G ETTING C O NNECTED

Strategies for Expanding the Employment Networks

of Low-Income People

By Shayne Spaulding

Field Report Series

Public/Private Ventures SeptemberNovember 2005 G ETTING C O NNECTED

Strategies for Expanding the Employment Networks

of Low-Income People

By Shayne Spaulding

Field Report Series

Public/Private Ventures November 2005 Public/Private Ventures is a Board of Directors Research Advisory national nonprofit organiza- Siobhan Nicolau, Chair Committee President tion that seeks to improve the Jacquelynne S. Eccles, Chair Hispanic Policy Development Project University of Michigan effectiveness of social policies Gary Walker Ronald Ferguson and programs. P/PV designs, President Kennedy School of Government tests and studies initiatives Public/Private Ventures Robinson Hollister that increase supports, skills Amalia Betanzos President Swarthmore College and opportunities of residents Wildcat Service Corporation Alan Krueger of low-income communities; Yvonne Chan Princeton University works with policymakers to see Principal Reed Larson Vaughn Learning Center University of Illinois that the lessons and evidence Mitchell S. Fromstein Milbrey W. McLaughlin produced are reflected in Chairman Emeritus Stanford University policy; and provides training, Manpower Inc. Katherine S. Newman technical assistance and The Honorable Kennedy School of Government Renée Cardwell Hughes Laurence Steinberg learning opportunities to Judge, Court of Common Pleas Temple University practitioners based on docu- The First Judicial District, Thomas Weisner mented effective practices. Philadelphia, PA UCLA Christine L. James-Brown President and CEO United Way International John A. Mayer, Jr. Retired, Chief Financial Officer J.P. Morgan & Co. Matthew McGuire Vice President Ariel Capital Management, Inc. Maurice Lim Miller Director Family Independence Initiative Anne Hodges Morgan Consultant to Foundations Marion Pines Senior Fellow Institute for Policy Studies Johns Hopkins University Clayton S. Rose Retired, Head of Investment Banking J.P. Morgan & Co. Cay Stratton Director National Employment Panel, London, U.K. William Julius Wilson Lewis P. and Linda L. Geyser University Professor Harvard University ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Ford Foundation provided funding to P/PV for both Getting Connected and the companion publication, netWORKS: A Guide to Expanding the Employment Networks of Low-Income People. Ford’s program of- ficer, Loren Harris, helped formulate the original idea for the project, along with P/PV’s executive vice president, Mark Elliott, who offered continued assistance and guidance throughout its completion. This report could not have been published without the collabora- tion and thoughtful insights of Laura Wyckoff and Carol Clymer, the authors of netWORKS. Scott Scrivner played an essential role in reviewing the literature included in the second chapter of the report. Thanks also go to staff at the organizations profiled, in particular: Joan Edwards (Community College of Baltimore County); Robert Rudney (EXCEL! Networking Group, Inc.); Connie Williams (Family Pathfinders); Josh Shepherd and Elizabeth McGuire (The HOPE Program); Sandee Kastrul (i.c.stars); Connie Ashbrook (Oregon Tradeswomen); Paul Lamb and Coretta Alexander (Street Tech); and Angie Datta Kamath (StreetWise Partners). The author appreciates the assistance of Chelsea Farley, who coordinated the editing of the report, and Malish and Pagonis, which was responsible for the design.

1

INTRODUCTION

If I had a network, I didn’t know it. I am very people she did not know, something she found dif- community based and I am all about giving ficult. The program also helped her figure out how back. So, I knew a lot of people in the com- to deal with her fear of networking. munity. But as far as CEOs and executives, I didn’t know anyone before i.c.stars. – Melissa, i.c.stars participant 1 At first, they emphasized the importance of networking, and when I realized how impor- A slender African American woman, 24-year-old tant it was and I realized what my fear was, I Melissa projects intensity and sincerity. In October got myself a buddy and partnered up, and we went to every networking event together. 2003, she joined i.c.stars, a Chicago-based tech- nology training and leadership development pro- Melissa liked going to these events with her friend gram for young adults, because she was interested because it made the process a little less scary. in a career in technology. While this was good practice, i.c.stars staff also pushed her to try networking on her own. The Before the program, Melissa thought she knew few executive director identified an opportunity for people she could go to for help getting a job in the Melissa to volunteer at an awards dinner sponsored Information Technology (IT) sector. Her work experi- by Women in Technology International (WITI) hon- ence had mostly been in dead-end retail jobs. oring women leaders in the field.

Through i.c.stars, Melissa gained an understanding Melissa worked the sign-in table, greeting people and of the importance of employment networks in a providing them with nametags. Several attendees successful job search. And as she learned more, were people she had met through their involvement Melissa found that her employment network was with i.c.stars either as mentors or presenters. After not as small as she had once thought. Melissa finished her job of checking people in, she was seated with the president of WITI, as well as My cousin Shirley has been in the IT field several other IT executives. Volunteering gave Melissa for 15 years. It never crossed my mind to the chance to attend an important networking event ask her for help getting a job. I remember without having to pay the entrance fee. It allowed her going to work with her when computers had big reels on them. I remember playing with to play a visible role and to connect with many key them, but that was as interested as I was. people in her field.

Now we talk regularly about work. At i.c.stars I heard that only 1 percent of IT is Upon graduation from i.c.stars, Melissa secured African American women. I knew I had to an internship in the technology department of a get close to her. large company that imports and distills liquor. The position was created because of a relationship that Not only was Melissa unaware of her own network, fellow i.c.stars students had built with the company but when she first started the program, she was through a workplace simulation exercise, where a terrified of networking: “I hated it. It is just a fear I team of students developed a product that would have.” Through classroom exercises and practice, allow users to match recipes with different wines i.c.stars helped Melissa develop specific networking and beers. The company was so impressed with skills and strategies. For example, an exercise on the students that it decided to create a two-year “Developing Your 30-Second Elevator Pitch” helped internship just for an i.c.stars graduate. her learn to talk about herself and her goals with 2

While working hard in her internship, Melissa is also i.c.stars does many things to help pursuing her bachelor’s degree in IT. As an intern, participants like Melissa: it provides Melissa earns $26,500 annually and qualifies for computer-skills training, job readiness and soft skills training, résumé and in- regular employee benefits, including the company’s terview preparation, and job placement tuition-reimbursement program, which she will be assistance. Such services characterize able to take advantage of after she has been with the typical employment and training the company for six months. organization. What makes this program different is that it also provides the networking skills and connections that Melissa continues to work on expanding her net- can help ensure long-term success in work, although it is tough to fit in while working full today’s labor market. i.c.stars provides time. She has two volunteer jobs, which she sees participants with the opportunity to: as an avenue for continued networking, and attends • Better understand the importance of i.c.stars networking events whenever she can. networking; • Learn valuable communication and Through the program, I got networking skills, networking skills; and now I have a big network, including my • Practice networking in a safe classmates, who are all good friends. environment; • Network in the real world; and • Continue to build their networks beyond graduation. It does this through classroom exercises and planned events, and by involving people from outside the organization and incorporating networking into all parts of the program. i.c.stars is one of several employment programs around the country that focus on developing participants’ employment networks. The purpose of this report is to profile a range of strategies being used by such programs to improve the employ- ment networks of program participants. While not all programs included in this report address networking as intensively as i.c.stars, the programs highlighted do make networking a priority. Public/Private Ventures (P/PV) spoke with nearly 100 organizations in an effort to identify these programs. While most job training programs help participants expand their employment networks through the connections that their job developers, case managers or the organi- zations themselves offer to employers, we found few organizations that specifi- 3

cally focus on network expansion. Many training programs can approach network programs make the development of peer expansion for their participants. networks a priority either by fostering it in P/PV has also developed a companion the classroom or among alumni, but such publication, a program training guide, strategies are often aimed at providing which offers specific ideas—including participants with needed emotional or lesson plans and strategies—that can be social support, not connections to jobs. incorporated into workforce programs. While many employment programs More information is available on our web- address the importance of networks in site, www.ppv.org. the classroom, this typically consists of a brief mention of the concept, not more in-depth instruction on networking skills or exposure to people who could help expand participant networks. The organizations selected for inclusion in this report are doing more to promote networking by using several networking strategies or integrating networking throughout their programs, not just incorporating the topic of networking into a single class. We seek both to illuminate promising approaches and to present a range of methods being used by a variety of organizations across the country. The organizations’ approaches vary in intensity and strategy, but each program offers innovative ideas for helping job seekers achieve greater success in the labor market—now and in their future careers. The report is organized as follows: In the chapter The What and Why of Employment Networks, we take an in- depth look at employment networks and how they function for low-income job seekers, exploring both the literature on the subject and P/PV’s own research. We also examine the role of employment and training organizations in expanding and improving the employment networks of their participants. The next chapter, Promising Strategies, includes profiles of four promising approaches, each exemplified by the work of a particular organization. Throughout this chapter (in text boxes), we have also scattered descriptions of related efforts by other organizations. In the final chapter, we conclude with a framework for thinking about the variety of ways in which job 4

THE WHAT AND WHY OF EMPLOYMENT NETWORKS

The familiar phrase “It is not what you and Browne (1995) found that more know, but who you know that matters” than two thirds of low-income job seekers reflects a common recognition of the use personal contacts to find their jobs, importance of employment networks for compared to slightly less than half for all success in the labor market. This chapter workers. explores what we mean when we talk Changes in the economy and labor about employment networks, why they are market in the past 20 years have in- important and how they function for low- creased the importance of job networks. income job seekers. Since the 1980s, corporate restructuring, downsizing and the growth of contingent What Are Employment Networks? employment have increased job insecurity To a large extent, employment networks among workers at all levels.2 Gone are the can be understood through the lens of days of loyalty by a company to a single social capital. Social capital refers to the employee or by an employee to a single connections among individuals that result company. By one estimate, people hold an in certain advantages or benefits for those average of 10 jobs before reaching the age individuals. As Robert Putnam (1999) de- of 39 (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2004). scribes, “Whereas physical capital refers to Frequent job change means that the physical objects and human capital refers need to search for a job occurs often, and to properties of individuals, social capital employment networks can be useful in refers to connections among individuals— responding to this labor market volatility. social networks and norms of reciprocity Job seekers rely heavily on their employ- and trustworthiness that arise from them.” ment networks for a variety of reasons. Employment networks are an important The most obvious benefit one’s contacts type of social capital. They encompass the can provide is otherwise unavailable connections that people have with rela- information about job opportunities, tives, friends and acquaintances who may which—according to Granovetter—often have information about job opportunities come from weak ties (1973). This in- or may be able to exert influence over formation consists not only of news of hiring decisions and promotions. The openings but of the type of work, quality direct link between social network theory of life and potential for advancement— and labor market outcomes can be traced the kind of detail that helps people to Mark Granovetter’s (1973) seminal decide if a given job is a good fit. This work, “The Strength of Weak Ties,” which novel information about job opportuni- explores the ways in which the structure ties is particularly important given that so of social networks affects job search. many jobs are not formally advertised by employers and are part of what has been Why Use Employment Networks? termed the “hidden job market.” There are many reasons to use employ- The problem with weak ties, however, is ment networks. Certainly, the frequency that while they can offer unique informa- with which people use contacts to find tion about job opportunities, they do not jobs provides strong support for their bring much clout in terms of personal effectiveness. Studies show that between vouching. For low-income job seekers— 40 and 50 percent of job seekers find many of whom may lack substantial work jobs through their connections with experience—it may be valuable to have other people (Granovetter 1995). In someone vouch for their employability. fact, low-income job seekers may rely on employment networks even more than the average job seeker. Green, Tigges 5

This kind of personal vouching may be What Problems Do Low-Income more likely to come from strong ties, who Job Seekers Face? can influence hiring decisions or vouch Economic changes over the past several for the skills and capabilities of poten- decades have created particular chal- tial hires. Strong ties tend to have either lenges for low-skilled and low-income unique knowledge of the candidate or workers.3 The weakening of unions and a vested interest in helping him or her decline in manufacturing have meant secure a job. fewer well-paid jobs for low-skilled While common sense and our own experi- workers. Furthermore, fewer paths to ences clearly support the importance of advancement now exist for workers at employment networks, research on their the bottom of the earnings ladder. In value is mixed. On the one hand, several addition, there has been an increasing studies suggest that employers rely heavily demand for education and technological on networks in hiring, particularly for skill at all levels of the labor market. low-skilled jobs. Henly (1999) examined Related to these structural changes has the recruitment practices of employers been a significant decline in the real hiring for low-skilled positions and found wages of low-skilled workers. that job seekers who had a connection To add to these challenges, many low- with employees already working at a income job seekers lack the connections firm were more likely to be hired than and resources necessary to secure what those without such connections. In this good jobs are available. While poor skills ethnographic study, 88 percent of em- and low educational attainment both play ployers reported using informal referrals a strong role in determining the labor to recruit workers, and nearly two thirds market outcomes of these individuals, (64 percent) stated that internal referrals there are other barriers to success. were their primary hiring strategy. These employers cited several factors to explain Network Size their preference for informal referrals including reduced hiring costs, decreased P/PV regularly conducts evaluations of turnover, verification of qualifications and employment programs for disadvantaged work quality, and increased likelihood of job seekers. In surveys conducted with an appropriate match. more than 1,700 low-income participants across three major initiatives, job seekers On the other hand, studies have failed to consistently described having limited establish a consistent link between simply networks available to help them with their attempting to use one’s social network job search. In one initiative—serving and positive employment outcomes. predominantly low-income women with Lin (1999) and Mouw (2004)—in their a high-school diploma or GED who had reviews of the literature—both note that a experienced recent unemployment—the simple look at the effect of using networks great majority (74 percent) reported per se does not account for the composi- having fewer than five people to whom tion or strength of the job network used. they could turn for help in finding a job. In the following sections, we explore the Perhaps more startling, 40 percent of challenges that low-income job seekers participants reported small job networks face with respect to the quality of their of two or fewer contacts.4 Similarly, in a networks and the resources available for second initiative serving women who were improving these networks. leaving or had recently left welfare, 76 percent of participants said that they had fewer than five contacts, and 37 percent reported a network size of two or fewer 6

contacts.5 In a third initiative targeting for finding out about job opportunities that young, noncustodial fathers, participants lead to long-term employment and advance- face even more difficult circumstances: 68 ment (a network of leverage). Furthermore, percent told us that they had two or fewer those low-income job seekers who have a people in their job network, and just three history of crime, drugs or intermittent work of the more than 700 fathers interviewed may have few people who are willing to reported having five or more contacts.6 vouch for them in their search for employ- ment, creating an additional disadvantage The challenges that someone with so few in the labor market. contacts faces in the labor market are clear. Without contacts, a job seeker cannot Class and Race learn about jobs in the so-called hidden job market, leverage connections to secure To a large extent, the schism between jobs or gain insider information on the low-income job seekers and people with in- nature of jobs to ensure a good match. formation about good jobs or the power to influence hiring is an issue of class. While it Ineffective Networks and Networking may be that class lines in the United States are more fluid than in many other societies, P/PV’s research suggests that even partici- class is still a powerful force that shapes pants who have large networks relative human interaction in society at large and to their peers fail to realize much of an in the labor market. People tend to asso- advantage in finding employment or ciate with those who are of the same social working at higher-wage jobs. P/PV ex- class, and thus networking tends to occur plored the predictors of both of these within class boundaries. Similarly, people outcomes using models that control for tend to interact with individuals of the same age, gender, race and ethnicity, household race—either due to basic patterns of social- composition, past receipt of welfare, pre- izing or outright discrimination—inhibiting vious labor market experience, barriers to networking beyond racial lines. employment, and the presence of large or small job networks. In each case, we found The lack of social integration is particularly no statistically significant association apparent in low-income inner-city com- between network size and positive labor munities, which tend to be characterized market outcomes.7 This suggests that the by concentrated poverty. Wilson (1987) naturally forming job networks available argues that the flight of working-class and to these individuals may have limited middle- class African American families power or that they may lack the skills to from poor urban neighborhoods has led to use their networks effectively. Granovetter a situation of extreme social isolation for (1995) argues that job networks may not poor urban blacks. While this has multiple function well for low-income individuals consequences for the health and welfare because these networks consist predomi- of inner-city residents, the most significant nantly of people who are unemployed may be the impact it has on employment themselves or hold low-paying jobs. networks. As Wilson writes, “People experience a social isolation that excludes Briggs (1998) presents an important them from the job network system that distinction between networks of support permeates other neighborhoods and that and networks of leverage that centers is so important in learning about or being on whether one can use a job network recommended for jobs.”8 simply to get by, or to get ahead. Although low-income individuals may have strong net- works they can turn to for emergency child care or temporary work (network of sup- port), they may have limited connections 7

Figure 1: Bridging Ties Can Connect Otherwise Isolated Networks

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Limited Networking Opportunities seekers have obtained in the past. The majority of networking events and activi- Related to the issue of class division is the ties are geared toward helping people problem that many entry-level or low- secure managerial and professional posi- income job seekers do not have access to tions, not toward assisting those with little formal networking opportunities. On any education or consistent work experience given day, a scan of the Internet reveals or helping people secure entry-level jobs. a host of networking activities. People go to networking parties and take classes on Improving the Networks of Low-Income how to network. They can join groups for Job Seekers people in the same industry or occupa- tion, or people united by other common Given the many challenges that low- threads such as race, gender, disability or income job seekers face, what can be done unemployment. All of these activities pro- to improve the usefulness of their employ- vide participants with the opportunity to ment networks? The key may lie in the build relationships that help their current development of “bridging ties.” Imagine job searches or their future careers. such ties as bridges between distant social circles or socioeconomic groups (see Few low-income job seekers have access to Figure 1). Adding even one individual these resources. Those with specific expe- from a different circle to a disadvantaged rience in a particular sector can tap into job seeker’s network may greatly increase industry-based networking groups, but their prospects for finding a good job. these activities often require a financial Because people tend to associate with investment and offer little for entry-level those in circumstances similar to their own, workers. And while it may be possible to bridging connections may provide access find more affordable or more general- to new networks and thus to novel infor- ized networking opportunities at local mation about employment opportunities churches or neighborhood associations, (Reingold 1999; Smith 2000). such venues may only provide connec- tions to the same low-wage work that job 8

Connections with workers who have con- institutional relationships to help people siderable labor market experience, work in get jobs; they become key members of a preferable occupations or have other char- low-income person’s network. acteristics uncommon in naturally occurring But few employment and training organi- networks are likely to be of the greatest zations focus explicitly on improving the value to job seekers (Campbell, Marsden employment networks of individual job and Hurlbert 1986). Therefore, if we are to seekers. Rather, they target their efforts increase the usefulness of the job networks toward building hard and soft skills, available to low-income workers, efforts identifying appropriate job openings should focus on reducing homogeneity and for participants and providing support building bridging connections. for participants as they use formal job There has been considerable research in search mechanisms to find employment. this area. Emphasizing the importance Such organizations rely primarily on job of bridging ties, Stoloff, Glanville and developers who focus on connecting par- Bienenstock (1999) found that women ticipants to their next job. were more likely to be working if their job While this approach has numerous merits, network included people outside of their it can be made even stronger with the neighborhoods, who the authors refer addition of a networking strategy. There to as “neighborhood bridges,” and those are many reasons why employment orga- with more than a high-school education, nizations should consider the addition of or “education bridges.” In separate studies a networking component: of low-income mothers, a number of authors found that having social con- 1) Employment networks play an im- tacts that transcend local neighborhood portant role in the labor market. As boundaries was associated with im- the literature presented here illustrates, proved employment prospects (Johnson, employment networks are a key part of Bienenstock and Farrell 1999; Fernandez- the labor market, and low-income people Kelly 1995; and Jarrett 1995).9 Other may be at a particular disadvantage. research has shown that contacts’ occu- Employment and training organizations pational status (Lin 1999; Marsden and are in a good position to help low-income Hurlbert 1998; Volker and Flap 1999) and job seekers expand their employment demographic characteristics such as edu- networks because these organizations are cation (Boxman, De Graaf and Flap 1991; experienced at providing skills training— Green, Tigges and Diaz 1999) appear to the “how to” of network expansion—and be associated with one’s own job status or they can foster connections to people labor market outcomes.10 Finally, having a outside the organization, including em- job network with a relatively large share of ployers and others. employed contacts is also positively associ- 2) People who come to workforce devel- ated with using word-of-mouth to find a opment organizations may be the most job (Reingold 1999). in need of network assistance. While low- income people may use their networks A Role for Workforce Development more than the average job seeker, the Organizations individuals who come to employment and In many ways, employment and training training organizations seeking help may programs have been cast as the solution be doing so precisely because they possess to the challenges low-income job seekers small or ineffective networks. Certainly, face with respect to their employment P/PV’s research on low-income job seekers networks. Employment and training suggests that individuals enrolled in organizations can serve as an important employment programs may have particu- bridge to employers and can leverage larly small networks. Again, employment 9

organizations are in the perfect position explicitly on networking, the program to provide the networking skills and con- profiles included in this report provide nections that people with the weakest numerous examples of how strategies that networks need. are currently being used can also serve networking goals. 3) Network strategies offer the potential to help people over the long term. To be In short, networking strategies have successful, participants will need to navi- the potential both to improve the per- gate numerous job changes throughout formance of employment and training their working lives. The advantage of organizations and to provide low-income strategies that focus on network improve- job seekers with essential tools that can be ment and expansion is that they can help used throughout their working lives. job seekers both in their immediate need for employment and in subsequent job searches. With job loss inevitable—either because of economic changes, poor job matches, participants’ own difficulty in retaining jobs or participants seizing ad- vancement opportunities—programs can play an important role in helping partici- pants achieve long-term economic success. 4) Network strategies can help employ- ment programs meet retention and advancement goals. Employment and training organizations have an interest in helping participants with future job changes, as employment retention has become increasingly emphasized in both public and private funding contracts. By giving participants the networking tools to help negotiate job loss, programs have the potential to improve retention outcomes. Furthermore, networking tools may improve participants’ prospects for advancement, another performance goal that has received increased attention. 5) Network strategies complement existing approaches of employment and training organizations. Not only can networking strategies help programs meet multiple goals, but they can complement the important work already being done by employment and training organizations to help people find jobs. For example, many programs match participants with mentors, who serve as a source of support and guidance in the job search process. Mentoring can also be a way for programs to help participants expand their employ- ment networks. While few programs focus 10

PROMISING STRATEGIES

TEACHING THE BASICS: and engage in self-directed job search, THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF BALTIMORE with the assistance of a job developer. COUNTY (CCBC), BALTIMORE COUNTY, MD The Job Network Program is built on a philosophy of instruction that promotes Eight women sit in a semicircle facing Cheryll Cox active learning and encourages partici- pants to rely on one another as resources. and Jackie Campbell, two instructors at CCBC’s This approach and a portion of the cur- Job Network Program. Cheryll asks the participants riculum come from a program designed to brainstorm the various ways that people find by the University of Michigan’s Institute jobs. They list everything from help-wanted ads to for Social Research, which aims at both employment agencies to personal contacts, and helping job seekers secure high-quality jobs and addressing the issue of poor Jackie writes their ideas on a flip chart at the front mental health among the unemployed.11 of the small classroom. CCBC has adapted this program to meet the needs of its clients. Then Cheryll says, “Think about the last two jobs you held. How many of you got those jobs through The Strategies help-wanted ads?” A few people raise their hands, The Job Network Program provides a and Jackie records the tally for help-wanted ads good example of how a short-term pro- gram can teach low-income job seekers on the chart. “What about employment agencies?” the importance and basic principles of Again, a few hands shoot up, and Jackie marks networking. down the number. When she gets to “someone you knew told you about it,” almost all of the students in Building Awareness of Existing Networks the room raise their hands. On the day that we visited, after discussing the importance of networking, the CCBC facilitators posed some new questions to The Program the class about their current job searches. Networking is just one of the topics “How many of you know someone who covered in the Job Network Program, a works in a warehouse?” Several hands four-week job readiness training for wel- went up. “How about in a hospital?” fare recipients at the Community College Three or four participants raised their of Baltimore County. It was developed hands. Cheryll proceeded to list different in collaboration with the Baltimore types of jobs and companies, polling stu- County Department of Social Services in dents to see if they knew people in these 2000. The program, which also includes fields. Then Cheryl paused, “Okay, how intensive case management and job devel- many of you have told these people that opment services, is mandatory for county you are looking for work?” Only two of residents who apply for or are receiving the eight students raised their hands. temporary cash assistance. A third partner, This exercise illustrates that it is not only the nonprofit HumanIm, works with having a network of working people participants who do not find jobs within that is important, but it is knowing how the four-week period of the program, to tap into that network that counts. As providing them with unpaid internships, Granovetter (1973) argues, a job seeker’s intensive case management and job weak ties—those other than one’s closest development services. Through the Job friends and family—are perhaps the most Network Program, participants learn job crucial employment contacts because they search skills, work on becoming job ready likely offer unique information about job opportunities. While the majority 11

of the low-income people in the CCBC developers. Every afternoon, students par- class had, at one time, relied upon their ticipate in job club, where they look at job networks to get jobs, they may have relied listings on the Internet, make telephone only on their closest friends and family calls to employers and read through the members. The instructors emphasized the newspaper. In addition, participants are importance of relying on all the contacts expected to use this time to help one available in one’s network. another with their job searches. Fred Keene, the job developer who Fostering Peer Networking is responsible for job club at CCBC’s At CCBC, staff encourage participants Catonsville campus, puts it this way: “Job to rely on one another as sources of job club is designed to foster an environment leads. At the beginning of each CCBC of communication and networking. The class, the instructors ask students to share idea is that there may be a job that you job leads. They also suggest that students might not qualify for but that someone add their names to a contact sheet that else might qualify for.” Networking is enables them to network outside the pro- particularly important for CCBC because gram and after the program ends. On this of its emphasis on self-directed job search. sheet, they write both their contact infor- While job developers are constantly mation and the kind of job they desire. building and maintaining relationships with employers, the volume of partici- The sharing of job leads is encouraged pants requires a strong self-directed job throughout the Job Network Program. search component, meaning that students After the one-week job readiness course, must rely heavily on their own resources participants engage in a combination to find jobs. of classroom training and self-directed job search, aided by one of several job

Networking in the Classroom: The HOPE Program (Brooklyn, NY) The HOPE Program is a job readiness program serving primarily the hard-to-employ, including formerly homeless individuals, substance abusers, ex-offenders and welfare recipients. At the core of the program are job readiness classes, work internships and job development services. This assistance is strengthened by an array of other services, including computer classes, mental health counseling, vocational literacy classes, GED preparation and tutoring. What distinguishes the HOPE Program is the strong community that it fosters among partici- pants, graduates and staff. This small program serves approximately 180 new students each year in addition to the more than 350 graduates who are receiving retention and advancement services. The organization works hard to create an atmosphere where students learn to rely on one another and on staff for support and networking. A sense of community is built as par- ticipants go through the 16-week job readiness curriculum, with students being encouraged to become resources for each other throughout the program. After students graduate, they are invited to come back to the program to participate in monthly alumni events, where they can network with each other and provide support around the challenges that they are facing on the job. The doors of HOPE remain open to participants as long as they need assistance. The HOPE Program incorporates networking into its program in a variety of other ways. Students are taught about the importance of employment networks as a part of the readiness course. During the internship phase of the program, students are encouraged to conduct at least one informational interview with someone at their internship site. Students then report their experiences back to the class, allowing them to debrief and learn together about infor- mational interviewing. In addition, staff regularly bring in outside speakers, often employers, to talk to participants about their jobs or to participate in mock interviews. 12

Dealing with the Fear of Networking Demonstrating How Networks Function

In interviews, CCBC staff were asked why As they help participants learn how to they thought participants were hesitant make every opportunity an employment to tell people they knew that they were opportunity, CCBC is really teaching looking for work. Several felt that the participants about how networks func- resistance may have to do with fear. tion. Using the University of Michigan Robert Howe, a Job Network Program job curriculum, CCBC instructors show the developer at their Essex site said, “People following diagram on “expanded net- are afraid of going out of their comfort works”: zone.” Fred Keene thought it had to do with embarrassment, pride and taboos, particularly in the African American com- munity, against “putting problems from the house out on the street.” He added, “The tendency is to keep it in, instead of using every opportunity as an employ- ment opportunity.” CCBC works to overcome this fear Source: Curran, Wishart and Gingrich (1999) through an exercise called “Inoculation Against Setback” in which participants work with the group to identify their fears Instructors stress that by building a re- and develop strategies for addressing lationship with a single person, you can them. First, the trainers ask the group to benefit from that person’s entire network. name potential obstacles that may pre- As Jackie said, “If you let people know vent them from performing particular that you are looking for a job, they will job search activities. For example, fear of start looking for you.” rejection may prevent job seekers from CCBC teaches students that previous making necessary phone calls. As a group, employers may be a good source of con- participants brainstorm strategies for over- nections and suggests that participants talk coming these barriers. Participants are to past employers about their job searches. asked to weigh the different options and “You never know what kinds of connec- commit to trying one particular problem- tions these people will have,” remarked solving strategy. Then they try out the Cheryll to her class. The curriculum strategy outside the program and report includes a role-play on how to approach back to the group on how it worked for past employers for job leads. In this exer- them. At this time, participants reevaluate cise, the job seeker asks her former boss at the strategy in light of the experience they a day-care facility whether he has contacts have gained and begin the process again. in the picture-framing business, a field she would like to explore. The employer initially says no, but after probing by the job seeker, he realizes that his brother, a woodworker, may be a good contact. 13

Job leads can also be unearthed through informational interviews, a key networking strategy discussed in the popular “how to” literature on the subject. Informational interviews provide job seekers the chance to make connections, to find out valu- able information on a particular industry or occupation and to learn specifics on how to get into that industry or occupa- tion. CCBC, again, uses role-play to teach participants how to conduct an effective informational interview. CCBC’s coaching on how to develop job leads is important because it is critical for the immediate job search, and because it provides participants with skills that will be essential in future job searches. Even if participants are placed in immediate jobs by their job developer, the nature of the current labor market suggests that they will lose their job or move on to other work at some point. Basic knowledge about the importance and function of job networks will be crucial in their future careers. 14

PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE: Students can obtain A+ or Microsoft cer- STREET TECH, SAN PABLO, CA tification. They can also participate in the Computer Apprenticeship Training, which teaches participants how to refurbish old All the guests have been greeted. Everyone has computers (and then donates the com- a nametag, a program and a drink. Straight from puters back to the community). work, businesspeople stand around in their crisp Staff at Street Tech say the soft skills that suits. The main purpose of this party is to give participants learn are just as important for participants in the Street Tech program—who are success in the IT field as technical skills. hosting the party—the opportunity to practice Street Tech has strict attendance and networking. Outside guests have also come to get dress-code policies to help reinforce these soft skills. While these skills are infused help on how they could become more effective throughout the program, they are pri- networkers. They will hear from Susan RoAne, an marily learned in the job readiness class, internationally known corporate speaker and the which is taught by an executive from the author of several books on networking. industry. In job readiness classes, the instructor Trainees stand together fingering the business teaches critical communication skills, with cards they hope to exchange. Everyone knows this an emphasis on how to work well with a team—something that is essential in the is a “networking party,” an event to help the trainees technology industry. According to staff, develop and practice networking skills. But how to networking skills are also crucial for suc- break the ice and get the networking going? cess because so many jobs in the field are contract- and project-based; one never At Street Tech, a technology training program in knows when a job might end and another job search might begin. San Pablo, California, there is a decidedly creative solution: The MC steps up, throws a hip-hop video The Strategies on the big screen and instructs the crowd to follow the moves. “Step to the side. Three steps back. Making the Most of the Networking Party Shake it.” It’s loud, it’s fun and everyone’s ready to Approximately 100 people attended the talk when the music fades. Street Tech networking party that P/PV observed, including current students, graduates, staff and businesspeople. The Program More than half were people drawn from outside the organization. The event gave Street Tech is a nonprofit organization everyone, from students to industry ex- offering low-cost computer training, certi- ecutives, the chance both to learn about fication and job placement to adults from networking and to actually make connec- disadvantaged communities in the San tions with people in the field. Francisco Bay Area. Street Tech students undergo an intensive three- to six-month The networking party—and the skill technical and life-skills training program, building that occurs in preparation for for 9 to 15 hours per week, after which it—is one of the primary ways that Street they are transitioned into entry-level com- Tech helps students prepare for their puter technician, help desk and network current and future job searches in the administration jobs. turbulent IT sector. Networking events are common in the industry, and Street Street Tech offers a variety of technical Tech’s networking party gives students a skills training programs to its participants. taste of what to expect. Students do many 15

things to prepare for the networking required to participate in class discussions. party, including: Instructors will call on students who are not speaking up to make sure that they are • Designing their own business cards; engaged and to help them practice critical • Practicing how to shake hands and oral communication skills. maintain eye contact when they are Asked about his experience with Street talking to someone; Tech, one student reflected on the • Working on courtesies like “pleasure importance that communication and net- to meet you” and “thank you for at- working skills would have in the future, tending”; when he might not have the help of a Street Tech job developer: • Developing a 30-second “commercial” that explains their skills and job Street Tech is all about encouraging you goals; and as an individual to be more outgoing and to seek things out yourself. They • Researching the companies and orga- will present you with opportunities, but nizations of the individuals who will be eventually you have to be the one who’s attending. going to go out there, and seek opportuni- Staff also help students get ready by pep- ties and be someone who can be outspoken pering them with the types of questions and loud and clear and present yourself they may be asked during the party, in- and your ideas and what you want and cluding queries about the program, their communicate. classes and why they chose a career in technology. In the weeks before the event, Maintaining Relationships staff offer suggestions on how to pace interactions and how not to bombard the One of the important parts of main- first guests who arrive. taining a strong employment network is staying in touch with both old and new The learning does not stop with the contacts. Street Tech works with partici- networking party. After the event, staff pants to help them develop an individual meet with students to debrief and help database of contacts. Students input both them reflect on and learn from the the people in their existing network and experience. During a focus group, one the new people they meet—through student described how the networking events like the networking party—into party was helpful: their individual databases. Participants are Well, for me, [the party] was a big thing encouraged to follow up, as appropriate. because I’m kind of shy and standoffish, An equally important part of maintaining can be, and it kind of forced me to put a network is not burning bridges with the myself out there and introduce myself and people in your life, whether they are co- just learn the whole idea behind net- workers, former employers or other kinds working. I’ve never had to do it for any of acquaintances. According to one stu- reason. So it was a good exercise and, you dent, this was one of the most important know, it drove my confidence up. Now I lessons he took away from the program: put myself out there all the time. Initially, maybe I wasn’t such a people Teaching Communication Skills person, I’m not sure, but I’ve come from a pretty rough background. I was like At the core of effective networking are blue-collar most of my life and the type strong communication skills. Street Tech re- of person where, if somebody upsets me, inforces this constantly; students must stand you know, I sock ’em. So having gone when they speak in class and everyone is through this program and learning, it’s 16

kind of, you know, learning how to do and trainers. As a student in the A+ certifi- things a different way and the importance cation class said: of maintaining relationships. It’s maybe I like the way Street Tech puts it because not such a good idea to be one who easily they always call themselves Street Tech burns bridges. family because—and it’s still a work in Job seekers who do not realize how past progress—but what they try to do is like employers or other people in their lives everyone’s on the same playing field. So can serve as important resources may be you are networking with people who are left with a network that is limited to their in [the Microsoft Certification Program], closest friends and family. When partici- people who have graduated from Street pants have burned bridges in the past, Tech. So there is networking regardless of the need to expand their employment where you are in the scheme of things. networks becomes even more acute. It is through this family environment that Street Tech reinforces the reciprocal Reinforcing the Reciprocal Nature of Networking nature of networking. Networking is not Like CCBC and the HOPE Program, just about getting jobs from other people Street Tech seeks to expand participant but also about recognizing what you have networks by fostering strong peer relation- to offer others, including providing con- ships. Through the program, students nections and important information. become a network for each other and And you know, there’s always job open- for the graduates who follow. This sense ings, like say you’re working somewhere of community is reinforced through the or you know somebody, you can always organization’s “giveback program,” which refer your friends to them, which is good. requires all students to sign a contract at That’s what networking is all about. the beginning of the program, agreeing to donate time to Street Tech as mentors

Relying on Alumni for Network Connections: Oregon Tradeswomen, Inc. (Portland, OR) Oregon Tradeswomen is a membership organization focused on increasing the number of women and minorities entering the construction trades. In addition to advocacy and youth programs, the organization operates the Pathways program, which is aimed at providing participants with an introduction and connections to the trades. As an industry, the trades are known for employers’ reliance on employment networks in hiring. The problem for women and minorities is that they do not tend to be a part of these networks. In addition, information about how one can get a job in the trades is not easily accessible to the average job seeker. Oregon Tradeswomen helps participants establish contacts in the industry by encouraging them to go on informational interviews, often with other women who have graduated from Pathways, who can serve as key allies in the workplace. The organization also helps participants make key connections to union representatives and employers. Oregon Tradeswomen works to educate participants about what it takes to get a job in the trades by providing them with crucial information about the field, including informing them about how union hiring works and about the unwritten rules of the workplace. 17

Building Contacts is to ensure that every disadvantaged job seeker who enters the Street Tech Street Tech gives participants the chance program will have immediate access to a to uncover job openings for themselves broad social and employment network. and for their colleagues by providing Once students have signed up for this free them multiple opportunities to connect service, they can invite other people to with employers and others who can assist join their online network, giving all the them in their careers. Besides the net- students access to these new contacts. working party, Street Tech offers: The result is that any one student can • Mentoring–Street Tech pairs a group have as many as 10,000 contacts in his or of three to four students with IT profes- her network, although Paul Lamb, the sionals who act as mentors on specific former executive director of Street Tech, technology projects. guessed that most participants will have • Presentations by IT Professionals–Street several hundred people they could actu- Tech brings in representatives from the ally go to for help. IT field to speak about their experiences. An important feature of the service allows • Field trips–Street Tech organizes field employers, typically those who have hired trips to technology companies so that Street Tech graduates, to join the network. students can envision their future work Employers who participate are able to environments. conduct searches for qualified students, examine résumés and check references. Such activities serve multiple purposes; Students and graduates can also contact not only do they provide participants with employers directly through the network. connections, but they also help students In addition to making direct employer increase their knowledge of the industry contacts, students can use the system for and give them the opportunity to practice online mentoring, to collect information networking. on particular occupations or on the IT field, or to set up informational interviews. Leveraging Technology

By using the Internet to help participants expand their circle of contacts, Street Tech sets itself apart from most employment and training organizations. In the past several years there has been a proliferation in the development and use of networking software. Such software is used on dating websites like Match.com, social network websites such as Friendster.com and busi- ness networking websites like LinkedIn.com. All of these sites allow users to get con- nected to people they do not already know for a range of purposes. In early 2004, Street Tech partnered with LinkedIn.com to offer online networking to its participants, who tend to lack both strong social networks and access to online resources. LinkedIn.com donated its time in the development, launch and maintenance of a website whose purpose 18

BUILDING BRIDGES: The Program STREETWISE PARTNERS, NEW YORK, NY Most mentoring programs, whether they are designed for disadvantaged youth Diane had always been interested in or for corporate employees, are aimed interior design. at providing participants with guidance and support. These are also the goals of StreetWise Partners, but the program seeks I can just look at a room and know what to provide clients with something else as needs to be done to it. And I was interested well—critical skills and connections neces- in it too because, you know, I have four kids sary for success in the business world. and it was something I knew that they could Founded in 1997 by a group of young cor- relate to. That was important to me. Also, I porate professionals, StreetWise Partners’ see that it is a field that you can stay in as mission is to increase opportunities for you grow older. low-income job seekers by bridging the gap between the corporate sector and Diane had some administrative experience; she the low-income community. StreetWise worked for a homeless organization in New York City Partners works directly with approximately after going through its job training program (Diane 200 low-income job seekers per year in its herself had once been homeless). But Diane had no various programs. Each program follows a core model that matches job seekers with experience in the field of design, nor did she know one or two mentors who meet regularly anyone who could help her get that kind of job. with participants in a classroom setting and informally outside the classroom. Then she discovered StreetWise Partners, a pro- Programs include the following: gram that pairs low-income job seekers with men- • Working People Back to Work: This tors—young professionals mainly drawn from the program pairs low-income clients financial, consulting and computer industries. Not with business professionals who serve as career mentors and assist in soft only did the program help build Diane’s confidence skills development and office-based and give her important computer training and soft technology training. Each client is skills, it also helped her build relationships with a paired with two corporate volunteers variety of people who could help her in her career. or “partners” who work with them over a 13-week period. Training includes workplace simulations using You get exposure to so many different types Microsoft Office applications, job of people in so many different jobs. And searching, interviewing, workplace because it is 13 weeks long, friendships protocol and time management develop with people you never would have skills that are essential to obtain talked to. and maintain employment. • Career Ventures Program for Young Adults: StreetWise Partners operates a 13-session program with a particular focus on disadvantaged young adults aged 18 to 24. The curriculum for this training program is a modified version of the program described above. 19

• Career Match: StreetWise operates two The Strategies retention programs, one for adults em- ployed in general office administration Building Relationships and one for adults employed in the IT Walking in on a Streetwise Partners class, sector. These programs focus on salary one could immediately sense the buzz in negotiations, dealing with conflict in the the room. In a large conference room workplace, strategies for career advance- at PricewaterhouseCoopers, participants ment and other retention-related topics. sat with their mentors at laptops that StreetWise Partners does not attempt had been set up around the large con- to duplicate the work being done by ference tables. Participants worked on traditional employment and training or- their résumés with the help of their two ganizations. Rather, it adds value to these mentors. It was only the third time they organizations, recruiting the majority of had met, but the relationships had already its participants through referrals from em- started to solidify. ployment and training organizations and The energy in the room and the prom- government agencies. StreetWise Partners ising relationships that are developed are offers graduates from these programs in large part attributable to the structure valuable corporate connections—through of the program. StreetWise Partners volunteer members and corporate part- fosters the development of relationships ners—that they might not otherwise be by providing structured classroom time able to access. and a curriculum that can be adapted to In addition to its direct services to job meet each client’s needs. While partici- seekers, StreetWise Partners offers assis- pants develop or hone computer skills, tance to community-based organizations relationships begin to form, creating the by providing volunteers who can conduct space for safe networking. Mentors are mock interviews with job seekers or give also encouraged to meet with their par- presentations on specific industry trends. ticipants outside the classroom, providing a welcome balance to the time spent in StreetWise Partners provides training and structured activities. ongoing support to the 400 mentors who volunteer each year. The organization is There are several reasons for matching explicit about the networking component each participant with two mentors. First, it of the program. For example, a web-page increases the likelihood that at least one of description of the Working People Back the volunteers will make a strong connec- to Work program states that “volunteers tion with the job seeker. Second, matching proactively promote clients within their an individual with two mentors means that companies and make critical introduc- there will always be a backup if, for some tions that may eventually lead to a job.” reason, a mentor is unable to attend one However, most volunteers are drawn to of the Saturday sessions. Third, the job the program not by the expectation that seeker can benefit from building multiple they will directly find someone a job, but relationships and further expanding his or by the opportunity to give back and form her network. Finally, the paired mentoring a meaningful relationship with someone may actually help to attract mentors, in need. who often volunteer because they too want to network either for professional or personal reasons. 20

Building Networking Skills He also suggested that participants come up with three strong points about StreetWise Partners dedicates classroom themselves to highlight in their pitch. time to teaching networking skills. Activities For example, he said that he intro- include identifying the people in one’s duces himself as “smart, honest and network, understanding the importance hard-working.” After the speaker intro- of informational interviews and learning duced the concept, participants spent about the “30-second elevator pitch.” The time developing their own speeches 30-second elevator pitch is important be- and then delivered them to the class, cause it can help participants make a good which provided helpful feedback. impression when they have an unantici- pated networking encounter. In a session Providing Multiple Connections P/PV observed, the guest speaker outlined the key components of the 30-second pitch, Streetwise Partners, like many employ- which he said should include: ment and training programs, uses mock interviews to help build confidence and • Who you are; strengthen interview skills. After a day • What you are looking for; of formal instruction and practice with mentors, participants spend a full day on • What your experience is; and mock interviews. Volunteers from partici- • Why it is important to the company. pating corporations come in for the day to conduct the interviews. By bringing in

Faith-Based Mentoring: Family Pathfinders (Texas) Family Pathfinders, a program that operates throughout the state of Texas, does more than just add individuals to a job seeker’s network; it actually creates a network by linking job seekers with a group of individuals whose mission is to help families successfully transition off welfare. In this state-sponsored program, teams of four to eight volunteers from a single church, civic organization or business are matched with a family who is receiving or has re- cently received Temporary Assistance for Need Families (TANF) benefits. Team members work with an individual family to develop an action plan for how the team and sponsoring organization will support the family’s efforts to become self-sufficient. Depending on the situation, the team provides “needs-based support service, role modeling, mentoring, friendship, information about community resources, help with problem-solving, encourage- ment and networking.” There are currently 145 active teams in eight geographic areas, 104 of which are faith-based. More than 1,000 participants have been served since the program’s inception. Team mem- bers meet with the family on a regular basis—both making a commitment of one year—and attend bimonthly or quarterly meetings with other teams. While it may seem as if eight people are a lot to assign to one family, this structure provides participants with an already assembled network. Each individual in the mentoring team takes on a different role. For example, the person who is good with numbers may be assigned to help the participant with budgeting. The volunteer who is the biggest “people person” be- comes the team leader and is the main point of contact for the participant. The participant will interact with the rest of the team as needed or as much as she desires. Family Pathfinders offers more than just connections to individual mentors on the team, however. The power of the program comes from the opportunities to connect with other people from within the participating institutions, whether they are churches, businesses or civic organizations. 21

other volunteers, the program allows par- been assigned to her, as well as through ticipants to practice with people who take regular meetings with other graduates. them out of their comfort zone rather In these meetings, they talk about a than just practicing with their mentors, variety of work-related topics, including with whom they already feel comfortable. salary negotiations, how to be a better employee and other strategies for career The mock interviews are just one way that advancement. And, of course, the meetings StreetWise Partners helps participants are also an opportunity to network. expand and make the most of their em- ployment networks. As Diane remarked about the various people she met through the program, “By the end, you have a net- work of individuals who can help you.” By forging connections with many dif- ferent people, including their own mentors, other people’s mentors, fellow participants and representatives from outside companies, the program provides multiple opportunities to build contacts. It was through these relationships that Diane was able to secure her current job as a samples librarian in a design firm; she found out about the job from a StreetWise graduate working at the same firm.

Offering Ongoing Connections

While Diane loves her job, she continues to work toward achieving her long-term career goals. She is enrolled in a corre- spondence course leading to certification in interior design. Her ongoing con- tact with the program helps her to stay focused. She emails her mentors almost daily and gets together with them at least once a month over coffee or lunch. [My mentors] are very supportive. Their attitude is “What can we do to help you?” They say if there is something you want to learn, we can set up a time to work on it. And the thing is they have more work experience. Even though they are younger than me, they motivate me by what they are trying to do with their careers. This positive experience has spurred Diane to participate in the Streetwise Partners’ job retention program. “I am a single parent, and I need outside adult support,” said Diane. She hopes to gain this support through the additional mentor who has 22

CONNECTING WITH EMPLOYERS: dent—“Jason is a great programmer” or “Tanisha I.C.STARS, CHICAGO, IL is the person you talk to when you need to solve a problem”—while pouring them a cup of tea. When

Every afternoon at 4 p.m. i.c.stars students gather everyone has been introduced, it is time to hear at the conference room table in the corner of their from the guest and for everyone to drink tea. exposed brick loft. A couple of students are busy in the kitchen preparing the refreshments for this daily The Program event. The others collect their things at the table and excitedly prepare questions for that afternoon’s As described in the introduction to this report, i.c.stars is a technology training invited guest. program in Chicago. Participants spend the first three months of the program The small floral-patterned demitasse cups that are working on projects that are simulations set at each seat are an indication that this is not of real business problems. Executives your run-of-the-mill meeting. This is the daily “High from local technology firms and Fortune 500 businesses play the client companies Tea,” where students drink tea and eat cookies in these exercises, where teams of three while connecting with and learning from people or four students act as technology firms who work in the information technology industry. bidding on work for the fictitious clients. Speakers throughout the year have included Thus, students learn technology, leader- Stephanie Covall-Pinnix, the president and founder ship and business skills, not through classroom lectures, but through hands- of a small start-up technology firm called Evolution on activities that mirror work they might Partners; Laurel McGrath, the chief information eventually be doing in the technology officer of American Express; and Kevin Gates, a field. Students spend the last month of manager at Microsoft. the program in an intensive job search. i.c.stars is highly selective, requiring a Speakers are treated well. The moment any visitor high school diploma or GED for par- enters, two or three students rise from their work- ticipation, as well as a demonstration of stations to greet them, take their coats and offer consistent work experience. However, when making acceptance decisions, the them coffee or water. The designated host—a posi- program also takes into consideration stu- tion that rotates among the students—then leads dents’ levels of need and experience with the visitor to a separate room to get ready for that hardship. The program provides a stipend afternoon’s tea. The host chats with the speaker, of $600 per month to help students cover finds out about his or her job and tells the speaker some of their expenses during this time- intensive program. what to expect during the tea. Every guest is let in on a little hint: “The students won’t drink the tea i.c.stars stands out in the way that the organization infuses networking into until you do. It is a matter of courtesy.” every aspect of its program, from intake to graduation and beyond. When it is time for the tea to begin and everyone is gathered at the table, the host offers a brief introduction of the visitor and what he or she does. Then, one by one, students introduce their neighbors to the guest, each highlighting an employment strength in their fellow stu- 23

The Strategies 500 companies, the heads of IT firms and city officials. Students are expected to Constantly Teaching Networking Skills do background research on each guest speaker so they are well prepared to ask Daily high tea is just one way that i.c.stars intelligent questions and to get the most gives participants the opportunity to learn out of the presentation. and practice networking skills. Students learn to introduce each other and ask Executive Director Sandee Kastrul es- guest speakers about the work that they timates that i.c.stars has approximately do. Because the hosts at the tea are 3,600 people in its network and about rotated, all students get the opportunity 120 active volunteers at any given time. to interact one-on-one with speakers and In addition to the high tea speakers, the to follow up with them after the event, a program also recruits volunteers to act as critical networking skill. Other classroom mentors or to conduct mock interviews. exercises—such as the 30-second elevator While these activities are primarily aimed speech, which Melissa, the participant at providing guidance to participants profiled in the beginning of the report, and preparing them for a successful job found so challenging—also help partici- search, they also provide students with pants hone their skills. additional opportunities to interact with employers and others. These individuals Bringing in People from the Outside are usually active supporters of i.c.stars and thus allow students to expand their Students get to practice their networking networks in a way that feels relatively safe. skills with a wide variety of people. Nearly Alumni remain involved in the program, 60 speakers came to talk with students at volunteering as speakers or mentors; they high tea during a recent program cycle. also provide participants with an impor- Speakers typically include graduates of tant avenue for networking. the program, Chamber of Commerce representatives, IT staff from Fortune

An Organization That Is All About Networking: EXCEL! Networking Group, Inc. (Merrifield, VA) Founded in 1993, EXCEL! is a membership organization aimed at providing professional networking opportunities to people with disabilities, who often lack connections to critical employment networks due to mobility issues and discrimination. EXCEL! is entirely operated by a group of volunteer members and has no paid staff. EXCEL! hosts monthly networking meetings at a local church, inviting a variety of speakers to talk about employment opportunities and issues related to the employment of people with disabilities. Guests have included recruiters from the federal government, private sector employers and career counselors with expertise in networking. Each meeting starts with a round of introductions in which attendees share why they have come to the networking event. Before and after every gathering, participants have the chance to talk informally and exchange business cards. Additional resources include a listserv, website and monthly newsletter, which keep members updated on program activities as well as job opportunities. Recently EXCEL! developed a partnership with a local Rotary Club to provide mentors for interested EXCEL! members. In addition, EXCEL! received a $40,000 grant from the Virginia Board for People with Disabilities to develop a replicable model of an employment networking group for people with disabilities. 24

Sending Students Outside the Organization industry. Booths were staffed by industry leaders who engaged participants in Less “safe” are the numerous events various activities, each costing a certain students are required to attend and the number of prepurchased tickets. At “outside” networking opportunities that one booth, people could have tea with they are expected to take advantage of. the senior vice president of a bank; During career month, participants must at another, a representative from the attend at least one networking event Chamber of Commerce helped people per week. Staff instruct students to do with their 30-second elevator pitches. One research on networking events, pointing of the most popular booths was staffed by them in the direction of local technology a venture capitalist who talked through networking websites. IT executives who business plans while teaching people his are involved with i.c.stars also invite stu- favorite hobby, woodworking. The event dents and staff to their company’s events. provided the opportunity for people to Another way that students at i.c.stars make connections, but allowed them to gain understanding of the IT field is do so outside of the tedium of a typical through job shadowing and informational networking function. As one volunteer interviews. The program encourages who helped to organize the carnival put participants to set up trips to companies it, “The whole idea is that people are or interviews with key IT staff to better more likely to build relationships if they understand their future work environ- are having fun together.” ments. What is interesting about i.c.stars’ Such events serve multiple purposes: they approach is that it does not organize offer established people in the industry these activities for students. Rather, it en- and i.c.stars participants the opportunity courages students to take the initiative in to network, and they provide a major contacting graduates or people they have source of funding for the program. met through the daily high teas. Furthermore, they serve to strengthen the connections that individuals in the Organizing Events for the Industry technology and business community i.c.stars organizes five major events for have to the organization, increasing the the industry each year. The organization likelihood that they will contribute to uses these events as its primary source the organization in some way, whether it of revenue, with 50 percent of funds be by hiring a graduate, volunteering or generated in this way. The events also donating money. provide current students and graduates with additional opportunities to network. Networking Beyond Graduation Sandee Kastrul remarks: By constantly involving graduates in pro- i.c.stars has a reputation for throwing the gram activities and inviting them to events, best parties in the industry. These events i.c.stars provides participants with ongoing are not about parading the charity. People opportunities to network. An active alumni are there to do business. It is all about as- association, which meets monthly, gives stu- sociating your name with i.c.stars. dents the chance to support one another in their transition to work, to give back to Staff and volunteers say that one of the the i.c.stars program and to network. An most successful events was the High elected board plans alumni activities and Tech Carnival held in Spring 2003 and fundraisers for the program. organized by i.c.stars staff, volunteers, par- ticipants and alumni. This well-attended Students may also find postgraduation fundraiser was aimed at providing net- support and networking through an working opportunities for people in the exercise that begins in the last month 25

of the program. Students are guided through the process of building their own personal board of directors to act as their supporters as they transition out of the program and into a career in the IT sector. They are first asked to write their own mission statement—“What are you on this earth to do?” They then hone this mission to focus on a career path. The next step for students is to choose people they think will help them in achieving their mission. These include people with the “talent to lead and inspire” (the chair of the board), people who are “vision- aries” and people with expertise in specific areas. This exercise is designed to create a network of support for alumni that is fo- cused on helping graduates achieve their personal and professional goals. 26

CONCLUSION: THE NETWORKING CONTINUUM

Each of the programs profiled incorpo- 1. Emphasizing the Importance of rates networking in different ways and Networking to different degrees. While some, like While research shows that most low- CCBC, focus more on teaching the basic income people find their jobs through principles of networking, others place an people they know, many do not under- emphasis on actually connecting partici- stand how networks function or their pants to people who can help them in importance. In our conversations with their career searches. Just as the indi- participants in programs across the vidual strategies vary, so do the levels of country, they said repeatedly that the pro- intensity. A low-intensity program may grams had been instrumental in helping only offer a few network-focused activi- them understand the importance of ties. A higher-intensity approach involves networking and what it involved. As one multiple strategies, with each new strategy student remarked about i.c.stars: building on the last. It really stressed, like, the importance of The various approaches identified it, because before i.c.stars I didn’t—if you here represent a continuum of service asked me what networking was, I’d say provision. At one end of the continuum it was putting two computers together or are programs where the importance of something. But it really opened up to how networking is simply discussed in a job it’s important toward getting a job now. search class. At the other end of the continuum are programs where the focus Some programs address the importance on networking continues well beyond of networking and basic concepts in graduation. (See Figure 2.) one or two classes. At CCBC, instructors use several classroom exercises to drive The following is a summary of how the the message home. In other organiza- programs featured in this report incorpo- tions, the importance of networking is rate each strategy on the continuum. reinforced throughout the curriculum. i.c.stars Executive Director Kastrul de- scribes their approach as follows:

Figure 2: The Networking Continuum

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It is drilled into their heads that [net- nicate in an interview or in the workplace. working] is all about building relation- The emphasis is not on communication ships. The concept of networking is much skills that help build relationships and deeper than just a single networking turn them into job opportunities. event or class—it is built into the entire Effective networking may require specific curriculum. skills such as: As part of teaching the importance of • How to start a conversation with networking, programs can also help someone you don’t know; students gain a better understanding of how employment networks function. • How to build a relationship with While most job seekers use their contacts someone you don’t know well; to secure jobs at some point in their lives, • How to talk about your self and your they may not be aware of the depth and job search without sounding pushy; breadth of their own employment net- works. P/PV observed this when students • How to introduce people to one an- in CCBC’s job readiness program said that other; they had frequently used their contacts • How to exchange information, in- to get jobs but had not told many of the cluding contact information for later working people they knew that they were use; and looking for employment. Programs can help participants become more aware of • The importance of following up with their networks and how to use them. people whom you meet. Employment programs can help job 2. Teaching Communication and seekers learn these skills. StreetWise Networking Skills While Building Peer Partners and i.c.stars work with par- Relationships ticipants on developing and practicing a Peruse many a community college catalogue 30-second elevator pitch. This can be a and you will find courses in networking. useful way of getting participants to feel There are consulting firms and self-help comfortable talking about themselves and books dedicated to the subject. An array their employment goals. Other programs of resources exists to help people develop provide participants with scripts to guide their networking skills both because it them through the process of finding job is so important in today’s labor market leads through people they know. Street and because of the challenge it poses for Tech and i.c.stars discuss the importance many people. Beyond helping low-income of following up with people that students job seekers recognize the importance of meet, even if they do not know how that networking, programs can help their partici- person might be able to help. At both pro- pants gain the concrete social skills needed grams, students design their own business to network successfully. cards to hand out to people as they attend different networking events. At Street Building Skills Tech, students are encouraged to keep a database of contacts and to follow up with At a basic level, effective networking is an email after they have met someone or about the ability to build and maintain obtained someone’s business card. relationships with people, whether they are people you know well or hardly at Reinforcing Skills Through Peer Networks all. In large part, this hinges on effective communication skills. Many job training Effective communication and networking programs address communication skills, skills can be reinforced in the classroom but typically they focus on how to commu- as participants build strong peer networks. 28

Most of the programs profiled here—such Mentoring as CCBC, the HOPE Program and Street Mentoring has traditionally been about Tech—encourage the development of providing people with support and strong peer networks. While it may be guidance, rather than with employment argued that this approach reinforces past, opportunities. But even mentoring that potentially ineffective, job search behavior, is aimed at providing support, like the an emphasis on networking among stu- mentoring offered through StreetWise dents is important for several reasons. First, Partners or Family Pathfinders, can be peer networking can help expand small useful in the expansion of employment employment networks. Second, if some networks. Participants in these programs participants are able to secure better jobs have the opportunity to expand their through the program, they can serve as employment networks within the safety important contacts for other participants of a mentoring relationship. Mentors can in the future. Third, peer networking can also serve as critical bridging ties to other, teach and reinforce the importance of possibly stronger, networks. reciprocity. Finally, by fostering strong peer networks in the classroom, programs give Practice Networking Events participants the opportunity to practice critical networking skills. Networking does not come easily to most people. Special events can offer opportu- 3. Providing Opportunities to Practice nities for safe networking. Street Tech’s Networking in a Safe Environment networking party is just one example of It is one thing for participants to practice such an event. The fact that the guests networking among peers; it is another know that the networking party is designed thing entirely to meet and try to build to give students the chance to practice net- relationships with people who may be very working makes the event less scary. And by different from participants. Several pro- offering outsiders something of value—at grams we visited have developed ways for the party we attended, it was a lecture on participants to practice networking with networking and the chance to network people from outside the organization. with other people in the industry—the program was able to draw enough people Involving Graduates from the outside to give students the op- portunity to really practice. Graduates can be called upon to pro- vide safe networking opportunities by 4. Offering Opportunities to Network in mentoring current students, conducting the Real World mock interviews, giving informational Even after they have honed their net- interviews or allowing participants to working skills, many low-income people job-shadow them at work. For example, face a substantial challenge in looking for Oregon Tradeswomen asks participants gainful employment: they do not know to conduct informational interviews with people who can help them get good jobs. program graduates. By providing partici- As one woman who had participated in pants with the chance to connect with StreetWise Partners put it: graduates who have similar backgrounds and understand the program’s goals, I might have one friend that might programs can instill confidence around have been able to tell me about a job, talking to people participants do not this friend who worked at Mount Sinai know. Furthermore, these connections [Hospital]. She was the only person I may be important contacts in participants’ knew who had a position similar to the job searches. one I was looking for. 29

Employment and training organizations The Internet can play an important role in increasing The Internet has become a powerful the size and diversity of their participants’ networking tool. Several of the programs networks. we examined are beginning to think Involving Employers and Others in Program about ways to help their participants tap Activities into the wealth of networking resources available online. Street Tech, in collabora- One way to accomplish this is to involve tion with a premium business-networking employers and others in various aspects website, designed an online resource to of the program. i.c.stars uses its high tea meet the employment networking needs as a primary way to provide participants of participants. Email can also serve as an with exposure to people outside the important tool for building and main- organization. Similarly, Street Tech invites taining relationships. employers to speak to current participants about their work. The HOPE Program 5. Continuing to Build Networks Beyond also brings volunteers from the IT sector Program Graduation into the organization to conduct mock The importance of networking does not interviews. stop once a participant graduates from Informational Interviews and Job Shadowing a program or secures a job. Research suggests that job insecurity has increased Informational interviews and job- in the past two decades. Retention is one shadowing opportunities can serve the of the biggest challenges facing employ- dual purposes of giving participants the ment and training organizations. In fields chance to learn about various occupations such as information technology and the and allowing them to forge relationships trades, where work is often on a contract with people in key positions. CCBC basis or time-limited, networking may be provides participants with a script to even more important. Organizations can guide them in conducting informational continue to expand participants’ networks interviews. i.c.stars encourages participants after they are placed, with the goal of to set up informational interviews and helping them keep their jobs, advance to job shadowing with people they have met better positions within their company or through the program. The HOPE Program find better-paying jobs elsewhere. encourages participants to conduct Programs can employ many of the same informational interviews with someone strategies used with program partici- they work with at their internship. pants to help graduates with networking. Industry-Wide Networking Events These activities provide opportunities for retention support, while at the same time Today, middle- and upper-income job giving participants the chance to make seekers have access to a variety of net- new connections. Such strategies include: working groups and events that tend • Inviting graduates to attend events and not to be geared toward entry-level job participate in program activities; seekers. Some of these activities may not be appropriate or beneficial for low- • Offering alumni meetings to address income job seekers, while others may be postgraduation needs and to provide useful but not accessible. Job training pro- opportunities for networking; grams can do two things to address this • Pairing graduates with mentors who can issue: they can organize their own events provide them with employment support or they can provide entrée for their par- as well as network connections; and ticipants into already existing networking groups and events. • Providing continued access to online networking opportunities. 30

Enhancing Program Effectiveness it serves. A job readiness program for the extremely disadvantaged will likely want to These strategies offer the potential to pursue a different strategy than a sector- significantly enhance the effectiveness of based training program for participants employment and training organizations, with more skills: One might emphasize offering a powerful tool not only in their basic skill-building along with providing participants’ current search for employ- general connections to people who can ment but in future job searches. Network act as bridging ties; the other might place building certainly cannot replace the less emphasis on skill building while important work of job developers in em- stressing the development of connections ployment and training organizations. Job within the targeted industry. developers provide critical connections and can vouch for job seekers. Nor can Whatever the strategies chosen or the networking supplant needed hard and level of intensity, networking skills and soft skills training. Many job seekers will contacts, along with the traditional hard need to build skills and work experience and soft skills taught by workforce orga- before someone will be willing to leverage nizations, are essential components in their influence to help them get a job. the job seeker’s labor market toolbox. However, networking skills and connec- Programs have the potential to add value tions will be vital to participants as they to the employment services they offer by navigate the various job changes that focusing on the expansion and improve- are bound to occur throughout their ment of low-income people’s networks. working lives. Network building can strengthen existing strategies used by workforce organiza- tions. Many of the ideas presented in this report, such as mock interviews and mentoring, are activities already being used widely by employment and training programs. To make them more effective networking tools would require minor adjustments or a shift in focus. Other strategies—like organizing a networking party or organizing events for a particular industry—may require more substantive investments of time and planning, but could add substantial value to the menu of services already provided. P/PV’s companion publication, netWORKS, offers practical and economical ways to incorporate network building into existing programs using current staff. Information about this guide is available on our website, www.ppv.org. There are many different ways that or- ganizations can incorporate networking into their programs. The type or intensity of the intervention selected will likely depend on the nature of the program and the characteristics of the population 31

ENDNOTES

1 All participant names have been changed. used a lower-prestige contact fared worse in their current job relative to those whose 2 For a further discussion of the changing contacts worked in occupations with similar labor market, see Cappelli, Bassi, Katz, prestige levels. Knoke, Osterman and Useem (1997). If a causal relation between network quality 3 For a summary of the challenges facing low- and outcomes exists, Mouw argues that income workers, see Kazis (2001). we should expect to find that individuals 4 Data are unpublished from P/PV’s Sectoral with superior job networks use them more Employment Initiative. frequently. That is, someone with a high- quality job network should be more likely 5 Data are unpublished from P/PV’s State to obtain a job via a network contact than Workforce Policy Initiative. someone with a limited network. Mouw 6 Data are unpublished from P/PV’s Fathers found no such relationship and argues that at Work Initiative. some of the observed relationship between job network characteristics and labor 7 Our measures of job network size are cat- market outcomes may be attributable to a egorical variables, necessitating the creation bias resulting from the tendency for similar of dichotomous summary variables for individuals to associate with one another. large and small networks to be used in our The studies finding such an association models. We tested a variety of definitions of may not, for example, measure the effect network size and none yielded a statistically of job networks per se, but instead pick up significant association with labor market other similarities that we cannot observe outcomes. or control for in the available data (such 8 See Wilson (1987), p. 55-62. as culture, work ethic, language or other personal traits) that friends tend to share 9 See Chapple’s (2001) review of this litera- and that also affect labor market outcomes. ture for additional details. If individuals who have had success in the 10 Mouw (2004) offers an alternative interpre- labor market tend to prefer to befriend tation of the observed relationship between other individuals in similar positions, one occupation status of network members and might observe a correlation between job- labor market outcomes. To the extent that network quality and labor market outcomes members of the study samples tend to work even in the absence of any true benefit tied in the same occupation as their contact, to job networks. the relationship between prestige levels of 11 The JOBS curriculum is available online at the two individuals will tend to be positive http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/seh/mprc/ regardless of whether a causal link between PDFs/Jobs%20Manual.pdf contact occupational status and one’s own status is present. If, however, higher-prestige job contacts do help one to land more pres- tigious jobs, one should observe the same relationship even if same-occupation rela- tionships are not included in the analysis. Mouw drops individuals whose contact has the same occupation, runs the same analysis and finds no evidence of an association between contact’s occupational status and that of the subject. Mouw also refines this work by including measures of whether the contact used to find the recent job works in a higher- or lower-prestige occupation than the respondent’s previous job. This work shows that those who used a higher-prestige contact did no better, though those who 32

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APPENDIX: PROGRAM CONTACT INFORMATION

THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE OF I.C.STARS BALTIMORE COUNTY 212 West Superior, Suite 300 800 South Rolling Road Chicago, IL 60610 Catonsville, MD 21228 www.icstars.org www.ccbcmd.edu Contact: Contact: Sandee Kastrul, Executive Director Joan Edwards, Director of Special Projects 312-640-3851 410-455-6922 [email protected] [email protected]

OREGON TRADESWOMEN EXCEL! NETWORKING GROUP, INC. 1714 NE Alberta Street P.O. Box 2734 Portland, OR 97211 Merrifield, VA 22116 www.tradeswomen.net www.excelability.org Contact: Contact: Connie Ashbrook, Executive Director Robert Rudney, Chairman 503-335-8200 703-377-1190 [email protected] [email protected]

STREET TECH FAMILY PATHFINDERS 2300 El Portal Drive, Suite F Health and Human Services, San Pablo, CA 94806 Office of Family Services www.streettech.org Special Projects & Family Pathfinders Contact: 909 West 45th Street P.O. Box 12668 Barrie Hathaway, Executive Director 510-234-1300 Austin, TX 78711-2668 www.hhsc.state.tx.us [email protected] Contacts: Connie Williams, Program Administrator STREETWISE PARTNERS, INC. 512-206-5661 1350 Broadway, Suite 1913 [email protected] New York, NY 10018 Martha Ward, Program Administrator www.streetwisepartners.org 512-206-5669 Contact: [email protected] Angie Datta Kamath, Executive Director 212-971-0078 THE HOPE PROGRAM [email protected] One Smith Street Brooklyn, NY 11201-5111 www.thehopeprogram.org Contact: Josh Shepherd, Deputy Director 718-852-9307 [email protected] Public/Private Ventures 2000 Market Street, Suite 600 Philadelphia, PA 19103 Tel: (215) 557-4400 Fax: (212) 557-4469

New York Office The Chanin Building 122 East 42nd Street, 42st Floor New York, NY 10168 Tel: (212) 822–2400 Fax: (212) 949-0439

California Office Lake Merritt Plaza, Suite 1550 1999 Harrison Street Oakland, CA 94612 Tel: (510) 273–4600 Fax: (510) 273-4619 http://www.ppv.org