Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops 5 (1) : 1-27, 1996 1

Agronomy of ginger (Zingiber officinule Rose.) a review!

K KANDIANNAN, K SIVARAMAN, C K THANKAMANI & K V PETER Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut - 673 012; Kerala, India. ABSTRACT Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is grown in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world for it's spice and medicinal values. Successful production of ginger depends on efficient use of available resources by adopting suitable agronomic practices. Such practices like land preparation, seed selection, seed rate, seed treatment, planting season, depth of planting, mulchlng, nutrient management, use of growth regulators, weed control, irrigation, shade requirement and harvest management are reviewed in detail. The review also covers climatic requirement for cultivation, soil suitablity, establishment and growth, pests and diseases, cropping systems, ratooning and economics of cultivation. Key words: agronomy, cultivation, ginger, Zingiber officinale.

Introduction basic forms - green (fresh), pickled or Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) preserved and dry. Only dry ginger (Zingiberaceae), a perennial herbaceous (whole, peeled or sliced) is regarded as monocotyledon, usually grown as an­ a spice; green or fresh ginger is consid­ nual,is)rnown to human generations as ered basically as vegetable, while pick­ a medicinal and spice crop. It is a plant led or preserved ginger is destined of very ancient cultivation and the spice largely for the trade connected with has long been used in Asia. It is one of Chinese and Japanese cuisine. In addi­ the earliest oriental spices known to tion, ginger oil and oleoresins are also Europe and is still in large demand traded. Although a number of countries today (Purseglove et al. 1981). The produce ginger, exports of dry ginger on econol1}ic part is the underground rhi' a significant scale are limited to India zome, which is pungent and aromatic and China, the two dominant suppliers, and used for culinary purposes. in ginger followed by Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Aus­ bread, biscuits, cakes, puddings, soups tralia, Fiji, Bangaladesh, Jamaica, and pickles. Ginger is traded in three Nepal and Indonesia. The USA, lIK:, lContribution No. 198 of Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut - 673 012, Kerala, India. Kandiannan et al. 2 Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Japan, Ger­ moted as the day length was decreased many, Republic of Yemen and Canada from 16 to 10 h. Further increase in day are important importers of ginger. In length from 16 to 19 h did not promote India, ginger is cultivated in 21 states rhizome swelling and resulted in lower­ (Anonymous 1992) in an area of 53,000 ing of growth increment (Adaniya, Shoda ha with a production of 1,52,890 t. & Fujiada 1989). Brilliant sunshine, Ginger accounts for 8 per cent in heavy rainfall and high relative humid­ quantity and 5 per cent in value and ity are necessary for good yield (Ridley ranks fifth among various spices ex­ 1912). A rainfall of 1500-3000 mm, well ported by India (Spices Board 1994). distributed in 8-10 months is ideal. Dry Various aspects of ginger production spells during land preparation and has been earlier documented in India before harvesting are required for large (Aiyadurai 1966; Randhawa & N andpuri scale cultivation (CSIR 1976). Ginger is 1970; Paulose 1973; CSIR 1976; Nair cultivated under rainfed and irrigated 1982; Korla & Dohroo 1991; Pruthi conditions. In areas receiving less rain­ 1993) and elsewhere (Ridley 1912; fall, the crop needs regular irrigation. Graham 1936; Hernandez 1944; Brown The crop is sensitive to water logging, 1955; Bendall & Daly 1966; Whiley frost and salinity and tolerant to wind 1974; Purseglove et al. 1981; Lawrence and drought (Hackett & Carolane 1982). 1984). Agronomical aspects of ginger Deep slopes in hilly areas are not production are reviewed here in detail. recommended for cultivation as it leads to soil erosion during heavy rainfall and Habitat and ecology . rhizome yield has been negatively cor­ Ginger requires a tropical or sub­ related with slope (Cho et al. 1987). tropical climate. It thrives well up to an Partial shade also increases rhizome altitude of 1500 m above MSL in the yield (Jayachandran et al. 1991). Himalayas, the optimum being 300-900 m (CSIR 1976). The base temperature Soil requirement is 13°C and upper limit Ginger has wider adaptability for differ­ 32°C/27°C (day/night) (Hackett & ent soil types, and for higher yield the Carolane 1982), the favourable range soil should be loose, friable and offer being 19-28°C. The optimum soil tem­ minimum resistance to rhizome devel­ perature for germination is between 25- opment. Well drained soil with at least 26°C and for growth 27.5°C (Evenson, 30 cm depth is essential, but by adopt­ Bryant & Asher 1978). The temperature ing bedding and surface mulching, shal­ range at which the crop is cultivated in lower soil can be utilized satisfactorily Kerala, India is 28-35°C (Purseglove et (Whiley 1974). As' depth of soil in­ al. 1981). A temperature in excess of creases, it's suitability for cultivation 32°C can cause sunburn (Whiley 1974) also increases (Cho et al. 1987). and low temperatures induce dormancy. Compact clay soils which are subject to The crop requires short or long day water logging or coarse sands without length for its growth (Hackett & water holding capacity, gravelly soils or Carolane 1982). As day length was those with hard pan are not conducive increased from 10 to 16 h, vegetative for the production of high yielding growth was enhanced, while it was healthy plants (Lawrence 1984). Soil inhibited and rhizome swelling pro- hardiness should be less than 15.7 mm Agronomy of ginger 3

(Cho et al. 1987). The most favourable traits are available (R"vindran et al. soil pH is 6.0 - 6.5 (Whiley 1974; Cho et 1994). Yield, percentage recovery of dry al. 1987). In India, ginger is grown on ginger from fresh ginger and fibre a wide variety of soils such as sandy content are the criteria used to differen­ loams, clay loams, black rich clay soils tiate these types (Aiyadurai 1966). Nybe and lateritic soils. Virgin forest soils & Nair (1979 a) studied 25 cultivars for particularly after deforestation are ideal morphological characters and observed (Paulose 1973). Ridley (1912) quoted a significant differences among them ex­ farmer who grew ginger for 40 years in cept for breadth of leaves, leaf area the same patch and it is therefore quite index and primary fingers. The per­ unnecessary to destroy forests of great formance of various varieties under value. It performs best on medium different locations in India was evalu­ loams with a good supply of humus ated by Thomas & Kannan (1969), Nair, (John 1988). Organic matter has a Sasidhar & Sadanandan (1976), Nybe & positive effect on yield (Cho et al. 1987). Nair (1981), Thangaraj et al. (1983), Uniform loamy texture is more suitable Rattan, Karla & Dohroo (1988), Mohanty than other types (Hackett & Carolane et al. (1990) and NRCS (1991; 1992). 1982). Sahu & Mitra (1992) reported Potential yield and quality of genotypes that maximum yield was achieved in may vary with agroclimatic conditions, sandy loam soil having minimum bulk soil fedility and agronomic practices. density (1.20 g/cc), moderate acidic However, a thorough study on ginger reaction (pH 5.7) and high organic genotypes, its interaction with environ­ matter (organic carbon 1.1 per cent) ment and its effect on value added and available potassium (351 kg/ha); products has not been attempted. Gin­ the yield decreased with increase in soil ger cultivars were also evaluated for clay content and decrease in pH. fertilizer response (Muralidharan & Ramankutty 1975), shade requirement Cultivars (KAU 1992; Beena, Sreedevi & Nair As ginger rarely sets seed, the general 1994), disease resistance (Balagopal et mode of propagation is asexual. Crop al. 1975; Dohroo et al. 1986), reaction improvement is mainly through intro­ to insect pests (Nybe & Nair 1979 b) and duction and selection (Muralidharan & quality (Jogi et al. 1972; Govindarajan Sakunthala 1975). Micropropagation 1982; Ratnambal, GopalaIi& Nair 1987; through tissue culture (Hosoki & Sagawa AICRPS 1992 a). 1977; Ilahi & Jabeen 1987; Planting Bhagyalakshmi & Singh 1988; Pruthi Season 1993; Bhagyalakshmi, Shanthi & Singh 1994), mutation (Mohanty & Panda Planting seasons are March-June' in 1991; Giridharan & Balakrishnan 1992) India' (Thomas ,1961; Randhawa, and polyploidy breeding (Sasikumar, Nandpuri & Bajwa 1972 a; CSIR 1976; George & Ravindran 1994) are also Kingra & Gupta 1977; GAU 1986; Jha, reported. Several commercial cultivars Maurya & Pandey 1986; Pawar & Patil of ginger are cultivated throughout the 1987; Phogat & Pandey 1988; Mohanty, world especially in: India, and many Naik & Panda 1990), September at land races and improved 'cultivars which Australia and Fiji (Whiley 1974; Si":'an excel in yield and one or niore quality 1979), March-April at West IndIes Kandiannan et al. 4

(Ridley 1912), mid-April at South East­ suitable method. The soil should be ern Nigeria (Okwuowulu et al. 1990), thoroughly broken up and pulverised May-June at Jamaica (Graham 1936), with a hoe or plough and if possible February-April at Taiwan (Lawrence harrowed afterwards; without such 1984), April-May ,at ·Sierra Leone and improvement in tilth the crop fails to Hawaii (Lawrence 1984; Furutani, produce good shaped rhizomes. Good Villanueva & Tanable 1985) and June shaped rhizomes are desirable for at Ghana (Lawrence 1984). However, marketing and post-harvest processing. ginger can -be planted anytime during Land preparation may vary with soil the year in areas where irrigation type, slope and irrigation. In Jamaica, facilities exist .(Paulose 1973). The main clay lands are forked and left to dry 3 considerations while planting ginger months before planting and again a are: time of y~ar in relation to climate month before planting, forked and and depth of seed placement and spac­ drained 'by means of trenches (Graham ing (Whlley 1974). The time of planting 1936) and ridges and furrows method is has considerable influence on yield of used. In the furrow method, the seed ginger (Kannan & Nair 1965) and it rhizomes are sown in furrows 22.5 em depends on the time of occurrence of wet deep and 22.5 em apart. When ridge season (Ridley 1912). In India, ginger is method' is used the rhizome pieces are planted with commencement of South planted 30 em apart but only a few West monsoon. In areas where the centimetres below the surface in pre­ monSO(>ll is late, planting is done in pared .ridges about 30 inches high June or later. A higher yield of 100-200 (Lawrence 1984). In Queensland, prepa­ per cent was recorded by planting ration of land for planting begins in during the first week of April, with the November-December." After initial receipt ofsuII)mer showers, than the ploughing, a cover crop of maize is plan­ general practice of .planting in May­ ted during summer or oats are sown June (Khan 1~59;.Aiyadurai 1966). during autumn to build up organic mat­ Early planting is, ben,eficial (Randhawa ter in the soil or the land is fallowed & N andpuri 197·0'; Ra;"dhawa, N andpuri until July. Poultry manure or mill mud & Bajwa 1972.a) and ensures that the (resi-dual material from the processing crop grows sufficiently to withstand of sugarcane) is incorporated before heavy rains and grows rapidly with the cover crops are sown to provide addi­ receipt of heavy rains (Nair & Varma tional organic matter (Whiley 1974). 1970). Growth and yield characters and Root knot nematode is controlled by soil rhizome yield were the highest in mid­ fumigation, a month before planting. In March planting than February and May Bengal, the field is ploughed during planting at Nainital (Phogat & Pandey March-April after the first rain, and 1988). altogether the field receives 12 to 13 ploughings. It is then levelled, and Cultivation water channels are made to irrigate the To produce high yields of ginger the soil ground. The water channels ate made should be loose and friable. The mode of 60 to 80 ft apart, and connected by preparing soil depends to a considerable smaller ones running at right angles to extent upon climate, and the planter the main channels, about 8 ft apart must use his judgement as to the most (Ridley 1912). Agronomy of ginger 5 In India, the land is dug or ploughed Seed material several times with the onset of summer Size showers in April, to make a fine tilth. With the onset of monsoons, the field is Ginger is propagated vegetatively from given a last ploughing and then laid into rhizome and the length and weight of raised beds, separated by channels. pieces used varies from place to place Usually, the beds are of 1 m width, 15 and variety to variety. A direct relation­ cm height and of convenient length ship has been established between size varying from 3 to 6 m, the width of the of planting material and final yield channels between the beds being about Timo (1982). Rhizome pieces weighing 30 cm. When planted on hill slopes, 0.5-2.0 ounces with two to three sprouts the beds are formed along the contours are recommended for increased yield to reduce soil erosion. In level lands, and better returns (Groszmann 1954; deep drains, are provided at sufficient Meenakshi 1959; Randhawa & N andpuri spacings to drain out excess water 1969). Different sizes of pieces, namely, during rainy season (Paulose 1973). 15 g (Kannan & Nair 1965), 28-56 g In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the land (BAE 1971), 50-80 g (Whiley 1974), 20- is given about six ploughings and the 30 g (CSIR 1976), 40-45 g (Lee, Asher soil brought to a fine tilth. Aiyadurai & Whiley 1981), 15-20 g (Panigrahi & (1966) stated that there was no added Patro 1985), 15-19 g (Mohanty, Naik & advantage in ploughing the land more Panda 1990), 20-25 g (AICRPEl'1992 b) than the minimum required (3 to 5 were adopted. Higher yield arid profit times). Two distinct methods of were obtained from larger seed pieces cultivation are adopted in India (Khan & Natesan 1955; Kannan & Nair (CSIR 1976). In the Malabar system, 3 1965; Aiyadurai 1966; Randhawa, x 1 m beds are laid out at a distance of Nandpuri & Bajwa 1972 b'; MACD 30-45 cm from each other and small 1977; Whiley 1981; Sengupta et al. shallow pits for planting are then made 1986; Okwuowulu 1988 b; Korla, Rattan on the beds at required spacing, Beds & Dohroo 1989; Roy & Wamanan 1989). are smaller in slopy areas. A handful Seed pieces with two or three constric­ of cattle manure is applied'to each of tions along their length produced better these pits. In the South Kanara system, growth than with four constrictions no beds are laid out. A mixture of (Lee 1974). Whiley (1974) observed that manure and burnt earth is applied in seed size influences rhizome size at the form of a 5 cm thick ridge in harvest and increases with larger seed between the 'rows 100-200 cm apart pieces. from each other. The seed rhizomes are Seed rate placed at required distance in the rows and earthed up to make the ridges In general, a seed rate of'1200-1400 kgl 15-20 cm high, The field is given a ha (Kannan & Nair 1965; Aiyadurai light irrigation soon after sowing. 1966; Nair & Varma 1970; GAU 1986) Aiyadurai (1966) suggested that flat is being used and it varies with variety bed system for sandy loam soil and and soil fertility. A seed rate of 1250 kgl raised beds for clay loam soil were ha was optimum with each seed rhi­ the most suited for successful cultiva­ zome weighing 30 g (Randhawa & tion. Nandpuri 1970). A seed rate of800-HOO Kandiannan et al. 6 kglha is adopted in Kerala(Mirchandani is a serious disease which is seed-borne 1971). For plains and lower altitudes, and the seed rhizomes should be treated 1500-1800 kg and at higher altitudes(> before planting. The beneficial effect of 1000 m) 2000-2500 kg are recommended seed treatment against Sclerotium rolfsii (Aiyadurai 1966; CPCRI 1985; NRCS was reported by Park (1937) .. Farmers 1989 a). Kingra & Gupta (1977) used in Kerala dip seed rhizomes in cowdung 2.3-3.5 tlha at Himachal Pradesh. In emulsion (Mirchandani 1971). Smoking Australia, Bendall and Daly (1966) and seed rhizomes once or twice before BAE (1971) recommend a rate of 2.5-3.7 storage is also beneficial (Muralidharan, tlha, whereas Whiley (1974) reported Nair & Balakrishnan 1973). Seed rhi­ that 10 tlha appeared to be economical zomes are also treated in hot water at but farmers plant 4-6t1ha. Lee, Asher & 48"C for 20 min before planting (Colbran Whiley (1981) adopted approximately & Davies 1969). The cut end of.the seed 6t1ha corresponding to 1,40,000 plant may.provide entry for fungal pathogens population. The yield increased with and to prevent this the cut seeds are seed rate (Mohanty et al. 1988); dipped in benomyl 0.25% for 10 min Jayachandran, Vijayagopal & (Whiley 1974). Formulations such as Sethumadhavan (1980) reported that Agallol 0.5% for 3 min or wettable high seed rate accounted for 40-46 per Ceresan 0.1% for 30 min or Coppersan cent of the total cost of production. Seed 0.3 % for 60 min can also be employed rhizomes remain undecomposed at crop (CSIR 1976). As a prophylactic measure maturity and can be detached during against soft rot disease, wettable Ceresan crop growth without significantly affect­ 0.25% (Kannan & Nair 1965), Dithane ing yield (Okwuowulu 1988 a). A mean M-45 (Mohanty, Naik & Panda 1990) of 58 per cent of seed ginger from can be used for seed treatment. Treat­ smaller setts and 86 per cent from ing the rhizomes in ethrel increased larger setts can be recovered in fully growth and develpment of ginger (Islam plantable condition. In some places et al. 1978). Furutani, Villanueva & farmers plant whole rhizomes and Tanable (1985) observed that pre-plant unearth them when the crop reaches soak application of ethephon at 750 ppm 30-35 em height (Singh .1982) and in combination with 51"C water soak for recovery was 94.6 per cent at 3 months 10 min increased shoot number of after planting (Jayachandran, ginger cultivars. Ra et al. (1989) Sethumadhavan & VijayagopaJ 1982). observed that low temperature (5, 0 and By this method farmers get back 60 to -5"C) treatment of seed rhizomes de­ 70 per cent of the seed cost. Detaching crea.sed plant weight and rhizome yield. and recycling the setts in the same season or later, provides a means of Spacing achieving rapid seed ginger multiplica~ Spacing may vary with soil fertility, tion .and for obtaining a higher aggre­ variety, climate and management prae' gate yield from a given quantity of setts. tiees, Gloser spacings gave higher yield Seed treatment (Loknath & Das 1964; Aiyadurai 1966; Randhawa, N andpuri & Bajwa '1972 b; The aim of seed treatment is to induce Nair 1982). Whiley(1974) reported that early germination and to prevent seed­ spacing has noeffeet·onfinalkriob size, borne pathogens and pests. Rhizome rot Different spacings (15-45 x 15-45 em) Agronomy of ginger 7 have been recommended in India 1986); accumulation of drymatter in the (Loknath & Das 1964; Kannan & Nair above ground portion was noticed up to 1965; Aiyadurai 1966; Paulose 1973; 210 . DAP while in the rhizome it Muralidharan 1973 a; Muralidharan & continued upto 240 DAP and was Sakunthala 1975; CSIR 1976; Kingra & maintained at more or less the same Gupta 1977; Nair 1982; cpcm 1985; level even at harvesting. Whiley (1980) Panigrahi & Patro 1985; GAU 1986; observed that crop growth rate and net Jha, Maurya & Pande 1986; Korla assimilation rate declined with age up Rattan & Dohroo 1989; Mohanty, Naik to flowering and then increased during & Panda 1990; J ayachandran et oZ. the later period of rhizome bulking. 1991). Spacings of 40 x 15 cm (Lee, Mulching Asher & Whiley 1981) and 60 x 11.8 em (Whiley 1981) at Australia, 38.1 x 38.1 The beneficial effect of mulching was em at Mauritius (Owadally, Ramtohul reported by several workers. Mulching & Heerasing 1981) and 45 x 40 em at enhances germination, prevents wash­ Trinidad, West Indies (Wilson & Ovid, ing of soil due to heavy rain ahd surface 1993) have been recommended. run-off, increases infiltration, conserves Depth of planting moisture, regulates temperature, de­ creases evaporation, suppresses weed Planting depth may vary depending growth, enhances microbial activity and upon seed size, soil type and soil improves soil fertility by adding organic moisture content. In general, bolder matter. Mulching could change the seeds are planted deeper and smaller physical and chemical environment of seeds at a shallow depth. Seed rhizome the soil resulting in increased availabil­ pieces are generally planted at 4-10 em ity of phosphorus and potassium depth (Kannan & Nair 1965; Aiyadurai (Muralidharan 1973 a). The quantity of 1966; Vevai 1971; Paulose 1973; Lee, mulch applied varies with availability of Asher & Whiley 1981; Mohanty, Naik & material. In general, 10 to 30 tJha is Panda 1990; Wilson & Ovid 1993). As applied twice or thrice, one at planting, depth of planting influences the time of second at 45th day and third at 90th day germination, it is necessary to plant at after planting. Commonly used mulch optimum depth. materials are green and dry forest leaves, residues like sugarcane trash, Germination and growth paddy, wheat, finger millet, little millet Under ideal conditions ginger appears and barley straws and also weeds and above ground 10-15 days after planting, vegetation of the locality. Farm yard but may be prolonged up to 2 months. manure (FYM) and compost are also Anderson (1991) identified three dis" used. Coconut leaves (Aclan & tinctive growth phases. Dasaradhi, Quisumbing 1976), banana leaves Sriramamurthy & Rao (1971) identified (Mohanty 1977), dry saZleaves (AICSCIP 120-135 days after planting (DAP) as 1985), shisam (Jha, Maurya & Pandey the active growth stage. Progressive 1986) and' green forest leaves (Roy & increase in dry matter production of Wammanan 1988) were found best. If whole plant and rhizome was observed the quantity of above material~ are in up to 240 DAP, after which there was short supply, live mulches like sunhemp, a decline (Ravisankar & Muthusamy greengram, horsegram, blackgram, Kandiannan et al. 8 niger, common sesbania, cluster bean, sium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, french bean, soybean, cowpea, daincha sulphur, chlorine, iron, boron, manga­ (Sesbania acculeata) and redgram can nese, zinc, copper and molybdenum are be grown as intercrop and used for in essential for healthy growth of the crop situ mulching between 45-60 days after and higher yield. The first six are planting. Straw mulching increased yield needed in relatively large amounts and by 12.2 per cent over unmulched are referred as major elements of (Joachim & Pieris 1934). Application of macronutrients. The remaining elements forest leaves at 20 tlha in two equal are needed in much smaller amounts splits, one at planting and second at and are known as trace elements of 45th day after planting increased yield micronutrients (Asher & Lee 1975). The by 200 per cent (Kannan & N aiI>1965). macronutrients were accumulated in Application of 14 t ofFYM as mulch per the following decreasing order: N, K, acre enhanced yield by 65 per cent Ca, Mg, S and P and the order for (Aiyadurai 1966) and 12.5, 5.0 and 5.0 micronutrients were: Fe, Mn, Zn, Band tlha of mulch for the first, second and Cu (Haag et al. 1990). Ginger rhizomes third mulching, respectively, are consid­ were mainly K and N exhausting, while ered optimum (Randhawa & Nandpuri Mg and P removals were intermediary 1970). Kingra & Gupta (197.7) used dry and Ca removal was the least (N agarajan grass and forest leaves as mulch at 15 & Pilla; 1979). Hackett & Carolane tlha, whereas Mohanty & Sarma (1978) (1982) stated that nutrient need for used 15 tlha green leaves at planting ginger is in the following order: N, K, P, and 7.5 tlha each at 45 and 90 DAP. Ca and Mg. Asher & Lee (1975) identi­ Owadally, Ramtohul & Heerasing (1981) fied deficiency and toxicity symptoms stated that mulching with sugarcane for various nutrient elements. trash and rice straw was beneficial. Organic manures Performances of different live mulches were similar but superior to unmulched The need for organic nutrition has been plots (AICRPS 1990). Korla, Rattan & emphasised by many workers; soil or­ Dohroo (1990) found that FYM mixed ganic matter has positive correlation with grass, pine needles and pea straw with yield (Cho et al. 1987). Staple was effective as mulch and increased manure, bat guano, marl, sheep manure the yield. Daincha can be grown in (Ridley 1912), FYM (Meenakshi 1959; inter-rows and applied as second mulch Loknath & Das 1964; Kannan & Nair after cutting at 60 DAP (Valsala, Amma 1965; Muralidharan & Ramankutty & Devi 1990). Mulching three times 1975; Lawrence 1984; Panigraghi & with leaves and growing intercrop of Patro 1985; Pawar & Patit 1987), green soybean as live mulch, was equally leaf(Nair 1969), poultry manure (Tewson effective (AICRPS 1992a). Polythene as 1966; Whiley 1974; Haag et al. 1990), mulch material gave 19.9 t of fresh press ml\d (Tewson 1966; Whitey 1974); rhizome per ha compared to 12.0 t in compost (Veyai 1971), oil cake (Ridley unmulched plots (Mohanty, Naik & 1912; Aiyadurai 1966; Rajan & Singh Panda 1990). 1974; Sadanandan & Iyer 1986; NRCS 1993), bioferlilizer (Konde, Patil & Crop nutrition Ruikar 1988), night soil and urine Adequate amounts of nitrogen, potas- (Brown 1955) were used as sources of Agronomy of ginger 9 organics. The quantity of organics ap­ nium nitrate (Lee & Asher 1981) were plied may vary with availability of used as sources. Superphosphate (Whiley material and generally it varies be­ 1974; Muralidharan, Varma & Nair tween 5-30 t/ha. Organics are mostly 1974), diammonium phosphate (Saha applied as basal doses and in certain 1989) were the sources for phosphorus places it is also applied after the and potassium sulphate (Whiley 1974) emergence of crop as a mulch. The and potassium chloride (Muralidharan, magnitude of response to FYM was Varma & Nair 1974) were the sources significantly less in the presence of for potassium. Apart from these straight nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers, fertilizers, fertilizer mixtures contain­ which indicates that the heavy require­ ing NPK 8:8:16 were also ~sed for ment of the crop for FYM can be ginger production (Kannan & Nair minimised by application of fertilizers 1965). Pawar & Patil (1988) obtained a along with leaf mulch (Thomas 1965; beneficial effect by using organic and Aiyadurai 1966). Muralidharan, Varma inorganic nutrition together. & Nair (1974) observed a lack of response for fertilizer application and Nitrogen attributed it to the heavy basal organic Nitrogen is an extremely important dressing coupled with high initial fertil­ element in commercial ginger produc­ ity status of the soil. tion (Asher & Lee 1975). The recom­ Fertilizers mendation varies from 36 kg/ha in India Fertilizer recommendation varies with (Kannan & Nair 1965) to 125-830 kg/ha variety, soil type and climate. A ferti­ in Australia (Asher & Lee 1975). Whiley lizer dose of 36-225 : 20-115 : 48-200 N, (1974) reported that when organic ma­ P 205' K" 0 kg/ha has been adopted in nure was used, more than 230 kg N/ha different states in India (Lokanath & was not economical in Queensland and Das 1964; Kannan & Nair 1965; Nair & in the absence of organics, 275 kg N/ha Varma 1970; Paulose 1970; Randhawa, should be used. Nitrogen significantly N andpuri & Bajwa 1972b; Muralidharan increased the number of third order 1973a; Muralidharan & Sakunthala shoots and fourth order rhizome 1975; Kumar 1982; Nair 1982; GAD branches and total yield o·fshoots (Lee, 1986; Pawar & Patil 1987; Rattan, Asher & Whiley 1981) and tiller number Korla & Dohroo 1988; Singh 1988; Saha (Muralidharan 1973 b). Application of 1989; NRCS 1989a; Mohanty et al. 56-112 kg N/ha decreas~9. drym·atter 1990; Sahu & Mitra 1992; Panda, content (Aiyadurai 1966). Increases in Edison & Mohanty 1993); in Australia yield of ginger by N application were 200 : 229 : 199 (Whiley 1981), 66:82:66 reported by Aiyadurai (196p), Mura­ in West Indies (Wilson & Ovid 1993) lidharan (1973b), Muralidharan, Varma and 105:241:126 in Nigeria (Okwuowulu & Nair (1974), Aclan & Quisu,mbing et al. 1990) have been identified. For (1976), Sadanandan & Sasidharlm nitrogen, urea (Whiley 1974; Lee, Asher (1979), Lee, Asher & Whiley (1981) and & Whiley 1981; Saha 1989), calcium Gavande (1986). Patil (1987). ,observed ammonium nitrate (Nair&Vatma 1970; that N application. along with Muralidharan, Varma & Nair 1974), biofertilizers also enhanced the yield. ammonium sulphate (Nair 1969, Paulose The yield was doubled when the N level 1970; Lee & Asher 1981) and ammo- was increased from 30 to 90 kg/ha Kandiannan et al. 10

(Aclan & Quisumbing 1976). However, potassium from the soil (up to 500 kg/ application of N was also reported to be hal (Asher & Lee 1975). The crop when ineffective (Saraswat 1972; KAU 1994) grown on any soil type with a replace­ and higher doses decreased the yield able potassium level greater than (Muralidharan 1973b). The fibre and 0.5 m e % is unlikely to respond to addi­ starch contents of ginger were not affe­ tional potassium (Whiley 1974). Below cted by N (Aclan & Quisumbing 1976) 0.5 m e % two levels are recognised: less but Saraswat (1972) found an adverse than 0.3 m e % of replaceable potassium effect on oil content. Critical nitrogen and 0.3 to 0.5 m e % of replaceable concentration in all parts of the plant potassium. In the lower range, a posi­ decreased linearly with time (Lee, tive field response was recorded with Edwards & Asher 1981). Nitrogen requi­ application upto 325 kg K,0/ha, while rement was higher during active growth above 0.3 ill e % no responses were (120-135 DAP) (Dasaraq.hi, Srirama­ recorded with rates above 60 kg K,O/ha. murthy & Rao 1971). Nitrogen is gene­ Aclan & Quisumbing (1976) observed rally applied through the irrigation slight increase in yield with application system in approximately 10 applica­ of K. However, a higher dose of K,0 tions at Queensland. Rates and times of reduced height of plants and yield each dressing are related to growth rate (Muralidharan, Varma & Nair 1974); of the crop and rainfall. However, app­ JDA (1953) and Saraswat (1972) also roximately 30 per cent ofthe total N are reported that there was no response for applied during first 3 months, and the potassium. Split application of potas­ remaining 70 per cent are applied at 5- sium (20 per cent given as basal dose 8 months after planting (Whiley 1974). followed by 40 per cent at 2 months As the number of splits increased, N after planting and remaining 40 per recovery also increased and higher N cent at 4 months after planting) gave recovery was obtained with eight splits greater response than a single basal (Lee, Edwards & Asher 1981). Koen, dressing (Whiley 1974). Plessis & Hobbs (1990) stated that N deficiency could be rectified even at 225 Phosphorus days after planting. Xu, Zhao & Jiang The amounts of phosphatic fertilizer (1993) found that greatest (45.24 per needed varies greatly from soil to soil. cent) N utilisation was duri-ng the A heavy crop removes only 35 to 50 kg/ middle of vig~rous plant growth. Nitro­ ha. In soils of high phosphorus fixing gen use efficiency decreased with in­ capacity, high rates of P application creasing rate of N application (Lee, may be necessary, particularly if the Asher & Whiley 1981). Lee & Asher soils have not previously received large (1981) observed that ammonium nitra­ amounts of P fertilizer (Asher & Lee te, ammonium sulphate and urea were 1975). Phosphatic fertilization with 56- equally effective; however, in terms of 112 kg ofp,o,lha not only registered 14- cost effectiveness, they rated in the 20 per cent higher yield but also order: urea > ammonium nitrate > improved the dry matter content of ammonium sulphate. rhizomes (Aiyadurai 1966). Phosphorus Potassium at 20 and 40 kg/ha increased the yield As with other 'root' crops, ginger is by 21.5 and 11.5 per cent, respectively expected to remove a large amount of (Saraswat 1972). However, the respon~e Agronomy of ginger 11 for P was not clear in some cases (JDA per cent and also improved the quality 1953; Muralidharan 1973 b; (Aiyadurai 1966; Paulose 1973). In­ Muralidharan, Varma & Nair 1974; creased water supply increased the Aclan & Quisumbing 1976). Phophorus yield of rhizomes and essential oil is mostly applied as a basal dose at the content also (Lawrence 1984). Irrigation time of planting. is given to ensure that the crop receives approximately 10 mm of water every Calcium second day from mid-January until Ginger requires only a very low external early March when the most rapid calcium (Islam, Edwards & Asher 1982) growth occurs at Queensland (Whiley for healthy growth. The upper leaves of 1974). Further, overhead sprinkling for calcium deficient plants contained 0.05 protection against sunburn is extremely to 0.07 % calcium while corresponding important in late October, November leaves of healthy plants contained 1.1 to and December. When sunburning 1.3% (Asher & Lee 1975). A solution of weather occurs, irrigation is usually calcium concentration as low as 2 ppm done from 10 am to 3 pm daily. This appears sufficient to achieve 90 per cent establishes a microclimate over the of maximum yield (Islam, Edwards & crop, by cooling both air and soil (Whiley Asher 1982). Sahu & Mitra (1992) 1974). When the temperature reached recorded encouraging response ofginger 26°C during October-November and to liming and obtained 23 per cent 30°C during December-March at South higher yield but Joachim & Pieris Mrica, impulse sprinkle irrigation cre­ (1934) observed no response for liming ated a favourable microclimate in slightly acidic soil. Calcium defi­ (Anderson et al. 1990) which improved ciency of ginger is uncommon because plant growth and increased the yield by relatively large amounts of calcium are more than 25 per cent. Ginger crop added to the soil through superphos­ raised in the first week of May in Orissa phate and organic manures. (India) needs two or four initial pot waterings at an interval of 7 days Micronutrients depending on soil type. Mter this the Roy et al. (1992) reported that com­ crop receives monsoon rainfall, and bined spraying of Zn (0.3%) + Fe (0.2%) comes up well till end of September. + B (0.2%), twice at 45 and 75 days after Subsequently, the crop has to be given planting resulted in maximum yield. pot watering commencing from mid­ Irrigation October to end of December at 15 day intervals. (Panigrahi & Patro 1985). Water requirement of ginger has been They also identified that germination estimated by the Queensland Irrigation stage, rhizome initiation stage (90 DAP) and Water Supply Commission to be and rhizome development stage (135 between 1320-1520 mm during com­ DAP) were the critical stages. Vaidya, plete crop cycle. In areas receiving less Sahasrabudhhe & Khuspe (1972) rainfall, the crop needs regular irriga­ recomended that the first irrigation is tion. Irrigation is given at fortnightly given to gingerimmediately after plant­ intervals, usually during the middle of ing and subsequent irrigations are given September to middle of November in at intervals of 10 days with a total water India, which increased the yield by 56 of 90-100 cm in 16-18 irrigations. A Kandiannan et al. 12 fortnightly irrigation during the drier (Mishra & Mishra 1982) or atrazine at part of monsoon months contributed 1.5 kg/ba (Rethinam et al. 1994) was significantly to increased yield and also effective. Pre-emergence applica­ improved the quality of the produce tions of mixtures of alachhor + (Gupta 1974). Scheduling of irrigation Chlorambenor fluometuron at 0.75 + at 60 mm ·cumulative pan evaporation 0.75 kg ailba provided effective control (CPE) {Gavande 1986) and IW/CPE of some weed species and resulted in ratio of LO .(KAU 1994) produced maxi­ higher yields (Melifonwu & Orkwor mum rhi30me yield. 1990). Weed control Earthing up As the crop receives a high amount of The surface soil may harden after rain external nutrition coupled with initial or irrigation. Soil stirring and earthing slow growth, conditions. favour weed up are essential as it helps in enlarge­ emergence which later compete with the ment of daughter rhizomes (Vevai 1971) crop for moisture, nutrition, space and and provides adequate aeration for sunlight. When mulching is practiced, roots and protects the rhizome from weed growth is suppressed to some scale insects apart from controlling extent (Mishra & Mishra 1982) which weeds (Panigrahi & Patro 1985). The increases crop emergence, growth and first earthing up is done at 45th day and yield. Generally, two to three weedings second at 120-135th day (Kannan & are done depending upon weed growth Nair 1965; Vevai 1971). Earthing up (Mohanty, Naik & Panda 1990). The may be combined with handhoeing first weeding is done just before second (weeding) and mulching. mulching (45th day) and the second weeding during 120-135 th day (Kannan Growth regulators & Nair 1965; Vevai 1971). Weed flora An assay of endogenous hormonal levels varies from place to place; Melifonwu & in ginger treated with 2'chloroethyl Orkwor (1990) recorded some of the trim ethyl ammonium chloride (CCC) commonly oceuring weeds in ginger showed that the ginger plant has only fields at Nigeria. Manual weeding con­ negligible endogenous gibberellins sists of either pulling the weeds, chip­ (Ravisankar & Muthuswamy 1984). The ping with a hoe or cutting the roots with endogenous cytokinins and auxins in a knife (Purseglove et al. 1981). The rhizomes exhibit a greater influence on herbicide Dimon 4.5 kg ailbahas been initiation and development of ginger used for controlling weeds in Queens­ rhizomes. cee spray at 180 and 200 land but its action may be varied ppm improved levels of auxins and depending on soil type (Whiley 1974). cytokinins in the rhizome (Ravisankar Diuron has a broad spectrum control & Muthuswamy 1984). Foliar applica­ and is applied as pre-emergence herbi­ tion of CeG, ethrel and kinetin during cide before the shoots emerge. Paraquat active growth had no effect on plant is used as a post-emergence, in the early height, but ethrel and CCC affected stages of plant growth applied between tiller production (Jayachandran & rows and in later stages limited to spot Sethumadhavan 1979). Application of spraying between beds. Pre-emergence ethrel (ethephon) at 50-400 ppm 2 application of 2, 4-D at 1 kg ailba months after planting and twice at 20 Agronomy of ginger 13 days intervals recorded the highest der full sun (open). Growing ginger rhizome yield (25 tJha) over untreated completely exposed to sun resulted in control (17 tJha) (Phogat & Singh 1987). higher yield (Aiyadurai 1965) and Das & Nair (1976) recorded the highest oleoresin (KAU 1992) than in shade. ginger yield when the crop was sprayed But Ravisankar & Muthuswamy (1987) with 2% urea along with 200 ppm observed that shade had no adverse planofix. Furutani, Villanueva & effect on quality of rhizomes. Tanable (1985) observed that pre-plant , Pests and diseases soak application of ethephon at 750 ppm in combination with a 51°C water soak The occurence of pests and diseases in for 10 min to ginger rhizomes increased ginger and their control measures at shoot number by 122 per cent after 16 different production centres were peri­ weeks and rhizome weight by 38 per odically documented by Kannan & Nair cent at harvest. Nair & Das (1982) (1965), Vevai (1971), Paulose (1973), reported that oleoresin content was CSIR (1976), Purseglove et al. (1981), increased with urea (2%) + planofix Lawrence (1984) and Pruthi (1993). (400) ppm spray. Insect pests were documented by Nair Shade requirement (1982), Jacob (1986), Mathew (1988), Koya, Devasahayam & Premkumar Ginger crop prefers light shade for good (1991) and Devasahayam & Koya (1993). growth, but shade is not absolutely Diseases were documented by Pegg, necessary (CSIR 1976). Shading is help­ Moffett & Colbran (1969), Sarma & ful in reducing water loss and general Nambiar (1974), Sarma, Indrasenan & cooling of the plant (Lawrence 1984). In Iyer (1978), Joshi & Sharma (1982), Queensland, overhead sprinkler irriga­ Dohroo & Edison (1989), Korla & Dohroo tion protects the crop from sunburn (1991) and Rao (1993) and nematodes (Whiley 1974) and evaporative cooling by Koshy & Bridge (1990) and Ramana with sprinkler during summer increases & Eapen (1995). yield in South Africa (Anderson et al. - 1990). Ginger grown under full sunlight Harvesting and quality was shorter with fewer leaves per tiller Fibre and volatile oil contents and (Aclan & Quisumbing 1976). Shade pungency levels are the most important increased height and tiller number criteria in assessing the suitability of (Wilson & Ovid 1992), net assimilation ginger rhizomes for processing rate and chlorophyll content (KAU (Purseglove et al. 1981). The relative 1992). Under low to medium shade, dry abundance of these three components matter production, nutrient uptake are governed by stage of maturity at (KAU 1992), yield (Aclan & Quisumbing harvest (N atarajan et. al. 1972). Oleo­ 1976; Beena, Sridevi & Nair 1994) and resin and oil contents rose sharply up to quality (Ancy & Jayachandran 1993) 51J, to 6 months beyond which there was were the highest. Heavier shade (beyong a decline and fibre development was 50 per cent) decreased number of tillers, extemely rapid between 6 and 7 months number of leaves (KAU 1992) and yield of growth (Winterton & Richardson (Aclan & Quisumbing 1976). Shade­ 1965). Crude fibre content increased grown ginger shrinks and hence, Graham beyond 260 DAP (Aiyadurai 1966). (1936) recommeded to grow ginger un- Although there is fibre in the -rhizome Kandiannan et al. 14 from the time it begins to develop, the served no significant differences in yield amount is nonsignificant in the initial when ginger was harvested 215 to 275 stages. As the physiological age of days after planting. Harvesting of gin­ rhizome increases, so does the diameter ger is done by using a spade, hoe or and strength of fibre. Fibrous ginger is digging fork and also by mechanical unacceptable for processed confection­ diggers at Queensland. Care is required ary because of its reduced palatability. during harvesting to minimise damage Harvesting of confectionary grade gin­ to rhizomes. The soil, roots and tops are ger begins when 40 to 50 per cent by then removed and the rhizomes are weight of the rhizome is free of commer­ washed. Export of ginger from India is cial fibre, and continues down to 35 per mainly in the form of dry ginger. cent level (Whiley ·1980). Increase in ChemiGalcomposition of dry ginger may' crude fibre and decrease in fat and vary due to varietal, soil and climatic protein :content of rhizome were noticed differences. Dry ginger consist of vola­ after 6lJ, months (Jogi et al. 1972). tile oil (1.25'2.80%), crude fibre (14- Oleoresin and oil content for different 80%), cold alcohol extract (1.12 - 4.00%), cultivars reached· its maximum 265 total ash (6-9%), acid insoluble ash days after planting (Nybe, Nair & (0.30-1.23%), crude protein (8-11 %), Mohanakumaran 1982). Ratnambal, starch (40-50 %), water extracts (10- Gopalan & Nair (1987) observed that 20%), acetone extract (3-8%) and mois­ dry recovery; starch and crude fibre ture (10-12%) (Natarajan & Lewis 1982). were positively correlated with matu­ Dry ginger is used for manufacture of rity whereas essential oil, oleoresin and value - added products such as ginger protein were negatively correlated with oil, oleoresin, ginger essence, ginger maturity. powder, crystallised ginger and candied The time. of harvest depends on the ginger. Irrigation (Lawrence 1984) and product for which the rhizomes are to be shade (KAU 1992) improved the quality used, price trend in the market and of ginger. However, not much work has climatic conditions. If the rhizomes are been done on the effect of agronomic used for vegetable purposes or for practices on value - added ginger prod­ preparation of ginger preserve, candy, ucts. soft drimks, pickles and alcoholic bever­ Storage of seed rhizomes ages, harvesting should be done 4-5 months after planting. If it is used for The duration between first harvest and dried ginger and preparation of value next planting is 120-150 days at Kerala, added products like ginger oil, oleoresin, India. As ginger is vegetatively propa­ dehydrated and bleached ginger, har­ gated, the rhizomes should be stored vesting is to be done between 8-10 safely during the off-season; but it is a months. Early harvest (200-215 days highly perishable commodity and is after planting) gave higher yield than susceptible to soil-borne fungi and in­ late harvest (230-245 days after plant­ sects. The seed rhizomes should be ing) in India (Aiyadurai 1966). In stored appropriately so that rotting, Australia, early harvest yielded 50 t/ha shrivelling, dehydration and sprouting and late harvest 90-100 t/ha (Lee, Asher can be avoided until the next season. & Whiley 1981). But, Nair & Varma Different methods are being adopted by (1970) and Pawar & Patil (1987) ob- farmers for storage of seed ginger Agronomy of ginger 15

(Kannan & Nair 1965; Paulose 1973; quires partial shade it can be grown as Muralidharan, Varma & Nair 1973; an undercrop in coconut, arecanut, Lawrence 1984; Pruthi 1993). Storage rubber, orange, stone fruit, litchi, guava, losses can often be as high as 10-15 per mango, papaya, loquat, peach, coffee cent. Recovery of seed rhizomes at and poplar plantations. Singh, Rai & planting was as high as 96 per cent by Pradham (1991) stated that ginger was selecting fully matured rhizomes for the most favoured crop component un­ storage, dipping in a solution of der agroforestry. However, crop rotation quinalphos 0.05% and Dithane M-45 is essential, as ginger depletes more 0.3% for 30 min and drying under shade nutrients in the soil coupled with rhi­ and storing in pits (wherever bacterial zome rot problem under monoculture wilt is a problem, the seeds should be contuniously. The crop is rotated with treated with streptocycline 200 ppm) tapioca, chillies, seas arne, little millet (NRCS 1989 b). Timo & Oduro (1977) and dry paddy in rainfed conditions, reported that the time taken for germi­ and with fmger millet, groundnut, maize nation decreased with length of storage and vegetables under irrigated condi­ while percentage germination and yield tions. Crop rotation using tomato, po­ of fresh rhizomes increased. Germina­ tato, chillies, egg plant and· peanut tion and yield were consistently lower should be avoided as these plants are after 35 days than after 21 days of hosts of the wilt causing organism storage. This anomalous behaviour was (Pseudomonas' solanacearum). Pegg, due to secondary dormancy during which Moffett & Colbran (1969) recommended seed pieces lost their dormancy up to 21 beans, cucurbits and strawberries as days of storage but regained or entered suitable crops for rotation and as cover into secondary dormancy at 35 days and crop which would reduce the carryover again lost dormancy at 42 days. of inoculum. Ridley (1912) stated that a farmer at Jamaica grew ginger repeat­ Cropping system edly on the same land without yield Ginger can be grown as a sole crop reduction. However, Korla & Dohroo under open or shade apart from as a (1991) observed that no systematic component in inter, mixed and studies have been made in developing under cropping systems. Ginger is efficient cropping systems involving gin­ intercropped with vegetables (cabbage, ger. tomato, chillies, french bean and lady's Ratooning finger), pulses (pigeon pea, black gI'am and horse gram), cereals (maize, finger Ratooning is not common in ginger and . millet), oilseeds (castor, soybean, sun­ is not preferred for marketing as it flower and niger) and other crops contains more fibre. Extracts from ratoon (sesbania, tobacco and pineapple). ginger had a more fiery taste and less Intercropping with soybean (Quimbo, flavour than those from planted ginger Cadiz & Aycardo 1977; AICRPS 1992 a), (Purseglove et al. 1981). However, lady's finger (Chowdhury 1988) and Ridley (1912) mentioned that a few pirleapple (Lee 1972) was advanta­ farmers at Jamaica practiced ratooning. geous. Ginger can also be grown as mixed crop with castor, redgram, Economics of ginger production fingermillet and maize. As ginger re- Economics of ginger production varies Kandiannan et at. 16 from place to place and depends on cost All India Co-ordinated Research Project of inputs, price trend in the market etc. on Spices (AICRPS) 1992 b Re­ Data pertaining to ginger cultivation as search Highlights 1982-1991. an intercrop in coconut based home­ National Research Centre for stead farms of Kerala in 1989-90 showed Spices, Calicut. that it gave a net return of Rs. 7500lha Ancy J & Jayachandran B K 1993 (Regeena & Kandaswamy 1992) Effect of shade and fertilizers on whereas, in Orissa as per 1991-92 data the quality of ginger (Zingiber the net profit was Rs. 90,0001ha officinale R). South Indian Hort. (Mohanty, Panda & Edison 1994). 41 : 219-222. References Anderson T 1991 Growth phases of the Aclan F & Quisumbing F C 1976 ginger plant. Citrus and Subtropic Fertilizer requirement, mulch and Fruit Res. Inst. Bull. No. 225: 17- light attenuation on the yield and 19. quality of ginger. Philippine Agri­ Anderson T du, Plessis S F, Niemand T culturist 60 (5/6) : 183-191. R & Scholtz A 1990 Evaporative Adaniya S, Shoda M & Fujiada R 1989 cooling of ginger (Zingiber Effect of day length on flowering officinale R). Acta Hort. 275 : and rhizome swelli!J.g in ginger. J. 173-179. Jap. Soc. Hort. Sci. 58 : 649-656. Anonymous 1992 District-wise estimates Aiyadurai S G 1966 Ginger. In : A of area and production of ginger. Review of Research on Spices and 1989-90. Agric. Situation India. Cashewnut in India. (pp. 85-103). 47 : 293-294. Regional Office (Spices and Cashewnut), Indian Council of Asher C J & Lee M T 1975 Diagnosis Agricultural Research, Ernaku­ and Correction of Nutritional Dis­ lam. orders in Ginger. University of Queensland, Australia. All India Co-ordinated Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project Bureau of Agricultural Economis (BAE) (AICSCIP) 1985 Annual Report 1971 The Australian Ginger Grow­ 1983-84. Central Plantation Crops ing Industry, Bureau of Agricul­ Research Institute, Kasaragod, tural Economics, Canberra. India. Balagopal C, Devi S B, Indrasenan G & All India Co-ordinated Research Project Wilson K I 1975 Varietal reac­ on Spices (AlCRPS) 1990 Annual tions of ginger (Zingiber officinale Report 1989-90. National Research R) towards soft rot caused by Centre for Spices, Cali cut. Pythium aphanidermatum All India Co-ordinated Reseach Project (Edson) Fitz. Agric. Res. J. Kerala on Spices (AlCRPS) 1992 a An­ 12 : 113-116. nual Report 1991-1992. National Beena E G, Sreedevi P & Nair R V 1994 Research Centre for Spices, Performance of ginger cultivars Calicut. as influenced by shade levels. In: Abstractj XIII National Sympo- · Agronomy of ginger 17 sium on Integrated Input Man­ Central Plantation Crops Research agement for Efficient' Crop Pro­ Institute (CPCRI) 1985 Ginger duction, Coimbatore. Indian Soci­ Package of Practices. P.amphlet ety of Agronomy, New Delhi and No.9. Central Plantation Crops Tamil N adu Agricultural Univer­ Research Institute, Kasaragod, sity, Coimbatore. India. Bendall R L & Daly R A 1966 Ginger Counsil of Scientific and Industrial growing in the N ambour area of Research (CSIR) 1976 The Wealth Queensland. Quart. Rev. Agric. of India, Raw Materials Vol. II. Econ. (Australia) 19 : 83-96. Council of Scientific and Indus­ Bhagyalakshmi & Singh N S 1988 trial Research, New Delhi. Meristem culture and Das R C & Nair G S 1976 The effect of micropropagation of a variety of foliar application of urea and ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) planofix on growth, yield and with a high yield of oleoresin. J. quality of ginger (Zingiber Hort. Sci. 63 : 321-327. officinale Rosc.). Orissa J. Hort. Bhagyalakshmi, Shanthi N & Singh N 4 (1-2) : 13-22. S 1994 The yield and quality of Dasaradhi T B, Sriramamurthy R & ginger produced by micro pro­ Rao V R 1971 Ginger - different pagated plants as compared with photophases - climatic require­ conventionally propagated plants. ments. In: Plantation Crops Re­ J. Hort. Sci. 69 : 645-651. search Workshop. Central Planta­ Brown E 1955 Preserved ginger produc­ tion Crops Research Institute, tion and trade. Colon. Plant Anim. Kasaragod, India (,Mimeo­ Prod. 5 : 119-127. graphed). Cho G H, Yoo C H, Choi J W, Park K Devasahayam S & Koya K M A 1993 H, Hari S S & Kim S J 1987 Insect pests of spices In: Spice Studies on soil characteristics Production Technology (pp. 107- and yield in the main ginger 114). National Research Centre producing districts. Research Re­ for Spices, Cali cut. port. Rural Development Adminis­ tration, Plant Environment My­ Dohroo N P, Shyam K R, Bhardwaj S S cology and Farm Products Utili­ & Korla B N 1986 Reaction of zation, Korea Republic 29 (2) : 30- ginger germplasm to Phyllosticta 42. leaf spot. Indian Phytopath. 39 : 605-606. Chowdhury P C 1988 Intercropping short - duration summer crops Dohroo N P & Edison S 1989 Compen­ with ginger in Darjeeling hills. dium of rhizome rot of ginger Indian Fmg. 37 (11) : 4-5. (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). J. Hill Res. 2 : 4-13. 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Gavande S S 1986 Studies on the effect Hosoki T & Sagawa Y 1977 Clonal pro­ of scheduling of irrigation and pagation of ginger (Zingiber offi­ nitrogen levels on growth and cinale Roscoe) through tissue cul­ yield of ginger (Zingiber officinale ture. Hort Science 12 : 451-452. Rosc.). MSc (Ag) Thesis. Ma­ hatma Phule Agricultural Uni­ Ilahi I & Jabeen M 1987 Micropro­ versity, Rahuri, India. pagation of Zingiber officinale Giridharam M P & Balakrishnan 1992 Rosc. Pakistan J. Bot. 19 : 61-65. Gamma ray induced variability and floral characters of ginger. Islam A K M S, Asher C J, Edwards D Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices J. G & Evenson J P 1978 Germina­ 15 : 68-72. tion and early growth of ginger (Zingiber oficinale Rosc.) II. Ef­ Govindarajan V S 1982 Ginger: Chem­ fects of 2 - chloroethyl phosphonic istry, Technology and Quality acid or elevated temperature Evaluation - Part I, CRC Critical pretreatments. Trop. Agric. 55 : Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 17 : 1-96. 127-134. Graham J A 1936 Methods of ginger cultivation in Jamaica. J. Ja­ Islam A K M S, Edwards D G & Asher maica Agric. Soc. 40 : 231-232. C J 1982 The role of lime' in commercial ginger production in Groszmann H M 1954 Ginger produc­ Australia. In : Belen E H, tion. Queensland Agric. J. 78 : Villaneauve M (Eds.) Fifth Inter­ 259-262. national Symposium on Tropical Gupta R 1974 Process ginger for new Root and Tuber Crops, Philip­ products. Indian Fmg. 23 (1) : 7- pines (pp. 159-168). Philippine 9, 14. Council for Agriculture and Re­ sources Research, Los Banos. Haag H P, Saito S, Dechen A R & Carmello Q A C 1990 Accumula­ Jacob S A 1986 Important pests of tion of dry matter and uptake of . ginger and turmeric and their macro and micro nutrients by control. Indian Cocoa Arecanut ginger. Anais da Escola Superior Spices J. 9 : 61-62. Agronomy of ginger 19

Jamaican Department of Agriculture Jogi B S, Singh I P, Dua H S & Sukhija (JDA) 1953 Investigations on cul­ P S 1972 Changes in crude fibre, tivated trees, shrubs and vines. fat and protein content of ginger Bulletin, Department of Agricul­ at different stages of ripening. ture, Jamaica. No. 49. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 42 : 1011 - 1015. Jayachandran B K & Sethumadhavan P D 1979 Vegetative growth of John K 1988 General agronomic and ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) marketing aspects of Indian dried as influenced by CCC, Ethrel and ginger. Cardamom 20 (5) : 41-44. Kinetin. Agric. Res. J. Kerala 17 Joshi L K & Sharma N D 1982 Diseases : 67-79. of ginger and turmeric. In: Nair M Jayachandran B K, Vijayagopal P D & K, Premkumar T, Ravindran P N Sethumadhavan P 1980 Maturity & Sarma Y R (Eds.) Proceedings, studies on ginger (Zingiber National Seminar on Ginger and officinale Rosc.) variety Rio-de­ Turmeric, Calicut (pp. 104-119). Janeiro. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Central Plantation Crops Re­ Spices J .. 3 : 56-57. search Institute, Kasaragod, In­ dia. Jayachandran B K, Sethumadhavan P & Vijayagopal P D 1982 Prelimi­ Kannan K& Nair K P V 1965 Zingiber nary trials on recovering mother officinale R. in Kerala. Madras rhizome (seedrhizome)jn ginger Agric. J. 52 : 168-76. after establiment. In: Nair M K, Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) Premkumar T, Ravindran P N & 1992 Final Research Report of Sarma Y R (Eds.) Proceedings, I CAR Ad-hoc Scheme. Shade stud­ National Seminar on Ginger and ies on coconut-based inter-crop­ TurmeriC, Calicut (pp. 93-95). ping situations. Kerala Agricul­ Central Plantation Crops Re­ tural University, Vellanikara, search Institute, Kasaragod, In­ India. . dia. Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) Jayachandran B K, Bai M M, Salam M 1994 Sheduling irrigation to gin­ A, Mammen M K & Mathew K P ger under varying nitrogen levels. 1991 Performance of ginger under Sixteenth Zonal Research and shade and open conditions. Indian Extension Advisory Council Meet­ Cocoa Arecanut Spices J. 15 : 40- ing, Regional Agricultural Re­ 41. search Station, Kerala Agricul­ Jha R C, Maura K R & Pandey R D 1986 tural University, Pattambi, India. Influence of mulches on the yield Khan K F 1959 Ensure two-fold ginger of ginger in Bihar. Indian Cocoa yields. Indian Fmg. 8 (12) : 10-14. Arecanut Spices J. 9 : 87-90. Khan K F & Natesan P K 1955 A note Joachim A W R & Pieris H A 1934 on the influence of the size of seed Ginger manurial and cultural ex­ rhizome on the yield in ginger. periments. Trop. Agric. 82 : 340- South Indian Hort. 3 :. 77. 353. Kandiannan et al. 20

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Muraliitharan A .& Ramankutty N N Nair V R, Sasidhar V K & Sadanandan 1975 Relative performance of some N 1976 Performance of ginger selected clones of ginger (Zingiber varieties in Vellayani, Kerala. officinale Rosc.) with reference to' Agric. Res. J. Kerala 14 : 178-179. rate and time of application of nitrogen. Madras Agric. J. 62 : Nair P C S 1982 Agronomy of ginger and 35'l'c3"59. turmeric. In : Nair M K, Premkumar T, Ravindran P N & Muralidllar.an A, Varma A S. & Nair E Sarma Y R (Eds.) Proceedings, V G 1974 Effect of nitrogen, National Seminar on Ginger and phosphorus and potash on growth Turmeric, Calicut (pp. 63-68). Cen­ and yield of ginger (Zingiber tral Plantation Crops Research officinale Rosc.). Indian J. Agron. Institute, Kasaragod, India. 19 : 103-104. Natarajan C P, Bai R P, Krishnamurthy Nagarajan M & Pillai N G 1979 A note M N, Raghavan B, Sankaracharya on the nutrient removal by ginger N B, Kuppuswmy S, Govindarajan and turmeric rhizomes. Madras V S & Lewis Y S 1972 Chemical Agric. J. 66 : 56-59. composition of ginger varieties and dehydration studies of gin­ Nair G S & Das R C 1982 Effect offoliar ger. J. Food Sci. Techno!. 9 : 120- application of urea and PlanofIx 124. (NAA) on the oleoresin and fIbre contents of ginger. In: Nair M K, Natarajan C P & Lewis Y S 1982 Premkumar T, Ravindran P N & Technology of ginger and tur­ Sarma Y R (Eds.) Proceedings, meric. In: Nair M K, Premkumar National Seminar on Ginger and T, Ravindran P N & Sarma Y R Turmeric, Calicut (pp. 86-89). (Eds.) Proceedings, National Semi­ Central Plantation Crops Resea­ nar on Ginger and Turmeric, rch Institute, Kasaragod, India. Calicut (pp. 143-146). Central Plantation Crops Research Insti­ Nair M R G K 1982 Pests of ginger and tute, Kasaragod, India. turmeric. In : Nair M K, Premkumar T, Ravindran P N & National Research Centre for Spices Sarma Y R (Eds.) Proceedings, (NRCS) 1989 a Ginger Packages National Seminar on Ginger and of Practices. National Research Turmeric, Calicut (Pl'. 101-103). Centre for Spices, Cali cut. Central Plantation Crops Resea­ rch Institute, Kasaragod, India. National Research Centre for Spices (NRCS) 1989 b Storage method of Nair P C S 1969 Ginger cultivation in ginger seed rhizomes. National Kerala. Arecanut Spices Bull. 1 : Research Centre for Spices, 22-24. " Calicut. Agronomy of ginger 23

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Agronomy of ginger 25

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