Histos  () –

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES FOR CAESAR’S WARS (– BCE )*

Abstract : This chronological outline of Julius Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul and during the civil wars is the first of its kind in coverage and depth. Never before have the years – BCE been parsed in such detail. For an account of how the dates in that period were de- termined, the reader is referred to Histos  () –. The tables covering the years –  expand and refine previously published outlines of this sort, virtually all of which rely to some extent on Colonel Eugène Stoffel’s ‘Tableau de Dates’, first published in vol.  of his Histoire de Jules César: Guerre Civile (Paris, ) –. A fresh analysis, taking ad- vantage of subsequent scholarship and using modern digital maps based on a GIS inter- face, has made it possible to refine data and arrive at a more securely grounded recon- struction of Caesar’s movements and the sequence of events in his wars and campaigns. This improved presentation of chronology gives us a better understanding of the course of history in those years by synchronising events in the field with political developments in Rome and happenings elsewhere in the Roman empire.

Keywords : Caesar, Pompey, Gallic wars, Roman civil wars, Egypt, Africa, Spain, chronology

he timetables presented here significantly revise and expand previ- ously published chronological outlines of the civil wars (– BCE ), while the portion treating Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul (– BCE ) is T 1 entirely new and unique in its detail. As explained in an earlier instalment in this journal, 2 owing to a fair abundance of evidence for the years – and

* We thank the following scholars who kindly advised us on various subjects, ranging from the calendar to tides to mapping distances: Colin Bell, Andy Dyck, Tom Elliott, Klaus Geus, Ryan Horne, John D. Morgan, Gabe Moss, Don Olson, and Duane Roller. They are, of course, not to be held responsible for any shortcomings. Abbreviations are listed in the last section of our Introduction, on p. . 1 Work on drafting these tables began in January  as a parergon of the Landmark edition of Caesar’s commentarii translated and annotated by K. Raaflaub (). The two of us felt that the narrative of the wars would greatly benefit from being set in a detailed chronological framework. The task was divided as follows: KR set about devising, from scratch, a chronology of the Gallic War, while JR undertook the task of building upon past scholarship to refine, correct, and expand existing tables for the civil wars (see n. ). We then worked together to put our separate parts in final form and combine them into one seamless whole. We have elected to publish separately a narrative that analyses the chronology of the Bellum Gallicum since it breaks new ground (Raaflaub–Ramsey ()), whereas supporting evidence for dates in the years – can, on the whole, be presented within each table.

ISSN: - Copyright ©  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub  March  Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE )  the efforts of scholars in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century to make use of that data, a reasonably full chronology has long been established for those years. 3 By contrast, because there are many fewer time markers to be gleaned from written sources for the Gallic campaigns, scholars have been content until now to mark off each year and campaign into broad segments, by clusters of months, or by seasons of the year. 4 We, however, believe that a more finely tuned chronology can be devised, if we pay close attention to every available clue, including references within Caesar’s narrative to such details as astronomical phenomena, seasons of the year, and tides on his crossings of the English Channel, and combine those indicators with careful measurements of distances and estimates of speed of movement. Thanks to modern mapping software based upon a GIS interface, which takes ad- vantage of the scholarship that produced the Barrington Atlas (Talbert ()), we are in a better position than earlier scholars to determine distances be- tween places in the Mediterranean world. This makes it possible to construct a calibrated timetable for each of the years of Caesar’s proconsulship in Gaul. Dates in our tables printed in boldface are firmly established thanks to being attested by a text or an inscription, or being indicated by a reference to a phase of the moon or a position of the sun along its annual path between solstices, or finally, based upon a calculation taking into account a known se- quence of days relative to one of our fixed dates. These dates provide secure points of reference around which to organise what goes before and after- wards. Dates printed in plain typeface, which comprise the vast majority in

A version of our findings, cast in a form designed to be accessible to the general read- er, is posted to the Website for the Landmark Caesar as Appendix BB, ‘The Chronology of Caesar’s Campaigns’, at www.landmarkcaesar.com. 2 Raaflaub–Ramsey () –. 3 The foundation was laid by Stoffel (). Other scholars of note whose work bears on the chronology of the civil wars are Schmidt (), Judeich (), Postgate (), Holmes (), and Lord (). A good synthesis and critique of modern scholarship may be found in Pelling (). Beginning with the th edn of Caesar’s De Bello Civili by Kran- er et al. (), the Berlin publisher Weidmann included a ‘Zeittafel’ grounded on Stoffel and covering Jan. ,  to Oct. ,  (–). The Weidmann editions of the BAlex . () and of the BAfr . () by Rudolf Schneider likewise offered such tables based upon Stoffel (vii–viii and –, respectively). In recent years, Nicole Diouron has equipped her  Budé edition of the BHisp . with an outline of chronology. 4 E.g., Will (), in his ‘Chronologie des Krieges in Gallien’ (–), the most de- tailed outline of the Gallic War published to date, gives under the year  only the follow- ing dates or rough approximations of time: . Märzhälfte; . März; nach d. . April; ca. Ende Juni; Sommer; vor . Sept. Neumond. Holmes (), although offering many valu- able insights into the chronology of Caesar’s Gallic campaigns, does not gather his conclu- sions into a comprehensive outline of the sort that is found in Will and in greater detail in this publication.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub the tables for –, are calculated to suit estimated routes, distances, and speed of movement. They are close approximations, leaving room for a cor- rection of ± a few days. For details of how we arrived at estimated dates, we refer the reader to the discussion in Raaflaub–Ramsey (). Listed below are some basic premises that lie behind calculations reflected in our tables.

Calendar and Julian Dates

All dates are BCE , unless indicated to the contrary. The first column in each table lists dates according to the Roman civil calendar (R), which Caesar’s reform in  brought into harmony with the tropic (solar) year, beginning on Jan. , . The second column (unnecessary in , after the introduction of the Julian calendar), shows the corresponding ‘astronomical’ date according to the proleptic Julian calendar. 5 The Julian dates (Jul.) given in our tables are those based on the calculations of Holzapfel (), which is the system adopted by Groebe (in D-G III.–) and Marinone–Malaspina () – in giving Julian equivalents for all dates in the years – and Mar. –Feb. , respectively. 6 The only significant alterations that we make are

5 The proleptic Julian calendar (PJC) is a wholly artificial construct, not to be confused with the reformed Julian calendar introduced by Caesar on Jan. ,  (R). The PJC takes as its fixed point of reference the year  CE , the year in which the Julian calendar was sta- bilised thanks to a correction made by the emperor Augustus, when, in  BCE , he put a stop to the erroneous insertion of leap days every three years, as opposed to every four (Suet. Aug . ., with date supplied by Censorinus, DN .). Over the course of thirty-six years, this practice had resulted in an accumulation of twelve intercalary days, instead of the correct number, nine. To correct the error, our literary sources claim that the next twelve years were allowed to pass without the insertion of an intercalary day (Plin. HN .; Solinus .–; Macrob. Sat . ..). In fact, what happened was that intercalation was resumed twelve years after the error was discovered (Bennett (a) –). The PJC provides historians with a calendar in harmony with the ‘astronomical’ year against which to compare dates in the Roman civil calendar. For the period of Caesar’s campaigns (– ), Julian dates are of the greatest relevance for the years –, when the failure to in- tercalate after  until Caesar’s reform of the calendar in  caused Roman calendar dates and ‘astronomical’ dates to drift significantly farther and farther apart, with each passing year. 6 According to Holzapfel’s calculations, which are defended by Brind’Amour () – , Jan. ,  BCE (R), the first day of the reformed civil calendar, is equivalent to Jan. ,  in the proleptic Julian calendar (see n. ). Julian equivalents for Roman dates given by T. Rice Holmes, who regarded Jan. ,  (R) = Jan. ,  (Jul.), will be one day earlier than those offered by our tables, whereas Julian equivalents according to Bennett (b), who reckoned Jan. ,  (R) = Dec. ,  (Jul.), will be two days earlier. The calendar- conversion tables devised by the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier, which were

Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE )  the following: we regard as intercalary the years  and , not  and  as D-G and Marinone–Malaspina do. The case for  being intercalary is based on probability 7 and fortunately does not have any serious consequences for the construction of our tables. Not so the year . Thanks to inscriptional ev- idence, 8 we can be absolutely certain that  was intercalary, and so in the Roman civil calendar the year  was twenty-two days longer, as compared with the tables in D-G and Marinone-Malaspina, whereas  was corre- spondingly twenty-two days shorter. These not insignificant modifications to four years may now be conveniently consulted in a corrected version of Marinone–Malaspina posted on the Internet. 9

Distances and routes of travel Caesar very often does not indicate the precise location of a certain event or the route he chose to reach a destination. We have used our best judgment to determine the most likely places and routes; places chosen in this way (and not on the basis of information in the text) are indicated by question marks. Distances have been calculated by means of the measuring tool in the open- source software Antiquity-À-la-carte, 10 whose accuracy we have tested by comparing results both with known distances 11 and with distances given by the software Orbis. 12 When estimating distances outside Roman territories, such as in free Gaul, we increase measurements taken along later Roman roads by  percent to compensate for the likelihood that native tracks and roads available to Caesar were not as direct or as well-paved as they were in later times, after improvements were made by Roman engineers. Since Al- adopted by Napoleon and Stoffel, and which the Zeittafeln in Weidmann editions of Cae- sar show side by side with Julian dates according to Holzapfel, need no longer be taken into account since Le Verrier committed the error of assuming that Julius Caesar interca- lated only sixty-seven days (instead of the correct number, ninety) in the year . See Beaujeu () for a demonstration of Le Verrier’s error. His omission of the twenty-three days that Caesar added in  after February introduces an error of that number of days in Le Verrier’s tables. In addition, Le Verrier incorrectly concluded that the years  and  were intercalary. 7 Lintott ()  and Kaster () . 8 AE : : Rufio / Vevei // Cn(aeo) Po(mpeio) M(arco) Li(cinio) II // sp(ectavit) Kal(endis) Int(ercalaribus). 9 See www.tulliana.eu/ephemerides/calendario/calagiuliano.htm (accessed Dec. , ). 10 http://awmc.unc.edu/wordpress/alacarte/ (accessed Dec. , ). 11 Raaflaub-Ramsey ()  n. . 12 http://orbis.stanford.edu (accessed Dec. , ).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub pine passes between Italy and Gaul were generally not passable from early November until early May, during those seasons, Caear was forced to travel by the coastal route. In addition, the Great St Bernard (Summus Poeninus) was not available to Caesar and his troops because it was not under Roman control despite an attempt by Caesar to secure it by military action in Sept.– Nov.  ( BGall . .–). For maps (including campaign maps and battle diagrams) we refer the reader to the rich collection in Raaflaub ().

Place names In most territories covered by the Gallic War (particularly in independent Gaul) , Roman towns did not yet exist. We thus use the names given by Cae- sar, those of modern cities, or those of their (post-Caesarian) Roman prede- cessors (for example, Lugdunum (Lyon)).

Speed Drawing upon a large body of evidence, we base our calculations on the fol- lowing averages. 13

Marching :  km ( mi) a day = a standard day’s march for legions; in the absence of urgency, a rest day was allowed approximately every five days on unhurried marches. – km (– mi) a day = a forced march.  km ( mi) a day in exceptional cases of extreme urgency, over a brief period.  km ( mi) a day = a march impeded by obstacles, a heavy baggage train, or interference by the enemy.

Mounted troops : – km (– mi) a day for great distances – km (– mi) a day in grave emergencies, over a short span of a few days

Messengers : – km (– mi) in a single day 14

13 For a discussion of the evidence on which this table is grounded, see Raaflaub– Ramsey () –. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

– km (– mi) over several days – km (– mi) on lengthy trips

Caesar travelling with a small escort 15 – km (– mi) a day at an unhurried pace – km (– mi) a day in haste  km ( mi) a day in exceptional cases

Time needed to prepare a siege or accept the surrender of a town On average, two days may be allowed to prepare a simple siege and two days to accept the surrender of a town, including the handing over of hostages and arms and the resupply of the army before moving on.

Abbreviations

AUC Ab urbe condita , ‘from the founding of the city’ (assumed to be in  BCE ) Cic. (in citing letters of Cicero, the number in parentheses identifies them according to their order in the Loeb edition by Shackleton Bailey: e.g., Fam. .().) D-G Drumann, W. and P. Groebe () Geschichte Roms (see bibliography) Jul. Julian (dates according to the proleptic Julian calendar: see n. ) km kilometer mi English mile MRR Broughton, T. R. S. (–) The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (see bibliography) Plut. (references to the Lives are given by section number in the Loeb ed., not Teubner) R Roman (dates according to the Roman civil calendar), e.g., Jan. ,  (R) R mi Roman mile (= . km = . mi) RR Raaflaub–Ramsey ()

14 When exigency demanded it, a speed of c.  km/ mi per day could be main- tained over a very brief span of days (e.g., travel between Rome and Ravenna (c.  km/ mi) in three days (Caes. BCiv . ..; App. BCiv . .; SHA Max . .). 15 Raaflaub–Ramsey () –.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Bellum Gallicum : Book (" –$% BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 61 BCE The Helvetii decide to emigrate to southwestern Gaul (.). 60 –59 BCE The Helvetii prepare for their trek (. –). 696 AUC 58 BCE Caesar assumes his proconsular imperium and remains with a small military force near Rome, outside the pomerium (Cic. Red. Sen . ; Sest . –; Har. Resp . ). He delivers speeches in the Senate over the course of  days, defending his con- Jan.–mid-Mar. sular acta , against attacks by two praetors (Suet. Iul . .; ORF .VIII). Clodius brings him before a contio to ques- tion him about Cicero’s role in executing the Catilinarians in  (Plut. Cic . .; Dio ..). The Helvetii burn their towns and villages and make their final preparations to march through the Roman province Early spring (.). They set Mar.  as the date for their people to gather at the Rhone, which formed the boundary of Roman terri- tory (..). After Clodius drove Cicero into exile (Plut. Caes . .) and upon learning of the Helvetians’ plans, Caesar hastens from Rome to Genava (mod. Geneva) in Transalpine Gaul (..). According to Plutarch ( Caes . .), Caesar reached the Rhone on the th day. By the coastal route, the dis- tance to the mouth of the Rhone at Arelate (mod. Arles) Mar. 15 Mar. 12 was c.  km/ mi, so over the course of . days, Cae- sar travelled at a daily av. speed of  km/ mi (see RR  n. ). At that rate, Caesar could have covered the remain- ing c.  km/ mi to Genava in  days and arrived c. Mar.  after breaking his journey for  day to arrange for the levy of troops (..). Upon hearing of Caesar’s arrival, the Helvetii request pas- sage through the Roman province (..). Caesar stalls by setting Apr.  (..) as the date for his reply to their re- Mar. 27 Mar. 24 quest. In the meantime he fortifies the banks of the Rhone to prevent the Helvetii from crossing against his will (..– ). Date set by the Helvetii for their people to gather at the Mar. 28 Mar. 25 Rhone, near Genava (..). This is one of only two calen- dar dates given in all of books –. On this date (..), Caesar rejects the petition of the Hel- vetii to enter Roman territory (..). This is the second Apr. 13 Apr. 10 and last calendar date given in books – (cf. preceding en- try). In subsequent days Caesar suppresses Helvetian at- tempts to cross the Rhone (..). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

The Helvetii, having gained permission of the Sequani to Apr. 26, 58 BCE Apr. 23 migrate through their territory, begin their trek (.). Caesar dashes to Cisalpine Gaul to lead  legions across the Alps to the Transalpine province:  newly enrolled and  summoned from Aquileia (..–). The legions from Aq- uileia (alerted by a fast messenger departing from Genava on c. Apr.  and arriving on May  (RR )) leave on May , pick up the  new legions on the way, and reach Ocelum at the entrance to the Mt. Genèvre Pass on May Apr. 26–June 8 Apr. 23–June 4  (covering  km/ mi on good roads, without a bag- gage train, in  days (at  km per day including a rest day)). From there to the territory of the Vocontii they need  days (..) and another  to the confluence of Rhone and Arar (Saône), covering c.  km/ mi at the same speed. Including  more rest days and one more day into the territory of the Segusiavi (..), the entire march from Aquileia consumes at least  days. Caesar crosses into independent Gaul with  legions: the  June 8 June 4 brought from south of the Alps (..–) +  previously operating near Genava (.). Caesar massacres the Tigurini ( of the  Helvetian tribes) June 10 June 6 east of the Arar (Sa ône: .), then builds a bridge (..). Caesar crosses the Arar River (..) and holds an unsuc- June 11 June 7 cessful parley with the Helvetian leader Divico (..–.). The Helvetii continue their march; Caesar follows them, June 12–26 June 8–22 skirmishing intermittently, for  days (.. –). Caesar holds an emergency meeting with Aeduan leaders June 26 June 22 when supplies run short (..–.). A surprise attack on the camp of the Helvetii fails because June 27 June 23 of faulty intelligence (.–). A decisive battle with the Helvetii takes place near Bi- June 28 June 24 bracte; despite heav y losses, the Romans win ( . –. ). The surviving Helvetii march north for + days. Caesar needs  days to bury the dead and care for the wounded, June 29–July 3 June 25–28 which keeps him from pursuing the Helvetii immediately (..–). July 3 June 28 Caesar sets out in pursuit of the fleeing Helvetii (..). Caesar accepts the surrender of the Helvetii, sends them back to their country, and deals with the aftermath of his campaign (.–), then spends  days returning to Bibracte July 6–16 July 1–11 (?) where, most likely, he has left his wounded soldiers. Gal- lic leaders arrive to congratulate Caesar and ask permission to hold a meeting (.). At Bibracte (?), Gallic leaders appeal to Caesar to curb Ari- July 17 July 12 ovistus; Caesar decides that his intervention is needed (.–).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Two rounds of diplomatic exchanges ensue between Cae- sar and Ariovistus (.–), who perhaps is in the area of later Argentorate (mod. Strasbourg), c.  km/ mi (c. July 19–Aug. July 14–Aug.  km/ mi, augmented) from Bibracte. Travelling at 20, 58 BCE 15 an average speed of c. km/ mi per day, and spending  day for rest and deliberation at the end of each leg, the two embassies consume  days. Aug. 21 Aug. 16 Caesar sets out from Bibracte (?) (.. –). On the th day after set ting out (covering the c.  km/ mi in  days of accelerated marches ( km/ mi each) + Aug. 25 Aug. 20  more days at even greater speed), Caesar reaches Veson- tio (mod. Besançon) (.., ). Aug. 29 Aug. 24 Caesar leaves Vesontio after a stay of c.  – (?) days (.. ). After + days of forced marches, Caesar is within  R mi Sept. 6 Aug. 30 of Ariovistus (..), probably in the area of modern Bel- fort (RR ). After further negotiations, and having moved closer, Cae- Sept. 13 Sept. 6 sar and Ariovistus meet, but the meeting is broken off (.–). Ariovistus requests a second meeting (.) and moves his Sept. 14 Sept. 7 camp to  R mi from Caesar ’s (..) . Ariovistus establishes his camp  R mi W of Caesar’s camp Sept. 15 Sept. 8 (..). Caesar offers battle each day, but Ariovistus declines; cav- Sept. 15–19 Sept. 8–12 alry skirmishes (..–). Caesar establishes a second, smaller camp W of Ariovistus Sept. 20 Sept. 13 (.). Caesar offers battle; Ariovistus declines and attacks the Sept. 21 Sept. 14 smaller camp (.). Caesar decis ively defeats Ariovistus (. –). A terminus Sept. 22 Sept. 15 ante is furnished by the New Moon of Sept. /Sept. , Jul. (..); see RR . Caesar leads his troops into winter quarters among the Sept. 27 Sept. 20 Sequani (..), then leaves for Cisalpine Gaul (..).

Bellum Gallicum : Book 9 ($: BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 697 AUC 57 BCE Caesar arrives at troops ’ winter quarters near Vesontio Mid-June Early June (..) and organ ise s his campaign. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

End of June, Anticipating an attack by the Belgae, Caesar departs for Mid-June 57 BCE their territory (..). Caesar arrives at the Matrona (Marne) River, after  days of marching (..), accepts the submission of the Remi (.), and gathers information about the Belgae and their Mid-July Late June preparations, perhaps progressing in  days to the Remi’s capital, Durocortorum (mod. Reims), c.  km/ mi (c.  km/ mi, augmented) distant. After spending c.  d ays at Durocortorum (?) and learning about the approach of the Belgae’s army, Caesar hurries to July 21 July 5 the Axona (mod. Aisne) River, a mere  km/ mi away, crosses it, and establishes his camp (..). Bibrax,  R mi N of the Axona River, is attacked by the July 23–24 July 7–8 Belgae and relieved by Caesar (.–). The Belgae encamp c.  R mi from Caesar (.., .). July 26 July 10 Stalemate and skirmishes for several days (..–.) Battle at the Axona River: the Belgae are defeated (..– Aug. 2 July 17 .). Caesar ’s troops pursue and massacre the fleeing Belgae Aug. 3 July 18 (..–). Caesar reaches Noviodunum of the Suessiones (near mod. Soissons), covering c.  km/ mi (. km/ mi, aug- Aug. 4 July 19 mented) along the valley of the Axona in one day’s forced march, and attacks but fails to capture the town (..–). Aug. 5 July 20 Caesar fortifies a camp, builds siege equipment (..). Caesar accepts the surrender of the Suessiones at Noviodu- Aug. 8 July 23 num (..). Caesar marches against the Bellovaci at Bratu spantium (perhaps Caesaromagus (mod. Beauvais)), c.  km/ mi Aug. 10 July 25 ( km/ mi, augmented) distant, reaching it in  days (..). Caesar accepts the surrender of the Bellovaci at Bratuspan- Aug. 15 July 30 tium (..–.). Caesar leaves for the territory of the Ambiani (..), cov- ering the distance of c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, aug- Aug. 17 Aug. 1 mented) to their capital, Samarobriva (mod. Amiens) (?) in  days. Caesar accepts the surrender of the Ambiani at Samarobri- Aug. 20 Aug. 4 va (?) (..).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar leaves Samarobriva (?) for the territory of the Nervii (..), marching c.  km/ mi in  days before reaching Nervian territory (c.  km/ mi before Camaracum (mod. Cambrai)), and  km/ mi in  more days (..) from Aug. 22–29, Aug. 6–13 there through Nervian territory to Bagacum (mod. Bavay), 57 BCE with  rest day, before turning south for  R mi and reach- ing his camp site above the Sabis (mod. Sambre) River, somewhere beyond which, he has been told, the Nervii are waiting (..–). For the site, see RR –. Aug. 29 Aug. 13 Battle at the Sabis River, defeat of the Nervii (. –). Caesar presumably needs  days to bury the dead, care for Sept. 1–3 Aug. 14–16 the wounded, and accept the submission of the surviving Nervii (.). Caesar sends P. Crassus to secure the submission of mari- Sept. 4 Aug. 17 time (Armorican) nations living along the Atlantic Ocean (.), and departs in pursuit of the Atuatuci (.). Caesar arrives at the town of the Atuatuci (location still debated but presumably not too far from the confluence of Sabis (mod. Sambre) and Mosa (mod. Meuse), c.  Sept. 9 Aug. 22 km/ mi (augmented) from Bagacum (Bavay) and thus reached from the battle site in – days). He begins the siege (.). Caesar enters the town of the Atuatuci after its failure to Late Sept.– honour the terms of its surrender and enslaves the popula- Mid-Sept. early Oct. tion (.–); Crassus reports the submission of the mari- time nations (.). 2nd half of 1st half of Oct. The troops are brought to their winter quarters (..). Sept. Mid - to late Caesar sends his report to the Senate and departs for Cis- 1st half of Oct. Oct. alpine Gaul (..). The Senate decrees a supplicatio of  days in honour of Late Nov. November Caesar ’s victories (..).

Bellum Gallicum : Book < ($:–$" BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 697 AUC 57 BCE Late Sept./ Caesar ’s legate Ser . Sulpicius Galba departs with the th Mid-Sept. early Oct. legion from the town of the Atuatuci (..). Galba and the th legion arrive at Octodurus (mod. Mar- tigny) in the upper Rhone valley, allowing  days of Nov. 6 Oct. 18 marching and  of rest to cover  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) at an av. speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Galba battles tribes in vicinity of the entrance to the Sum- Nov. 7–13 Oct. 19–24 mus Poeninus (mod. Great St. Bernard Pass) (..). The enemy attacks Galba ’s camp and is routed by his le- Nov. 23 Nov. 3 gion (.–..). Galba withdraws to Transalpine Gaul, to winter in the ter- Late Nov. Mid-Nov. ritory of the Allobroges (..). 698 AUC 56 BCE Receiving reports of resistance, even rebellion, among the newly subjected Armorican nations (.–), Caesar orders Winter–spring Winter–spring his legate P. Crassus to prepare a fleet in the Liger (mod. Loire) River (..). Caesar meets with M. Crassus at Ravenna to renew their Apr. 13 Mar. 20 political alliance (Cic. Fam. .().). Caesar meets with Pompey at Lucca to renew their politi- Apr. 18 Mar. 25 cal alliance (Cic. loc. cit.). June 4 May 10 Caesar sets out from Cisalpine Gaul (..). See RR  –. Caesar joins his army, perhaps at the town of the Nam- netes (mod. Nantes), allowing  days (including at least  rest days) for the journey with a cavalry escort from Ra- venna via Ocelum and the Mt. Genèvre Pass to Valentia (mod. Valence), Lugdunum (mod. Lyon), Avaricum (mod. June 29 June 4 Bourges), Caesarodunum (mod. Tours), covering c. , km/, mi (augmented for the part outside the Roman provinces; c.  km/ mi through mountains) at an av- erage speed of  km/ mi per day ( km/ mi over the Alpine passes). Three Roughly Simultaneous Campaigns . Caesar’s War against the Veneti and their Allies (<.@.<–<. ") Caesar begins an unsuccessful campaign by land along the July 8 June 12 south coast of mod. Brittany (..–.). Caesar ’s fleet arrives and the Veneti are crushed (.. – Late Sept. Late Aug. .).

9. Sabinus’ War against the Venelli and their Allies (<. :– @)

Caesar ’s legate Q. Titurius Sabinus sets out, perhaps from July 8 June 12 the town of the Namnetes (mod. Nantes). Sabinus arrives in the territory of the Venelli in mod. Nor- July 22 June 26 mandy (..), having covered c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in  weeks, including  rest days. An enemy attack on Sabinus ’ camp fails; the enemy are Late Sept. Late Aug. overwhelmed (.–).

<. Crassus’ War against the Aquitani (<.9B–:)

Caesar’s legate P. Licinius Crassus departs, perhaps from July 8 June 12 the town of the Namnetes (Nantes).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Crassus arrives, probably at Tolosa (mod. Toulouse), on the border of Aquitania, the staging point for his campaign Aug. 7, 56 BCE July 12 (..), allowing  days (including  days of rest) for his journey of  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented). Crassus crosses the Garumna (mod. Garonne) River and Aug. 17 July 22 begins the invasion of Aquitania (..). Aug. 24 July 29 Crassus ’ tr oops are attacked near Sotium (.. –.). Aug. 25 July 30 Crassus tries to take Sotium (mod. Sos) but fails (..). Sept. 4 Aug. 7 Sotium surrenders after a siege of c.  week (.. –.). Crassus moves to the SW, against the Vocates, Tarusates, Sept. 6 Aug. 9 and a coalition of Aquitanian nations supported by Spanish commanders and troops (..–). Crassus attacks the enemy camp and achieves a decisive Late Sept. Late Aug. victory (..–.). Most Aquitani surrender (..). Caesar’s End-of-Year Campaign

Caesar conducts an inconclusive campaign against the Mo- October Sept. rini (.–.). P. Crassus rejoins Caesar in the region between the Liger Late Oct. Late Sept. (mod. Loire) and Sequana (mod. Seine) rivers. Early Nov. Early Oct. Caesar places his troops in winter quarters (..). Caesar sends troops on furlough to Rome to ensure the Dec. 56– Nov.–Dec. election of Pompey and Crassus to the consulships of  Jan. 55 BCE (Plut. Pomp . .; Crass . .; Dio ..).

Bellum Gallicum : Book E ($$ BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR

699 AUC 55 BCE Caesar is alarmed by the report of a massive invasion of Winter/early Winter/early Gaul by the German Usipetes and Tencteri (..–, spring spring ..–.). Caesar leaves Ravenna, ‘earlier than usual ’ (..), too early to use any Alpine pass. The distance from Raven- na through the Po Valley to the coast at modern Genua, along the coast to the Rhone and up to the site of Lug- Apr. 19 Apr. 7 dunum (Lyon) is c. , km/ mi), from there to Samarobriva (mod. Amiens) c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented), to be covered with a body- guard of cavalry at an average of  km/ mi per day in  days, of which  were days of rest. May 15 May 2 Caesar joins his army (..) , perhaps at Samarobriva. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

May 18–19, May 5–6 Caesar meets with the leaders of Gallic nations, perhaps 55 BCE at Samarobriva (..). Having assembled supplies and cavalry, Caesar starts May 29 May 16 his march to the Rhine (..). Having advanced c.  km/ mi (augmented) to- ward the Rhine (near mod. Cologne) in  days (includ- June 19 June 6 ing  rest days), Caesar meets German envoys (..) and refuses their request that he not advance for  days (..–.). German envoys meet again with Caesar, who in  days has advanced c.  km/ mi along the Rhine toward June 22 June 9 the south and is now only  R mi from the Germans’ camp (..); he grants a one-day truce, but the Ger- man cavalry attacks and defeats Caesar’s (.–). Caesar detains German envoys, attacks the German camp, defeats and massacres the Germans (.–), June 23 June 10 and pursues them to the confluence of the Mosella (mod. Moselle) and Rhine, where most of them perish (..–). 16 He returns to his camp (..). Caesar decides to cross the Rhine, moves to a site near- June 24–29 June 11–16 by, where the bridge is to be built, and has his army prepare the bridge’s construction (..–.). The construction of the bridge over the Rhine begins July 1 June 17 and is completed in  days (.–.). Caesar crosses the Rhine and spends  day s in German July 11 June 27 territory (.. –.). Having achieved his purpose, Caesar returns to Gaul, July 29 July 15 dismantles the bridge, and gets ready for the return march (..). Having decided to undertake an exploratory expedition to Britain, Caesar departs from the Rhine (.), cover- ing the longer distance to the Channel coast (c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) beyond Sama- Aug. 1 July 18 robriva) in  more days (including an additional rest day) than on the way out (hence in  days). C. Volusenus is sent with a single warship to reconnoiter the coast of Britain (.. –). Caesar arrives at the port of assembly in the territory of Sept. 3 Aug. 18 the Morini (probably Portus Itius (mod. Boulogne)).

16 The MSS of Caesar give the name of the river as Mosa (mod. Meuse), rather than Mosella. For a discussion and justification of the location of this massacre near mod. Ko- blenz, see RR –.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar spends a few days in Portus Itius, receives envoys from British nations, accepts the submission of the Mo- Sept. 4–7, Aug. 19–22 rini, prepares the expedition, and sends a large force 55 BCE under Sabinus and Cotta against the Menapii (..– .). Caesar sets sail, crosses the Channel, and lands in Brit- Sept. 8 Aug. 23 ain, despite fierce native resistance (.–). Sept. 9 Aug. 24 The Britons submit (.). Sept. 15 Aug. 30 Owing to a storm, Caesar ’s cavalry fails to land (.). 17 Night of Sept. Night of Aug. The storm and a spring tide at full moon combine to 15–16 30–31 inflict severe damage on the fleet (.). Sept. 16 Aug. 31 The Britons resume their resistance (.). Caesar ’s th legion is attacked but saved by Caesar ’s Sept. 22 Sept. 6 intervention (., .–). Caesar defeats the Britons in a battle, in front of his Sept. 28 Sept. 12 camp (.). Sept. 29 Sept. 13 The Britons submit again (..). Shortly before the Fall Equinox (Oct.

17 Based on tidal evidence (see RR –), we emend ‘iiii’ to ‘viii’ at .. so that the text reads post diem octavum , i.e.  days (by inclusive reckoning) after Caesar’s landing on Sept. . Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Bellum Gallicum : Book $ ($E BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 700 AUC 54 BCE Mid -Dec. , Caesar, having ordered his legions to build ships, departs Early Jan. 55BCE for Cisalpine Gaul (..). Caesar arrives in Cisalpine Gaul and attends to the judi- Early Feb. Mid-Jan. cial circuits (.. ,  ). Caesar moves to the province of Illyricum, deals with Late Mar.–Apr. Mar. security issues, and holds assizes (..–.). Mid -May Mid -Apr. Caesar returns to Cisalpine Gaul and Ravenna (..). Caesar departs from Ravenna to join his army north of May 20 or 21 Apr. 27 or 28 the Alps (..). Travelling with a light escort at c.  km/ mi per day, Caesar requires  days to cover the c.  km/ mi May 24 May 1 from Ravenna to the locale c.  km/ mi N of Placen- tia (mod. Piacenza), where he joins his new legate, Q. Cicero (Cic. Q. Fr. .( ).); for details, see RR  –. Having continued at the same speed from that meeting point on the shortest available route through the Alps (probably the Little St. Bernard Pass) to Lugdunum (mod. Lyon), covering c.  km/ mi in  days, and June 5 May 13 from there to the closest winter camp in the territory of the Meldi on the lower Matrona (mod. Marne) River, covering c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in another  days, Caesar begins an inspection tour of his army and the ships built over the winter (..–). Having completed a tour of the winter camps in roughly  days, Caesar arrives at the place (perhaps Samarobriva June 13 May 21 (mod. Amiens)), where  legions and  cavalry have been ordered to assemble. Caesar leaves Samarobriva (?) for a meeting with leaders of the Treveri (..), probably just beyond the Mosa (mod. Meuse) River, with lightly equipped troops, cover- ing c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in  June 14 May 22 days, at an average of  km/ mi per day, stays there for  days to consolidate affairs, and returns via Sama- robriva (?) to Portus Itius in  days, including a rest day (.. –.; for the distance, see entry of Aug. , ). Caesar arrives at Portus Itius (mod. Boulogne) and finds July 2 June 8 everything ready for the expedition to Britain (..–). July 3 –25 June 9 –July 1 Adverse winds prevent the fleet ’s sailing for approx.  days (..); see RR .  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar embarks his army, but the sudden flight of the July 26, 54 BCE July 2 Aeduan chieftain Dumnorix further delays departure. Dumnorix is hunted down and killed (..–.). July 28 July 4 Caesar sets sail from Portus Itius towards sunset (..). Caesar lands successfully on the coast of Britain at about July 29 July 5 noon (..) and builds a camp (..). 18 Caesar makes a foray into the interior, leaving camp July 30 July 6 soon after midnight on the night of July / (.). July 30/31 July 6/7 A storm during the night of the new moon causes heavy damage to the fleet (.. –). July 31 July 7 Caesar returns to the coast to inspect the damage (..). The army works day and night over the course of  days July 31–Aug. 9 July 7–16 to repair the ships (..–). Latest date for the dispatch of Q. Cicero ’s first letter written from Britain to his brother Marcus in Rome in Aug. 2 July 9 order for it to be received before the end of Aug. (the th), after  days of travel (Cic. Q. Fr. .().). Letter dispatched by Q. Cicero from Britain (Cic. Q. Fr. Aug. 10 July 17 .().). Caesar campaigns against Cassivellaunus, commander - Aug. 10– July 17– in-chief of an alliance of Britons, and eventually achieves Sept. 25 Aug. 30 his submission (..–; .–), then returns to the fleet. Three legions under Trebonius win a decisive victory Aug. 11 July 18 (.). Caesar dispatches a letter to M. Cicero from the British coast, mentioning that Quintus is not present ( Q. Fr. Sept. 1 Aug. 6 .().). Possibly Caesar returned briefly to his naval camp to ward off an impending enemy attack (..–). Letters dispatched by Caesar and Q. Cicero from the Sept. 25 Aug. 30 British coast, announcing their imminent return to the continent (Cic. Att. .().). After waiting in vain for additional ships, Caesar sails Sept. 29 Sept. 3 back to Portus Itius, before the fall equinox on Oct. 9< (Sept. 9", Jul.) (.. –.). Caesar meets in Samarobriva with Gallic leaders and Oct. 3–4 Sept. 6–7 organises the distribution of winter camps (..). Oct. 7–21 Sept. 10 –24 Legions move into the regions of their winter camps (..–). The most distant, among the Eburones, c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) from Sama- robriva, would have been reached in c.  weeks.

18 For a detailed justification of this and the subsequent dates, see RR –. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Troubles among the Carnutes cause Caesar to move one Oct. 15, 54 BCE Sept. 18 legion into their territory (..–). Oct. 22 –28 Sept. 25 –Oct. 1 Approximately one week devoted to fortifying the camps. Having received success reports from all winter quarters, Oct. 31 Oct. 4 Caesar intends to leave for Cisalpine Gaul (.., .). He probably never does so. Approximately  weeks after the legions have reached their winter camps, the Eburones under king Ambiorix Nov. 4–5 Oct. 8–9 attack the camp of Sabinus and Cotta, trick them into leaving the camp, and destroy the entire army of  co- horts in an ambush (. –). Nov. 7 Oct. 11 Ambiorix arrives among the Nervii and stirs them into revolt (.). The Nervii and their allies attack Q. Cicero ’s winter Nov. 14–Dec. 4 Oct. 18–Nov. 6 camp and begin a siege that lasts for almost  weeks (. –). A messenger sent by Q. Cicero finally slips through the Nov. 22–24 Oct. 26–28 enemy lines and reaches Caesar at Samarobriva (.). Nov. 25 –29 Oct. 29 –Nov. 2 In forced marches, Caesar reaches the area of Cicero ’s camp (.–.), covering c. – km/– mi (– km/– mi, augmented) from Samarobriva in  . days. The Nervii abandon the siege and turn against Caesar, Dec. 2–4 Nov. 4–6 who tricks them into fighting on unfavourable ground and gains an overwhelming victory (.–). Caesar reaches Cicero ’s camp and praises the legion and Dec. 4–5 Nov. 6–7 its officers (.). Indutiomarus and the Treveri call off a planned attack on Labienus’ camp (..). Caesar returns to Samarobriva with Cicero and his le- Mid-Dec. Mid-Nov. gion; he stations  legions in winter quarters around that town (..). 701 AUC 53 BCE 54/53 BCE Caesar stays with his army, dealing with the constant threat of new insurrections (..–). Labienus thwarts Jan.–Feb. Dec.–Jan. an attack on his camp by the Treveri; in the ensuing bat- tle, the Treveri ’s leade r Indutiomarus is killed (. –).

 John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Bellum Gallicum : Book " ($< BCE )

ROMA N JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 701 AUC 53 BCE Jan. –Mar. 53 Winter 54/53 Caesar levies  legions and borrows  from Pompey (.). Caesar conducts a surprise raid into the territory of the Mar.–Apr. Late Feb.–Mar. Nervii (.. –). Caesar convenes a meeting of Gallic leaders, probably at May 8–9 Apr. 4–5 Samarobriva (mod. Amiens) (..). Caesar reconvenes at Lutetia (mod. Paris) the meeting with Gallic leaders begun roughly a week earlier (..– May 16 Apr. 12 ), having travelled the distance of c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in  days. Caesar immediately launches a campaign against the Senones, reaching their capital Agedincum ( km/ May 17–19 Apr. 13–15 mi away) in  days of forced marches, and receives their submission (..–.). Caesar receives the submission of the Carnutes, dismisses May 22 Apr. 18 the meeting of Gallic leaders, and orders up Gallic caval- ry (..). Caesar sends  legions with the army ’s entire baggage train from Samarobriva (?) to join Labienus (..) in the territory of the Remi, close to the border of the Treveri (..). Moving at  km/ mi per day, they require  days (including  rest days) to cover c.  km/ mi June 1 Apr. 28 ( km/ mi, augmented). Caesar himself departs for the territory of the Menapii (..), consuming some  days of long marches ( km/ mi per day, including  rest days) to cover c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented). Labienus defeats the Treveri and accepts their submis- June 27 May 24 sion (.–). Caesar accepts the surrender of the Menapii (.. –) and receives news of Labienus’ victory over the Treveri July 1–2 May 27–28 (..–; see RR –), which obviates his plans to pro- ceed against them. Caesar decides to cross the Rhine again (..–). Labienus, receiving Caesar ’s orders on c. July  and set- ting out c. July , marches c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in  days across the territory of the Treveri to meet Caesar on the Rhine near modern July 23 June 18 Koblenz. Caesar and his unencumbered legions cover the c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) from the territory of the Menapii to the designated place for the ren dezvous in less time. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Late July– Late June– Caesar again builds a bridge across the Rhine, plans a early Sept., late July campaign against the Suebi, but decides against it and 53 BCE returns to Gaul (.–, ). Caesar begins his campaign of reprisal against Ambiorix. His cavalry surprises Ambiorix in his hiding place but Early Sept. Early Aug. fails to apprehend him. Caesar crosses the Ardennes Forest in search of Ambiorix (.–), a distance of c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented). Caesar leaves the baggage train, with  legion, at Atuatu- Sept. 22 Aug. 16 ca under Q. Cicero’s command and divides the army into  task forces (.. –). The task forces scour areas to the north and west, search- Sept. 24–Oct. 1 Aug. 18–24 ing unsuccessfully for Ambiorix (.–). The date set for Caesar ’s return to the camp at Atuatuca. Raiders from the German Sugambri almost capture the Oct. 1 Aug. 24 camp and cause the loss of  cohorts (.–). Caesar’s cavalry returns during the night. Caesar returns, holds an assembly with the legion at At- Aug. 25–mid- Oct. 2–late Oct. uatuca (.), then resumes his campaign, devastating the Sept. territory of the Eburones (.). 2nd half of Caesar marches his army to Durocortorum (mod. Reims) Late Oct. Sept. (..). Caesar holds a meeting of Gallic leaders and passes Early Nov. Late Sept. judgment on ringleaders of the uprisings in the spring (..–). Late Nov. – 2nd half of Oct. The legions are settled in winter quarters; Caesar leaves mid - Dec. –early Nov. for Ci salpine Gaul (..).

Bellum Gallicum : Book : ($9 BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 702 AUC 52 BCE 53 BCE Caesar arrives in Cisalpine Gaul shortly before the mur- Jan. 11 Dec. 1 der of Clodius (..). Jan. 18 Dec. 8 Murder of Clodius near Rome (..; Asc. C). Riot at Clodius ’ funeral; the mob burns the Senate -house Jan. 19 Dec. 9 (Asc. C). Jan. 21 Dec. 11 Caesar at Ravenna learns of the turmoil in Rome (..). The Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum (SCU) and Feb. 1 Dec. 20 authorises Pompey to levy troops to restore order (Asc. C).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar begins levying troops soon after learning of the Feb. 5, 52 BCE Dec. 24, 53 BCE Senate’s emergency decree (..). News of the turmoil in Rome reaches Gaul and triggers Feb. 9 Dec. 28 or accelerates plans for an uprising and meetings to launch a revolt (.. –.). 52 BCE Outbreak of the rebellion with a massacre of Romans at Cenabum (.), followed by the uprising of Vercingetorix Feb. 21 Jan. 9 among the Arverni and his attack on the Bituriges (.– ). Cicero meets with Caesar at Ravenna and agrees to win Intercal. 14 Jan. 26 the support of the plebeian tribune M. Caelius for Cae- sar’s future consular candidacy in absence ( Att. .().). Caesar in Ravenna learns of the massacre of Romans at Cenabum (news delivered by a messenger dispatched Intercal. 17 Jan. 29 approx.  days earlier from Agedincum on Feb.  = Jan. , Jul.). News reaches Rome of the massacre of Roman s at Intercal. 20 Feb. 1 Cenabum. Intercal. 24 Feb. 5 Pompey elected sole consul (Asc. C). Intercal. 27 Feb. 8 Caesar learns of Pompey ’s election. Caesar leaves Ravenna for Narbo Martius (mod. Nar- bonne) in Transalpine Gaul (..). Travelling with a Mar. 1 Feb. 9 light escort and along the coastal road via Arelate (mod. Arles), he covers c. , km/ mi in  days. Caesar arrives at Narbo Martius and organ ise s the de- fence of the Province (..–, ..), then marches with available troops to a place suited for launching an inva- Mar. 13 Feb. 21 sion of Arvernian territory, perhaps Alba Helviorum (near mod. Alba-la-Romaine), covering c.  km/ mi in  days. Caesar crosses the Cevennes mountains in winter condi- tions and pillages Arvernian territory (..–). After only Mar. 25 Mar. 5  days, he himself returns to Alba and reaches Vienna (mod. Vienne), c.  km/ mi away, in  days (..–; c.  weeks are spent on this expeditio n). Caesar leaves Vienna with cavalry, travels day and night Apr. 15 Mar. 26 (..). Covering in  days c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented for the c.  km/ mi lying outside the Apr. 18 Mar. 29 Province), Caesar arrives in the winter quarters of  le- gions in the territory of the Lingones (..–), perhaps around Andematunnum (mod. Langres). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Caesar unites his army at Agedincum (mod. Sens; c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) from Andema- tunnum; c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) Apr. 29, 52 BCE Apr. 9 from the most distant camp at the borders of the Tre- veri). He leaves the baggage train at Agedincum, pro- tected by  legions (.., .). Caesar leaves Agedincum, arrives at Vellaunodunum on May 2 Apr. 11 the next day, and builds a circumvallation over the course of  days (..). May 6 Apr. 15 Caesar accepts the surrender of Vellaunodunum (..). Caesar reaches Cenabum in  days, captures, and plun- May 9 Apr. 18 ders the town on the third (..–). Noviodunum of the Bituriges (c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) away and reached in  days) surrenders, May 14 Apr. 23 resumes resistance when Vercingetorix’ cavalry appears, and surrenders again when Caesar’s cavalry prevails (..–.). The Roman army, covering c.  km/ mi ( km/ May 17 Apr. 26 mi, augmented) in  days, reaches Avaricum (..) and begins a long and difficult siege (.–). Avaricum is taken (. –). Caesar stays at Avaricum for June 15 May 25 a few days to let his army recover (..) . Caesar travels to Decetia (c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) away), mediates in a conflict among Aeduan June 22–27 June 1–6 leaders (..–.), and returns to Avaricum on the th day. Labienus departs for a campaign against the Senones June 28 June 7 and Parisii, Caesar against Gergovia (..–). Caesar, after first reaching the Elaver (mod. Allier) River (c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) away) in  July 10 June 18 days and crossing it by deception after  more days (.), covers the remaining distance to Gergovia in  days (..). Labienus campaigns in the area between Metiosedum Late July–Aug. Late June–July (mod. Melun) and Lutetia (mod. Paris) (.–). Aeduan leaders conspire to bring t heir nation into t he July June war (. –). Caesar ’s failed action against Gergovia causes  casu- Aug. 8 July 17 alties (.–). Aug. 11 July 20 Caesar leaves Gergovia (.). Labienus defeats the enemy in a battle near Lutetia Aug. 19 or 20 July 28 or 29 (mod. Paris), then returns to Agedincum (mod. Sens) and picks up the baggage train and guard (. –). Aug. 27 Aug. 5 Caesar and Labienus meet near Agedincum (..). 2nd half of Aug. Vercingetorix reasserts his leadership and prepares com- Late July–Aug. –Sept. prehensively for a new round of the war (.–).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Vercingetorix’ cavalry attacks Caesar’s marching column Mid- to late but is defeated (..–.). Vercingetorix withdraws Late Aug. Sept., 52 BCE into Alesia (.). Caesar follows and begins constructing a circumvallation (.). Cavalry battle at Alesia; Vercingetorix is again defeated Late Sept. Early Sept. (.). Vercingetorix evacuates his cavalry, calls for a general Oct. 5 Sept. 10 mobilisation of Gaul (.). Caesar completes a double ring of fortifications a nd ob- Oct. to early Sept. to early stacles (.–). The Gauls assemble a huge relief army Nov. Oct. (. –). Nov. 6 Oct. 12 The defenders have used up most supplies and eject the Mandubii (the native inhabitants) from Alesia (.–). Nov. 7 Oct. 13 The relief army arrives (.). Nov. 8 Oct. 14 The Gauls lose a cavalry battle at Alesia (.). A Gallic night attack against Caesar ’s outer fortifications Nov. 9–10 Oct. 15–16 falte rs in the obstacle fields (. –). Final battle about Alesia; attacks from the outside and inside bring Caesar’s army to the brink of defeat, but in Nov. 12 Oct. 18 the end it prevails. The Gauls suffer disastrous losses; the survivors of their army flee to their various nations (.– ). Vercingetorix hands himself over to Caesar; most de- Nov. 13 Oct. 19 fenders of Alesia are distributed to Roman soldiers as war booty (.). Caesar marches into Aeduan territory, accepts the sur- Second half of Mid-Nov. render of Aeduans and Arvernians, and returns , Oct. captives to them (..–). Roman troops settle into their winter quarters. Caesar Late Nov. End of Oct. decides to spend the winter at Bibracte (..–). The Senate in Rome decrees a supplicatio of  days in Dec. Nov. recognition of C aesar ’s victories (..).

Bellum Gallicum : Book % ($ –$B BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 702 AUC 52 BCE Caesar launches a surprise campaign of deterrence against Dec. 29 Dec. 3 the Bituriges (..–.). The date, given at .., is the only one specified in book . Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

703 AUC 51 BCE Caesar returns to Bibracte on the th day after setting Feb. 10 Jan. 11 out (..). After spending  days at Bibracte, Caesar leads another Feb. 28 Jan. 29 winter campaign against the Carnutes and, at its conclu- sion, station s  legions at Cenabum (.. –.). Mar. 31 Mar. 1 Caesar returns to Bibracte. Apr. 21 Mar. 22 Caesar assembles  legions against the Bellovaci (.. –). Late Apr. – Late Mar. – Campaign against the Bellovaci, ending with their de feat early June early May and surrender (. –). Caesar leaves for the territory of the Eburones, devastates it (..–.), then sends Labienus into the territory of the Treveri (..–). C. Fabius is sent off to campaign along the Atlantic coast (..) and to support Caninius Rebilus who has been stationed in the south; they both June 10 May 10 respond to a call for help by Duratius of the Pictones at Lemonum (mod. Poitiers) (.–.). Covering c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) in c.  days, Caninius arrives first and brings Duratius temporary re- lief. Fabius, marching c.  km/ mi ( km/ mi, augmented) from the area of the war against the Bellovaci to the bridge over the Liger (mod. Loire), probably at Late June Late May Caesarodunum (mod. Tours), defeats Dumnacus of the Andes (.–), relieves Duratius, then accepts the submis- sion of the Carnutes and Armorican nations (.). Caninius Rebilus takes up the pursuit of Drappes, Lucte- July 1 May 30 rius, and their band of survivors to prevent them from invading the province of Transalpine Gaul (.). Drappes and Lucterius occupy Uxellodunum, gain the Early July Early June townspeople’s support, and plan to bring in additional supplies (.). Having covered  km/ mi ( km/ mi, aug- July 10 June 8 mented) in  days, Rebilus arrives at Uxellodunum and begins construction of a circumvallation (.). Rebilus thwarts the enemies ’ plans to resupply Uxellodu- 2nd half of July 2nd half of June num, destroys their supply base, then completes the cir- cumvallation (.–.). Fabius joins Rebilus (..); Caesar follows (. –), after Late July– Late June– stationing Antonius with  cohorts in the territory of the early Aug. early July Bellovaci (..). Caesar’s army builds a ramp and high tower and digs August July tunnels to cut off the water supply of Uxellodunum (.– ). Uxellodunum capitulates (..); the defenders are pun- End of Aug. End of July ished severely to deter revolt by others (..).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

August?, July? Labienus defeats the Treveri in a cavalry battle and forces 51 BCE their leaders to submit (.). Caesar considers Gaul entirely defeated and subdued Early Sept. Early Aug. (..). Caesar enters Aquitania, receives envoys and hostages September August from all nations (..). The legions march to their winter quarters in five strategi- cally chosen locations (..–), while Caesar makes the October September judicial circuit in Transalpine Gaul, rewards those who have served him faithfully, then returns to the Belgae to spend the winter at Nemetocenna (mod. Arras) (.. –). 704 AUC 50 BCE late Nov. 51 – Caesar undertakes diplomatic efforts to establish positive Jan.–June May 50 relations with the subjected Gallic nations (.). A Senate decree orders Pompey and Caesar to send one legion each to Italy for an impending war against the Par- Apr. 15 Mar. 6 thians (..). 19 Pompey offers the legion he had earlier lent Caesar (..–). Caesar sends  legions to Italy and stations a third in Cisalpine Gaul (..–). Caesar leaves Nemetocenna and hurries to Cisalpine Gaul July 16 June 4 to support the candidacy of M. Antonius for the augurate (..). Before Caesar reaches Cisalpine Gaul, he learns of Anto- July 26–27 June 14–15 nius’ election as augur on c. July  (..). Caesar canvasses the townships of Cisalpine Gaul for sup- End of June– August port for his prospective consular candidacy in  (..– 1st half of July ). 1st half of Sept. Late July Caesar returns to Nemetocenna (..). Caesar conducts in the territory of the Treveri a formal Mid-Oct. Early Sept. review of all legions (..), then relocates some legionary camps as circumstances dictate (..). Caesar rearranges the distribution of his legions, station- Late Oct.– Mid-Sept. ing four under C. Trebonius among the Belgae and four early Nov. under C. Fabius among the Aedui (..). Caesar returns to Ravenna, arriving by c. Dec.  at the latest (..). He is informed that the consul Marcellus had ordered the two Caesarian legions (originally desig- Mid-Nov.– Early Oct.– nated for a war against the Parthians) to be handed over Dec. 8 Oct. 23 to Pompey on c. Dec.  (..). He sends orders on Dec.  to  legions stationed among the Aedui to join him in Cis- alpine Gaul (..; see entries below on Dec. ,  and Feb.  and , ).

19 For a justification for assigning this date, see RR –. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Bellum Civile : Book (E@ BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 704 AUC 50 BCE Caesar summons the th and th legions from their win- ter quarters among the Aedui (..–.), perhaps at Matisco, allowing  days (Dec. –) for a fast messen- ger to cover c. , km/ mi from Ravenna, at an av- erage speed of  km/ mi per day, and assuming the Dec. 8 Oct. 23 departure of the th legion on Dec.  (see Feb. ). Cae- sar orders C. Fabius to move from Matisco to Narbo (..) with his  remaining legions, to which  is added from C. Trebonius’ , while Trebonius moves from among the Belgae to Matisco with his  remaining le- gions. At a public meeting ( contio ), the tribune M. Antonius vi- Dec. 21 Nov. 5 ciously attacks Pompey (Cic. Att. ..()., giving the date). Curio visits Caesar at Ravenna, leaving Rome on the day after Antonius’ speech on Dec.  and taking c.  Dec. 24 Nov. 8 days to travel c.  km/ mi (App. BCiv . .; cf. Caes. BCiv . ..). Curio sets out before dawn from Ravenna so as to arrive Dec. 27 Nov. 11 in Rome in time for the Senate meeting on Jan. . 705 AUC 49 BCE 50 BCE Caesar ’s dispatch (brought from Ravenna by Curio (App. BCiv . .; Dio ..)) is read in the Senate (..). The consuls refuse to have Caesar’s proposals discussed. Jan. 1–2 Nov. 14–15 The plebeian tribunes M. Antonius and Q. Cassius veto the Senate’s adoption of Scipio’s motion calling for Cae- sar to dismiss his army by a certain date (..–.). Days reserved for assembly meetings on which the Sen- ate does not meet (..); Pompey meets the senators out- Jan. 3–4 Nov. 16–17 side the city, urging them to take decisive action against Caesar (..). Jan. 5–7 Nov. 18 –20 Second period of deli beration by the Senate (.. –.). The Senate passes the senatus consultum ultimum (SCU) Jan. 7 Nov. 20 (..–). (This is the first of only  precise dates given by Caesar in The Civil War (cf. BCiv . .., Jan. ,  BCE )). Two plebeian tribunes, M. Antonius and Q. Cassius (..), together with M. Caelius Rufus (Cic. Fam. Night of Jan. Night of Nov. .().) and C. Curio ( Fam. .().) flee from 7/8 20/21 Rome to Ariminum (mod. Rimini), where they arrive on Jan.  or  (covering the c.  km/ mi in either  or  days) and meet with Caesar on Jan. .  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Jan. 8 and Nov. 21 and Third period of deliberation by the Senate, outside the following days, following days, pomerium so that Pompey can attend. Decisions are made 49 BCE 50 BCE concerning the appointment of provincial governors and preparations for war (.). After receiving, on Jan. , news of the passing of the emergency decree on the th ( days for a fast courier to cover the c.  km/ mi to Ravenna), Caesar holds an army assembly (.), then sets out on Jan.  for Arim- Jan. 10–11 Nov. 23–24 inum with the th legion (..). He needs  day (Jan. ) to cover the c.  km/ mi from Ravenna to the border of his province and crosses the Rubicon River at night (Plut. Caes . ; Suet. Iul . .–). Caesar occupies Ariminum, where he meets with the two Jan. 12 Nov. 25 plebeian tribunes (..), and Pisaurum (..). Jan. 13 Nov. 26 Fanum occupied (..). Ancona occupied (..), c.  km/ mi) S of Fanum. News of the occupation of Ariminum arrives in Rome Jan. 14 Nov. 27 (Plut. Caes . ; cf. App. BCiv . .), allowing  days for a fast courier to cover c.  km/ mi. Jan. 15 Nov. 28 Arretium occupied by Antonius with  cohorts (..). L. Caesar and L. Roscius arrive at Ariminum, bringing Caesar a message from Pompey (.., ):  days needed Jan. 16 Nov. 29 to cover c.  km/ mi from Rome to Ariminum at an average speed of  km/ mi per day, so departure c. Jan. . Pompey leaves Rome to join his legions in Apulia (..); Jan. 17 Nov. 30 date given by Cic. Att. .()., . News of Caesar ’s advance causes the consuls and many members of the Senate favouring Pompey to flee Rome to Capua (..–). Date is given as the day following Jan. 18 Dec. 1 Pompey’s departure (..), which is known to be the th. Cicero is among those leaving Rome (Cic. Att. .(), .().). Caesar sends Curio to o ccup y Iguvium with  cohorts Jan. 20 Dec. 3 (.. ). L. Caesar and L. Roscius bring Caesar’s peace proposals to Pompey and the consuls at Teanum in Campania (ac- cording to Caesar (..), at Capua; date given by Cic. Jan. 23 Dec. 6 Att. .().): + days needed to cover c.  km/ mi from Ariminum at an average speed of  km/ mi per day, so departure c. Jan. . The consuls submit Caesar ’s proposals to the senators Jan. 25 Dec. 8 assembled at Capua (..; date given by Cic. Att. .().). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

L. Caesar and L. Roscius bring to Caesar at Ariminum the reply of the consuls and Pompey (..–.):  days needed to cover c.  km/ mi from Capua at an av- Feb. 3, 49 BCE Dec. 15, 50 BCE erage speed of  km/ mi per day, so departure Jan. , as soon as the senators’ decision on Jan.  was re- duced to writing. See Cic. Att. .().–, .().–, .().. Caesar rejects the counterproposals (..–). Caesar sets out from Ariminum for Auximum (..), c. Feb. 4 Dec. 16  km/ mi to SW. Caesar takes possession of Auximum (..), then sets Feb. 6 Dec. 18 out from Auximum for Firmum (c.  km/ mi to SW) at speed (..). Caesar gains possession of Firmum (..), where he is joined by the th legion, while P. Lentulus Spinther evacuates Asculum to the S (..). The arrival date of the th legion makes it possible to estimate c. Dec. , , as the date of its departure from its winter quarters among the Aedui in Gaul (see entry above for Dec. , Feb. 8 Dec. 20 ):  days of fast march averaging  km/ mi per day +  days of rest, to cover c. , km/ mi down the Saône and Rhone valleys to Arelate (mod. Arles), along the coastal road to Genua (the mountain passes being unpassable in Dec.) and from there to Ariminum and on to Firmum. Caesar sets out from Firmum for Asculum (..), c.  km/ mi to the SW. L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is ex- Feb. 9 Dec. 21 pected to withdraw his forces from Corfinium on this date and join Pompey (date given by Pompey’s letter in Cic. Att. .A(A)). Caesar arrives at Asculum and remains there for  day Feb. 10 Dec. 22 (..). Caesar hastens from Asculum to Corfinium (..), c. Feb. 12 Dec. 24  km/ mi) to the S, requiring c.  days of marching at an average speed of  km/ mi per day. Caesar reaches Corfinium with the th and th legions (..),  days before he takes possession of the town Feb. 15 Dec. 27 (..) on Feb. . (For the date, see below under Feb. .) Domitius urgently requests Pompey to come to his aid Feb. 16 Dec. 28 (..). Sulmo near Corfinium is occupied by Antonius with  cohorts of the th legion (..). The th legion +  cohorts of recruits and  cavalry join Caesar at Corfinium on day  of his stay (..). The legion’s arrival date makes it possible to estimate c. Feb. 17 Dec. 29 Dec.  (just  days later than the th legion (see Feb. )) as date of its departure from Matisco in the territory of the Aedui in Gaul:  days of fast march averaging  km/ mi per day +  days of rest, to cover c. , km/ mi.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Pompey’s refusal to bring aid reaches Corfinium (..), Feb. 19, Dec. 31, allowing  days for the round trip to Luceria of c.  49 BCE 50 BCE km/ mi by a fast messenger setting out on Feb. . Pompey at Luceria learns of the impending capitulation Feb. 19 Dec. 31 of Corfinium and leaves for Canusium (..). The date of departure is given by Cic. Att. .a().. 49 BCE Pompey is at Canusium (..). The date is established by the preceding and following entries. The speed of his travel over the c.  km/ mi) from Luceria indicates Feb. 20 Jan. 1 that Pompey was travelling apart from the  cohorts that he had with him at Luceria (Cic. Att. .A(A)., .C(C).) and now sent on to Brundisium (mod. Brindisi). Caesar occupies Corfinium on the th day after his arri- val and dismisses the senators and equestrians who fall into his hands (..–). He integrates Domitius’ troops into his own army (..) and sends them to Sicily under Feb. 21 Jan. 2 Asinius Pollio’s command (..; App. BCiv . .). He departs the same day for Brundisium, completing a march of c.  km/ mi (..). Pompey sets out at dawn from Canusium for Brundisium. The date for both departures is given by Cic. Att. .().; cf. .().. Pompey arrives in Brundisium (Cic. Att. .(). iden- Feb. 25 Jan. 6 tifies Mar.  as Pompey ’s fifth day in Brundisium). Caesar spends the night at Arpi, a town lying roughly Mar. 1 Jan. 10 half way between Corfinium and Brundisium. Date given by Cic. Att . .().. The consuls sail from Brundisium for Dyrrachium Mar. 4 Jan. 13 (..), with  cohorts (Plut. Pomp. .); date given by Cic. Att. .().. Caes ar arrives at Brundisium by mid day with  legions (..; date given by Cic. Att. .A(A)., quoting a dispatch of Caesar). The distance covered from Corfini- Mar. 9 Jan. 18 um (c.  km/ mi) in  / days (including  days of rest, leaving on afternoon of Feb. ) translates into an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Caesar begins to block the harbour’s exit (..–.). Pompey sails from Brundisium at nightfall (..), with  cohorts (..), on day  of Caesar’s stay at Brundisi- um (..–). Date given by Cic. Att. .(). = Mar. 17 Jan. 26 a() (same day as Battle of Munda in , as noted by

Plut. Caes . ., cf. Oros. ..). Caesar becomes master of Italy in  days (Plut. Caes . .), a rounding of  by inclusive reckoning (Jan. –Mar. ). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Caesar enters Brundisium (..–). Unable to pursue Pompey because no ships are available, he decides to confront the Pompeian army in Spain first (..–.) and leaves for Rome (..), with the aim of arriving Mar. 18, Jan. 27 before Apr. ; both dates are supplied by Cic. Att. 49 BCE .(). = a(). To allow his soldiers some rest, he temporarily quarters them in Brundisium and nearby towns (..): Tarentum and Spoletum (Cic. Att. .().) and Hydrus (App. BCiv . .). Caesar ’s progress from Brundisium through Beneventum (Mar. ), Capua (Mar. ), Sinuessa (Mar. ) is men- tioned with dates by Cic. Att. ../a(); Caesar thus Mar. 25–27 Feb. 3–5 covered c.  km/ mi) from Brundisium to Sinuessa, leaving in the afternoon of Mar. , in + days at an av- erage speed of  – km/ – mi per day. Caesar visits Cicero at Formiae (attested by Cic. Att. Mar. 28 Feb. 6 .()), travelling c.  km/ mi in  day. Caesar arrives at Rome (..), covering a distance of c. Mar. 31 Feb. 9  km/ mi) from Formiae in  days at an average speed of  km/ mi per day. Caesar meets with the Senate (..), convened by the plebeian tribunes M. Antonius and Q. Cassius (Dio ..), for  days (..) outside the pomerium . The date Apr. 1–3 Feb. 10–12 of Apr.  is given by Cicero ( Att. .().). The plebe- ian tribune L. Metellus tries to hinder Caesar (..), blocking access to the treasury (Plut. Caes . .–). Caesar departs from Rome for Spain (..), after spending c. – days in Rome (Cic. Att. .().), leav- ing the praetor M. Lepidus in charge of Rome and the Apr. 6 Feb. 15 plebeian tribune M. Antonius in charge of Italy (App. BCiv . .). He issues marching orders for Spain to the  veteran legions stationed around Brundisium (see entry of June ). Caesar arrives at Massilia (mod. Marseille) (..), cover- ing c.  km/ mi) by the coastal route in c.  days at c.  km/ mi per day. (The date was worked out by Apr. 19 Feb. 23 Schmidt () , on the basis of news of resistance at Massilia in Cic. Att. .a(). (May )). Caesar was still on route on Apr.  ( Att. .B (B )). Upon learning that Massilia has chosen Pompey ’s side (.–), Caesar orders  warships to be built at Arelate Apr. 21 Mar. 1 (mod. Arles) and sends orders to Trebonius to move his  legions to Massilia (..–); see entry of Dec. , . Apr. 22 Mar. 2 Curio embarks for Sicily (..). Cato leaves Sicily (..) after Asinius Pollio arrives in Sicily as Caesar’s representative with troops from Corfin- Apr. 23 Mar. 3 ium (see entry of Feb. ). Cato sails to Corcyra and goes on to join Pompey (App. BCiv . .). The date of Cato’s departure from Syracuse is given by Cic. Att. .().  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar orders C. Fabius to advance from Narbo with his  legions (see entry of Dec. , ) and seize passes in the Pyrenees (..). He orders the  legions stationed near May 1, 49 BCE Mar. 10 Brundisium to set out for Spain (..). Actually this or- der must have been given much earlier (c. Apr. ) to al- low sufficient time for the legions to reach Spain by June  (see entry there). Fabius departs from Narbo with  legions and occupies passes in the Pyrenees, as ordered (see May ): assuming May 4–20 Mar. 13–29  days for the march of c.  km/ mi to reach the passes and  days for clearing passes along a stretch of c.  km/ mi of road. Trebonius arrives at Massilia (mod. Marseille) with  le- gions and begins the siege (..), having received Cae- sar’s summons at his winter quarters among the Aedui May 16 Mar. 25 (entry of Apr. ) on c. Apr.  (fast messenger travelling c.  km/ mi from Massilia in  days), and leaving on c. Apr. , covering the distance in  days ( days of march at  km/ mi per day +  days of rest). Q. Valerius occupies Caralis on Sardinia (..; App. May 20 Mar. 29 BCiv . .). Completion of the construction of  warships at Arelate May 21 Mar. 30 (mod. Arles) after  days (..). After clearing the mountain passes, covering the last c.  km/ mi in  days (..), Fabius arrives with  legions May 22 Mar. 31 at Ilerda (mod. Lérida/Lleida), where the Pompeian generals L. Afranius and M. Petreius have anchored their defense (.). Caesar leaves Massilia (mod. Marseille) for Ilerda (..) with a cavalry escort: the presumed date of his arrival June 13 Apr. 22 (June ) makes it possible to estimate the date of his de- parture by allowing + days to cover c.  km/ mi at  km/ mi per day. On this date at the latest, the  legions stationed on Mar.  near Brundisium arrive at Ilerda (their presence is confirmed by .. and ..), assuming that marching orders were sent from Rome c. Apr. , that orders were received  days later, and that the legions set out c. Apr. , covering c. , km/, mi at a quick march of c. June 21 Apr. 30  km/ mi per day in  days ( of marching +  of rest). These  legions plus Fabius’  (see May ) form Caesar’s complement of  (..). One of Fabius’ two bridges over the Sicoris (mod. Segre) River N of Ilerda is shattered by a storm and high water (..). The date can be established relative to Caesar’s arrival (see next entry). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Two days after the collapse of the bridge, Caesar arrives at Ilerda with  cavalry (..). The date is calculated June 23, May 2 on the basis of the statement at BCiv. .. that within 49 BCE  days of his arrival Caesar achieved victory, i.e., the surrender of the Pompeian forces on Aug.  ( Inscr. Ital. ..; ILS ). 20 Caesar offers Afranius an opportunity for battle; he be- June 24 May 3 gins constructing a new camp closer to Ilerda (..–). June 26 May 5 Caesar completes the camp on the rd day (..). A fight over a hill lying between Ilerda and Afranius’ June 27 May 6 camp (.–) leads to a difficult but indecisive battle on the slope of the hill of Ilerda. Two days after this battle, storms and floodwater destroy June 29 May 8 both of Caesar’s bridges (.). June 30 –July 11 May 9–19 Caesar ’s army, lacking supplies, is in dire straits (. –). First sea battle at M assilia (mod. Marseille) (. –), news of which reaches Caesar at Ilerda c. July , allowing c.  July 5 May 13 days for a fast messenger to cover c.  km/ mi from Massilia at c.  km/ mi per day. Caesar constructs a new bridge over the Sicoris River  July 11/12 May 19/20 R mi (c. . km/. mi) upstream from Ilerda and for- tifies a hill on the east bank (.). July 18 May 26 Work begins to construct a ford on the Sicoris near Iler- da (..). The Pompeian generals, having decided to withdraw to Celtiberia, order construction of a pontoon bridge over July 22 May 30 the Hiberus (mod. Ebro) River and transfer  of their legions across the Sicoris. There they fortify a camp (..). Afranius leads his army across the Sicoris into the new camp and sets out after midnight for the bridge near Otogesa (..), which was  R mi (c.  km/c. . mi) south of Ilerda, on the Hiberus River (..). Caesar crosses the ford and pursues and harasses Afranius’ July 24–25 June 1–2 troops (.), forcing them to make camp before they

reach the narrow passes leading to the Hiberus (.). (Caesar’s day-by-day account permits this date and those immediately following to be determined with reference to the known date of surrender of the Pompeian forces (see Aug. ).)

20 Forty, however, may well be a rounded number, chosen to make Caesar rival the ce- leritas of Pompey, who on as many as  separate occasions is credited with having achieved success within  days: African campaign in  (Plut. Pomp . .); army raised in  for war against Sertorius in Spain (Sall. Hist . .. (Loeb)); Tyrrhenian and African seas cleared in pirate war in  (Plut. Pomp . .). For another rounded number, see entry of March  above.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar prevents Afranius’ forces from a breakthrough at July 26–27, June 3–4 night and circumvents them, cutting them off en route to 49 BCE the Hiberus (.–), but then refuses to fight a battle, preferring to win a bloodless victory (.–). A large -scale fraterni sat ion between both armies is bru- July 28 June 5 tally suppressed by Petreius (. –). Afranius begins to march back to Ilerda (..) but is forced to make camp (..). Moving forward only by July 29 June 6 building continuous fortifications, his army is essentially im mobil ise d (. –). On the th day of being confined to these fortifications (..), and almost completely blockaded by Caesar (..), Afranius surrenders (.–); the date is attested Aug. 2 June 10 by the fasti (see entry of June ). Caesar lays down the condition that the entire enemy army is to be discharged (.. –). Roughly one third of Afranius ’ forces is released from Aug. 3–4 June 11–12 service over the course of  days (..). The remainder of Afranius ’ army is discharged at the Varus (mod. Var) River (..): allowing  days ( of Sept. 16 July 23 marching at c.  km/ mi per day +  days of rest) to cover c.  km/ mi from Ilerda to the river forming the SE boundary of the province of Transalpine Gaul.

Bellum Civile : Book 9 (E@ BCE )

ROM AN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 705 AUC 49 BCE Mid -May – Late Mar. – Siege works with ramp, towers, and siege engines are set late July early June up around Massilia (mod. Marseille) (. –). Second sea battle at Massilia (. –), won by Caesar ’s fleet, as was the st battle (see BCiv . , entry for July ). Late July– First half of The date can be no later than c. Aug. , since the Pom- mid-Aug., June peian admiral L. Nasidius must have arrived at Massilia 49 BCE by c. Aug.  at the latest, given that he landed at Mes- sana (mod. Messina) in Sicily before Curio sailed for Af- rica (.) on c. Aug. , and the voyage from Messana to Massilia would have taken c.  days. After the battle, the siege continues with Roman success- Early Aug.– Mid-June– es and setbacks that cannot be dated precisely (.–). early Oct. mid-Aug. After several weeks, Massilia capitulates and is sealed off, awaiting Caesar’s arrival and judgement (.). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Q. Cassius sets out from Ilerda (mod. Lérida/Lleida) for Aug. 3, June 11 Gades (mod. Cádiz) in Farther Spain with  legions 49 BCE (..). Caesar departs from Ilerda for Farther Spain (see Aug. Aug. 6 June 14  below). Curio leaves Sicily for Africa, departing late in the day Aug. 8 June 16 (..) from Lilybaeum (Luc. .); the same port of departure was used by Caesar in  ( BAfr . .). After a voyage of  days and  nights, Curio lands at An- Aug. 11 June 19 quillaria (..) and sets out for Utica (..). Curio reaches the Bagradas (mod. Medjerda) River after Aug. 13 June 21 a march of  days (correcting bidui of the codd. to tridui ),21 and visits the Cornelian Camp (..–). Curio encamps before Utica (..); he receives news of Aug. 14 June 22 Afranius’ surrender to Caesar on Aug.  at Ilerda (..; App. BCiv . .). Aug. 17 June 25 Skirmish at Utica (.. –.). Aug. 18 June 26 Curio begins the siege of Utica (..). Informed of the approach of a Numidian army, Curio Aug. 19 June 27 withdraws to the Cornelian Camp (..). Curio falls in battle together with most of his army (.– ). The fortification of the camp (..–.) suggests an interval of  days after Curio’s withdrawal before false Aug. 22 June 30 rumours arrive, prompting Curio to send off his cavalry in the evening of the rd day (..–) and rush off to the final battle himself early on the th day (..). Efforts fail to evacuate by sea the survivors and garrison Aug. 23 July 1 from the Cornelian Camp (.). The survivors of Curio ’s expedition surrender to Attius Varus; most are subsequently executed by King Juba (.). Caesar arrives by forced marches at Corduba (mod. Aug. 24 July 2 Córdoba) with  cavalry (.., .), assuming a de- parture from Ilerda c. Aug.  and  days of travel at c.  km/ mi per day +  days of rest, to cover c.  km/ mi. The Pompeian govern or of Farther Spain, M. Terentius Varro, surrenders his province and meets with Caesar at Aug. 25 July 3 Corduba (..–). Caesar conducts provincial business (..–).

21 The location of Anquillaria is uncertain. According to Holmes’ discussion () III.–, based on personal, local exploration, the only site that fits Caesar’s description lies about  miles southwest of modern Cape Bon, the tip of Tunisia’s far-eastern peninsu- la, at about the right distance from Clipea, but it would take Curio three days to reach the Bagradas River from there.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar sets out for Gades (mod. Cádiz), after a stay of  Aug. 26, 49 BCE July 4 days at Corduba (..). Caesar arrives at Gades (..), allowing  days from his Sept. 2 July 9 departure on Aug.  to cover c.  km/ mi at c.  km/ mi per day. Q. Cassius arrives at Gades with  legions, having set out on c. Aug.  and covered c. , km/ mi) from the Sept. 10 July 17 vicinity of Ilerda in  days ( of marching at c.  km/ mi per day +  days of rest). He is established as governor of Farther Spain with  legions (..) Caesar sails from Gades and reaches Tarraco in a few days (..), covering c.  naut. mi. (, km/ mi) Sept. 11–17 July 18–24 in  days at an average speed of c. . knots. He conducts provincial business (..–). Domitius escapes from Massilia (mod. Marseille) (.. – Oct. 10 Aug. 15 ). Caesar arrives at Massilia, having departed from Tarra- co (mod. Tarragona) on c. Sept.  and having covered c. Oct. 15 Aug. 20  km/ mi by land, by way of Narbo (..), in  days ( of marching at c.  km/ mi per day +  days of rest); Massilia surrender s unconditionally (.. , –). Caesar departs for Rome (..). At Placentia (mod. Piacenza) in Cisalpine Gaul he suppresses the mutiny of Late Oct. Early Sept. the th legion (Suet. Iul . ; App. BCiv . .; Dio ..; Luc. .). He probably arrives in Rome c. Dec. .

Bellum Civile : Book < (E@–E% BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 705 AUC 49 BCE Caesar, in Rome as dictator, is elected consul for  (..–.); in the last days of his tribunate (ending on Dec. 1–11 Oct. 5–15 Dec. ), M. Antonius passes legislation for Caesar (..; Plut. Caes. .). After  days in Rome, Caesar resigns from the dictator- Dec. 12 Oct. 16 ship, sets out for Brundisium (mod. Brindisi) (..). Caesar arrives at Brundisium (..), near the time of the winter solstice by the civil calendar and is prevented by stormy weather from sailing until after Jan.  (App. BCiv . Dec. 20 Oct. 24 ., ; cf. Dio ..); he covers c.  km/ mi from Rome in  days, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

706 AUC 48 BCE 49 BCE Caesar sets sail from Brundisium with  of  legions Jan. 4 Nov. 6 (..–): this is the nd of only  precise dates given in this work (cf. ..–, Jan. ,  BCE ). Caesar lands at Palaeste on the day after his departure (..), sends Vibullius (a captive from the Spanish cam- Jan. 5 Nov. 7 paign) to Pompey to propose negotiations (.–.), and sets out for Oricum (..), c.  km/ mi to the NW as the crow flies. Caesar arrives at Oricum (..); the Pompeian admiral Jan. 6 Nov. 8 Bibulus destroys  of Caesar ’s empty ships (..). While marching from Macedonia to Apollonia on the Jan. 7 Nov. 9 Via Egnatia, Pompey learns of Caesar’s landing (..– ). Caesar occupies Apollonia (..), lying c.  km/ mi Jan. 8 Nov. 10 to the N of Oricum. Caesar sets out from Apollonia for Dyrrachium, c.  Jan. 9–10 Nov. 11–12 km/ mi to the N, by a forced march (..), but Pom- pey arrives at Dyrrachium first (..). Caesar pulls back to the Apsus River, c.  km/ mi N Jan. 11–12 Nov. 13–14 of Apollonia and establishes a camp south of the River (..). Mid -Jan. – Mid -Nov. 49 – Caesar and Pompey face off on either side of the Apsus late Mar. late Jan. 48 River (.., .). Scipio at Ephesus (.. –) receives summons from Pompey to bring to Macedonia his two legions with- drawn from Syria and wintering in Asia (..–). (A Feb. 12 Dec. 13 messenger sent by Pompey c. Jan.  would have re- quired c.  days to cover c. , km/ mi at an av. speed of c.  km/ mi per day.) Failure of the praetor M. Caelius Rufus ’ challenge to Caesar’s legislation regulating debt; Caelius leaves Rome Early Dec. 49– late in Jan. (Cic. Fam. .().) and summons T. Milo Feb.–Mar. late Jan. 48 from exile in Massilia (mod. Marseille) to raise a rebel- lion in Campania and southern Italy; both are killed in fighting (. –). Dec. 49– The Pompeian admiral and Caesar’s archenemy M. Feb.–mid-Mar. mid-Jan. 48 Bibulus dies from illness (..–). Jan. 25 , M. Antonius lands at Nymphaeum (..) with  legions Mar. 27 48 BCE and  cavalry (..). Apr. 3 Feb. 1 Caesar joins forces with M. Antonius (..). Pompey establishes his camp at Asparagium at the Ge- Apr. 5 Feb. 3 nusus River (..). Caesar dispatches troops to Macedonia, Thessaly, and Apr. 6 Feb. 4 Aetolia (..–.).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Pompey’s son Gnaeus destroys Caesar’s ships at Oricum Apr. 8–15, Feb. 6–13 (..) and  days later at Lissus (..), but fails to take 48 BCE the towns. Caesar also establishes his camp at the Genusus River, Apr. 9 Feb. 7 across from Pompey ’s (..). Scipio arrives in Macedonia with the  legions with- drawn from Syria (..). (Orders sent from Ephesus on c. Feb.  would have taken c.  days to travel c.  km/ mi to Pergamum, one of the winter quarters (..). Legions would have needed c.  days to assem- Apr. 10 Feb. 8 ble. Upon departure on c. Feb.  from Pergamum, Scipio’s legions would have required c.  days to cover the , km/ mi to camp on the Haliacmon River (..):  of marching at c.  km/ mi per day +  days of rest.) Caesar sets out for Dyrrachium and cuts Pompey off Apr. 11 Feb. 9 from this town (.. –.). Pompey pitches his camp at Petra, Caesar between Petra Apr. 12 Feb. 10 and Dyrrachium (..–.). Mid -Apr. – Mid -Feb. – Pompey is gradually hemmed in by Caesar ’s fortifica- early July early May tions (. –). Caesar’s legate Domitius Calvinus and Scipio confront Late Apr.– Late Feb.– each other on the border of Macedonia and Thessaly early May early Mar. (.–). Failed attempt of Caesar on Dyrrachium (..); failed June Apr. attempt of Pompey to break through Caesar’s lines (.– ):  battles take place on a single day (..). Pompey succeeds in breaking through Caesar ’s fortifica- July 9 May 7 tions. Caesar suffers a double defeat (.–) on a single day, with heavy losses (..). Caesar abandons the siege, pulls his army together, and July 10 May 8 addresses his troops on the day after the battle (. –). Caesar outmanoeuvres Pompey, evades his pursuit, and July 11–15 May 9–13 reaches Apollonia (..–.). July 17 May 15 Caesar sets out for Thessaly (..). Caesar joins forces with Domitius Calvinus at Aeginium July 27 May 25 (..). Caesar takes Gomphi in Thessaly and sets an example; July 29–30 May 27–28 Metropolis surrenders without a fight (.–.). Aug. 1 May 30 Caesar establishes his camp near Pharsalus (..). Pompey joins forces with Scipio at Larissa and establi sh- Aug. 2–5 May 31–June 3 es his camp near Pharsalus (. –). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus (.–). The date is attested in the fasti (Inscr. Ital. ..; ILS ). Pom- Aug. 9, 48 BCE June 7 pey flees to Larissa and from there to the coast, at the mouth of the Peneios River (..–), c.  km/ mi to the NE. Pompey sets sail for Amphipolis (Plut. Pomp. .–.). Near Pharsalus, the Pompeian survivors of the battle sur- Aug. 10 June 8 render (..–). By evening, starting his pursuit of Pompey, Caesar reaches Larissa (..). In the morning, Caesar sets out from Larissa for Am- Aug. 11 June 9 phipolis with  cavalry and orders the th legion to follow (..). Pompey arrives at Amphipolis and stays one night Aug. 12 June 10 (..): his date of arrival must have preceded Caesar’s by approximately  hours (see Aug. ). In the morning, at news of Caesar’s approach, Pompey sets sail from Amphipolis for Mytilene (..) to take Aug. 13 June 11 his wife Cornelia and son Sextus on board (Plut. Pomp. –). By midday, Caesar arrives at Amphipolis with  caval- ry, assuming that he left Larissa in the morning of Aug. Aug. 14 June 12  and covered the distance of c.  km/ mi at an average speed of  km/ mi) per day. Pom pey reaches Mytilene on Lesbos ‘within a few days ’ (..): at an average speed of . knots, it would have Aug. 16 June 14 taken c.  days to cover the c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi). After  days at Mytilene, Pompey sets sail for Cilicia and Cyprus (..), reaching the Pamphylian and Cilician Aug. 18 June 16 coasts c. Aug.  and, after beginning to rebuild his forc- es, crossing over to Cyprus c. Sept. . Caesar arrives with his  th legion at Sestos on the Hel- lespont (the legion having joined him at Amphipolis): this allows  days ( of marching at c. – km/– mi Sept. 3 June 30 per day +  of rest) to cover the c.  km/ mi from Larissa, if the troops set out on Aug. , the same day as Caesar with his cavalry. While crossing the Hellespont, Caesar encounters the Sept. 4 July 1 Pompeian naval commander L. Cassius, who surrenders (Suet. Iul . ; Dio ..; App. BCiv . .). Caesar arrives in the province of Asia (..) and stays Sept. 4–24 July 1–21 a ‘few days’ (..), spending time at Troy (Luc. .– ; cf. Strabo .. (C)) and Ephesus (..). Pompey departs from from Paphos, Cyprus (Cic. Phil . .) for Egypt: counting back from Pompey’s murder on Sept. 24 July 21 Sept. , this allows  days of sailing ( days according to Plut. Pomp. .) at c. . knots to cover c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi) to Pelusium.  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar sets sail from Rhodes, arriving at Alexandria, Egypt  days later (App. BCiv . .) or, more likely, closer to  days (cf. Diod. Sic. ..); the latter assumes an av- Sept. 27, 48 BCE July 24 erage speed of . knots to cover the c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi). According to Lucan (.–), Caesar’s journey from the mainland, by way of Rhodes, took  days in all, and the wind was favourable. The advisors of King Ptolemy, who is fighting a civil war against his sister and wife Cleopatra (..), have Pom- pey murdered at Pelusium in Egypt (..); the date is Sept. 28 July 25 supplied by Velleius Paterculus .. with Pliny, NH .; slightly different dates (Sept.  or Oct. ) are given by Plut. Cam. .; Mor. C; Pomp. .. L. Lentulus Crus (consul ) arrives at Pelusium from Sept. 29 July 26 Cyprus on the day after Pompey’s murder and is put to death (..; Plut. Pomp . .). On the third day after the murder of Pompey (Liv. Per. ), Caesar arrives at Alexandria with  legions and  Oct. 2 July 28 cavalry (..–). He hears of Pompey’s murder. ( days suffice for news of the murder to be brought from Pelusium (c.  km/ mi away.) Caesar is presented with the head and signet ring of Pompey (Plut. Pomp. .; Caes. .). (Six days suffice for news of Caesar’s arrival to be brought from Alexandria Oct. 7 Aug. 3 to Pelusium (c.  km/ mi away), causing tokens of Pompey’s death to be sent to Alexandria.) The Etesian winds, which normally blow from NW in late July (solar yr.), prevent Caesar from departing (..). Caesar requests from Domitius Calvinus in Asia the dis- patch of two legions (..): the th arrives by sea c. Dec.  ( BAlex . .); the other, sent by land, fails to arrive Oct. 8 Aug. 3 in time to participate in the campaign (BAlex . .). Cae- sar’s message was probably conveyed by Caesar’s freed- man Diochares, who journeyed to Rome with Pompey’s ring, by way of Asia (Cic. Att. . ( ).). Caesar summons Ptolemy and Cleopatra to Alexandria Oct. 9 Aug. 4 to resolve their conflict by arbitration rather than war (..). Ptolemy arrives in Alexandria in response to Caesar’s Oct. 14 Aug. 9 summons (.., cf. .) Cleopatra arrives in Alexandria in response to Caesar ’s Oct. 21 Aug. 16 summons (..), having been smuggled into the palace (Plut. Caes. .; Dio ..–). Ptolemy ’s regent Pothinus summons the general Achillas Oct. 23 Aug. 18 and his army to Alexandria (..). Achillas orders ambassadors of the king to be put to Nov. 4 Aug. 30 death (..–). Nov. 6 Sept. 1 Caesar takes custody of the king (..). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Achillas occupies Alexandria (..), assuming that Pothinus’ message, sent on Oct. , took – days to reach Pelusium by sea (c.  naut. mi. or  km/ Nov. 7, 48 BCE Sept. 2 mi) or – days by land (c.  km/ mi), and that, departing on Oct. ,  days were needed to march , soldiers (..) over this distance at an average speed of  km/ mi per day, with  days of rest. Achillas attacks the royal palace and tries to gain mastery Nov. 8–9 Sept. 3–4 of the fleet; Caesar burns the Egyptian fleet (.). Caesar ’s freedman Diochares arrives in Rome with Pompey’s ring as proof of his death (Dio ..; Cic. Att. .()., ), having left Alexandria in early Oct. and journeyed by way of the province of Asia. At about this Mid-Nov. Mid-Sept. time, Caesar is named dictator II for  months ( MRR II.; III.–; for the date, Judeich () –). Cleopatra’s younger sister, Arsinoë, escapes from the palace and joins Achillas (..). Nov. 17 Sept. 12 Caesar has Pothinus executed (.. ).

Bellum Alexandrinum (E%–E: BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 706 AUC 48 BCE Failed attempt to assassinate Q. Cassius Longinus, Cae- Summer May–June sar’s governor of Farther Spain (.–). Rebellion against Q. Cassius Longinus, Caesar ’s gover- Fall July–Aug. nor of Farther Spain (–). In Anatolia, Cn. Domitius Calvinus sets out with  le- gions from Comana in Pontus (.–) to expel Phar- naces, son of Mithridates VI, from Lesser Armenia (.): Nov. 29 Sept. 24 c. . days are needed to march c.  km/ mi to Nicopolis, and  or  days of maneuvering before the bat- tle on c. Dec.  (see below). In Egypt, Arsinoë has the general Achillas killed and the Dec. 2 Sept. 26 troops placed under the command of Ganymede (.). Ganymede commences work on corrupting the fresh wa- Dec. 3 Sept. 27 ter supply to the district of Alexandria where Caesar and his forces are quartered (.–). Dec. 7 –8 Oct. 1 –2 Caesar gains access to fresh water by digging wells (. –).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

In Anatolia, Cn. Domitius Calvinus is defeated by Phar- naces in a battle at Nicopolis (–). Dio (..) puts Domitius’ retreat after the battle shortly before the onset Dec. 8, 48 BCE Oct. 2 of winter. Elsewhere (.., ..), Dio reckons this season according to the time of the year as given by the Roman civil calendar. Hence, Judeich ()  places the battle in early Dec. (vs. Stoffel’s date of Dec. ). In Egypt, the th legion (formerly Pompeian),  of  dis- patched from Asia Minor by Domitius (.), informs Dec. 10 Oct. 4 Caesar that it has landed west of Alexandria but cannot proceed owing to adverse winds (. –). Caesar is attacked at sea while trying to join the th le- Dec. 11 Oct. 5 gion. He defeats the Egyptian fleet and brings the legion safely into harbour (–). Caesar fights a successful sea battle for control of the Dec. 20 Oct. 14 Eunostus H arbour ( –). In Illyricum, A. Gabinius arrives with a force to support Dec. 29 Oct. 23 the Caesarian governor (.). 707 AUC 47 BCE Jan. 6 Oct. 29 In Egypt, Caesar gains control of the town on Pharos Island ( –). Caesar ’s attempt to occupy the causeway bridge near the city fails: attacks by Alexandrian forces compel Caesar to Jan. 7 Oct. 30 withdraw from the causeway, with losses, barely saving his life by swimming to ships farther out in the harbour ( –). Jan. 17 Nov. 9 Caesar releases kin g Ptolemy from his custody ( –). In Illyricum, A. Gabinius is defeated and dies from dis- Jan. 20 Nov. 12 ease at Salona (.). In Egypt, Caesar ’s fleet under Tiberius Nero wins a sea Feb. 6 Nov. 27 battle off Canopus but loses the Rhodian commander Euphranor (. –). Feb. 23 Dec. 14 In Illyricum, P. Vatinius arrives with a fleet (. –). In Spain, Q. Cassius Longinus dies in a shipwreck while Late Feb. Mid-Dec. journeying back to Rome from his province of Farther Spain (.). In Egypt, Caesar’s ally Mithridates of Pergamum, arriv- Mar. 6 Dec. 25 ing with reinforcements from Syria and Cilicia, takes Pelusium (.). 47 BCE Ptolemy ’s forces fight a battle against Mithridates ’ troops to prevent him from joining Caesar, but suffer defeat Mar. 15 Jan. 3 (.–) at a locale known as ‘Camp of the Jews’ (Joseph. BJ .). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

In Illyricum, P. Vatinius wins a sea battle off the island of Tauris in the Adriatic by defeating the fleet of the Pom- Mar. 16, 47 BCE Jan. 4 peian admiral M. Octavius and securing the province for Caesar (.–). In Egypt, in response to news of the battle on Mar. , the king and Caesar sail from Alexandria late in the day, Mar. 24 Jan. 12 or during the night, to rendezvous with their respective forces (.). Ptolemy perishes in the Battle of the Nile while try ing to Mar. 26 Jan. 14 escape by ship from his camp that is being sacked by Caesar ’s forces (.). Alexandria surrenders to Caesar on the next day (.). Mar. 27 Jan. 15 The date is attested by the fasti (Inscr. Ital . ..; ILS ). Caesar places the younger Ptolemy (XIV Philopator) on Mar. 31 Jan. 19 the throne as joint-ruler with his sister Cleopatra; Arsinoë is exiled (.). Caesar and Cleopatra spend time together and cruise the Apr. Jan. 20–Feb. 17 Nile (App. BCiv . .; Suet. Iul . .). Caesar sets out by land for Syria from Alexandria (.) with the th legion (.), marching perhaps as far as Ake Ptolemais (mod. Akko), where he boards ships (.). 22 Approx.  days later, by July , rumours of his depar- May 1 Feb. 18 ture from Egypt that had arrived earlier (taking c. . months to reach Rome (cf. BCiv. , entry of mid-Nov. )) were confirmed (Cic. Att. .().). The length of Caesar’s stay in Egypt, therefore, was  months (from Oct. , ), not  months as Appian claims ( BCiv . .). Caesar arrives in Syria (.), perhaps at Ake Ptolemais, after covering c.  km/ mi in  days of marching (at c.  km/ mi per day) +  rest days + perhaps  day June 5 Mar. 25 each at Gaza, Ioppe, and Caesarea. He decides to settle affairs in the eastern provinces and deal with Pharnaces before returning to Rome (.–). Caesar arrives at Seleucia Pieria, having left Ake Ptole- mais by ship on c. June  after a stay of c.  days (June – June 13 Apr. 2 ); he covers the c.  naut. mi ( km/ mi) in . days (at . knots), with perhaps  day each in Tyre and Sidon (.–.).

22 The statement at BAlex . . that Caesar set out from Alexandria by land ( itinere ter- restri ) appears to be contradicted at ., where Caesar is said to depart from Syria for Ci- licia ‘with the same fleet with which he had arrived’ (eadem classe qua venerat ). Josephus ( AJ . ἀποπλεύσας ) similarly conveys the impression that Caesar sailed, rather than marched, from Alexandria. However, at the time of his departure (Feb. , Jul.), the seas were closed to navigation (Lord () ).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar arrives at Antioch, which he makes his headquar- June 14, 47 BCE Apr. 3 ters (Cic. Att. .().). Caesar leaves Antioch, after a stay of c.  days (June  – June 27 Apr. 16 ), for the overland journey of c.  km/ mi to the port of Seleucia Pieria, whence he sails to Tarsus. Caesar arrives at Tarsus (.), having sailed from Seleu- cia Pieria at about noon on June , covering in  days the c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi) to the coast of Cilicia at an average speed of c. . knots, and the distance from the mouth of the Cydnus River to the town. Possibly dur- July 1 Apr. 19 ing his stay at Tarsus, Caesar wrote a letter to Cicero, which was received by Aug.  in Brundisium and an- nounced that his return to Italy was imminent ( Fam. .()). ( Att. .(). demonstrates that a journey of  days (in good sailing conditions) was possible from the nearby port of Seleucia Pieria to Brundisium.) Caesar leaves Tarsus for Mazaka after a stay of c.  days July 6 Apr. 24 (July –) to settle provincial affairs (.). Caesar reaches Mazaka, the capital of Cappadocia, by long marches (.) of c.  km/ mi per day, covering July 16 May 4 the distance from Tarsus (c.  km/ mi by road) in  days of marching +  of rest. Caesar leaves Mazaka for Pontus, after a stay of  days (July –) to settle affairs (.). The supposed trip to July 19 May 7 Cappadocian Comana reported in . appears to be an error. 23 Caesar arrives at Sebasteia, having covered the c.  km/ mi from Mazaka in  days of marching at c.  July 25 May 13 km/ mi per day, and musters his four legions (.), one of which is brought by Deiotarus, king of Galatia (. ).

23 Cappadocian Comana, which is situated in the foothills of the Anti-Taurus Moun- tains, is not to be confused with Pontic Comana (to the north, mentioned at –). Both had famous sanctuaries of Bellona (locally called Ma-Enyo, a war goddess) with powerful priests (Strabo .. (C), Cappadocian; .. (C), Pontic). Our text implies (.) that Lycomedes received the priesthood of the Cappadocian sanctuary; secondary manu- scripts indicate that Caesar actually went there. This, however, can be ruled out for two reasons. First, this visit would have required a minimum of three days to cover about  miles out and back, plus one additional day at the destination, when Caesar clearly was in a great hurry, with no time to spare. Second, Strabo, a native of Pontus, with a family connection to the Pontic shrine, and Appian ( Mith. ) both state that Caesar appointed Lycomedes to the priesthood at Pontic Comana. Conceivably Caesar decided the issue while staying at Mazaka, although the appointment could not be implemented until after the battle of Zela (–). The author of the Bellum Alexandrinum could easily have confused the two shrines because Lycomedes was a Cappadocian (.). For discussion, see Holmes () III.–. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Caesar arrives at Zela (.), having covered the c.  km/ mi from Sebasteia, which he left c. July , in . Aug. 1, 47 BCE May 20 days of marching. These may be the  days that, accord- ing to Suetonius ( Iul. .), elapsed between Caesar’s ar- rival (at Sebastei a?) and the battle (on Aug. ). Battle of Zela, in which Caesar defeats Pharnaces (–). Aug. 2 May 21 The date is attested by the fasti (Inscr. Ital . ..; ILS ). Caesar rewards his troops and on the day after the battle Aug. 3 May 22 sets out from Zela with lightly equipped cavalry (). Caesar arrives at Blucium (Bloukion) in Galatia, the royal fortress of King Deiotarus of Galatia (Cic. Deiot. , , Aug. 9 May 28 ; Strabo .. (C)), having covered by road a dis- tance of c.  km/ mi in  days of travel, at an aver- age speed of c.  km/ mi per day. After a stay of c.  days (Aug.  –) Caesar leaves Bluci- Aug. 12 May 31 um. Caesar arrives in Bithynia (.; Cic. Fam. .().), making his headquarters at Nicaea, where M. Brutus, the future tyrannicide, defends King Deiotarus (Cic. Att. Aug. 17 June 5 .().; cf. Brut. ; Tac. Dial. .). The distance cov- ered from Blucium is c.  km/ mi), requiring  days of travel, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Caesar ’s legate P. Sulla is driven off by the th legion, Aug. 20 June 8 which is stationed in Campania and refuses further ser- vice until rewards are paid (Cic. Att . .().). After a stay of perhaps  days (c. Aug.  –) to set tle Aug. 25 June 13 affairs in Asia (.), Caesar leaves Nicaea for the Aegean coast. Caesar arrives on the NW coast of Asia Minor, having Sept. 2 June 19 travelled overland c.  km/ mi from Nicaea in  days, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Caesar sets sail from the NW coast of Asia Minor (per- haps from Adramyttium) for Athens, by way of Mytilene Sept. 3 June 20 (Cic. Brut. ; Sen. Helv. .–), Samos (Cic. Brut. ), and possibly Ceos ( IG ..). Caesar ’s legates P. Sulla and M . Messalla, after failing to gain control over the legions in mutiny, are expected to Sept. 4 June 21 sail from Brundisium to join Caesar (Cic. Att . .().). Caesar arrives at Athens, having covered the  nautical mi ( km/ mi) from Asia in  days, during daylight Sept. 9 June 26 hours, at an average speed of between . and  knots. (On his expected arrival at Athens, see Cic. Att. .(). of Aug. .) After a stay of a few days (c. Sept.  –), Caesar leaves Sept. 14 July 1 Athens for Patrae (mod. Patras) by way of Corinth (Diod. Sic. ..).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar arrives at Patrae (his anticipated point of depar- ture from Greece: Cic. Att. .()., ().), having Sept. 17, 47 BCE July 4 travelled the c.  km/ mi from Athens in  days, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Sept. 18 July 5 Caesar sets sail from Patrae. Caesar lands at Tarentum in Italy (Plut. Cic. .–), hav- ing covered the distance of c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi) from Patrae in  days, during daylight hours, at an Sept. 24 July 11 average speed of between . and  knots. This date is calculated in relation to the meeting with Cicero and Cicero ’s subsequent travels (see following entry). Cicero leaves B rundisium and meets Caesar on the road from Tarentum, presumably travelling back to Brundisi- um with him (Plut. Cic. .–). (The date is estimated as follows. On Oct. , Cicero was at Venusia and expected to arrive in Tusculum (c.  km/ mi away) on Oct.  or  (Cic. Fam. ().). Hence his intended speed of Sept. 25 July 12 travel was c. – km/– mi per day. Since Venusia is c.  km/ mi distant from Brundisium, it would have taken Cicero approx. – days to reach that town by Oct. ; hence we can place his departure from Brun- disium on Sept.  (presumably the day after his meeting with Caesar).) Caesar arrives in Rome, assuming Sept.  was the date of his departure from Brundisium and allowing  days of Oct. 5 July 21 travel (an unhurried pace (Ov. Pont. ..–)) to cover c.  km/ mi at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. C. Sallustius/Sallust (pr. ), the future historian, is driv- Oct. 14 July 30 en off by the legions who mutiny in Campania (App. BCiv . .; Dio ..). Caesar faces down the legions on the Campus Martius when they march on Rome to demand their bounties and discharge, having killed along the way two ex- Oct. 22 Aug. 7 praetors (Plut. Caes . .; cf. Dio ..). He shames them into re-upping for service in the African war by addressing them as civilians, ‘Quirites ’ (Suet. Iul . ).

Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Bellum Africum (E:–E" BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 707 AUC 47 BCE Caesar departs from Rome. The date is estimated by allowing c.  days to reach Lilybaeum, Sicily, on Dec.  (below): the journey by road from Rome to Rhegium (mod. Reggio di Calabria) required – days more than that to Brundisium (mod. Brindisi) (Strabo .. (C)), Nov. 29 Sept. 14 for which  days was average (Ov. Pont. ..–), so c.  days;  additional days were needed to cover c.  km/ mi) by road from Messana (mod. Messina) (App. BCiv . .) to Lilybaeum, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Caesar arrives at Lilybaeum on Sicily (., giving the Dec. 17 Oct. 1 date). Caesar embarks with  legions and , cavalry from Dec. 25 Oct. 9 Lilybaeum, sailing via the island of Aponiana (mod. Isola di Favignana), c.  km/ mi NW of Lilybaeum (.–; date given at .). Caesar reaches the coast of Africa ( ‘on the th day ’ (after his departure, by inclusive reckoning), .), covering c.  naut. mi ( km/ mi) at an average speed of c.  knots; with most of his transports scattered by strong Dec. 28 Oct. 12 winds (.), he lands with only , infantry and  cavalry and makes camp near Hadrumetum (.). The date is confirmed by . (Jan.  is the th day after Cae- sar ’s arrival). Caesar moves camp from outside Hadrumetum after Dec. 29 Oct. 13 spending ‘ night and part of a day’ (.) and establishes a camp to the south, near Ruspina ‘on the same day’ (.). 708 AUC 46 BCE Caesar moves camp c.  km/ mi from Ruspina to Lep- tis (., giving the date) and is joined there by some transports (.). By about this date, news of Caesar’s Jan. 1 Oct. 14 landing reaches Scipio in Utica (a fast messenger, travel- ling c.  km/ mi per day, requires + days for  km/ mi by road). Caesar leaves a garrison at Leptis and marches back to Ruspina (the date is given as Jan.  in the MSS at ., but corrected here to Jan.  on the basis of ‘whence [Ruspi- Jan. 2 Oct. 15 na] he had come the day before’ (on Jan. )). He fortifies his camp and boards ships with  veteran cohorts ‘to- wards evening’ (.), planning to launch a search for the missing ships in the morning (.).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

At dawn of next day (.–) the missing troop transports Jan. 3 Oct. 16, sail into the harbour; Caesar reinforces his camp at Rus- 46 BCE 47 BCE pina (.). Caesar sets out with  cohorts on an expedition to col- lect grain (.). He is attacked by a superior enemy force under the command of T. Labienus and M. Petreius. The Battle of Ruspina (–) lasts from about the th Jan. 4 Oct. 17 hour (: am) until sunset (: pm) and is finally won by Caesar. The date is given at . and identified as the th day (by inclusive reckoning) after Caesar’s arrival in Africa (on Dec. ) . Caesar learns ‘on the rd day after the Battle of Ruspina ’ (Jan. ) that Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio, the opponents’ Jan. 6 Oct. 19 commander-in-chief, is drawing near, bringing rein- forcements comprising  legions and , cavalry (.). Scipio arrives at Hadrumetum and joins forces with La- bienus and Petreius at Ruspina (.). The date is esti- mated by allowing + days of marching and  of rest Jan. 9 Oct. 22 (Jan. –), covering c.  km/ mi by road from Uti- ca, at an average speed of  km/ mi per day. A stale- mate between the two camps ensues (. –). A nd convoy carrying the th and th legions departs Jan. 21 Nov. 3 from Lilybaeum, Sicily (.). On the island of Cercina, the praetor C. Sallusti- Jan. 23 Nov. 5 us/Sallust (the future historian) secures for Caesar a good supply of grain (.). The th and th legions arrive at Ruspina on the th day after their departure (.). Caesar dispatches the Jan. 24–25 Nov. 6–7 unloaded transports back to Lilybaeum to fetch the re- mainder of his troops (.). Caesar sets out from Ruspina, occupies and fortifies a Night of Nov. 7/8 range of hills, and establishes his camp near Uzita (–; Jan. 25/26 date given at .). Jan. 26 Nov. 8 Scipio suffers heavy cavalry losses (. –). ‘On the next day ’ (. ), Caesar tries unsuccessfully to Jan. 27 Nov. 9 draw Scipio into battle on the plain near Uzita (–). By about this date, news of Scipio ’s cavalry losses (on Jan. ) reaches King Juba of Numidia (.) by fast mes- Jan. 28 Nov. 10 senger, travelling c.  km/ mi per day, having cov- ered the c.  km/ mi from Uzita to Juba’s capital Zama in c.  days. Juba joins Scipio with  legions,  cavalry,  ele- phants and other troops near Uzita (.), after c.  days, Feb. 8 Nov. 19 comprising  days of preparation (Feb. –) and c.  days of march (Feb. –), covering the distance of c.  km/ mi at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

After several days of skirmishing near Uzita (–), a rd convoy carrying the th and th legions comes with- Feb. 13, Nov. 24, in sight of Ruspina and Thapsus (.). The legions dis- 46 BCE 47 BCE embark several days later, after spending ‘many days’ (?) in stormy waters off the coast (). An uprising of Gaetulians, initiated by Caesar (.–, Feb. 18 Nov. 29 .–), compels Juba to send  cohorts back to his king-

dom (.). Scipio ’s admiral Varus, learning on c. Feb.  of the arri- val of the th and th legions, brings his fleet from Utica to Hadrumetum (after  days of preparations and sailing, covering c.  naut. mi ( km/ mi) at . knots) Feb. 22 Dec. 3 and attacks Caesar’s ships anchored at Leptis. He de- stroys many of the transports and captures  warships (). Caesar daringly pursues the retreating enemy fleet and captures  of its ships (). After a long stalemate at Uzita, Caesar moves camp to Intercal. 7 Dec. 12 Aggar (.), c.  km/ mi distant. Caesar seizes the town of Zeta lying  R mi ( km/ mi) northwest of Scipio’s camp,  R mi ( km/ mi) Intercal. 17 Dec. 22 northwest of his camp at Aggar () but pulls back to his camp at Aggar in the early evening ( –).

46 BCE Caesar performs a ritual purification ( lustratio ) of his army Mar. 21 Jan. 22 at Aggar (., giving the date). Mar. 22 Jan. 23 Caesar offers battle ( ‘the next day ’, .). Caesar breaks camp at Aggar and sets out for Sarsura Mar. 23 Jan. 24 (‘the next day’, .), c.  km/ mi distant from Aggar. Caesar takes Sarsura and executes Scipio ’s garrison Mar. 24 Jan. 25 (.). Caesar a rrives at the town of Thysdra (‘ the next day ’ (af- ter his arrival at Sarsura), .), c.  km/ mi distant Mar. 25 Jan. 26 from Sarsura. Given the town’s location and the lack of access to water, he decides not to attack it (.). Caesar leaves Thysdra before sunrise and returns to his Mar. 26 Jan. 27 former camp at Aggar (.), c.  km/ mi distant. A th convoy with Caesarian troops (, legionnaires, Mar. 27 Jan. 28  horsemen, , slingers) arrives (‘at about the same time’ (as Caesar’s return to Aggar), .).  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Caesar leaves Aggar shortly after midnight and moves camp to Thapsus, covering the distance of  R mi ( km/ mi) during the night (., giving the date and dis- tance). Along the way, he builds a fort to block the south- Apr. 4, 46 BCE Feb. 5 ern entrance of the land corridor leading to Thapsus (.). He begins to wall off the town (., .). Scipio follows and builds two camps near the southern entrance (.). He fails to break through Caesar’s southern barri- er (.–). During the next day and night of Apr. / Scipio Apr. 5 Feb. 6 marches around the marsh and establishes a camp to the north, rather close to Caesar ’s (.). The Battle of Thapsus results in an overwhelming victory of Caesar and ends with a massacre of enemy survivors Apr. 6 Feb. 7 (–). The date is supplied by Ov. Fast. .– and one entry in the fasti (Inscr. Ital . ..). After distributing rewards a nd prizes in an army assem- bly (‘on the next day’, ..–), Caesar departs for Uti- Apr. 7 Feb. 8 ca, sending M. Messalla ahead with cavalry and leaving Caninius Rebilus and Domitius Calvinus behind to be- siege Thapsus and Thysdra, respectively (.). News of the defeat reaches Cato in Utica (‘ late in t he evening, on the rd day’ (Plut. Cat. Min. .; App. BCiv . Apr. 8 Feb. 9 .)) by a fast messenger covering c.  km/ mi) by road at c.  km/ mi per day. Scipio’s cavalry in flight from Thapsus destroys the town of Parada and arrives at Utica (; Plut. Cat. Min. – Apr. 9 Feb. 10 .). Cato tries to organise the defence of Utica but finds no support (.–). Night of Apr. Feb. 11/12 Cato commits suicide (.–; Plut. Cat. Min. ., –). 10/11 Early in the day, Messalla arrives at Utica with cavalry (.), having required c.  days (Apr. –) to cover c. Apr. 11 Feb. 12  km/ mi from Thapsus, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day. King Juba and Petreius, after remaining in hiding near Utica to await word from Cato (Plut. Cat. Min. .) and learning of his suicide, travel in secret at night and arrive Apr. 13 Feb. 14 at Zama (), having covered c.  km/ mi at c.  km/ mi per night in + days. The citizens bar them from entering the town. Caesar reaches Utica with his infantry at nightfall (., date estimated by allowing  days ( of marching,  of Apr. 16 Feb. 17 rest) to cover c.  km/ mi by road, at an average speed of c.  km/ mi per day). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Caesar enters Utica (‘early the next day’) and settles local affairs (). Envoys from Zama, dispatched c. Apr.  Apr. 17, 46 BCE Feb. 18 (having travelled c.  km/ mi at an average speed of  km/ mi per day) report their action against Juba and request Caesar ’s help (.). Apr. 18 Feb. 19 Caesar sets out from Utica for Zama (‘ next day ’, .). Vergilius surrenders Thapsus after learning of Juba’s ex- clusion from his capital city and of Cato’s suicide (.; Apr. 19 Feb. 20 date estimated by allowing  days for news to travel from Zama to Utica (see Apr. ) and  from Utica to Thap- sus). Caesar a rrives at Zama (.) after  days of riding, cov- ering c.  km/ mi by road (at c.  km/ mi per day). News of Caesar’s victory at Thapsus on Apr.  arrives in Rome (Cic. Fam. .().–, , written c. Apr. ). Apr. 20 Feb. 21 The date is estimated by allowing c.  days for a fast messenger, leaving Utica on Apr. , to sail to Lilybaeum in  days (c.  nautical mi at . knots) and  days by land, by way of Messana and the Straits, to cover c. , km/ mi) to Rome. Juba and Petreius perish in a suicide pact (; cf. Liv. Per. Apr. 22 Feb. 23 ; Dio ..; App . BCiv . .), probably soon after Caesar’s arrival at Zama. Afranius and Faustus Sulla, while making their way Apr. 28 Mar. 1 westward along the coast, are captured by Caesar’s ally Sittius and put to death (). While trying to escape by sea to Spain, Scipio is cut off Apr. 29 Mar. 2 by the fleet of Sittius near Hippo Regius and perishes (.; cf. Liv. Per. ; Dio ..; App. BCiv . .). Caesar arrives back at Utica, after spending c.  month (c. Apr. –May ) at Zama to settle affairs of Numidia, May 23 Mar. 25 including the creation of a new province (Africa Nova) out of part of Juba’s kingdom; c.  days (May –) are allowed for the return journey to Utica (.). Caesar sets sail from Utica (., giving the date), after June 13 Apr. 15 taking c.  weeks to settle affairs of the African province (.–). Caesar arrives at Caralis (mod. Cagliari), Sardinia, ‘on June 15 Apr. 17 the rd day’ (after leaving Utica, by inclusive reckoning, .). June 27 Apr. 29 Caesar sails from Caralis (., giving the date). Caesar reaches Rome (‘ on the th day ’ (after set ting sail July 25 May 26 from Sardinia), .).

 John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Bellum Hispaniense (E"–E$ BCE )

ROMAN JULIAN CIVIL EVENT DATE CALENDAR 708 AUC 46 BCE Early Intercal. Caesar leaves Rome for Spain, travelling by the coastal c. Nov. 5 II roads. Caesar arrives in Nearer Spain, reaching Saguntum on the th day after his departure (Oros. ..), covering a dis- c. Nov. 21 late Intercal. II tance of c. , km/, mi at an average speed of c. 

km/ mi per day. While travelling, he composes a poem entitled Iter (Suet. Iul . .). Caesar arrives in Farther Spain (.), at Obulco, after a journey from Rome of  days (Strabo .. (C); App. BCiv . .),  days according to Suet. Iul . .. The slow- er pace from Saguntum to Obulco (c.  km/ mi) in  late Intercal. II c. Dec. 2 days (c.  km/ mi per day) is to be explained perhaps by an ankle injury Caesar suffered at the Sucro River (Sen. Ben. ..) south of Saguntum, or perhaps by poor health (Dio ..). The extended stay at Obulco presumably is to be explained by the need to assemble his army (.). Caesar elected sole consul for , at election presided over by his consular colleague M. Lepidus (Dio ..; cf. Plut. Dec. Dec. Caes. . and Eutrop. .., both of whom mistakenly put the election before Caesar’s departure). JULIAN CALENDAR :B@ AUC /E$ BCE 24 Uncertain and unverified rumour s of military operations begin arriving in Early Jan. Rome (Cic. Fam. .().), presumably c.  days after Caesar’s arrival in Spain. Caesar sends reinforcements to Ulia (. –), which is under siege by Cn. Jan. 8 Pompey the Younger, and sets out from Obulco for Corduba (mod. Córdoba) (.). Caesar reaches Corduba, crosses the Baetis (mod. Guadalquivir) River, and Jan. 10 camps to the north (.–), covering the c.  km/ mi) from Obulco in  days. Pompey lifts the siege of Ulia (c.  km/ mi south of Corduba) and en- Jan. 12 camps before Corduba, south of the Baetis River (.). Jan. 13 –20 Battles to gain control of the bridge at Corduba (. –). During the night, Caesar departs for Ategua (c.  km/ mi SW of his camp Jan. 20–21 near Corduba), where Pompey has a strong garrison (.).

24 The introduction of the Julian calendar on Jan. ,  eliminates the need to show Jul- ian dates in a separate column. Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Jan. 21, Caesar begins the siege of Ategua (.). 45 BCE Pompey places his camp between Ategua and Ucubis (.), situated c.  km/ Jan. 27 mi SW of Ategua. Pompey attacks Caesar ’s fort at Castra Postumiana in the vicinity of Ategua Feb. 4 and is routed (). Feb. 5 Caesar acquires cavalry reinforcements (. –). Feb. 5 –6 Pompey burns his camp at Ategua and withdraws in the direction of Corduba (.). Feb. 15 Suspecting betrayal, Pompeian defenders of Ategua massacre some of the townspeople (.). Feb. 16 An attempted surrender of Ate gua to Caesar fails ( –.). Ategua surrenders to Caesar, who is hailed imperator by his troops (., giving Feb. 19 the date). Caesar and Pompey move their camps towards Ucubis (.), situated c.  Feb. 20 km/ mi SW of Ategua. Pompey beheads in his camp  citizens of Ucubis suspected to be Caesar ’s Feb. 23 partisans (.). Feb. 25 Murder of Caesar ’s emissaries sent to the town of Bursao (. –). Mar. 2 Caesar moves his camp closer to Pompey ’s (.). On the day preceding the defeat at Soricaria (.), two Caesarian centurions Mar. 4 die heroically in repelling an attack on Caesar’s forces who are engaged in building defensive works (. –). Mar. 5 Defeat of Pompeian forces at Soricaria near Ucubis (; date given at .). On the day after the defeat at Soricaria (.), further fighting takes place, Mar. 6 including a single combat between Antistius Turpio, a Pompeian, and Pom- peius Niger, a Caesarian, which is interrupted by cavalry (). After burning Ucubis, Pompey moves his camp to Spalis, not far distant, and Caesar follows (.–). Caesar besieges and takes Ventipo (c.  km/ mi Mar. 10–14 SE of Ucubis by road) and moves on to Carruca that is burned by Pompey (.–). Pompey encamps next to the town of Munda, fa ced by Caesar on the plain Mar. 16 (.). Battle of Munda (–) on the festival day of the Liberalia (.) on Mar.  (Inscr. Ital. ..–). Caesar’s troops, fighting uphill, gain a difficult victory. After the battle, the town of Munda is placed under siege. Defeated and Mar. 17 wounded, Pompey flees in the direction of Carteia (.), c.  km/ mi distant from Munda. Hearing of the defeat, his brother Sex. Pompey flees from Corduba (.–). By coincidence, Pompey sr. had set sail from Brun- disium on Mar. ,  (see entry there). Caesar encamps before Corduba (.); Scapula, ringleader of the rebellion Mar. 21 against Caesar’s provincial governor, commits suicide (.–). Mar. 22 Caesar takes Corduba (. –). Mar. 23 Caesar sets off for Hispalis (.); see Mar. .  John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

Pompey arrives at Carteia (.). The date is predicated on allowing  days Mar. 24, for his journey of c.  km/ mi from Munda, under difficult conditions, at 45 BCE a rate of c.  km/ mi per day, partly by road and partly across country. Caesar encamps before Hispalis (.). The date is predicated on allowing + Mar. 28 days for a journey of c.  km/ mi by road down the Baetis River valley, at c.  km/ mi per day. Envoys from Carteia meet with Caesar outside Hispalis, claiming to have Cn. Apr. 2 Pompey in their power (.). The Pompeians temporarily regain control of Hispalis (.). Apr. 3 Caesar takes Hispalis (. –). Pompey flees from Carteia with  ships; Didius, commander of Caesar’s Apr. 4 fleet, pursues him from Gades (mod. Cádiz), while infantry and cavalry de- tachments pursue him on land (.). Caesar sets off for Hasta (.), covering the c.  km/ mi by road from Apr. 5 Hispalis in c. + days. On the th day after setting sail from Gades, Didius catches up with Pompey and burns his ships, capturing some (.). Possibly the site was the mouth of Apr. 7 the Salduba River south of Malaca (mod. Málaga), c.  naut. mi. ( km/ mi) from Carteia. Pompey flees inland (.). Apr. 8 Caesar accepts the surrender of Hasta (.). Pompey, hunted down by Caesar ’s cavalry and land forces sent in pursuit, and abandoned by his soldiers, is killed (–) near Lauro (= Iluro?), a town in the Salduba valley c.  km/ mi from the coast, at the hands of Caesen- Apr. 9 nius Lento (Flor. ..; Dio ..; cf. Cic. Phil. .), later known as a land commissioner under M. Antonius. The date is predicated on an estimate of c.  km/ mi per day for a fast messenger to cover c.  km/ mi to Hispalis (see Apr. ). Apr. 10 Caesar arrives at Gades (.). The head of Pompey is displayed at Hispalis, whil e Caesar is still at Gades Apr. 12 (., giving the date). Apr. 12/13 Didius is killed while fighting rebels (.). Munda is captured (.). Caesar’s legate Fabius Maximus marches against Apr. 15 Urso (.). Apr. 18 Caesar leaves Gades for Hispalis (.). News of Caesar ’s victory at Munda reaches Rome on the eve of the annual Apr. 20 celebration of Rome’s foundation, the Parilia festival (Apr. ): Dio ... The siege of Urso continues (.–). Games are added to the Parilia in honour of Caesar ’s victory at Munda (Cic. Apr. 21 Att. .()., .().; Dio ..). Apr. 22/23 Capture of Urso. Caesar arrives at Hispalis (.). The date is predicated on a speed of c.  Apr. 23 km/ mi per day to cover c.  km ( mi) from Gades (Apr.  –). On the day after his arrival (.), Caesar holds a provincial assembly at His- Apr. 24 palis (). Apr. 30 Caesar writes to Cicero from Hispalis (Cic. Att. .().). Chronological Tables for Caesar’s Wars (#$–&# BCE ) 

Letters in Cicero’s corpus reflect the arrival in Rome of news about the flight First half of of Sex. and Cn. Pompey ( Att. .a()) and the claim being made by some May, 45 BCE diehards at Rome that Cn. Pompey is still at large and not cornered at Carteia ( Att. .().). Caesar is still in Spain (the campaign lasted  months: Nic. Dam. Vit. Caes. .). Octavian Caesar, the future emperor Augustus, arrives at Calpe (per- June haps Carteia or a little town near it) to join Caesar after the major fighting has been completed (op. cit. .). Caesar is back in Italy: he makes a new will on his estate near Labicum, Sept. 13 slightly northeast of Tusculum (Suet. Iul . .). Caesar returns to Rome, possibly in time for the ludi Romani (Sept. –) or by Late Sept. the date of the ludi Veneris Genetricis (culminating, or commencing, on Sept. ). Vell. Pat. .. places Caesar’s return to Rome in Oct. Caesar celebrates a triumph over Spain, a few days before the triumph of Early Oct. Q. Fabius Maximus (Quint. Inst . ..), which was held on Oct.  ( Inscr. Ital. ..).

JOHN T. RAMSEY University of Illinois at Chicago [email protected]

KURT A. RAAFLAUB Brown University kurt_raafl[email protected]

 John T. Ramsey and Kurt A. Raaflaub

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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