for those from three years (sometimes two and a half years) to school age there are kindergartens (écoles gardiennes) which are free and are run by the State, municipalities or private organisâtions. During the first school years adequate facilities are provided in several schools to allow children to stay on the school premises out of school hours and to have meals there. In certain schools such facilities are also available during holiday periods. There are also residential homes, both public and private, for holiday periods, which take children during the day or even for longer periods. Special state-supported organisations ;rovide home aid on a temporary basis for mothers who have a sick child • (irrespective of the fact that they are or are not employed or that 'they are head 'Of the family) and to fathers living alone with dependent children, in case of illness or extended absence.
» 1^0, In Cyprus there are nurseries run by local administrations or private organisations for children of Working mothers from three months to six years. There ' are no facilitiès for children of school age. ’
Ì3 1 . ' In Denmark for pre-school children day nurseries are available from birth to 3 years of age, and kindergartens ■ from 3 to 6 or 7 years. Such children may also be placed in day care with a family upon payment of a fee. Children of school age may be entrusted to recreation centres, all-day schools and recreational clubs, or to rivate day care in families. Moreover, the local child and. youth welfare committees for various reasons may decide to place children of various age levels away from their homes in nursing homes, infant homes, hospitals or other institutions for1 appropriate treatment. The same committee may also pay-for providing outside domestic assistance to families in cases of illness of parents or other emergencies in order to avoid the removal of the child from its home. As regards priority in admission to the various c.nild care institutions, the Children and Young Persons'Care Act instructs that priority for admittance should be'given for social and educational reasons; this guideline has been interpreted by some institutions in the sense that preference should be given to children of single parents. I??. In the i?ederal_ Republic of Germany for children under school age nurseries Tfró'm tv7ó’~mo’nths) ,’ kindergartens (from three years of age) and pre-school facilities are available. Moreover, there are institutions to which newborn or older children can be entrusted for extended periods. Children of school age can be left, out of school hours, in special institutions. Por them too hinderheime and Erziehungsheime are available for extended periods of time. ■ As there are not adequate child-minding facilities available to meet thé needs, priority is ,iven to mothers, who are working outside' their homes, and especially to single parents. A I964 survey showed that 18% of 'the children, under fifteen entrusted to institutions were children of single working mothers, whereas there were only 12.6$ for working, married ‘mothers;■ the latter seem more inclined to entrust their children to third persons. Mothers often have to wait a long time, sometimes two years and more, to> find a place in a kindergarten.
133. In Prance a recent inquiry conducted among women living in cities with more than 50,000 inhabitants outside the Paris region showed that approximately 10$ of working women with small children provide for their care at home. Alternatively children are entrusted individually to registered nurses who must meet certain standards. In this connection the so-called "crèches à domicilei.e. centres grouping registered caretakers who work under the constant control of children's nurses and a doctor are presently in full development. As for collective child-minding facilities, mention should he made-of day and night nurseries for bahies of less than three * years of age and special nurseries for babies with particular problems. Day nurseries for babies under three years of age are also available, but their number is still insufficient and the fees are sometimes high. Kindergartens provide care under a doctor's supervision and educational activities to children over three years of age. Some of these institutions are private, others are run by the Ministry of Education. Several kinds of facilities are available for children of school age, such as school canteens and health resorts. As regards admission requirements, although in principle no difference is made between single and married parents, a priority is often given to children of single parents who are employed; moreover, as the fees are proportionate to the income of the parents, single parents quite often enjoy reduced rates. X54* In Ireland, such facilities are not available on a country-wide basis. In the pr.icipal city, Dublin, day nurseries run by voluntary agencies are available; they are subsidised by the local public authority.
155* I*1 Ifal.Y children until three years of age can be entrusted to day nurseries. These institutions, which were originally created for poor people, today mainly serve the needs of working mothers. All firms employing at least thirty married women of less than fifty years of age are required by law to set up day nurseries on their premises or to delegate and subsidise special institutions for this purpose. Kindergartens for children between three and six years of age are run by State, local authorities or rivate welfare organisations, both denominational and aon-denominational. After school facilities keep children between six and twelve years of age, giving them guidance in their homework, providing for recreation and often also meals. Besides the various full-time boarding schools for children of various ages, there are seaside and mountain health resorts for children generally up-to twelve years. As these facilities are inadequate to the demand, particularly needy situations, such as the case of single parents, are taken into account for admission purposes.
1 5 6. Children before school age are very frequently kept at home in Luxembourg, often under the supervision of their grandmothers. Otherwise, there are public facilities such as day nurseries (crèches) and for children from 4 to 6 years of age kindergartens, which are the responsibility of municipalities. School playgrounds (préaux scolaires) are available to children of school age during free afternoons and holidays. For long I jliday periods there are residential homes in sea and mountain resorts for children of various ages (usually run by private organisations) and special holiday camps where children from eleven years of age upwards perform various useful activities, These'camps are State subsidised.
Problem children with socio-family problems, physical and mental disturbances and character troubles can be entrusted, even from birth, on a full-time basis to specially equipped children^ homes. All these facilities are available to all oarents
137. In Malta the number of employed married women is still very small. At the 1967 census it was found that only 1.27° of all married women were gainfully occupied. The number of employed married mothers is no doubt much smaller. Employed married mothers with young children, if any, probably find it possible to leave their children in the care of near relatives. There are various nursery schools run by private organisations. There are also residential homes for young children run by religious organisations. In regard to families in difficult circumstances, including those of single parent families, young children are placed in residential homes by the Department of Social Services. Children are admitted in state schools from the age of five years.
1 3 8 . In the Netherlands, there are day nurseries for children up to four years of age, kindergartens for children from four to six years, play facilities for-children from two to three years and free-time centres from fcur to fourteen years of age. Special facilities for handicapped children or children with deviated social behaviour are available. As there is a shortage of such facilities, priority.is given to the more needy cases.
139* In Norway there are day nurseries and nursery schools for children from the age of three months. The number of such institutions is still insufficient as they exist only in 60 out of 451 municipalities. In I968 the following categories of parents had children in day institutions: children of single parents: 1 9.7^5 one of the parents ill and the other at work: 4.8$, both parents at work: 35*2$5 other parental circumstances: 40.3$. For children of school age there are leisure time homes where they can stay outside school hours. It is becoming more and more widespread among working parents to entrust during working hours, upon payment of a fee, children to a "day mamma", i.e. a housewife, generally with children of her own. In some places, this service is organised by the munici palities, in others by the parents themselves. All day institutions come under the control of public authorities and children of single parents are given priority in admission to such institutions. l40. In Sweden admission is granted on a first come first served basis, except for some extenuating circumstances, such as overcrowding in the home and low income; one of the most frequent reasons of priority is the fact that a parent is single. Usually such facilities are run by the municipality. Children under school age are accepted in day nurseries (from six months to seven years of age) where they are able to stay for che whole day, and play schools (generally from five years to school age) where children stay for a shorter period. Leisure homes are available for school children in the lowest grades during the time they are not at school. Municipalities also arrange family day nurseries; these are private homes which are licensed to look after the i children of gainfully employed parents in return for payment. In some university towns the "three families system" has developed, that is to say that two or three families hire a nurse to look after their children. Child attendance faciliti.es are growing rapidly, but they are not yet sufficient to meet the increasing needs, as the number of working women with small children is increasing and several married women would be willing to work, if they could solve the problem of finding someone to look after their children (at present there are 630,000 children under eleven whose mothers are employed, 77,000 of whom are children of single mothers). 141. In Switzerland working mothers can entrust their newly born or small children to day nurseries (crèches), the hours of which are adjusted to the mothers’ working hours. In several factories day nurseries have been created to enable women employed there to keep in contact with their children even during working hours and to avoid waste of time. Kindergartens usually run by municipalities or private organisations take children before school age (five to six years) and, besides offering entertainment of various kinds, sometimes teach children to write, to read and to do arithmetic. In the last few years special facilities (Kinderhuetedienste) were created where children under five/six years of age can be left for a few hours during the day, while the mother is busy shopping or while she just wants to rest. There are also special places where children can stay during out-of-school hours, either playing or studying. 142. In the United Kingdom day nurseries are provided by local authorïtïes"for- ’pre-school children who have a special need for care on health or welfare grounds. Single parents' children are often given priority for admission. Moreover, parents may make their own arrangements to place their children in the care of child-minders, private nurseries and play groups which all have to be registered with local authorities and conform to certain standards. V
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
*
» 1^3- As a rule, in all countries educational and vocational training opportunities are equally available to all citizens without any distinction. Single parents with dependent children have equal rights with other citizens as far as the obtaining of special facilities such as scholarships, grants, free schooling and special interest loans are concerned. The extent to which single parents in charge of children are actually able to make use of such opportunities is not known.
144. It should be noted, however, that the majority of single parents with dependent children are women, who generally have a lower jducational standard than men. (For example, in Switzerland, a I960 survey showed that 49$ of the working nen of twenty years of age or more had received higher education, but only 32$ of women in the same category).
: . Unmarried mothers with small children are usually very y • ing and therefore either have been 'unable t> complete their education or the-ir professional activities have been disrupted. As Tor divorced and widowed women, they generally belong to an old ^r generation with a poor basic educatior and have often bee- away from the labour market for several years.
146. From a 1963/';4 survey conducted in the Federal .Republic of Germany, it appeared that the number of single mothers who had interrupted their education at element a.ry school level was h c rher than that of mothers in two parent families, the number of single mothers with professional or high-school educat. on was lower, while at university level there was no difference. Another 1964 survey referring only to employed women with children under fifteen showed that the category with the lowest professional qualifications was that of widows. (It foll.ws therefore that the higher income they usually enjoy, in compelIson with other categories of single mothers, comes from pensions and ocher allowances rather than from professional earnings). (B ) TRAILING FACILITIES
147. A wide range of vocational training possibilities is available in most European countries m the form of basic, revisionary, finishing and refresher courses, which are generally run by State and professional associations or private companies for the benefit of their staff. The purpose is to build up skilled staff, to give persons who are unemployed c: risk becoming unemployed as a consequence of economic and technological changes, and persons who have hot heen engaged in professional activities for several years an opportunity to return to the labour market, and to provide job opportunities for handicapped persons. It is obvious that such training opportunities are of particular help to single mothers, who either had to interrupt their education and their professional training (which is particularly the case for unmarried mothers) or who either had never worked or wish to return to work after several years (as frequently happens for widowed or divorced women). In Ireland, however, training in centres run by the National Industrial Training Authority is at present confined to adult males.
148. In Italy no special treatment is foreseen on behalf of single parents who attend vocational training or retraining courses. Generally such courses, which are open to each worker, are mostly attended by young people and the category of single parents which actually mainly benefits of such courses is that of unmarried mothers who, almost always, are in urgent need to find a job. Trainees admitted to attend vocational courses receive an allowance of 600 Lire for each day of actual attendance, plus 120 Lire for each person in charge. Moreover, independently of the family situation in the depressed areas of the South, -Centre and North a monthly premium of 7,500 Lire is paid to trainees who attend courses of building, artistical handicraft, farming and nine subjects among the most important in the industrial sector which are considered in need.-of atimulus. It should be finally mentioned that working students who are enrolled and attend regular courses of study and vocational training are entitled to working hours which' facilitate the attendance at such courses and the preparation of examinations, and are not obliged to work overtimejxc"' during the weekly rest days. During the examinatiqnh', including university examinations, they are entitled to benefit from paid periods of daily leave.
1 4 9. In general it can be observed that in none of the countries covered by the present report,with the possible exception of Prance, do special training facilities for single parents with dependent children exisft. However, in practice, their particular -situation is ofteh taken into consideration to give them' especially favourable treatment on a case by case basis (e.g. admission to courses even though all the necessary .requirements are not met; priority over others). It may be added that such courses are particularly useful to single mothers who often lack the necessary qualifications to find a job, (C) FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE
X5 0. In most countries adults undertaking vocational training in various forms receive special allowances intended to compensate for the loss of earnings during the training period if they are already employed, or -unemployment subsidies if they are still seeking a job. 151* Tn Austria, Norway and Sweden these allowances, usually subject to means tests on incomeT" type of training and living needs, are to cover educational expenses, board and lodging, travel expenses, household expenses and the increased expenses arising from maintaining a divided household. In Belgium, employed or self-employed workers are entitled, for the period during which they are undergoing intensive vocational training, to an allowance for loss of salary, supplementary benefits in cash or in kind, transportation and living allowances; moreover, they are covered by the provisions relating to social security, labour accidents, occupational diseases and protection during their work.
In Ireland, weekly training allowances, the rates of which are determined by age and domestic responsibilities, are paid to trainees,
I5 2 . In Denmark there are no special training courses or financial facilities for single parents with dependent children: all adult vocational training services are equally open to all citizens over l8 years of age.. As for financial facilities, workers participating in these courses are paid an allowance equal to the benefit they might have received from the unemployment insurance fund of which they are or might be members» Such allowances may be increased by 50% if the trainee, at the beginning of the course, had been employed for at least five weeks within the last two months before the course, but never to exceed 90$ of the average wage payable in the trade concerned. Trainees who have never received a wage before reccr.ve a dai?.y allowance of 70 kr„ if men and 60 kr. If women,
155® In the Federal Republic of Germany an extensive and comprehensive activity in the vocational field has been developed, in order to provj.de the bast occupational opportunities to all working persons. The Federal Labour Office, pursuant to the Berufsförderungsgesetz (Law for Professional‘Promotion) grants educational subsidies to trainees attending courses and in-service training in factories as well as to participants in vocational training programmes and to trainees in certain social professions., Such subsidies are adjusted to the needs deriving from living and educational costs. They are granted to minor single trainees only as long as their parents' income does not exceed certain limits.
Moreover, special concern is given to the promotion of further training and retraining. The participants in vocational programmes with full-time classes as well as the participants in courses who are also working receive a maintenance allow ance when they miss at least one-third of their regular weekly working time. Such maintenance allowance is meant to cover living expenses and is proportionate to the previously gained wages (8 1 .25 $ of the net salary of a single person during the first twenty-six weeks and 87-5$ during the following twenty-six weeks). An additional family allowance amounting to up to 14.40 DM a week is granted to those who have other persons in charge. Moreover, necessary expenditures ir lurred for the participation in training courses (school fees, working clothes, transportation, sjckness and industrial accident insurances, etc.) are reimbursed.
15^o In -Cyprus the participants in the so-called apprenticeship schemes are given full wages.
155», In Malta vocational training in skilled and semi-skilled occupations is provided at Government Industrial- Training Centres. Training is free of charge, and those attending the full-time courses receive an allowance related to age and marital status, but irrespective of means. Those registering for employment may receive National Insurance unemployment benefit in addition to the training 'allowance*. Technological training and higher education are provided in the State College of Arts,. Science and Technology and at the University, Non-degree courses at the former institution are free of charge. Persons from low income families may be exempted from the payment of fees at- the University.
156. In France, besides the vocational training courses available to adults in general, there are special provisions to facilitate retraining of widowed and divorced persons and unmarried mothers who w i s h ‘to enter the labour market. Special allowances are granted to women during these training courses provided they have raised three or more children and to widowed, divorced, separated or unmarried mothers who are heads of household. The first must have raised the children until the minimum age of compulsory school and have devoted to this task a minimum period of nine years, not necessarily consecutive! the latter must have been heads of household without interruption since'the death of the husband or the divorce or separation judgment or the birth of the child. The benefits granted amount to 15$ of the minimum salary applicable in the area where the training takes places this amount is raised to 20$ if the number of persons in the charge of che trainee is more than three. -
157. Besides the above-mentioned grants, in Norway and Sweden trainees also receive a child’s allowance to cover expenses incurred for the care of their children. Moreover, additional loans may be .granted,for the establishment of a private business, or to assist in .removal expenses incurred for the purpose of taking up gainful employment or for any other reason connected with the starting of a job.
1 5 8. In some countries, such as Austria, allowances are increased, if the trainee has dependents in his charge, while in .others allowances are given irrespective of family status or possible obligations to third parties. 159* Except for the above-mentioned case of France, special provisions for single parents with dependent children seem to exist only in Norway and Sweden. In Sweden, although training grants cannot as a rule be paid for training at teaching institutions or in a course for which educational allowances are granted, an exception is made in favour of handicapped persons and single parents with dependent children, to cover certain additional costs. In Norway, a widow/widower or unmarried mother who is unable to support himself/herself through gainful employment by reason of being in charge of a child of less than ten years of age or by reason of necessary education or vocational training is entitled, according to the National Insurance Act to a transitional benefit corresponding ' to the basic amount set forth by the Health Insurance Act which, in 1970, was equal to 6,8 00 N.Cr. and to a special benefit of 7*50$ of the basic amount. An additional assistance benefit equal to 20% of the basic amount and covering child care expenses (and subject to increase in special instances) is granted. Moreover, a vocational training grant covering expenses incurred for school fees and equipment, travel and extra expenses due to the necessity of living away from home can also be given. The surviving spouse (but not the unmarried mother) is also entitled to a compensatory additional benefit.
l60o In the United Kingdom, there are facilities for adult training and retraining at colleges of further education, universities and government training centres1 in addition, vocational guidance for young people under l8 and occupational guidance for adults is freely available through the official employment services. Employees who wish to improve their qualifications may be allowed by their employers to attend college one day a week on full pay. Much industrial training is provided "on the job" by employers but there are also Government schemes mainly for training in skilled crafts and in secretarial and clerical skills. The trainees, most of whom are men, are paid allowances which may cover the cost of lodging. Grants to students taking first degree or comparable courses at higher educational establishments é including teacher training colleges, include a special allowance for women with one or more dependents. The problem of child-minding often prevents unsupported mothers from taking * full advantage of occupational guidance and training facilities. Moreover, training may be of little help if prospects of suitable work near home are poor. The main concern of these women is with their children rather than with a career and their employment need is often immediate. Recently it has been possible to widen the scope for training older women at commercial colleges which may help some unsupported mothers.
1 6 1. In Switzerland scholarships (subsidies for vocational training) are the competence of- the cantons, which set the requirements and procedure for obtaining them, as well as their amount. The Confederation allows cantons subsidies for the scholarships the latter grant for attendance to universities and high schools, teachers' schools, institutes preparatory to religious and artistic professions, schools for social workers and for preparing auxiliary medical personnel. Moreover, cantons.,.grant scholarships for. Vocational training, as well as for technical schools. . Also students1 attending farming schools benefit by the scholarships granted by the Confederation aftd the cantons. The amount of such scholarships vary'from canton to' canton. For instance, scholarships granted to students attending universities range'from 1 ,5 0 0 to 6 ,9 0 0 Swiss Francs per year, those granted to high school students from 500 to 5^200 Swiss-Francs and scholarships for vocational training from 500 to 5j8'00 Swiss Francs, ' ■ •
(D) CHILD ATTENDANCE FACILITIES
1 6 2 . As a rùìè- parents attending educational and vocational training coùrses have to avail themselves of the general ■ child attendance facilities operated by public and private organisations and described in Chapter IV. Only in rare' instances are such facilities connected with the establishments where courses take place,
1 6 5. However, in Austria, Belgium, Switzerland and the Netherlands some universities-have" nurseries'for the children of students. In Austria some training institutions have set up apprentices ' homes which receive, not only trainees but- also their children. In the Nethorlands day nurseries are sometimes available for trainees in hospitals and private companies.
164. Some countries endeavour to facilitate' the task of single mothers with small children who attend training courses. For instance, in Belgium houses especially equipped with child minding accommodations receive unmarried mothers with their children up to three years of age, for the period in which they are engaged in professional activities or training. In Sweden, the city of Oreboro has been successfully carrying out an experiment intended for single mothers with small! children attending training courses : two single mothers share a three room.flat and the children are taken care of during their absence.• The Labour Market Board is at present trying ■to promote child attendance facilities as a complement of professional training, especially for the purpose of placing young mothers on the labour market. ' ' * LABOUR MARKET 165. Single parents are often confronted with particular difficulties in the search for a suitable employment. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, such difficulties are mainly due to lack of suitable vocational training and ■retraining as well as the problems connected with child care and concern most frequently single mothers. For these reasons, in most countries their occupational opportunities < seem to be largely dependent on the economic trend and these persons are likely to be the first ones to be affected when ever there is a recession. ( A ) EMPLOYMENT POSSIBILITIES
l65. In principle the facilities of employment exchanges in every European country are available to anyone looking for a job. The single parent with dependent children, as a rule, is not entitled to any special treatment. The only exception i-s lastly where private firms and public administrations are ' required to reserve 15'/° of their posts for orphans and widows of s-jldiers killed during the war or on duty or of workers killed in labour accidents, although this is not done in view of the possible condition of single parents with dependent children, but rather for moral and social reasons. However, in some countries, like Austria and Italy, when employment exchanges have several applicants with the same qualifications for a job, they take into consideration the special need of the persons concerned and this rule, of course, applies also to single parents. The -greatest efforts.,' in this connection, are made on behalf o f women. In Horwa.y in seme cities, among the staff of employment exchanges there are- officers with the specific task of protecting the interests of women who have particular problems with respect to employment; a large part of their clientele is made up of unmarried and divorced women with * dependent children.
1 6 7. In Prance certain professional organisations give special grants in order to allow their employees who have become single * parents to keep their job. Moreover, in the case of death of the employee, it often happens that the employer offers a job to the surviving spouse or to a child of the deceased. Of particular interest, especially to single mothers, are the erforts made by authorities, in spite of a certain resistance on the part of trade unions, to develop part-time work possibilities; attempts to this effect are presently being ; made in hospitals
a •^n I'fca-ly* ^03? instance, the situation of the single mother with dependent children is made more difficult hy the fact that she generally lacks professional qualifications, as well as hy the fact that the availability of labour exceeds the demand (according to a i960 survey, out of a total female working power of 5?3H,000 units, 211,000 women were looking for a job and approximately 1 1 2 ,0 0 0 of the latter had never been employed before). In view of such difficulties, single women with family burdens are willing to accept any job, no matter how humble or tiring, in order to secure an even modest earning. On the other hand, their approach to the labour market may be caused by a needy economic situation. An additional hindrance for widows in the approach to the labour market may be their generally advanced age. >
169. In Sweden the Labour Market .Board has adopted a programme to make job prôspecCs for women more attractive with such measures as placement facilities, improved labour market information to women seeking a job and to employers, provisions intended to offset the traditional division of- occupations into those for men and those for women, increase in part-time jobs; all this, of course, affects single mothers.
1 7 0 . At employment exchanges and careers offices in the United Kingdom the -aim is to deal individually with people seeking., help according to their particular needs. Por '-people with family responsibilities, the exchange staff also advises on child-care facilities opportunities for part-time work and special arrangements made by employers. An information leaflet containing information on insurance, taxation and facilities for child-care, particularly intended for married women, is beijig published and it should also-be useful to single parents. Employment exchanges estimate that the majoritv of single parents they deal ^ith are women-
»
O Q * 1 7 1 . ™he problem of professional placement is particularly difficult for single mothers with dependent children, who make up the majority of the parents taken into consideration in this report. For most of such women, part-time'work is the * only possibility of employment because of the difficulties involved in child-care. A special effort is therefore made in this field by various -governments.
172* In Austria, employment exchanges are very active in getting part-time jobs for single mothers. In the Federa] Republic of Germany, the Federal Government is trying "bo spread information about this kind of job and to stimulate enterprises to create part-time jobs; the Labour Office supports financially the creation of such jobs. In the Netherlands the so-called "secretarial agencies", which are especially concerned in finding full or part-time jobs on a. temi-or ar y basis, are particularly useful to single mothers. 178. In Luxembourg, unmarried mothers are often allowed to leave sooner than the others at noon in order to prepare lunch, while fathers in charge of children are allowed- to take them to the canteen for lunch in some companies,.
179. In Malta Wage 'Regulation Orders provide f o r 'part-time as well as whole-time employment, and minimum wage rates are fixed for part-time employees-. 180» In the Netherlands, the system of the so-called "twin jobs" has developed, whereby a full-time job is performed by two persons who arrange, by mutual agreement, their working hours; moreover, some companies allow women to arrange their wo-rkihg hours at times convenient to them, provided that they work.a given number ,of hours per week.
181. In the United Kingdom it has been noted that most employers are sympathetic towards workers faced with domestic problems such as those of single parents with dependent children, especially if they are long service employees, and are often willing to adjust working hours and give days off. In larger concerns' welfare departments have been set up to cope with domestic ■ difficulties, including legal problems, which affect employees' work; the welfare department of one firm in the nationalised steel industry runs a mobile team of home helps far workers in short-term difficulties. As for industrial nurseries, they are not common as they are expensive and considered to have the drawback of encouraging women with small children to go out to work who ought perhaps to stay at home, and may put pressure on a woman to take work which is below her capabilities.
%
« VII
INFORMATION 182. In most European countries many advisory services and associations of a legal, medical, psychological and social nature are available to parents for problems affecting them selves or their own children. Most of the services are available to all parents, as it is generally felt that the problems of single parents, except perhaps certain problems of a psychological or a social nature for unmarried mothers, generally do not differ from those of other parents. Separate services would therefore often involve a useless duplication; moreover, they would also cause undesirable discrimination and isolation of single parents. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. Por instance, in the Netherlands the "Single Parents'" Association (Nederlandse Vereninging "Ouders zonder Partner") was founded in November 1970 for the purpose of securing mutual help, discussion on special problems such as social security benefits independent of income, and extra benefits to compensare for expenses connected with tne fact of being a single parent. Likewise, in Norway, at Oslo, an advisory office of the Single Parents' Society operates. Moreover, .there are other special services for unmarried mothers and widows which will be described later.
No matter whether directed to all parents or to a special category, it is generally acknowledged that these advisory activities are particularly useful to single parents who have more reasons than others for resorting to them, 193« A perusal of the national reports in connection with this chapter was made somewhat difficult by the fact that the same term does not always refer to the same content in the various countries. However, inspite of the fact that there are several polyvalent services, an attempt was made to group them under the following headings:
- socio-medical advisory centres, the main purpose of which is physical protection;
- family and parents' advisory and educational services, which mainly provide psychological assistance ;
- child welfare services, which carry on a prevailingly psycho-social action. Under a fourth heading, certain services and measures of a preventive nature worth mentioning, such as social work in the field of family planning, will be briefly described. - In fact, it did not seem appropriate to concentrate exclusively on curative measures. , 184« The services which will be described below are run either by public organisations or "~y private associations and organisations and the arrangements vary from country to country and from district to district. In the first case, they are entirely supported by State or local government; in the latter case they operate on their own (by membership fees, fees for-services rendered, donations) and are often subsidised by the State or by local administrations, provided their activities are considered of public use and•that meet certain:requirements.
185« Most countries have the two systems, which often work together. In Cyprus, such services are carried out directly by the Department of Social Welfare of- the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance by means of social workers who are civil servants, and 'they are all State-financed. The social . workers either approach parents directly or are put in touch' with them by the various social welfare organisations, in particular the Child and Family Welfare Services and various medical institutions»
186. In Malta social work with families, including psychological assistance, is provided by the State through the Department of. Social Services. The Department takes the initiative to contact families, including those of single parents, only when it is known that the need for such assistance exists. Cases of families with social- problems are referred to the Department by parish priests, voluntary social workers, the Police Department and public spirited persons. Quite frequently the persons in need of help themselves seek assistance. A certain amount of work in this field is also done by voluntary organisations.
187. In general the initiative of applying to advisory services is left to the person seeking advice. These organisations may sometimes take the first step themselves, after having been notified by social welfare organisations, lawyers and doctors' who discover the existence of needy cases in the course of their work, neighbours and relatives, etc. Once the contact is made, it often continues for a long time.
188. Most of this advisory activity is carried out in special offices; however, sometimes persons in need of guidance are contacted at their homes or their'places of work._('
189« One of the few instances in which the initial contact is made by the advisory service is that of the educational advisory or child welfare centres, which are often connected with schools or employment exchanges. In the Hetherlands the child of the minor unmarried mother is registered by the Council, for the protection of the child. In Sweden the nurses- of the child welfare centres contact mothers, married and unmarried, a short' time after the birth of their children - and suggest registration with the centre; compulsory registration is presently under study» ./• 1 9 0. In general* it is felt that the use of these services should be optional and therefore a direct personal approach is not considered advisable. Instead* in many countries an effort is made to spread information on the availability of these services through distribution of written material (especially in hospitals and doctors' surgeries) and advertising in various forms. Information supplied by means of printed material is also very important (books* pamphlets* kits* advertisements). It was noted that particular effort is made in this connection in Norway.
1 9 1. Particularly active in this respect is the Federal Republic of Germany where* apart from the usual means of pub licity* other attempts are made to stimulate the use of advisory facilities. For instance, the Peter Pelikan-Briefe (postage- free circular letters) are sent to young parents to spread use- « fui information and to encourage personal contact with advisory centres. An effort is also made to have consultations in the evenings rather than during normal office hours* in order to meet the needs of working persons. Moreover* a special recom- r mendation is made to organisations which take care of children and young people outside their families to foster contacts with the parents and to follow them up once children have been dis charged. Some institutions* such as the Deutsche Mütter • Genesungswerk (German Association of Nursing Homes for Mothers) and the Grande Duchesse Charlotte Maternity Service for Unmarried Mothers in Luxembourg keep in touch with their patients after they have left.
1 9 2 . Mass communications media* and in particular television* have proved to be particularly useful in this connection as they reach a large number of persons in very different social strata.
( A ) SOCIO-MEDICAL SERVICES
193» These services are certainly the oldest* are the most widespread and exist in all the countries covered by this report. Only the ways in which advice is given and the frame work in which their activity takes place may differ. Special problems connected with maternity and the upbringing # of newly born babies are dealt with in special centres or at hospitals for women. In the centres advisory officers give advice on pre-natal and post-natal care. Besides strictly t medical advice* they normally supply information on child feeding* care and upbringing. For example* in Italy the Maternity and Child Welfare Organisation (Opera Nazionale Maternità o Infanzia) administers 2,6l8 advisory posts where al] pregnant women* and particularly pregnant unmarried women* can be examined free of charge by gynaecologists, receive advice* medicines and free meals in case of need. Particularly worth mentioning in this connection is the "La Casa" (Home) Institute in Milan which not only provides ad vice and information to pregnant women and parents* but also offers comfortable accommodation to unmarried mothers. There are also certain countries* such as France* where pre-natal consul tations are compulsory in order to benefit from maternity allow ances. Moreover* still in France the AEMO (Action educative en milieu ouvert - General Advisory Service) devotes particular care to one parent families before and especially after the birth. ./. 194. In Malta the Health Department provides an ante-natal and ■ post-natal ■■ service free'of charge, in State clinics.- •During .pregnane^"--this service includes a medical examination including a thorough"dbstetrie examination. It is provided hy medical officers'assisted hy midwives and district health visitors.-- Specialist''advice is given where necessary. Expectant mothers' are encouraged to call at the clinics regularly,■ and when one fails to keep an- appointment, a: •health'visitor calls at her home. Following delivèry 'mothers are.encouraged to call at the clinics and home visits are made by health visitors.
195. In Austria, - in Belgium for certain regions, .in. Norway,-- in French-speaking Switzerland, in Sweden and in the United Kingdom, corresponding services are carried out by" district nurses who visit the mothers with newly-born babies in their homes.
196. . In this connection also the only category of single parents to enjoy special facilities seems to be that of unmarried mothers. For instance, in the Netherlands there are thirty-nine bureaux specially concerned with giving them guidance during pregnancy, confinement and the period after childbirth. They are financed by 90^ by the state, the provinces and the municipalities. In other countries these services are carried out by private organisations. y
(B) FAMILY APP LAJlEKIS aDYIbüKY AND EDUCATIONAL CENTRES; '197. Family advisory centres, intended to help parents to \ overcome problems occurring in marriage and in children's \ education through suitable advice and socio-psychological \ guidance are available in almost all the countries which have \ given their contribution to this report. • These centres are \ generally open to all parents, including unmarried mothers, and also to persons who intend to marry, and are often located on a district basis. Frequently, these centres are run’by a staff made up of experts in different fields, such as social workers, physicians, psychologists, lawyers, etc., in order to provide adequate assistance on a wide range of problems. They-are often free of charge.
198. As a'matter of example, mention could be made of child psychology and educational advisory centres existing in Belgium, Federal' -Republic of Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden - and Switzerland to assist parents in solving problems connected with children's upbringing, both'before ;and after school age. In the Federal Republic f Germany and in Austria’the Jugendämter (Youth Offioes),which will be mentioned again further on,' are of' great importance', especially for single parents with dependent- children'and' deal with all psychologicalphysical and social' problems' relating t-o young tdople. The assistance given by these' offices'varies; it may' take the form of only one consultation òr of lasting guidance;' it can take place in the Youth Offices,- in the 'home or'at work and its purpose is to help the young people who are assisted to' become self-sufficient.' Medicài guidance is generally widespread; -in particular'in the Federal"Republic of Germany there are health office's to-which parents ■ and ■ guardians are obliged to send- children and young people showing physical,' bsychological or Social disturbances.' 199« Moreover., parents may apply to social workers. a or ^ instance, in Prance, in all schools, specially trained social workers are at the parents disposal to assist them in over coming the difficulties "by which their children may he confronted. ' 200« Such advice can also he given according to the 'parents- school" formula, which is becoming more and more popular. Schools for parents, which are intended to give instruction and advice to parents on various 'problems relating to household management, child-care and education, social, economic, psychological and religious matters connected with the-family are becoming more and more common and are open to all parents, whether they are single or members of a complete family, and also to prospective parents.
201. In a few countries, like the Federal Republic of Germany such schools have a long-established "tradition (they were originally schools for mothers); special programmes are also particularly intended for single parents.
202, These schools are mainly run by local authorities or by private organisations, frequently with the support of public subsidies (.and they are often of a denominational nature). As a rule most schools for parents are to be found in the larger cities and there are still very few in the rural areas. In the Federal Republic of Germany mobile units have been set up in order to make up for this lack. Radio and television are widely used for the purpose of reaching as many sections of the population as possible. In some countries, for example Belgium, the organisers of such local schools had to overcome serious initial difficulties, especially in working class areas in cities, because’1 of’ the 1 ack of interest on the part of many parents. 203® Instruction is usually given in the form of lectures (either for a large public or for limited groups with specific problems such as, for instance, parents of handicapped ehildren), discussions and seminars. In Belgium, for instance, the ’’Centre de Perfectionnement pour Parents et Educateurs" (Advanced Centre for Parents and Educators) is particularly e active in this connection. It not only organises courses for parents, but also supplies programmes and teaching material to other organisations which hold: such courses, conducts research work and attends to the training of specialised staff.
. 204. Besides the aforesaid services especially intended for •parents and their children, one could mention other^facilities of-- a more general nature hut which can also be used by parents to solve their particular problems. For instance, in Austria the city of Vienna has citizens' advisory bureaux (Beratungstellen) to give information on the appropriate institutions available to solve specific problems by means of assistance and advice. In several countries there is a special service to which persons in distress may address themselves by telephone for comfort and guidance. 205. li-ii -Belgium several ’'centres de quarter viisxricx services) have been opened, especially in the large cities. They are usually located in those sections which are rather isolated from the other parts of the city and are normally inhabited by people in a low income group and especially foreign workers; their aim is to help families to overcome f-11 factors which may endanger the normal family and community life by providing information, consultation and guidance in connection with family, social and professional life and to help solve personal problems. These services are usually run by voluntary help and receive some subsidies from the State.
206. Finally mention should also be made of the various family aid services, in the Federal Republic of German:/,- Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland, which assist families in emergency situations (e.g. absence, illness) and, in addition to providing help of a material nature, also give advice on many problems connected with family life. In Switzerland trainees of the Pro Juventute Foundation carry out such services even in places which are very distant and isolated.
207. There are certain services which may be considered as particularly intended to assist single mothers. In Austria, the Federal Republic of Germany, Norway and Switzerland. the guardianship officer, who is appointed for each child born out of wedlock, is of great help to unmarried mothers.- In fact, although his main task is to establish paternity, to secure alimony and to administer possible estates on . behalf of the child, he usually provides assistance and guidance on other problems which may confront the mother,
208. Also particularly worthy of mention are the associations for deserted women and unmarried mothers established in Belgium■with the purpose of assisting these women to overcome their particular problems. In Belgium there are also several associations to aid widows with their problems, especially those- of social isolation and in connection with their children. In the Federal Republic of o Germany an Associaition of Single Mothers nas been recently founded. The purpose of such association is to foster a better 'understanding of single mothers and their children on the part of society through appropriate means and to set up provisions and facilities on behalf of this group (for instance, day child minding facilities, pedagogic and therapeutical institutions, advisory activities, support to young unmarried mothers for the completion of their vocational training, assistance in connection with housing and employment). The Federal Ministry for Youth, Family and Health.supports, also financially, the activities of this association. Besides a number of associations of divorced women, -widows and widowers, in the Netherlands the Association ’’Single Parents” has been founded (see also first paragraph of this chapter). (C) CHILD WELFARE SERVICES 209. In most countries there are special departments of the public administration especially concerned with children1s welfare from the physical, legal and social standpoints. Juvenile courts should also be mentioned in this connection; in most countries they have not only the task of enforcing penal law but are also concerned with civil lav/ matters (e.g. marriage of minors, paternal authority, children's custody), as well as the medical centres connected with schools.
210. Some institutions of particular interest in Belgium are the committees for the protection of young people, which are concerned with the social and legal protection of young people and which, among their other activities, operate the juvenile courts, which also have tasks of a social nature, such as educational assistance and family allowances. These committees also give moral assistance to parents and place children in families or in institutions registered with -the appropriate authorities.
211. In Prance the services in charge of assistance to children presently take care of approximately 700,000 children. Out of this total 260,000 children receive financial assistance, 50,000 are left with their families under supervision and the others are either placed in specialised public or nrivate institutions or in foster families. 212. In the Federal Republic of Germany the Jugendämter, mentioned above in connection with the role they play on behalf of parents, are also particularly active in child welfare. The Jugendamt (Youth Office) is made up of the Committee for Youth Welfare, representatives of local authorities (municipalities and groups of municipalities) , as well as of citizens of all social strata, who are expert or active in the field of youth welfare and of the adminis tration of the Youth Office. 215. In Italy the Maternity and Child Welfare Organisation (mentioned above for its activities in the medical field) makes use of social workers - at present 213 - who are particularly engaged in specialised interventions on behalf of unmarried mothers, widowed, separated or divorced women who apply for assistance. Moreover, mention should be made of the Ente Nazionale per la Protezione Morale del Fanciullo (National Agency for Young People's Moral Protection) and the Ente Nazionale Assistenza a favore degli Orfani dei Lavoratori Italiani (National Agency for the Aid to the Orphans of Italian Workers). The first one assists minors who have gone astray and develops a preventive action in co-operation with other welfare agencies and through medical and psycho- pedagogical centres, the latter pursues welfare and educational aims on behalf of the orphans of workers. v 214» In Ireland also children’s 'officers, -some of whom are qualified social workers or public health, nurses, are employed'by local authorities to undertake welfare work which includes advising and helping unmarried mothers and making arrangements for their children. A number of voluntary social service agencies, some of which employ professional staff, are also engaged in this and-allied work»
215. As for Luxembourg, mention should be made of the child integration services which are especially concerned with the children of single parents and children placed in institutions
216. In Malta trained social workers of the Department of Social Services’, with the co-operation of parents, supervise children in their own home, especially those showing behaviour problems. There is also a statutory obligation for the supervision of children in the care of persons who are not parents on near relatives. The Department may place children in community homes at the request of a parent or the parents, or with their consent, and it may also request the Courts to order such placing.
217* In the Netherlands there is the ''Council for the Protection of the ChildH which, in the interest 'of the child, may advise the judge to place it in a home, to supervise the parents, or to deprive them of their parental authority. 218. In Norway in every municipality there is a Child Welfare Committee composed of five members elected by the citizens, preferably among persons having an interest in child welfare. The activities of the Committee include the supervision of all children living in the municipality, regardless of whether or not their parents are single, .and the giving of advice and information. 'This Committee can appoint guardians, arrange for the placing of a child in a kindergarten and provide the necessary treatment for needy children. Should the question arise of placing a child outside its home for its upbringing, without the consent of its parents, the district jiidge shall act as a member of the Committee and direct the Committee meetings and negotiations. In the case of children b o m out of wedlock, this Committee appoints an adviser for the mother, upon her request, or, if it is deemed advisable'to give assistance on paternity, alimony matters and the upbringing of a child, a child-care officer can be appointed : (he can also be appointed in the case of divorced or widowed persons). 219. In Sweden there is also a Child Welfare Committee with very much the same tasks as that in Norway. In the case of children horn out of wedlock, the supervision of the child-care officer is compulsory and lasts until the child is eighteen, unless the mother desires that this service should he discontinued before that age and the Child Welfare Committee is in agreement. One of the main tasks of the child care officer is to assist in establishing paternity. The system has lately been subject to criticism on the ground that it denies the fitness of a specific group of citizens to look after their own children and that it gives special treatment to a certain group of citizens. In view of the fact that general social services are presently developed in such a way to give adequate assistance to the child, a bill has recently been introduced by members of the Parliament; as a result of this proposal the government is going'to reconsider the legislation relating to child-care officers.
220» In the United Kingdom the child-care service is administered on a local basis by councils which have a social services committee and a Director of Social Services through whom the council exercises the function of caring for children who have no parents or whose parents are unable, either permanently or temporarily, to provide them with a normal life. Moreover, they give advice, guidance and assistance, which help to lessen the risk of a child's having to be received in care or brought before a court. In Scotland similar services are available through the social work departments of local authorities. 221» The guardian assigned to children born out of wedlock (and in certain instances for children of divorced or widowed parents) in Sweden and Norway, as well as in Austria, the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland, seems to be the only case of an officer specially concerned with children of single parents.
(D) OTHER SERVICES 222. As already indicated, it would seem useful to mention some services which carry out social activities of a preventive nature, the action of which may have an impact in the field of our interests, as well as some measures which might bring about certain consequences. (i) 223* Among such services there are, first of all, marriage guidance services, which exist in most countries. They are often staffed by specialists in different disciplines, to give advice on the various medical, sexual, psychological and social problems connected with marriage. In the Netherlands there are special centres intended to help people in finding suitable marriage partners, fostered and supported by the government; birth control and family planning are also normally discussed in this connection. 224. Marriage guidance i n -v..ri j u s countries is given i n v o r ; / different forms ranging from courses, lectures, seminars and discussion groups to working parties and private consultations.
225 These services are carried out either directly "by State and local authorities or by a great number of private organisations (both denominational and non-denominational) which operate partly through their own funds and partly through State subsidies, provided they meet certain requirements
226, Moreover, also in connection with preparation for marriage, it can be noted that in several countries there are marriage< guidance schools, generally of a confessional nature.
(ii)
227. Mention should also be made of the other numerous services which give advice on family planning. They are often connected with women's hospitals and they are nui by local authorities, social welfare organisations or associations exclusively concerned with this problem, such as the Schweizerische Gesellschaft für die Sterilität und Fruchtbarkeit und Familienplanung (Swiss Society for . Sterility, Fertility and Family Planning) and the' Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Verantwortungsbewusste Elternschaft (Swiss Society for Responsible Parenthood) in Switzerland. 228. But importance attached to these centres, as well as their impact, varies from country to country. For example while in the United Kingdom family planning services are very widespread (they are provided in medical cases by general practitioners, local authorities, hospitals and voluntary associations; in non-medi-al cases they may be provided under the National Health Service by local authorities (which may provide thorn for unmarried äs well as married women), or privately by general practitioners or voluntary associations), in Italy only very recently the diffusion of information on family planning ceased to be a violation of the penal code.
229. connection with family planning it should be noted that in most European countries abortion is not considered as, a means of family planning, but is allowed only for medical reasons and subject to very strict rules as far as authorisation is concerned. , The violation of these rules is a criminal offence for which only cex’tain extenuating circumstances may be applicable, for example, for social reasons (financial need, social status of the mother), eugenic reasons (danger of hereditary diseases) and legal reasons (honour, rape), / 230« The precise circumstances in which abortion can be- permitted vary from country to country. They may he limited to cases of serious danger to the mother’s life, as, for example, in Italy, or take into account also factors such as the mental health of the mother, possible deformaties of the child to be born, rape, incest or even simply social and economic reasons, as in Norway, Legislation is presently under discussion in the federal Republic of Germany in order to make it more flexible in certain instances, such as rape, in the Netherlands to define more clearly the ’’medical grounds” which permit abortion - a report on the abortion problem is being prepared by -the "Netherlands federation of Societies for the Unmarried Mother and her Child” - and in Norway;«
231, In this connection, it may be interesting to quote the following statistics, In Sweden abortion may be permitted on five grounds laid down by lav/. The percentage of authorised abortions has increased over the years. In 1969* 94^ of all applications for abortion were approved. The legislation is for the time being under reconsideration,
In the United Kingdom the Abortion Act of 1967 lays down the grounds by which two registered medical practitioners may decide that a pregnancy be terminated; the law dons not make any distinction between married and unmarried women. In 1 9 6 9, the first full year since the introduction of this law, the following abortions were performed according tn the marital status of the women: single women 26,587; married women 25,887, widowed, divorced and separated women 5,046, not stated 181.
Vili; 232, As for family planning, also the importance attached to sex education varies from country to country and from region to region. In certain countries it is part of the compulsory school curriculum, either as an independent subject or in connection with other subjects such as, for instance, biology. In other countries courses are optional, and finally there are some countries where it is not taught at all. Some examples of the solutions adopted are given below.
233, In Austria the purpose of school authorities is to guide young people towards responsible sex attitudes by means of knowledge based on facts, to make them aware of their duties as men and women in the choice of their partners, to emphasise the need for moral judgment and responsibility in creating a new life. The subjects which are dealt with up to the end of the eighth school year include relations between the sexes, the sexual problems involved in-growing up, contraception, pregnancy and childbirth. 234* In Belgium and Luxembourg the introduction of sex education into the school curriculum is still under examination. However5 it has already been introduced on an experimental basis in connection with courses on ethics and biology classes. Moreover, lectures are held on this subject with the assistance of specialised organisations.' In Luxembourg the Ministry of Family, in co-operation with local school authorities, organises lectures for parents of. children in kindergartens and elementary schools, in' order to acquaint them-with the problems and methods of sex education,
235« "the Federal Republic of Germany also sex education is part of the general school programme and it is meant to make children conscious of their responsibility in this field. It is not taught as a distinct subject but is linked together with other subjects (e.g. biology, social science, civic and religious education). Arrangements are also made to teach sex education in schools outside regular classes. Certain difficulties have been encountered in introducing sex education in .the school curriculum because of resistance on the part;of some teachers ond the fact that most teachers have not had a special training in this subject. 236. In France sex education is not a compulsory subject in schools. However, teachers may refer to this matter, for instance, in zoology classes. Moreover, in the framework of a programme of health and social education fostered by the Ministry of Health, information on sex education is’ given in various schools on behalf of students, teachers and parents.
2 3 7 . In Italy only very recently some teachers have introduced lectures on this subject, but only on an experimental basis, for children during compulsory school education.
238. In the Netherlands, although the central government tried to encourage sex education in schools, it is not compulsory.
239. In Norway sex education is included in the curriculum of the elementary school as part of the education on hygiene and family life.
240. In Sweden also it is given to all children' under the compulsory school system.
241. In Switzerland the form and extent of sex education in 'schools depends on the cantons and municipalities,so that while in certain districts it is connected with other subjects (e.g. biology, domestic economy) in others it is a fully developed subject, which includes also information on family planning.
• /. 242* In the United Kingdom it is the responsibility of individual head teachers and their local education authorities to decide whether or not sex education should he included in the school curriculum; this is done by an increasing number of schools and this trend is supported by the government. Lessons, which also place emphasis on responsibility towards the family and society often include discussions of personal problems or matters of concern and it is up to the individual teacher to decide whether or not to give information on contraception.
(iv) 243. If in-connection with sex education a definite trend in favour of a more widespread teaching of this subject can be noted, attitudes in connection with the diffusion of information on contraception and the sale of contraceptives are very different.
244. As a matter of example, in Austria, the federal Republic of Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom their sale is not restricted, except for some types which need a medical prescription (e.g, the pill)o In the Netherlands the advertising of certain contraceptives can be restricted, in the same way that certain medicines can be restricted if. they come under special regulations; other restrictions, which are left to the discretion of the local administrations, relate to the systems of sale (e,go through vending machines). In Sweden contraceptives can be obtained free of charge in maternity centres and at a low price from the Swedish Association for Sex Education, a widespread non-profit making organisation, or from physicians. In Switzerland the usual contraceptives are available, depending on their composition, both in pharmacies and in drugstores. Products which prevent ovulation are sold only in pharmacies and with a medical prescription, for contraceptives which can be sold in pharmacies and drugstores, advertising is permitted, provided it does not offend the customary feeling of decency and limits itself to recommending certain products without attributing to them a disinfecting or preventive action against infectious diseases,
245. On the contrary in Belgium the advertising, production and distribution of contraceptives is prohibited by law. However this^rule^has been interpreted in a fairly lenient way by the judiciary as not applying to scientific information and works According to a recent survey conducted by the Centre d'Etudes de la Population et de la Famille (Population and Family Research Centre), the use of contraceptives is widespread (95^ of women seem -to. use them, to have used them or to be willing to use them) but the range ôftype-s— avajjl^blsil_xs_rathea^-iimited. In Luxembourg the sale of medical contraceptives is submitted to pharmacological regulations. Sale is made only with a; medical prescription which has to be renewed every time. In France a recent law has waived the.prohibitions relating to-birth control and contraceptives and a new settlement of the whole matter is still under consideration.
>
Si
4 Vili
LEISURE TIME AND HOLIDAY FACILITIES (A) LEISURE TIME 24-6. With the growth in industrialisation and the constant * rise in the standard of living in more and more sectors of the population, an increasing number of people have more time available for leisure. This applies also to holidays, which were once considered as a luxury restricted to a privileged class, while now they are considered as a physical and psychic need and as a right for everybody and they are protected by labour laws.
247. Both leisure time and holidays have become social' phenomena which require more and more attention by governments and social welfare organisations. 248» Local authorities, large companies, trade unions and welfare organisations are especially active in providing ' profitable and pleasant utilisation of spare time through sport, cultural activities (like lectures, concerts, exhibitions, films), tourism or hobbies (such as photography, ceramics, etc.). This is done both by setting up the necessary facilities (playgrounds, swimming pools, cultural centres) and by organising various activities. Such facilities are either restricted to members or open to everybody depending on how they are organised.
249» In Austria it is considered particularly important that families, especially those with small children, be enabled to spend their holidays together. More and more initiatives are taken in this field; for example, the development of youth hostels; moreover, undertakin/s make it ossible to provide their employees,in the framework of holiday policies and. sooial expenditures, with more widespread opportunities to spend their vacations with their families. '"Family holiday houses offering particularly favourable terms are also run by the Austrian Catholic Family Association. Also the Association of » Austrian Childrens' Friends, the Austrian Trade Unions and the Caritas Association are very active in this field.
250- In the Federal Republic of Germany an inter sting, experiment hasbbeen started by the district (Landkreis) of Fulda to -offer its inhabitants a better utilization of their leisure time. It is foreseen that the "free time tutors" will, at a later date, organise recreational activities for adults and young people, as well as weekend trips, sports competitions, etc. In this connection mention could be made of the recreational clubs run by the Ente Nazionale Assistenza Lavoratori (National Agency for Workers' Welfare) in Italy which are'open to all workers and their families on a nation-wide basis. In the Netherlands
/ a special effort is made to improve open-air recreational facilities (like picnic sites, centres for water sports, visitors' centres in national parks), as it is felt that with the growing urbanisation it is necessary to make an increased effort to keep in touch with nature. In Switzerland, in Zurich, each city district has a free-ti entre" open .to all its . residents with open-air facilities (for sport, relaxation, children's games), a club-house with rooms for dancing, ■ ' plays,, music, theatre, exhibitions, etc.; a library, workshops for various hobbies (ceramics, photography, radio amateurs, etc.). It is considered particularly important to give the possibility to persons of different ages, professions and social backgrounds to become acquainted.
(B) CHILD ATTENDANCE FACILITIES
■251. Child attendance facilities to which parents may entrust their children during their spare time are described in Chapter IV.
252. To these should be added the numerous recreational■ - activities for young people organised by educational institutions, churches and welfare organisations, in the form óf sports, cultural activities, trips and hiking. In the Federal Republic of Germany, particularly noteworthy ‘in this connection are the Jugendfreizeitstättqn.. (Youth Recreational Centres) which are located on a district basis and of which there are several •thousands.. They range from a modest centre tó an establishment with numeruurs--f«xi-iljLt.ies, such as those lor-sports, games.,, clubs, a library, a sbudip for listening to music and ah" auditorium; there is someti-mqs also a café with a d,ah 253. Also very useful for parents who wish to spend some time, relaxing without the' problems of.child-care are the* numerous residential facilities in various health resorts, either in houses or in camping sites for children -and young people in various age groups. They are run by various profit and non-profit■making, both public and private, organisations. 254. J-t should, however, be noted that all these leisure time facilities for children and young people serve only indirectly to solve, the problem of child custody during the parents' spare time, and this is particularly true in the evenings when it seems that the only solution is to resort to baby sitters. This situation is particularly worrying in the case of single parents and this seems to be one of the main reasons why they are often cut off from social life and from opportunities of professional improvement. (C) HOLIDAYS 255. As for holidays, the increasingly large number of people who can afford them in European countries has caused the development of a special industry concerned with the offer of relaxation and entertainment in the most varied forms and in a very wide price range. 256.It should also be pointed out that in most countries an increasing number of hotels and pensions grant special discounts to families during their stay in winter or summer resorts.- Municipalities in such resorts are more and more active in making the stay in their districts more attractive, by setting up various leisure time facilities, such as playgrounds, swimming pools, etc. 2 5 7 .In Lederai Republic of Germany an effort is made to stimulate private enterprise to satisfy the holiday needs of families by setting up facilities for small children’s care, a sufficient number of children’s bedrooms, special meals for children, price reductions for children and child-minding facilities in holiday resorts. 2580It should also be noted that, owing to the improved financial conditions there are more families with children which have their own holiday houses. 259aIn general, governments, as well as public and private welfare organizations, are particularly concerned with persons who, because of their low income or for other reasons (e.g. families with several children, with handicapped children, single parents who should be relieved of child-care problems) cannot avail themselves of the open market facilities. 260„In fact, inspite of the improvements described above, from recent surveys it appears that an unexpectedly large number of people is still unable to take holidays. In the Federal Republic of Germany a 1965 survey showed that single mothers could spend holidays with their children less often than married mothers in two parent families, (45$ against 36$ among employed mothers, and 41$ against 26$ among non-employed mothers). 261* In France there are available for low income families and notably single parents with dependent childrèn the "holiday-villages" or "family holiday homes", which, upon payment of a very modest fee, enable parents to enjoy relaxing holidays without being separated from their children. Such establishments endeavour to create a social and friendly atmosphere and play an important role in the prevention of family troubles, especially as far as over-worked mothers are concerned» The establishments which meet certain required standards receive financial 'support from the competent Ministry; such subsidies amounted to 1,700,000 Fr. for 1970. There are presently 500 'family holiday homes, with a total of 48,000 places offering a total of 5,740,000 days of holiday; for • 1969 they accommodated 287,000 persons. 262. I*1 the United Kingdom it is unusual for any organi s'ed arrangement to be made which includes both parents; '"’generally voluntary bodies are more likely to make arrangements for mothers and dependent children or for children and young people separately. Voluntarily subscribed funds are normally used to finance such holidays, of ten with the contribution of J-O.cal authorities. These facilities would all be available to both married couples and single parents with dependent children provided the bodies in charge of them consider the criteria lor providing such help to be fulfilled. 263. -^or ^hese persons in most European countries, a large number of holiday possibilities at especially favourable terms, such as travel inland and abroad,.camping sites, stays at hotels or special holiday houses, cottage estates (areas with several small cottages and sanitary and other services in common), are available. They are usually open to all mothers. For instance, in Norway, there are special holiday programmes for housewives, designed for those housewives with many children who need recreation and rest which they cannot afford by their own means; these facilities are less frequently used by single mothers. In Luxembourg the Action Catholique Feminine LuxembourgeoiseTWomen1 s Catholic Association of Luxembourg) runs holiday residences,especially for mothers and their children. The Pro Juventute Foundation in Switzerland grants subsidies to enable over-worked mothers to take a vacation. (D) AG^TOIBS a n d f i n a n c i n g 264-. Such projects are very seldom carried out directly by the States concerned. In most countries governments limit themselves in issuing .guidelines and to granting subsidies to public and private organizations which operate in thi's field. The various public and private (both denominational and non-denominational), welfare organizations, trade unions, employers' and employees' associations and large companies are most active in this connection. 265. Among the organisations active in this field are the Katholische Familienverband Österreichs (Austrian Catholic Families' Association) and the Caritas Association in Aus tria; i-n Belgium, the great social organisations (trade unions'), as well as family and youth organisations; the Ente .Nazionale Assistenza Lavoratori (National Agency for Workers' Welfare) ^-n Italy ; the Fédération Nationale des Ouvriers du Luxembourg (National Association of Luxembourg Workers) in Luxembourg; and, in Switzerland, the Reisekasse (Travel Bank), which gives part of its profits to foster family holidays for families with at least three children under-age, which would not normally be able to spend the^r holidays together for financial reasons, arranging for two-week stays in a special holiday village in the Ticino Canton. The same institution provides holiday flats to its members with low incomes and large families at special prices. , 266. In addition to specially priced residences, several other financial arrangements exist to facilitate holiday possibilities for persons with a low income, such as payments by instalments, travel grants and subsidies. t 267. Of particular interest in this connection are the special "holiday allowances" which in certain countries, like Belgium and Norway, are granted to all employed persons in addition to their salary in order to encourage them to take holidays. Moreover, in Belgium children entitled to a family allowance receive an extra amount equivalent to a monthly family allowance for holiday purposes; in the case of orphans or children of disabled persons, although they are usually entitled to a higher family allowance, the allowance for holiday purposes is in the ordinary amount. However, handicapped children receive a higher amount. In Norway, the special "holiday money" given to all wage-earners in addition to their wages amounts presently to 9 l/2 per cent of the yearly salary. This amount is paid every year after 1 May and is meant to encourage people to take holidays. This allowance is paid through a holiday-fund. Possible surpluses of the holiday fund are used for various holiday facilities and programmes such as cottage-sites for families,- holiday-homes, holidays for housewives. In Switzerland, the Swiss Travel Bank (Reisekasse) foster holidays and travel for families through the sale at special prices of travel cheques to the value of five or ten Swiss francs. These can be used for making payments during trips in Switzeris"\ (in 1970 the discounts granted reached the sum of 9»75 million Sw. Pr., i.e. 14.25« of the total amount of the sales). Also * several firms sell travel cheques at special prices for their employees and the same is done by trade unions for their members and by food stores for their customers. 268. In this connection the special discounts granted to family groups by public transportation services in most countries could also be mentioned. 269- All these facilities are available to all parents without any distinctions being made. (E) PROVISIONS FOR SINGLE PARENTS • 270.' Apart from some widows', widowers1' and divorced'women* s associations in the Netherlands, no special facilities for single parents exist. Moreover, it is largely felt1 that such measures would not he advisable as they would tend to separate these persons from others. On the contrary, efforts are being made at present to integrate various social groups (adults and young people, families with and without childreh? old and handicapped people). 271. It should further be noted that the holiday arrangements described above are for community life and therefore they- automatically avoid the risk of isolation. 272. The view seems to prevail that, should an effort be made, it should probably be in the field of child-minding facilities. * f • /* IX CHILDREN'S EDUCATION (A) PROBliiliS OPMECTA-P ,/ITH SCHOOL 273. exhaustive survey has heen made in connection with the behaviour of children of single parents during the * compulsory school period. Opinions seem to be divided on this subject in various countries. While in some countries, as far as the school performance is concerned, no sizeable differences have been noted, in others there is evidence of less satisfactory results on the part of children of single parents. Por instance, a recent survey conducted in Vienna elementary schools'showed that the performance of children of single parents as far as writing, reading and arithmetic are concerned was worse than that of children living in a two parent family. Also in Italy as far as the so-called school unfitness is concerned, it has been proved that the most frequent cases are represented by children of single parents, especially only children. Experience shows that most problems affecting these children are especially determined by the lack of family atmosphere, which reflects (often negatively) upon the school performance. Special courses are foreseen for children with physical- and mental handicaps and others for children who are retarded, unstable or inadaptable to discipline. In Ireland, it has been noted that many children of single parents are educationally retarded, particularly because they come from uneducated backgrounds and therefore start their education with serious handicaps. A research project is at present -being conducted with the purpose of setting up pre-school education facilities in under-privileged areas. 274. In Denmark problems with children of single parents in school age may arise in connection with the parent's absence from home during working hours. Although no special measures • have been taken to alleviate this problem, it is felt that free and unlimited access to recreational centres and youth clubs contribute to a certain extent to solve such problems. * 275. In the Federal Republic of Germany no particular differences- in performance have been noted. It has been shown trough that the less secure socio-economic situation of one-parent families and other factors may lead mothers to encourage in the education of their children certain aims (such as ambition, success in life) which should be corrected. It is shown that such children are more strongly compelled by their particular situation to conform themselves to the adult world, that of achievements; they are subject to continuous demands and therefore do not have enough time to develop creative forces, such as imagination and feelings. They are more frequently subject to variations of moods and lack of self-confidence. The all-day school is very useful in helping to overcome these difficulties. a / . 276. More widely recognised are the problems of a psychological nature brought about in the child by the absence of one parent (generally the father). This problem is aggràva'tèd by the fact that the teachers in .kindergartens and elementary schools are almost exclusively women. In Sweden an attempt is being made to offset this inconvenience by recruiting male staff for these jobs. However, in Sweden children of single parents seldom seem to have problems with teachers or friends because of their particular status: there are many such children and consequently their situation does not cause much interest. According to a 1962 social psychiatry study, the causes of the more or less marked difficulties experienced by school children are to be sought in a variety of factors, and cannot be attributed exclusively to a single circumstance-, e.g. the fact that a child is growing up with only one parent. On the contrary, in Belgium special attention is given by school and vocational guidance services to such children in order to, obviate in time the problems which may arise. Towards fourteen or fifteen years of age (the time at which a child usually ’begins to become independent) these services will have to ascertain whether or not the ohild is fit to continue its studies. If the decision is positive a "tutor** (guardian) is chosen among the teaching staff to be assigned to the child. This measure is based on psychological evidence and is aimed at finding a substitute in whom the child will be able to identify itself, in the absence of a father image. 27 7 . France psychological and social difficulties seem to affect much more frequently children of divorced, deserted or unmarried mothers rather than children of widows; and they seem to depend heavily on the reaction of the woman to her new status. Children of widows do not seem to suffer, also from the point of view of professional integration, from the loss of social relations which generally ensues on the death of the father. As for problems arising from child attendance, the problem is particularly serious in the first school years where boarding .schools are very limited; however children in elementary schools can always have thei ' lunch at the school and stay there all day long under the supervision of specially trained personnel. The problëm is .less serious in secondary schools with boarding facilities.- 278. In the United Kingdom the main difficulties in this connection seem to be related to the absence of the parent during working hours. This problem, however, also affects . children in two-parent families when both parents go out to- work. Some local education authorities run after-school activities for children in this situation. 279« It should also be pointed out that some of the psychological disturbances which seem to affect more frequently children of single parents may be brought about by factors related to their less favourable financial situation, such as, for instance, inadequate housing conditions or the lack of a secure and sound environment. 280. Although very few data are available on the number of children of single parents who continue their studies after the completion of compulsory school education, it is generally felt that their number is lower than that of children of two- parent families. 281. In the lederai Republic of G-ermany. a 1961 survey showed that the number of children who continue their education after the compulsory school period is higher in two parent families than in one-parent families and it is lower for children of widows, widowers and divorced fathers. This may be due to a more long-lasting critical economic situation. Moreover, in one-parent families it is even more evident than in two-parent families that the chances of advanced education for children decrease with the increase in number of children. In Italy it could very roughly be estimated that about 50$ of children of married couples continue their education after the completion of the compulsory school curriculum, while for children of single parents the percentage is about 20$. 282® These estimates could be confirmed by the fact that the social and cultural background have a great influence on the kind of education received by a child and its chances of access to secondary education and very often single parents are in a lower social position. Moreover, there is evidence that children of families in low income brackets who continue their studies beyond compulsory school level are far fewer than children with parents on a higher income level. Since single parents are to be found largely among the low income groups, there is reason to suppose that the children of single parents continue their studies on a lesser scale than the children of married parents. I /. X t SOCIAL ASSISTANCE SERVICES 283* In most countries there are no social welfare organisations exclusively concerned with the social welfare of single parents with dependent children. Their needs are met hy the various welfare services set up for all citizens by governments, local authorities, public and private organisations, most of which t have already been described in various sections of this report. 284* The only exceptions seem to concern single mothers and their children. ' In addition to the organisations and public < offices which have already been described, especially concerned with unmarried mothers and their children, the following may he mentioned. The numerous associations which in Italy are concerned with the protection and assistance from the legal, moral, educational and economic standpoints of war orphans, orphans of members of various military corps and several professional organisations; such institutions also help indirectly the widowed parents. Moreover, war orphans and widows are entitled to obtain jobs in public administrations and private enterprises. In Italy there is also the Associazione Nazionale Famiglie degli Emigrati (National Association for Emigrants' Families). This Association makes known and asserts the rights of emigrants and those of their families both in Italy and abroad; it maintains contacts between emigrants and their families and runs seaside and mountain health residences for emigrants' children.» 285 « Luxembourg a non-profit making organisation has recently been founded for the purpose of defending the interests of unmarried mothers and their children, of bettering their personal and social situation and of building houp°s f^r them. 286» In the Netherlands, apart from the twenty-seven h residential homes for unmarried mothers and their children and the thirty-nine bureaux specially concerned with giving 4 guidance during pregnancy (already mentioned in this report), confinement and the period after child birth, there are no organisations exclusively concerned with the social welfare of single parents with dependent children. 287. No health service specially intended for single mothers and their children seems to exist anywhere. However, the numerous facilities available to the various categories of citizens in the framework of social security schemes and public assistance are at the disposal of single mothers. / CONCLUSIONS 4 *• (A) GENERAL REMARKS 288. The dramatic changes brought about in the last decades by the Second vrorld War, the rapid-technological progress and intensive industrialisation have had a deep influence on social and family patterns. 289. The family, the traditional pillar of European society, has undergone substantial changes, both in form and in substance. The patriarchal family, based on an authoritarian relationship of the parents between each other and towards their children, is disappearing everywhere to give way to other patterns of family life, especially characterised by a partnership relation among its members. 29 O 0 Moreover, in recent years, there have been two attempts to enlarge the family. On one side, some groups of families have been putting together their moral, financial and educational problems in the framework of more or less structured organisations. It is an instance of solidarity among families (often recently founded families) which, however, retain independent housing accommodation as well as the traditional style of everyday family life. This movement has involved, especially, in Eranoe in the last twenty-five years, several thousands of families«, In Belgium a similar trend is developing within «ocial and family organisations0 On the other side, persons of different age, sex and milieu, both married and single and not necessarily bound by family ties, have tended during the last few years to create "communities" where household tasks are shared. Here too a certain solidarity finds its expression. In the Netherla^s such "communities" receive interest and assistance from the side of the government in the form of financial support to a national foundation experimenting with such new patterns of life (the Landelijke Stichting Centraal Wonen) in order to enable it to'employ for a period of a year a consultant expert with the task of following and evaluating the new developments. 291 . Eor all these questions, reference should be made to the report submitted to the VUIth Conference of European Ministers responsible for family Affairs.» (Luxembourg, 17-18 May 1966) devoted to the "Young family". 292. Outside the family, the increased mobility of persons, the more and more marked anonymity of city life, the possibility of rapid changes in social status, the reconsideration of many moral standards, have contributed to modify the traditional a / n attitude of disapproval towards unmarried and divorced persons into one of greater understanding of human situations and problems. In the past, as noted in the introduction, society has usually been more understanding towards widowed persons. 293. As a matter of example, in Cyprus, single parenthood a century ago, was a condition which involved negative social judgment and placed all those concerned in an inferior situation. Since the Second World War the self-imposed social isolation of the widow, the- social stigma placed upon unmarried mothers and the criticism against divorced persons, with the ensuing unfavourable repercussions upon their children began to be replaced by a more realistic approach and a more protective attitude, as a consequence of emancipation of women, rapid industrialisation, urbanisation, migration, the introduction of new legislations, particularly social welfare schemes and legislation in favour of unprivileged families. Social acceptance and the family integration of unmarried mothers maÿ still present difficulties because of the existence of strong moral principles, the patriarchal family system and the fact that pre-marital sexual relations are not - permitted. However, rejection of the unmarried mother is not as violent and complete as it used to be a century ago. In small villages parents may still wish that the daughter who has had a child without being married should leave the home and the village, as the community may not approve of. her; however, in the larger centres she will not be refused accommodation, employment and social contacts. Social workers are very active in this connection. 294. In the Federal Republic of Germany while before the first World War unmarried mothers had to suffer from parents’ severity, employers’ hostility and a pitiless society, a 1953 survey showed that 33i° of the persons interviewed approved of maternity out of wedlock, 41 $ only depending on circumstances and 18$. disapproved of it. 295. It should be noted that, even in the same country, the attitude of the family and thé community can greatly vary from rural to industrialised areas, from large cities to small centres, from more developed' to less developed areas. 296. According to the information provided by the French authorities the unmarried mother is no longer forced- to marry the father of her child or a "substitute" as a condition to secure her family's help to raise.her child. Public authorities have greatly contributed in modifying this trend. As for the widow while in previous years the fs-at that she was gainfully employed was considered disgraceful in the bourgeoisie, this fact is now normally accepted and even favoured by her. relatives. 297* In Italy public disapproval of the unmarried mother and, in a lesser degree, towards separated parents, is still severe in the south of the country, in less developed areas and in small centres while in the industrialised areas and in large cities the social integration of these persons is easier. However, the situation is steadily evolving in the whole country towards a greater tolerance. 298. In Luxembourg the behaviour of the family towards the * unmarried daughter expecting a child does not seem to be a favourable one and varies in different social classes. In the upper classes an effort is made to hide the '"shame" caused by the birth out of wedlock by sending the daughter 1 abroad to have her baby and then leaving it for adoption. In the rural areas, prejudices are still strong and there is often refusal to accept the unmarried mother in the family; . this attitude has contributed towards making unmarried mothers a social problem. However, the attitude of society » and of the individuals who compose it have evolved towards a greater understanding and a less disputed acceptance of these situations. Public authorities endeavour to gradually adjust the laws .of the country to the evolution of ideas. A special effort is made to ensure a home to the children of unmarried mothers and to place them on an equal footing with other children in the field of social security,, 299® In the Letherlands public opinion used to be negative towards the phenomenon of the unmarried mother, but after the last World War a definite change has been noted in this attitude. Inquiries show this. Further, amendments to the legislation relating to children b o m in and out of wedlock (which came into force in January 1970) have greatly improved the situation of the latter. However, some differences still exist. The child of the unmarried minor mother is registered with the Council for the Protection of the Child. Socially, however, the child of the "unmarried mother" is no «big problem. The demand for adoptive, children is greater than the number of children of unmarried mothers so that these children are easily given a home. The dcgreè of public 1 discrimination against single parents has, presumably, something to do with the value attached to the two parent family. It should, however, be added that ©wing to the fact that there is a consciousness of such problems, discrimination is decreasing. 300, In Lorway, although a social condemnation of unmarried mothers is out of the question, the attitude varies according to the social milieu and the age (younger people are more liberal in .their views than older people). This-does not mean that the condition of the unmarried mother is considered desirable and the majority of women do their utmost to avoid it, for instance, through hasty marriages. In any case it is.difficult to escape the statutory obligations for a child born out of wedlock, which are mainly of a financial'nature for the father whilst the mother, who in most cases wants to take care of her child must take the responsibility for the upbringing of the child single-handed. 301,. In the United Kingdom society’s attitude towards divorced and separated women has greatly improved in the last fifty years. This is largely due to a much greater acceptance of equality of sexes and the increasingly high percentage of women who have become financially independent through their professional activities. In this connection, a remarkable change in the attitude of employers is noted, partly due to the general changes in the attitude of society and partly to the shortage of women workers since the last war. * o I 0 0 302,■ In most European countries in the last few yéars the interest in such problems as' sex education, problems of the c«uple, divorce and maternity outside marriage has been steadily increasing, on the part of public opinion as well as teachers, public welfare organisations and politicians. This trend is evidenced by the emphasis given to such subjects through mass communication•media, congresses, lectures, discussions, draft bills submitted to national parliaments. This, of course, greatly contributes to a better understanding of the status and problems of single parents by a larger and larger sector of the population. 303.' As a rule it could be said that, especially in large cities and in industrialised areas, single parents' with' dependent children are nowadays well accepted by the community in practically all countries. If discrimination exists, this is rather due to other factors, for instance, single parents engaged in a profession are subjected to a particularly heavy strain and therefore are in need of special assistance of all kinds; moreover, they normally wish to devote most of their spare time te their children, thus risking the increase 'even more of their social isolation. 3P4» Prom a psychological point of view, it should be noted A that in a society where the two parent family is considered, as the best environment for the- development of the child, any disturbance in this «rder is considered undesirable. As far as unmarried mothers are concerned serious difficulties, not ’ only of a financial nature, arise when the birth of the child interrupts or disturbs the education and professional develop ment of a woman of a usually young age. To this should be added the fear for the future which unmarried women expecting a child frequently experience. A recent survey conducted in the lederai Republic of Germany indicated that more than half of the unmarried mothers would have interrupted their pregnancy’had it not been for financial hindrances, ignorance and fear of the. consequences. It is also among unmarried mothers that a relatively higher rate of premature and still births is found. * 305. Prora a socio-economic point of view, a certain inequality may also come from the fact that in a society largely composed of married couples with divided responsibiliti one partner (generally the father) providing for the financial needs of the family and the other responsible for household and child care, in the case of single parents all these burdens fall on the shoulders of one person. In such instances, the mother is generally more affected, as she usually has fewer professional qualifications than a ran. 306» In general, it can, however, be noted that in all countries social policies and social welfare schemes are based on the principle of equality of treatment. At the most, it could be said that the various measures relating, for instance, to employment, housing and education do not, or do not sufficiently, take into consideration the peculiar needs of single parents with dependent children, 307 o Ho?fôver, as should appear from the previous chapters of this heport, many countries are aware of the existence of this category of citizens and have sot up numerous provisions on their behalf. Other improvements in this connection are at present under examination in several countries, particularly in the field of social security insurance for women and in connection with amendment of legislation on divorce and the material effects of divorce, reform of legislation relating to marriage and succession'rights of children born out of wedlock, 3O80 As for employment, no discrimination seems to exist from the point of view of laws and social regulations. If a difference exists, this is due to individual attitudes which escape any possibility of intervention on the part of authorities, lor example, it is true that in general an employer cannot dismiss an employee only because she is pregnant without being married; but no one can prevent an employer from not hiring an unmarried mother. However, employers tend to become more and more concerned exclusively with their employees' efficiency and are not interested in their private lives, 309» The community’s attitude towards children of single parents, and particularly children born out of wedlock, is generally benevolent. It is normally felt that a child should not bear the consequences of its parents' actions. Therefore, if it is true that children of single parents may be confronted by various problems vis-a-vis society, this may be partly due to their personal reaction to their particular situation rather than to a hostile attitude on the part of the community. This benevolent attitude is favoured by legislation in most European countries: either by establishing equality of treatment for children born in and out of wedlock or by a trend towards bettering the situation of the latter. 310-., The phenomenon of the one parent family seems to be bound to develops as divorces and separations are increasing' almost everywhere. This is-the reason why, in almost all countries covered by this Report, there exist provisions which take into account the particular situation of these persons and their children and which aim at bettering their situation. Such provisions are generally approved by the population as a 'whole, However in certain countries it is believed that certain types of aid hoc measures on behalf of single parents - for instance relating to housing - would involve the risk of freezing their situation, labelling them and confining them to a definite status, thus necessarily bringing about social segregation of and discrimination against these persona and their children. 311. The solutions generally proposed envisage more' effective action to make public opinion aware of the often difficult situation of single parents with dependent children in order to overcome certain difficulties and of a certain degree of hostility which sometimes still exist towards this group of persons or towards some of these persons. A more flexible general social policy as well as the development of polyvalent social services capable of fully satisfying the manifold needs of all categories of citizens, including those of single parents with dependent children, are also envisaged. It is however acknowledged that these measures of a general nature are not alone sufficient to definitely solve the situation of this latter category of persons. Is it has been seen, they have many varying difficulties and problems; it would therefore be useful to summarise below the most important among them, (B) SUMMARY OP THE MAIN PROBLEMS 312o The study of this Report leads to the conclusion that one of the main problems affecting the category of single parents with dependent children seems mostly to be of an economic nature and is characterised by the often low income of these persons; this, of course, entails negative effects also in' connection with other subjects dealt with in this Report as, for instance, housing, children and holiday possibilities. It is true that, if the per capita income is taken into consideration remarkable differences exist between widowers (widows), divorced and single persons; however, the fact remains that, as a general rule, economic resources, of single parents are inferior to those of two parent families. The problem, on the other hand, seems to be particularly serious for women, especially during the period immediately following the death of the spouse, the divorce or the separation. This is the reason why certain measures of a social nature have been taken in some countries in order to ease the situation of these persons, especially during such periods. 315. As far as measures taken in order to improve the economic situation of single parents with children in charge are concerned, two systems can generally he recognised: the first one consists in tax facilities, the latter in the granting of special allowances often "based on means tests. 314. In the field of social security it is only in those countries where social security systems protect automatically all nationals and/or residents, cover the most important branches and provide benefits of a sufficiently high level that no serious problems of a general nature seem to arise at first ( sight. In the other instances it seems that, if social security systems do not give single parents with dependent children guarantees which may be considered entirely sufficient in all respects, the reasons for this situation are not to be found as much in the particular situation of these persons as rather in certain gaps in the legislation, the effects of which may also apply to all insured persons, beneficiaries or others concerned. In any event, it can be observed that in the majority of the States covered by this Report the granting of social security benefits is generally dependent on gainful employment and that they are automatically extended from the insured person to his/her dependents. However, in this connection it should be noted that in most countries the divorced woman is excluded from her husband1s benefits and therefore is either left without protection or compelled to start an insurance on her own, often at a high cost in view of her generally rather advanced age. Always in connection with social security, it should be pointed oi'.t that the advisability of ensuring the continuation of insurance coverage during the periods when working women, including single mothers, have to abstain from work to devote themselves to the care of their children, as well as the advisability of taking into account th'se periods for the granting of additional benefits is presently under consideration in some countries. • 315« As for maintenance allowances it must be observed that the payment of alimony on the part of the liable parent rather frequently either dees not take place or is not sufficient • to ensure a decent standard of living to the other parent and/or the child. In such instances, social welfare measures can be taken. Several countries have even set up a system of advances paid out of public funds. 316. In almost all countries covered by this Report it has been noted that housing accommodation is closely related to the economic situation in particular with regard to the level of income, and that therefore single parents with dependent children (and notably women) who normally find themselves in the lower income brackets, tend to be in a less favourable position as far as housing standards are concerned. However, an effort has been made in several countries in order to provide single parents with dwellings located in residential ./. - io: areas where all sorts of facilities are easily available. Further, all measures taken in the field of housing on behalf of low-income persons certainly benefit in the same way single parents with dependent children who, as it has been seen, are often to be found among this category. In this connection it can, however be noted that the measures taken or envisaged with a view to improving the general economic situation of single parents with dependent children might indirectly contribute to bettering the housing conditions of such parents, Moreover, in several countries a special effort is made to improve general services such as, for instance, child minding, laundry and shopping facilities in residential areas, all of which should be particularly helpful to single parents with dependent children, who are especially affected by the problem of child care and lack of time. 317. In practically all the countries covered by this Report a sorely felt need is that of adequate child attendance facilities of many types (for long periods of time, for the whole day or just for a few hours) both before and during school age, for which in most countries the demand exceeds the supply. This, of course, affects all categories of families. But especially as far as single parents with dependent children are concerned, the development of these services which seems to be underway in all the countries concerned will undoubtedly help to improve their chances of employment and facilitate their social life, thus avoiding the danger of isolation, which is particularly great for this category of persons. 3181 Low income is very often a matter of professional qualification which seems to be particularly lacking among women. In fact, as noted before, unmarried mothers are often very young and therefore did not have the time to complete their education, while divorced, separated and widowed women are generally relatively older and they were educated in an age in which professional training among women was less developed than at present. Therefore most women in the above-mentioned categories, because of their lack of professional qualifications and/or their long absence from any sort of employment, find it particularly difficult to re-enter the labour market. Special courses of training and retraining, particularly arranged to meet the'specific needs of these women could therefore be very useful. 319. It should be noted that in particular problems of child attendance and work opportunities (for men and women alike) are largely due to the traditional division of tasks between men- and women, according to which quite often men are exclusively concerned with their profession while women' limit their activities to housekeeping and child care. In • this connection it could, however, be noted that some countries have started revising curricula, entrance requirements, etc. for schools and other institutions, in order to give boys and girls the same preparation for both. household work and .professional tasks. 320. vVith respect to the labour market itself, it should he pointed out that in most countries the attention of employers is drawn to the advisability of arranging, where necessary, working hours with sufficient flexibility to allow workers with families sufficient time to look after their children and to comply with other family obligations without .jeopardizing their professional chances. It should also be stressed that the role which social workers can play by encouraging single women to attend intensive vocational training courses which would wake it easier for them to enter the labour market. 321. The importance of widespread and readily available information on marriage and child problems as well as family planning, including the use of methods of birth control presently acceptable on a national scale is generally recognised. In this connection, however, it should be noted that all sorts of appropriate publicity is extremely valuable especially for single parents, as they often singly do not know that such services exist and that they are equally available to them. 322» The same would seem to apply to all such facilities which are connected with a pleasant and useful as well as inexpensive utilization of leisure time and holiday periods. In fact, single parents quite often ignore that they are also entitled to benefit from such arrangements as well as two parent families. Thus, in this connection it might perhaps be possible to encourage managers of holiday houses to admit single parents in the same way and on a perfectly equal footing with two- parent families. 323» The psychological impact of living in one parent families, especially for children of school ave, is still debated and views on this subject differ greatly from country to country. However, according to widespread opinion, most of the difficulties such children may encounter are not particularly originated by the fact of living with only one parent, but rather by other general factors, such as, for instance, the cultural background of the family, difficulties between parents, housing problems, which are very often originated by an unfavourable economic situation. It is, however, true that, although such difficulties are not peculiar to children of single parents, inasmuch as single parents tend to have a low income, their children are more likely to be affected by such problems than children belonging to a two parent family. On the other hand, such problems often arise in connection with children who live with only one parent in homes or other institutions especially intended for single parents. /. 324. It is evident, from the charts included in this Report, that the present statistics are incomplete. Public authorities of the different’ countries should therefore do their best to have these statistics improved and completed. This is particularly necessary in order to permit further useful research on the situation of single parents with dependent children and to give a better picture of their living conditions, which is a prerequisite • for any measure governments may be willing to take on behalf of such parents and their children. In this connection it should be pointed out that it is of great importance to undertake long-term empirical social research on possible effects of living with,only one parent on children vis-à-vis personality development, social adaptation and possibilities of qualified . education and .professions. Research should also be undertaken to explain why infant mortality is higher among children b o m out of wedlock than among children born in wedlock. All such research would be useful material for any measure' governments may be willing to take on behalf of such parents and their children. 325. finally, it must be emphasised that all the problems surveyed in these .Conclusions concern not only those parents who are living alone with dependent children as a consequence of divorce, separation,' death' of the spouse or no marriage, but also to all those parents (and their children) who find themselves in the same situation for any other reason, such as, for instance, migration, long-term hospitalisation, imprisonment. STATISTICS ä 1* •- Estimate of the number and proportion of single parents with dependent children» ! Country [ Defi- ’ Total Single Per ! * ni- I families parents cen ! ‘ tion with with tage I dependent dependent ! 1 * children children * • • : Austria (1969) : (l) : 1,739,800 127,400 7.3 ; Belgium (1961) ; (2) ; 1,586,5 32 217,034 15,5 : Denmark : (3) : 700,000 75,000 over 1 • » X • • « *F.R. of Germany ° : 388,000 :(1969)o 0 : (4) :« 7,286,000 5.3 I France (1968) ; (5) ! 439,340 7 » 0 * » : Italy (1961) ; (7) : 9,495,107 1,157,591 : 12.2 » 0 I Luxembourg (1966) * (?) (2,174) (6) D : Netherlands (i960): (7) : 2,000;000 199,255 10 » 0 0 :Norway (1968) : (5) : 327,000 41,250 12.6 0 0 a O 4 0 ‘Sweden (1965) Ì (8) ! 109,963 9.9 0 « o : United Kingdom : (9) : 6,900,000 590,000 : 8.6 :(1968) ; (1) Children under .15 years of age and every single person between 15 and 27 years of age not earning a living. (2) Unmarried children. 13) Children under 18 years. (4) Children under 15 years. (5) Children under 16 years» (6) This figure refers to heads of households with parents and unmarried children. (7) Children living with their parents. (8) Children for which parents are daily responsible and who are unable to support themselves (except illness or handicap). (9) Children below 15, or up to 16, if unable to work because of prolonged illness or disability or up to 19 while undergoing full-time education or apprentice training (subject to an earnings limit). Age distribution for mothers at the birth of the first child s in w e dlock ses out of wedlock sesse in and out of wedlock CO-d- J A O - d - A A O - A - A N a) ON -P A AJ I I I I I I I I I I A ON A Al A A NO OvP AlCO O LA HA-NO ON vO LA ». CACO (A IACO O - ^ - ^ - O O A--d- A - AJ - A A--d- O A O ON Al A d AJO H J-- Al OJ-d- O A-NO A A O O Al AlrH rHA AJ ON d ON ONO O d A co e tuI I T3I TS O r - CO ON LA co VO H CO -d- A A o o o o o o o o o o o o (M H IALALA A - < —I A - - d - O N O -d- rH O r H - d " A- A •rH 60 *3 60 •rH -P rH rH -P N CÖ t-d CÖ N a a & n a O 3 n A O A A A d O - A O N N O H d - ON CACO O O -d N A A Add H r A - A d d A H N O H O A COrHA A rH CO O -P NO -P Pr ONPr CO rH (ANO OJO NO A Al LAAJ ON VO ON A C O NO O ON C VOA CO rHA- rH A O OO Or AOOAJ O CO rH O AJA H OA ANO ON A- A A NO NO ON rl d O'A-d NO d - A ' O A ON ON AJ ON A lAH Al A AJ AJ A-COA A CO Od A o o A d A-A-CO A-A A O O A C O A I I I I I I I I -A-CO "ONO A- j rH o o o o o c x - d - C O A - d * A J OA CO COA -d-H NO 00 rHA- A A- CO rH NO NO A- H O LAOO NO ON A- A on AJ ON-d- ON A O AJ A H 0O rH 00 o -ANOA-d-A- O N A o o o o o o o ArH A A-CO NO rH h HLA H a L A L A A J O N A l V OH d CO O 0O X ON (0 NO H r - A 0 N 0 N Al H A O AlA CNIA NO CO CO d- N iH 3 H Li ON -H 1-3 (-*H H -P •P O N0 NO4- H LA rANO NO NO AJ X •» O O 3 CÖ •» O X O Q) f\j A-CO CQ. A-CO -LA f\j N LA H rlON A- r O I I I I I I I AN ANO O -d- N A H N A d I A d H A I d H S 3 P O --O H A A-d- O AlH A A-CO A AA-d-H A O A - A - O ' H A J AJ d O' A ONA H A--d-AJA O N rH AJ O NO NO 0 bo a> n e on o nv E ) r—.) OOLACO O I Al h -d- Al OA A d NO i COA r o o o r-H o AJ o - >H A o o A - A o o o o o d A-d- ON Al A- O N A AJ ON-d- NO A- A CO rHAJ O ON NO O ACOtO H O O t O C A O x> a) A- NAON AIA no A o o A I Single fathers living with dependent children (as defined in Chart 1) • •• •• ■ to pH 0 o 0 (0 to 00 E 0 1 - 4 0 I I • • • •• •• •• »• E o rH b O Pb 44 44 P o p -P o • - 0 O 0 0 P 0 O cti Ö Ö P - ' - ' O ( ‘H 0 H O * t f I Single mothers with dependent children (as defined in Chart 1) ft ■ cd •CO Ö 0 CO o : t . o ‘E ' CÖ o ft rH P P -r-3 0 - Ph 1 ' O P 2 o Ö P P ' to aS ÎH “h O *H 0 ö ä PM O . cd cd -H P ,—! O 'P tO 0 c d ( —1 '■ , h h 1 ■ ' ">■ : O P Pi P -rH '—v . V ■Q •H P T P 43 =■ T p 43 ■H P P o CD cd P aS cd P CQ cd 0) o S cd id 0 J h faO 3 j ■ , ' ' H sì [ 1 .o ;ft“ •A '^ rH VO ^ s—' ' ft ON ON o H ft •H U 3 CO n 3 . , , CO co co .rH icvi • cO CO VO VO, ■el - ft, 4 r- OH of OJ OH « rH OH O 4 ca i—1 CN OJ *H i H rH 1 1—1 1—1 — —V —i ta 5 ■ g a> * " «* «. r ! «• ■ P) ■LP, .OH ■o CO -H- VO sr r—s OH FM o O OH IA KH O o o o o Ö o o ft Ö 1 1—1 o O rH M P —I cd !>S O cd P £ « o p. «• ** c'W , ■ft VO CO VO ’ ON A ft o 1 ft ft H VÎ O H cd 0 >, VO CO ft- VO ' VO . CO >—s Vs_X A- O CN £>- ft ' ft ON A O ft ft A o 1—1 <—1 FA’ ft s 2 X 0 o w n VO O O ft ON o A O- A rH iH p ft ft r0 o P cd Ö 0 CO ; 1 . ■o ■ • »—I ft“ CO VO vo •1—I VO A .— 02 A A o ON IA NH I**"» A i OH O CM A IA 1—1 T< 1—1 i OH rH 1 —! 1 — —i CD S s> 0 3 V, r> cy *•» ) OO -d" co CO VO /■—V O o fA o o o o o o o O ft o o o CH. LA o o o o o o ft OH IA ,—i 1—! •H •rH T iH 1—1 P Ö o S Ö O to «* 3 „ T* VO ^^ CO, ft" 1 av — P rH rH rH A ON^. CA r~\S~ VO 0 vO ft* f5”* ON ON H o [>- A 1 w' 'w Ctf *H > p P 0 O P CO o cd P o cd to CD S P h j P -H Cd p - -P T5 —I Ö CD- p Ü CÖ P 0 CO 0 h -p P Pd 0 0 0 cd p CO VO vO O •a; Cv •H OJ CM Kv -p 3 to CD n nh vo VO O . VO m ON ON rA LA •H rH I—I 3 60 CD o LA o o Q O X Ö a cd f-i o -3" pf~ CO o O VO VO o o o o K ON o O o O CM LA O O ON ON ON ON OJ O « o LA I—I cm a cd O 0> u Ö j e co co - VO VO ON C"- IA 4 o h Ö cd o 0) fH - ! I ! vo vo vo IA rH Ml O rH S 3 X o S 3 60 O h n 11 N vo o O Î25 OJ O- LA O fO rP rH Cv O -P __ iH 0 P CD p 0 co ✓ s O Î CO vo vo '—^ o o 0 LA o & 1 — cd P ui: > > «f. v i i i 1 l 1 . ì 1 i i a«. < « VO vo ^ V—- IA tA ON LA r~ CM r-H "3 î— • -- _ O 3 O • ' s ! ! 1 j [ o 'Md OO O rs O IA, c ^—■ O IA IA O'. LA o O o o o O ON o o rH to rH •rH ,H •r' ■O T3 4-> o Ö 60 a ö CD , c* - 't ! LA H H I LA ! j > i **'1 Pi ÎH o ‘■W* VO VO <—s /—A LA cv s 0 C\JV iH Ov rH KV' KV -p rH rH cd o. ^ e» o* : * cn f+-> h •H 'H •H P *P •H 'Ö rü -p •P P 0 O CQ cd P cd p cd CQ o p P o P cd P o p o >s s to p o o cn o cd CQ 0 0 0 o 1 h c •H CQ Td -P « rH 3 T > *H O •H — EH -P OJ •H P -P rP P -P cd 0 cd p ö »>> P ö P cd Ö P 0 Ö >> O 0 60 cd P O 0 0 P 0 CQ p 0 0 60 P » h h ^ -P -/ s nH rH Pt -P *H rP EH -p KV •H •H rH T5 rP Pi 5 X -P cd p Ö CQ cd P 0 cd 0 C O P P 0 CO 0 •H O P P O P Ö ü P 0 0 CQ bO P 0 0 CQ O c h h 6. - Housing accommodation of single parents with dependent children (as defined in Chart 1) (a) (b) (c) With children, grand Alone with Under other Country parents -or other children arrangements relatives Austria (I969) 59,000 6 8 r k O O (1) Belgium (1961) 160,281 20,3^6 36,^07 F.R. of Germany 365,000 163,000 36,000 (I96I) Netherlands 178,000 8,200 6,500 (I960) (1) Two sets of figures are available for 1969 ’■ o n e referring to a restricted definition of single parents with dependent children and giving a total of 95*300 with 35,000 parents under (a) and 60,300 under (c) and a broader one giving a total of 127,^+00 single parents, the breakdown of which is reported in this chart. 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