266 American Archivist / Vol. 51 / Summer 1988 Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021

Educating the Reference Archivist

JANICE E. RUTH

Abstract: Although much has been written recently on archival education and the role education plays in certification and professionalization, little of this literature addresses archival reference and the skills archivists need to carry out their reference responsibilities. This inattention to the training of reference archivists reflects the field's general indiffer- ence to the reference process relative to other archival concerns. This article, through a selected survey of the literature, suggests that only in the last decade have archivists begun to examine critically the reference process and to recognize the shortcomings of archival finding aids and reference personnel. Several archivists have suggested ways of improving archival finding aids, but few have addressed the issue of personnel expertise. This author recommends increased formal education and suggests potential topics of study.

the author: Janice E. Ruth recently was appointed staff editor of the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, where she had been a reference for the past four years. She holds undergraduate degrees in American studies and from Goucher College and will receive her M.L.S. andM.A. in American from the University of Maryland in December. An earlier draft of this article was written as a seminar paper for Frank G. Burke's course on manuscript administration at the University of Maryland. Educating the Reference Archivist 267

MUCH HAS BEEN WRITTEN recently about to communicate effectively all affect the archival education and the role education success of the reference exchange. The plays in certification and professionaliza- complexities and importance of the refer- tion.1 This recent literature, like previous ence process suggest the need for greater writings on archival training, however, pays study and evaluation of its main compo- Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 little attention to reference service. In 1983 nents. A course on archival reference in a Frank Burke noted that in the forty-five years graduate program in archival education of- since 1938, only twenty-two articles on ar- fers an opportunity for such study. Through chival education were published in the a careful review of the archival literature American Archivist.2 Burke might have on reference and description, relevant read- added that the predominant emphasis of ings from other disciplines, and hands-on these articles was on the training of archi- training, students would learn the essential vists in technical rather than theoretical as- theoretical dimensions of archival refer- pects of their work. The teaching of ence and acquire the skills needed to be- arrangement and description and the debate come better reference specialists. over the relative merits of history versus degrees have been the main Archival Reference Literature: Content concerns of articles written on archival ed- and Deficiencies ucation. Little, if any, attention has been For many years, archivists lamented the given to the teaching of archival reference lack of attention reference work received and the development of those skills most in professional literature. In 1963 Frank needed by archivists to assist users in a ref- Evans criticized his fellow archivists for erence situation. failing to analyze their methods of assisting Good reference service in an researchers, arguing that the literature, in- depends primarily upon accurate, compre- cluding the work of Theodore Schellen- hensive finding aids and knowledgeable, berg, "glosses over" the issues of reference helpful reference staff. Recently, archivists services by making generalized comments have recognized that finding aids and ref- concerning the archivist's responsibilities 3 erence practitioners do not always address and functions. In 1974 William Saffady the needs of patrons. Researchers' skills and found the situation unchanged when he sur- knowledge, archivists' assumptions about veyed 280 publications cited in the refer- researchers, and the ability of both parties ence section of a comprehensive archival

'Among the articles on archival education published in the last decade are Francis X. Blouin, Jr., "The Relevance of the Case Method to Archival Education and Training," American Archivist 41 (January 1978): 37-44; Virginia J. H. Cain, et al., "Archives by Degree: Personal Perspectives on Academic Preparation for the Archival Profession," 2 (Fall 1984): 39-60; Richard J. Cox, "Strategics for Archival Action in the 1980s and Beyond: Implementing the SAA Goals and Priorities Task Force Report," Provenance 3 (Fall 1985): 22-37; Frank B. Evans, "Postappointment Archival Training: A Proposed Solution for a Basic Problem," American Archivist 40 (January 1977): 57-74; Jacqueline Goggin, "That We Truly Deserve the Title of 'Profes- sion': The Training and Education of Archivists, 1930-1960," American Archivist 47 (Summer 1984): 243-54; Ruth W. Helmuth, "Education for American Archivists: A View from the Trenches," American Archivist 44 (Fall 1981): 295-303; Michael Holland, "Archival Preservation: Continuing Education for the Working Archi- vist," Provenance 3 (Spring 1985): 40-57; Lawrence J. McCrank, "Prospects for Integrating Historical and Information Studies in Archival Education," American Archivist 42 (October 1979): 443-55; Nancy E. Peace and Nancy Fisher Chudacoff, "Archivists and : A Common Mission, A Common Education," Amer- ican Archivist 42 (October 1979): 456-62; and Frederick J. Stielow, "Continuing Education and Information Management: Or, the Monk's Dilemma," Provenance 3 (Spring 1985): 13-22. See also Planning for the Archival Profession: A Report of the SAA Task Force on Goals and Priorities (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1986) for a discussion of proposed educational standards and the role of education in promoting professional goals. 2Frank G. Burke, "Archival Cooperation," American Archivist 46 (Summer 1983): 302. 3Frank B. Evans, "The State Archivist and the Academic Scholar: 'Stable Companionship,' " American Archivist 26 (July 1963): 319-20. 268 American Archivist / Summer 1988

bibliography. He concluded that archivists with this literature and the practical guide- had "generally neglected conventional as- lines it contains. Its primary benefit has been pects of reference service in favor of top- the establishment of standardized practices ics ... only tangentially related to reference designed to resolve the conflicts between service as librarians know it," and sug- researchers' access needs and archivists' gested that the neglect might be because preservation concerns. The SAA's manual Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 archivists viewed records administration, on reference and its statements on access not research assistance, as their primary re- and reproduction reflect the standardization 4 sponsibility. that the literature has promoted.8 But to be More recently, George Chalou and Lu- effective reference archivists, students must cille Whalen expressed continued concern consider not just procedural questions, but about this lack of scholarly articles on ref- also the more unique and theoretical as- erence. Chalou suggested that archivists pects of archival reference work, especially were so busy serving their users that they the interaction between archivists and re- "seldom have the opportunity to reflect on searchers and the ways in which archivists the nature of reference service."5 Whalen convey information to researchers via find- shared Chalou's belief that archivists rec- ing aids. Fortunately, in the last five years, ognize the importance of reference activi- archivists have shown increased interest in ties, citing the Society of American these topics, and a growing literature base Archivists (SAA) reference manual as an is available for the archival student. A re- 6 indication of the field's interest, but la- view of this literature indicates the primary mented the absence of a body of literature topics to be covered in a course on archival on the researcher-archivist relationship and, reference. in particular, on archivists' attitudes toward 7 researchers. Interaction Between Archivists and As Evans, Saffady, Chalou, and Whalen Researchers correctly noted, the literature on reference Several authors, noting the differences service is scant compared with that written between conducting research in an archives on other archival topics, such as appraisal, and in a public or academic library, have arrangement, description, acquisition, and argued that the reference archivist is more preservation. Moreover, much of it pri- crucial to the success of the research process marily relates to questions of security, pho- than is the librarian. Because archival rec- toduplication, copyright, and other ords are "non-browsable and non-circulat- "tangentially-related" reference concerns. ing," direct interaction between the archivist Nevertheless, a student should be familiar and the researcher is essential, especially

4William Saffady, "Reference Service to Researchers in Archives," RQ 14 (Winter 1974): 139. In surveying Frank B. Evans's The Administration of Modem Archives: A Select Bibliographic Guide (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service, 1970), Saffady found sixty-seven of the articles dealt with literary property rights; fifty-nine with problems of access and confidentiality; thirty-six with issues of estrays, thefts, and replevin; and thirty with the examination of suspected documents. 5George Chalou, "Reference," in A Modern Archives Reader: Basic Readings on Archival Theory and Prac- tice, ed. Maygene F. Daniels and Timothy Walch (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service, 1984), 257. 6Sue E. Holbert, Archives & Manuscripts: Reference & Access (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1977). 7Lucille Whalen, "The Reference Process in Archives: An Introduction," in Reference Services in Archives, ed. Lucille Whalen (New York: Haworth Press, 1986), 3-4. "Society of American Archivists Committee on Reference, Access, and Photoduplication, "Standards for Access to Research Materials in Archival and Manuscripts Repositories," American Archivist 37 (January 1974): 153-54; and Society of American Archivists, "Statement on the Reproduction of Manuscripts and Archives for Reference Use," American Archivist 39 (July 1976): 411. Educating the Reference Archivist 269

when catalogs provide inadequate access to on the interview process. Pugh challenged the repository's holdings.9 In the absence colleagues to examine "the myth of the im- of sound finding aids, reference archivists mortal, omniscient, indispensable refer- often find they are the only link between ence archivist," asserting that "current the subject content of a and the practice relies too heavily on the subject provenance-based arrangement of the rec- knowledge and memory of the individual Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 ords.10 Historian Philip Jordan concurs that archivist, and is too dependent on the per- "if there is a meeting of minds [between sonalities of the researcher and archi- researcher and archivist], finding aids, im- vist."14 She called upon archivists to portant as they are, assume secondary evaluate and strengthen the guides to col- value."11 The archivist becomes the "su- lections and recommended the creation of perarchivist," a reference specialist who cumulative indexes to these guides. Al- knows something about the entire collec- though no would replace the tion of materials and who can refer the re- reference staff, Pugh suggested that better searcher directly to the most pertinent and more comprehensive indexes would lead records or to another staff member with more to better and more consistent reference ser- in-depth knowledge of the patron's sub- vice that was not so dependent upon the ject.12 personalities and competencies of individ- ual staff members. Recently, archival writers have begun to evaluate more carefully archivists' relation- Many of the points raised by Pugh have ships with researchers and the components been addressed by others. For example, of a successful interview process. Articles Oetting also was skeptical about the om- by Mary Jo Pugh, Edward Oetting, Wil- niscience of reference archivists, especially liam Joyce, Phebe Jacobsen, and Elsie since reference staff often are new to an Freeman indicate the growing concern for institution. He maintained that it takes an archival reference theory and practice.13 archivist years to "know" a repository's These archivists address issues overlooked collections, and that most archivists never in earlier writings and provide the archival achieve the knowledge that archival refer- student with a theoretical framework for ence theory presumes they possess. Con- evaluating reference service. sequently, Oetting echoed Pugh's advice that Raising questions about archival ar- archivists must improve their reference tools rangement, description, and access, Pugh in order to enhance the reference staff's argued that archival reference theory is ability to provide consistent and knowl- predicated on several unrealistic assump- edgeable assistance. tions: not only do archivists assume too The interaction between archivist and re- much about their users' capabilities, but they searcher generally has been limited to the also overrate the knowledge of the refer- initial reference interview, described by one ence archivist, placing too much emphasis archivist as the "linchpin to good reference

'Edward C. Oetting, "Wearing Someone Else's Shoes: Reference in an Established ," in Reference Services in Archives, 23-25. '"Hugh A. Taylor, Archival Sen'ices and the Concept of the User: A RAMP Study (Paris: Unesco, 1984), 33. "Philip D. Jordan, "The Scholar and the Archivist," American Archivist 31 (January 1968): 63. l2Frank G. Burke, "The Impact of the Specialist on Archives," College and Research Libraries 33 (July 1972): 313-14. "Mary Jo Pugh, "The Illusion of Omniscience: Subject Access and the Reference Archivist," American Archivist 45 (Winter 1982): 33-44; Oetting, "Wearing Someone Else's Shoes," 23-26; William L. Joyce, "Archivists and Research Use," American Archivist 47 (Spring 1984): 124—33; Phebe R. Jacobsen, " 'The World Turned Upside Down': Reference Priorities and the State Archives," American Archivist 44 (Fall 1981): 341-45; and Elsie T. Freeman, "In the Eye of the Beholder: Archives Administration from the User's Point of View," American Archivist 47 (Spring 1984): 111-23. 14Pugh, "Illusion of Omniscience," 38. 270 American Archivist / Summer 1988

service."15 Joyce, however, observed that, not have a clear sense of who researchers instead of the cooperative, informative ref- are and how they approach records, these erence interview depicted in the earlier writers have recommended conducting more writings of other archivists, the interview user studies. According to Joyce, archivists process often reflects an "adversary rela- must examine whether they "understand tionship" between archivist and re- sufficiently the research questions and ac- Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 searcher.16 Although Joyce particularly cess issues that animate" different types of 17 stressed archivists' strained relationships researchers. They also must analyze re- with professional historians, Jacobsen and searchers' training and skill in conducting Freeman have noted archivists' difficulties primary research. with genealogists, avocationists, and non- The need for archival user studies re- traditional scholars. Jacobsen, concerned mains a continued concern of archivists, as mainly with the denigrating manner in which documented by a 1986 issue of the Mid- archivists have treated amateur historians western Archivist devoted to the topic.18 In and genealogists, argued that archivists must addition, the final report of SAA's Task recognize that genealogists constitute the Force on Goals and Priorities called for both largest body of archival users and are among formal and informal studies to "evaluate the staunchest supporters of archival fund- past and present uses for archival rec- 19 ing. Likewise, Freeman argued that be- ords." Likewise, Paul Conway con- cause archivists like reference work, they cluded that archivists recognize the assume they are oriented to researchers. She importance of user studies, but nonetheless observed that this is a misconception and are unsure about how best to design and that archivists have an adversary relation- implement them. He proposed an analytical ship with genealogists and other avocation- framework allowing archivists to evaluate, ists who comprise one of their largest at five different stages in the reference constituencies. As Freeman noted, such process, the "quality" or effectiveness of misconceptions alienate archivists from re- service, the "integrity" or protection of ar- searchers. chival materials, and the "value" or ben- efits of . As Conway The Need for User Surveys suggested, his framework has the potential As Pugh, Joyce, Jacobsen, and Freeman of permitting archivists to "compare and have suggested, archivists serve increasing assess the results of individual studies be- cause it is "not rooted in specific institu- numbers of nontraditional scholars as well 20 as scholars involved in nontraditional areas tional procedures." Also, since it does of inquiry, such as social history and wom- not rely on expensive computer analyses en's history. Believing that archivists do and may be incorporated into existing rec-

15Glen A. Gildemeister, "Reference and Research in Regional History Centers," in Reference Services in Archives, 190. 16Compare, for example, the descriptions of the archivist-researcher relationship in Philip C. Brooks, Research in Archives: The Use of Unpublished Primary Sources (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 35, and Joyce, "Archivists and Research Use," 131. "Joyce, "Archivists and Research Use," 125. 18Four articles in Midwestern Archivist 11, no. 1 (1986) concern user studies: William J. Maher, "The Use of User Studies," 15-26; Roy C. Turnbaugh, "Archival Mission and User Studies," 27-33; Paul Conway, "Research in Presidential Libraries: A User Survey," 35-56; and Jacqueline Goggin, "The Indirect Approach: A Study of Scholarly Users of Black and Women's Organizational Records in the Library of Congress Manuscript Division," 57-67. ^Planning for the Archival Profession: A Report of the SAA Task Force on Goals and Priorities (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1986). 20Paul Conway, "Facts and Frameworks: An Approach to Studying the Users of Archives," American Ar- chivist 49 (Fall 1986): 394. Educating the Reference Archivist 271

ord-keeping practices, Conway's proposal conducting archival research has concerned should find a receptive audience. As the archivists for some time. For example, in model is put to use, however, it should 1956 Philip Brooks advocated better train- undergo as stringent an evaluation as the ing of graduate history students and more reference process it monitors. Archival ref- writing on research methods.23 Several years erence students could be party to this cri- later, Meyer Fishbein noted that historians Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 tique, contributing to the discussion lessons failed to take advantage of the information they learn from the voluminous library lit- in archival collections due to their "unfa- erature on the subject. Conway recognized miliarity" with archival principles. "The this potential contribution of archival stu- main deterrent to the use of archives," dents, and echoed Freeman's recommen- Fishbein wrote, "remains the lack of train- 24 dation that archival education include ing in their effective use." He questioned training in survey techniques. An archival the research skills of senior scholars and, reference course would be an excellent therefore, their ability to train their stu- forum for evaluating the methodology and dents. Fishbein's observations were con- implementation of user studies. firmed by Walter Rundell's study in the late 1960s, which surveyed the training in Educating the Researcher historical methods provided in graduate history programs. Rundell found many stu- Freeman's appeal for more user studies dents, as well as professors, unfamiliar with stemmed partly from her belief that archi- archival facilities and inexperienced in the vists assumed too much about their users' use of primary sources.25 This situation has capabilities and prior research training. Cit- not changed in the last twenty years. Re- ing studies by Margaret Stieg and Michael cent articles by Frank Zabrosky, Elizabeth Stevens, Freeman argued that historians— Stewart, and Philip Mason reflect archi- presumably the best trained of all archival vists' continued impression that researchers users—are in fact unfamiliar with many ar- lack training in basic research methods. chival finding aids and abstracting services These authors complain that researchers fail and do not consult primary sources as fre- 21 to write prior to a visit to determine the quently as was believed. Nancy Sahli, in availability of records and that they often a more limited study, also found that re- arrive without having done any preliminary searchers' selection of ma- research.26 terials was based not on "a systematic search of the available national finding aids," but If the situation is no better than it was on predecessors' footnotes, suggestions of when Brooks wrote in 1956, then reference 22 colleagues, and intuition. archivists must be trained to provide in- The lack of training and preparation for struction in basic research methods. Yet as

21Freeman, "Eye of the Beholder," 114-15. She cites Margaret F. Stieg, "The Information Needs of His- torians," College and Research Libraries 42 (November 1981): 551, and Michael E. Stevens, "The Historian and Archival Finding Aids," Georgia Archive 5 (Winter 1977): 68. 22Nancy Sahli, "National Information Systems and Strategies for Research Use," Midwestern Archivist 9, no. 1 (1984): 5-13. 23Philip C. Brooks, "The Historian's Stake in Federal Records," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43 (September 1956): 273-74. 24Meyer H. Fishbein, "Archival Training for Historians," American Historical Association Newsletter 5 (December 1966): 2. For a similar discussion, see Burke, "Impact of the Specialist," 313. 25Walter Rundell, Jr., In Pursuit of American History: Research and Training in the United Stales (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 1-36. 26Frank A. Zabrosky, "Researching the Past: An Archivist's Perspective," in Reference Services in Archives, 89-103; Elizabeth C. Stewart, "Archival Reference at a Technical University," in Reference Services in Ar- chives, 53-61; and Philip P. Mason, "Challenge of Contemporary Records: Reference Service in a Labor and Urban Archives," in Reference Services in Archives," 113-27. 272 American Archivist / Summer 1988

Saffady noted, "archivists have not always dressing those needs. As the individuals undertaken this educative task will- working most closely with the researcher, ingly."27 Some have thought it was the re- reference archivists need to understand the sponsibility of the universities to train their impact of descriptive retrieval systems on students. As Pugh, Freeman, Jacobsen, archival research. Since they will assist re- Joyce, and others have observed, however, searchers using the proposed automated Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 the majority of archival users are not grad- systems, reference archivists should be ac- uate students and professional historians, tively involved in their design, to ensure but are government and corporate officials, the representation of researchers' demands, genealogists, lawyers, playwrights, biog- especially those previously neglected needs raphers, and amateur historians, whose of genealogists and nontraditional scholars. training and work do not prepare them for A reference course that includes readings archival research. Consequently, if archi- on the topic will prepare reference archi- vists take seriously their responsibility to vists for a role in planning and implement- assist researchers, they must be willing to ing automated retrieval systems. become educators. This entails an evalua- Such readings should include a thorough tion of the training archivists receive and consideration of the issues involved in of the types of reference tools and skills provenance versus subject access. Ques- necessary for conveying information to ar- tioning the usefulness of existing manual chival users. retrieval systems, Richard Lytle, in an 1980 article, identified two traditional methods Access Tools and the Archival of providing subject access: the provenance Literature on Description (P) method and the content-indexing (CI) Although the literature on archival find- method. In the P method, the researcher ing aids and other descriptive tools tradi- links subject queries with provenance in- tionally has been considered part of formation. In the CI method, the researcher discussions of arrangement and descrip- attempts to match subject queries with the tion, students also should be aware of its subject terms found in an index or card cat- reference implications. The relationship alog. In analyzing the results of a 1978 test between reference and descriptive prac- study, Lytle concluded that both methods tices, especially concerning the relative were inadequate and inconsistent for sub- merits of subject versus provenance access, ject retrieval and proposed that a better de- recently has captured archivists' attention. scriptive system would combine the Spurred in part by the desire to tap the in- complementary strengths of the two meth- 28 dexing power of computers, archivists have ods. begun to evaluate critically the subject ac- In a more recent piece coauthored with cess afforded to holdings and to seek ways David Bearman, Lytle shifted emphasis to increase the effectiveness and compre- away from a complementary system to one hensiveness of archival finding aids. The based exclusively on the principle of prove- ensuing discussion has reflected certain as- nance.29 Since provenance traditionally has sumptions about researchers' needs and has been the basis for arrangement and descrip- resulted in contrasting proposals for ad- tion, Lytle and Bearman argued for its in-

"Saffady, "Reference Service to Researchers in Archives," 142. 28Richard H. Lytle, "Intellectual Access to Archives: I. Provenance and Content Indexing Methods of Subject Retrieval," American Archivist 43 (Winter 1980): 64-75, and "Intellectual Access to Archives: II. Report of an Experiment Comparing Provenance and Content Indexing Methods of Subject Retrieval," American Archivist 43 (Spring 1980): 191-207. 29David A. Bearman and Richard Lytle, "The Power of the Principle of Provenance," Archivaria 21 (Winter 1985/86): 14-27. Educating the Reference Archivist 273

creased application in reference and retrieval notes, and to create a general cumulative systems, by the generation of access points index which provided access terms for all based on administrative and other folder headings found in the individual provenance information. They contended container lists. Thus, Berner hoped to that information concerning the creation of abandon the bifurcated retrieval system in Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 records provides the most useful subject ac- which the entries in the card catalog show cess and that archival reference tradition- no direct relation to the collection inven- ally has been based on this assumption. They tories. failed to question, however, why prove- The efforts of Berner, Lytle, Bearman, nance has been important historically, and and others document the growing concern whether its use reflects desirability or merely over the inadequacies of archival finding archivists' failure to design alternative sub- aids and the archivist's inability to provide ject retrieval systems. Archival students efficient reference service because of in- could well consider this question and also effective descriptive and retrieval systems. whether a provenance-based system pro- The exact design of the ideal descriptive vides unnecessary information about the system is not clear. Several underlying as- records rather than desired information about sumptions about researchers that require their subject content. further research might be topics fruitfully To assist them in their critique, students explored by students in both discussions and could turn to Richard Berner's writings on written assignments. For example, individ- information retrieval.30 While recognizing uals approach their research through per- the importance of provenance, Berner ar- sonal names and inferences based on gued that placing too much emphasis on provenance because archivists have not de- administrative histories as access points re- vised alternative subject retrieval systems. sults in too little attention to the informa- Lytle and others, such as Avra Michelson, tion in the records themselves.31 He have assumed that researchers expect high promoted instead the idea of a "unified" recall and low precision from a retrieval 32 integrated catalog incorporating the infor- system. This may no longer be true, how- mation available in the finding aids of in- ever, as the increasing size of collections, dividual collections. Unlike Lytle, Berner the financial constraints of research, and recognized the collection or reg- the demands placed on scholars to publish ister as the principal means of accessing all limit the researcher's ability and desire archives and manuscripts, and asserted that to wade through large numbers of irrele- description should focus on detailed con- vant documents. Future researchers, accus- tainer lists, not lengthy, "unstructured" tomed to sophisticated information retrieval scope and content notes that do not illu- systems, will no doubt demand more effi- minate the arrangement of the collection. cient subject retrieval of archival collec- Berner urged archivists to devise catalog- tions. They also will require a national ing terms from container lists, which were archival information system, a goal that has less impressionistic than scope and content eluded archivists thus far, according to

30Richard C. Berner, "Manuscript Catalogs and Other Finding Aids: What Are Their Relationships?" Amer- ican Archivist 34 (October 1971): 367-72; Berner, "Toward National Archival Priorities: A Suggested Basis for Discussion," American Archivist 45 (Spring 1982): 164-74; Berner, Archival Theory and Practice in the United States: An Historical Analysis (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1983); Bcrner and Uli Haller, "Principles of Archival Inventory Construction," American Archivist 47 (Spring 1984): 134-55; and Berner, "The Power of Provenance: A Critique of David Bearman and Richard Lytle," Archivaria 22 (Summer 1986): 4-6. 31Berner, "Critique of Bearman and Lytle," 5. 32Lytle, "Intellectual Access to Archives," 68-69; Avra Michelson, "Description and Reference in the Age of Automation," American Archivist 50 (Spring 1987): 199. 274 American Archivist / Summer 1988

Michelson, because of inconsistent de- supplemented with relevant readings from scriptive practices and lack of standardi- other disciplines, especially from the li- zation among repositories.33 As Sahli has brary and communication sciences. For ex- argued, however, even if the design prob- ample, archival literature documents the lems are conquered, a national system would importance of the reference interview and Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 be useless unless researchers know of its of archivists' ability to communicate effec- existence and how to use it.34 Given schol- tively with researchers. Pugh, Joyce, Free- ars' documented lack of knowledge of basic man, and others have assigned their reference sources, archivists should be wary colleagues low grades on listening and of making unfounded assumptions about communication skills. A major aspect of an researchers' use of a national automated archival reference course would examine system. the role of communication theory and the Efforts to establish national information value of utilizing interview techniques from networks, increase the usefulness of archi- the communication sciences. The extensive val finding aids, and enhance the skills of body of library literature on the reference reference personnel pose serious chal- interview could be of great use in present- lenges. Archival education must prepare ing communication techniques to archi- 35 would-be archivists to meet these chal- vists. Librarians have long recognized the lenges. As shown, a growing archival lit- importance of asking users "open" ques- erature on reference and description is tions about their research, rather than available to aid the student in identifying "closed" questions that terminate the ref- the main components of the reference erence dialog with a simple "yes" or "no" process. Each of these components affects response. Keeping communication chan- the outcome of the reference encounter and, nels open by allowing researchers to ask in turn, is shaped and defined by the skills, questions and talk about their topics with- training, and personality of the reference out interruption is a skill that would benefit archivist. As the literature bears out, ar- archivists. Students need to understand the chivists must learn who their researchers danger of seeming so preoccupied with are, how they approach their research, and conveying to the researcher information how to communicate to them information about regulations governing the handling about standard reference works, repository and use of collections that they appear in- holdings, and related collections else- different to users' research and insensitive where. Archival students can learn best how to their uncomfortableness in asking for as- to do these things through a reference course sistance. Librarians who have examined this offered as an integral part of a graduate issue of "sensitivity" have called for greater program in archival administration. empathy, more attentive behavior, and more effective "content" listening—skills one normally associates with the counseling profession. They also have suggested that Teaching Communication and Research because facial expressions and body lan- Skills guage convey interest or indifference to a The archival literature on the theoretical person's topic, reference personnel need to aspects of the reference process could be

33Michelson, "Description and Reference," 192-208. 34Sahli, "National Information Systems and Strategies," 6. 35For a good overview of the library literature in this area, see 0. Gene Norman's review essay, "The Reference Interview: An Annotated Bibliography," in Reference and Information Services: A New Reader, ed. Bill Katz and Anne Clifford (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1982), 245-60; and Samuel Rothstein, "The Making of a Reference Librarian," Library Trends 31 (Winter 1983): 375-99. Educating the Reference Archivist 275

be aware of the image they project.36 greater empathy for the needs, problems, Required reading of this library litera- and interests of their largest group of users, ture, coupled with simulated classroom ex- genealogists. periences, would help future archivists pay As reflected in archival literature, archi- closer attention to their mannerisms, speech vists have long considered researchers' Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 patterns, listening skills, and general ap- training and primary research skills inade- proachability. Videotaping classroom sim- quate. Archivists must assume greater re- ulations would allow students the sponsibility for educating researchers about opportunity to observe and critique their in- archival holdings and standard reference terviewing techniques. Class discussions sources. Establishing a familiarity with both could reinforce the ideas presented in the archival data bases and published guides, literature and encourage students to pay bibliographies, and biographical and repo- closer attention to their repository's and their sitory directories would be a major goal in own personal reference approach. It is likely an archival reference course. Class assign- that an individual will remember and learn ments should involve extensive work with more from a critical peer evaluation of their the National Union Catalog of Manuscript performance than from just a reading of the Collections (NUCMC), Philip Hamer's literature. Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the Role-playing and simulated reference United States, the National Historical Pub- experiences involve active student partici- lications and Records Commission's Direc- pation, encouraging more than passive lis- tory of Archives and Manuscript Repositories tening or reading of communication theory. in the United States, Andrea Hinding's This same action-oriented approach could Women's History Sources, and numerous other published guides to primary and sec- be used in instruction about research meth- 37 odologies. Clearly, students need to under- ondary sources in specific subject areas. stand how historians, scientists, writers, In addition, students need to gain experi- genealogists, and other archival users ap- ence searching both the special format and proach their research. It is equally impor- files on RLIN and OCLC, especially tant for archival students themselves to since an increasing number of archives are engage in research. One useful assignment contributing data to these systems. One would be for students to trace part of their possible assignment involving on-line family's history. This project would pro- searching would be for students to prepare vide a brief introduction to a variety of ar- a bibliography of archival collections and chival and manuscript records, including secondary literature relating to a subject that census data, land and probate records, birth interests them. Another project focusing and death records, military service records, more on printed sources would be for stu- and the guides and indexes available for dents to identify by title the ideal "refer- these records; and it might instill in would- ence collection" for a government or large be archivists a better understanding and academic archival repository. Such an as-

36Examplcs of the library literature that compare counseling work and reference service include Theodore P. Peck, "Counseling Skills Applied to Reference Services," RQ 14 (Spring 1975): 233-35; W. Bernard Lukenbill, "Teaching Helping Relationship Concepts in the Reference Process," Journal of Education for Librarianship 18 (Fall 1977): 110-20; and Patrick Penland, Advisory Counseling for Librarians (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1969). 31National Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections (Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1959-to date); Philip M. Hamer, A Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961); National Historical Publications and Records Commission, Directory of Archives and Manuscript Re- positories in the United States (Washington, D.C.: The Commission, 1988); and Andrea Hinding, Women's History Sources: A Guide to Archives and Manuscript Collections in the United States (New York: R. R. Bowker, 1979). 276 American Archivist / Summer 1988

signment would enable students to become reference personnel. Archivists are steadily familiar with the guides as well as encour- at work on this first task, and coursework age them to think about the types of sources in reference theory and practice would rep- a researcher or staff member might need in resent a sensible beginning on the second. order to make better use of the repository's Defining the goals, teaching methods, and Downloaded from http://meridian.allenpress.com/american-archivist/article-pdf/51/3/266/2747691/aarc_51_3_q76742568n110771.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 holdings. As Richard Cox has suggested, content for an archival reference course, a well-stocked reference collection pro- however, is an ambitious undertaking, and vides a practical way for archivists to im- the discussion presented is not intended as prove the quality of their reference service, a definitive program. Rather, it is offered since it can be used to educate researchers in order to focus attention on a perceived to the types of secondary sources available problem: archivists' inability to provide on their topic.38 This is possible only if the consistently knowledgeable and helpful staff itself knows how to "stock" a refer- reference assistance. Even in its embryonic ence collection and how to utilize the printed stage, certain aspects of a course on archi- guides it contains. val reference appear essential. The course should be required of all archival students; Conclusion it should precede a practicum involving work Archivists recently have shown in- in a reference setting or conducting a user creased interest in promoting use of archi- study; and it should consist of a balanced val materials, and the SAA Goals and mix of archival and library readings, prac- Priorities Task Force has identified this as tical assignments, and classroom simula- one of archivists' three primary responsi- tions. Archival educators, reference staff, bilities. To enhance research use of collec- and other archivists are challenged to refine tions, the archival profession needs to this proposal for improving the profes- improve both its finding aids and descrip- sion's reference skills and its commitment tive practices as well as the expertise of its to research.

38Richard J. Cox, "Bibliography and Reference for the Archivist," American Archivist 46 (Spring 1983): 185-87.