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An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems

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An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems The University of Sydney Doctoral Thesis An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems Author: Supervisor: Richard Bowden-Reid A/Prof. Joseph Khachan A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Plasma Physics and Nuclear Fusion School of Physics September 2019 Declaration of Authorship I, Richard Bowden-Reid, declare that this thesis titled, An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems and the work presented in it are my own. I confirm that: This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated. Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work. I have acknowledged all main sources of help. Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself. Sections of Chapter 3 of this thesis are published as: \Evidence for Surface Fusion in Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Devices" Physics of Plasmas, 25, 112702, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5053616 I designed the study, analysed the data and wrote the drafts of the manuscript. Signed: Date: i \Fusion works. All you have to do is go outside at day time or go outside at night and look up; There are billions of fusion reactors, every star is a fusion reactor and not one of them is toroidal." Robert Bussard THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY Abstract Faculty of Science School of Physics Doctor of Philosophy An Experimental Study of Gridded and Virtual Cathode Inertial Electrostatic Confinement Fusion Systems by Richard Bowden-Reid Inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC) fusion is a technique that aims to use electric fields to confine and heat ions. The concept makes use of concentric electrodes to accelerate and focus ions thereby creating the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion to occur. IEC cathodes may be mechanical, taking the form of metallic grids or virtual, formed through the localisation of a net negative space charge. An experimental study has been carried out into the operation of IEC devices of both types with the view to furthering understanding as to how such devices may be implemented as net energy producing fusion reactors. The phenomenon of surface fusion in a gridded IEC was examined and the total fusion rate found to be dominated by interac- tions between energetic ions and neutral targets adsorbed on cathode surface. The material and temperature of the IEC cathode were found to have a profound influence on the observed fusion rate, with graphite seen to perform exceptionally well when compared to transition metal cathodes. The first example of a gridded IEC device manufactured from graphite is described. The research indicates that great improvements in the fusion efficiency of gridded IEC machines are possible through careful choice of grid material and the implementation of active cathode cooling. Also described is the design and construction, as well as initial operation of MCVC-0, a successor to previous Polywell style devices constructed at The University of Sydney. The device makes use of a biconic cusp magnetic field to confine electrons in space, thereby generat- ing a virtual cathode. Biased and floating Langmuir probe measurements were used to examine potential well formation in the new machine, as well as diagnose the fundamental plasma param- eters of temperature and density. Preliminary experimental work indicates poor performance of MCVC-0 with respect to virtual cathode formation and these shortcomings are addressed in terms of non-isotropic electrical conductivity in magnetised plasmas. The plasma conductivity model is extended to previously published virtual cathode machines and is shown to adequately describe the observed device behaviour, providing a possible alternate physical explanation for virtual cathode formation. Acknowledgements I would like to extend my utmost thanks to all those without whom this project would not have been possible. First and foremost to A/Prof Joe Khachan, who is the epitome of what a supervisor should be. Who, despite his sometimes crushing work load, is always able find time for his students, whether to provide assistance in the lab, advice on a problem or to proofread a thesis. I am enormously thankful that I am able to refer to Joe, not merely as a supervisor, but also as a mate. To the CSIRO and the folks at the Queensland Centre for Advanced Technologies, John Malos, Mark Kochanek, Craig Smith and Craig James, whose support and interest in this project made possible things I had not previously imagined. I am also extremely grateful to the extraordinarily talented staff of the School of Physics Me- chanical Workshop, Michael Paterson, Terry Phieffer, James Gibson, Caleb Gudu, David Cassar, Darren Moran and Sean Devaney, each and every one of whom, at one stage or another, have provided assistance or advice on some element of this project, from helping to identify an obscure thread, to totally fabricating large, complex components of experimental apparatus. Likewise to our resident electronics gurus Wayne Peacock, Peter Axtens and Phil Dennis who were always happy and willing to assist with the design, repair or troubleshooting of any piece of electrical gadgetry, be it the smallest amplifier or the largest power supply. Gentlemen, it has been a master-class. To my friends and colleagues, John Hedditch, Ralf Wilson, Daan Van Schijndel, Nico Ranson, Joe Builth-Williams and Adam Israel, who have each served as invaluable sounding boards and lab minions, all the while helping me perfect the art of articulating affection through insults. While our exuberant discussions (or arguments?) about physics, politics, history, sociology, psychology, engineering, the general state of the world and what to have for lunch may not necessarily be conducive to getting any work done, they do, at the very least, make the office a truly joyous place to work. And finally to my parents David and Bronwen, and my sisters Ellen and Rebecca, for putting up with the oddity, for actively taking an interest, and for happily nodding along, even when you'd lost track of what I was rambling about. I love you all. iv Contents Declaration of Authorshipi Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Contents v 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Nuclear Fusion.....................................1 1.1.1 Fusion Rate and cross section.........................3 1.2 Fusion Methods.....................................5 1.2.1 Magnetic Confinement Schemes........................5 1.2.1.1 Magnetic Mirror Confinement...................6 1.2.1.2 Cusp Confinement..........................8 1.2.1.3 Toroidal Magnetic Confinement..................8 1.3 The Argument for Deuterium Fuel.......................... 10 1.4 Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC)....................... 11 1.4.1 Simple Energy Balance in IEC Devices.................... 12 1.5 Virtual Cathode IEC.................................. 16 1.5.1 Polywell..................................... 17 1.6 Aim of This Thesis................................... 20 2 Experimental Apparatus 22 2.1 Vacuum System..................................... 22 2.2 Translational Stage................................... 23 2.3 Electron Gun...................................... 23 2.4 Neutron Detection................................... 26 2.4.1 Analogue Count Acquisition.......................... 26 2.4.2 Digital Count Acquisition........................... 27 2.4.3 Calibration................................... 27 2.5 Deuterium Gas Generation.............................. 30 3 Surface Fusion in IEC Devices 31 3.1 Experimental apparatus................................ 33 3.2 Pressure hysteresis in IEC devices.......................... 34 v 3.2.1 Experimental Method............................. 34 3.2.2 Results and Discussion............................. 36 3.3 Fusion on metal surfaces................................ 38 3.3.1 Experimental Method............................. 40 3.3.2 Results and Discussion............................. 40 3.4 High performance IEC Grid Based on Graphite................... 45 3.4.1 Experimental Method............................. 46 3.4.2 Results and Discussion............................. 47 3.4.3 High Power Operation of Graphite IEC Grid................ 48 3.4.4 Results and Discussion............................. 50 3.5 Summary........................................ 52 4 Magnetically Confined Virtual Cathode Machine (MCVC-0) 53 4.0.1 Magnetic field coils............................... 54 4.0.2 Coil Cases / Electrodes............................ 56 4.0.3 Field Coil Sub-assembly............................ 57 4.0.4 Coil Terminal Contacts............................ 57 4.0.5 Support Frame................................. 57 4.1 Power Supplies..................................... 61 4.1.1 Pulsed Capacitor Bank Power Supply (PCPS)............... 61 4.1.1.1 Theoretical LCR circuit response.................. 61 4.1.1.2 Capacitor Bank Layout....................... 65 4.1.1.3 Capacitor Bank Control and Automation............. 67 4.1.2 High Voltage Bias Power Supply......................
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