Biocontrol News and Information 28(1), 1N–28N pestscience.com General News

David Greathead: a Life in Biological Control The founding editor of BNI, David Greathead, who died on 13 October 2006 at the age of 74, was an influential figure in biological control and also a world authority on Bombyliidae (bee flies). His career reflected many of the changes and develop- ments in biological control over this period, which is hardly surprising since he was central to many of them. A naturally thoughtful demeanour coupled with an encyclopaedic knowledge of biological control endowed him with wisdom and foresight. His legacy includes successful and in some cases ground- breaking biological control initiatives, extensive pub- lications in biological control and taxonomy, contributions to an international regulatory frame- work for biological control, and last but by no means least the many scientists whose early careers he fos- tered and some of whom are now well known names themselves. His achievements were a direct result of his rare combination of broad perspective and atten- tion to detail. As fellow-bombyliid expert Neal Evenhuis (Bishop Museum, Hawaii) says: “Every- thing was thoughtfully prepared and checked and rechecked before he would be satisfied,” but as Sean Murphy (a long-serving CABI scientist) says, “David always managed to see the bigger picture.” He inspired loyalty and affection in his staff, was excel- lent company and could spin a great story – his experiences gave him plenty of material to work with.

David was born on 12 December 1931 in London, UK, David Greathead, 1931–2006: he never lost sight of into a family with South African roots: his great- the science (Silwood Park, 1983). great-grandfather led one of the first parties to be settled by the British Government in the Eastern according to Elspeth Huxley in No Easy Way (ca. Cape in 1820, and his great-grandfather was a 1957), not only possessed single-minded drive and member of the first South African colonial parlia- deep knowledge of locusts but, crucially, saw that ment in the late 1850s. David’s childhood was countries would have to work together to solve the divided between the UK and South Africa, but he locust problem, and strove for this to happen. Over elected to stay in the UK for his university education the next 10 years, he and another Russian émigré when his family returned permanently to South scientist, Zena Waloff, comprised the entire head- Africa. He graduated from the University of London’s quarters staff of the Commonwealth anti-locust Imperial College of Science and Technology (now effort (and ran this operation at a total cost of slightly Imperial College London) with a BSc in Zoology in over UK£7900). During WWII he advised the highly June 1953, and was later awarded a PhD and a DSc. successful, largely military-based Middle Eastern Anti-Locust Unit that implemented desert locust In 1953 he was recruited by Dr (later Sir) Boris campaigns in collaboration with the civilian East Uvarov to work at the Desert Locust Survey (DLS) African Anti-Locust Directorate to protect vital food and, in the words of Cliff Ashall (Officer-in-Charge of crops in eastern Africa. Post-war, Desert Locust one of DLS's field research units) was “introduced to Survey (DLS) and Desert Locust Control (DLC) took a varied and resourceful set of characters – men of a over this role. DLS, which David joined, is described different breed.” While working at the All-Russian by Cliff Ashall as “one of the more remarkable organ- Plant Protection Institute in St Petersburg, Uvarov isations ever to have operated in East Africa and the had famously discovered that solitary and gregarious Middle East.” desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) were different phases of the same species. Having left post-revolu- Cliff tells how Uvarov chose David “to spearhead the tionary Russia, he was recruited in 1920 to the staff research on locust natural enemies as part of the of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology in London and multi-disciplinary approach to a solution of the was subsequently directly involved in establishing locust problem”, and this included work contributing the Anti-Locust Research Centre (ALRC). Uvarov, to his PhD. He subsequently published a review of

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There was an came back to much later in his career) while interest Ethiopian locust officer with them who played his fostered by studies on bombyliid predators on egg radio very loudly in the mornings, something that pods of the desert locust developed into long-term David did not agree with – and in spite of repeated involvement in biosystematic research on this group. pleas to turn down the volume it continued until He also studied the effects of biotic factors on desert David picked up a 303 rifle and put a bullet through locust populations and looked at numerical changes the offending radio.” The story became embellished in desert locust populations; a paper he wrote with with time and, although apparently exasperated by Bill Stower2 remains one of the few published this, David was known to put it to good use. In the numerical population studies, and as such is proving 1980s, while Assistant Director of CIBC (the Com- important for locust control today. monwealth Institute of Biological Control; IIBC, the International Institute of Biological Control, as it For the next 8 years David worked at DLS in what became in September 1985), he was a popular visitor Cliff refers to as “that great adventure which was to Kenya and staff would vie with each other to put locust research and control.” During this time he was him up (something that afforded him wry amuse- involved in field work and research in Ethiopia, ment; as he once put it, he had to be careful to share Somalia, Kenya and what was then the Aden Protec- himself around, and was never permitted the luxury torate (now part of Yemen). It was not a life for the of a hotel). These were the early days of personal faint hearted. David described the laborious work on computers and the dot matrix printer ruled the roost, choice of oviposition sites by locust swarms, studies or in this case the dining room. Eager to clear paper- he and Bill undertook with George Popov (another work before setting off for a day in the field with notable Russian émigré locust scientist, and trav- David, Richard Markham (now Programme Director, eller) in Somalia in 1953, continuing in Turkana in Commodities for Livelihoods, Bioversity Interna- northern Kenya in 1954: “We used to delimit groups tional) was printing out the results of his late-night of egg-pods, scrape the surface and mark them all labours at breakfast-time. This did nothing to allay with matchsticks and then carefully excavate them David’s by-then renowned early-morning grouchi- and plot their position and condition on graph ness, and it took but a single grumble about the noise paper.” In later years, he expressed regret that the and mess as the paper spewed out into the marma- young scientists then involved in locust work had at lade for the plug to be quickly pulled and the peace of best a few weeks at a time in the field. From tales he a Kenya Highlands morning to be restored. recounted, it is not hard to see why. He and George made a systematic survey of the locust recession David married Annette in 1958. A graduate of the areas, beginning with a journey in January–Feb- University of St Andrews in Scotland, Annette was ruary 1954 from Cape Guardafui, the apex of the recruited by ALRC in London and then temporarily Horn of Africa, along the Gulf of Aden coast into Eri- seconded as a librarian to the International Red trea. The journey was mostly not on tracks and Locust Control Service in what was then Abercorn in probably not repeated since. They reached Lake Northern Rhodesia (now Mbale, Zambia). After their Assal, in what was then French Somaliland (now Dji- marriage she was to become David’s professional col- bouti). This, the lowest point in Africa at 155 metres league too, and her talents were an asset to CABI, below sea level and the most saline body of water in both in Uganda where she worked with David on the world, is set in a glistening white salt flat which projects, and when they returned to the UK where they had to cross. They found they had to keep up a she earned respect for her meticulous editing – high speed because the salt crust, below which lay notably for the Bulletin of Entomological Research. thick sludge, began to break up if they slowed down. Worse was to follow. Near the port of Assab in Eri- David joined the Commonwealth Agricultural trea (at the time federated with Ethiopia) and close Bureaux (CAB, now CABI) in 1962 to set up their to the French Somaliland border they stopped to use first African base with the founding of the CIBC East the radio thinking they were out of sight. But when African Station at Kawanda Research Station in they set off again they were surrounded by the Ethi- Uganda, some eight miles west of Kampala. As such, opian garrison and put under house arrest until their James Ogwang (former head of the Biological Con- bona fides could be confirmed from Addis Ababa; the trol Unit, National Agricultural Research soldiers thought they were the French army come to Organization, Uganda) describes him as “the grand- seize Assab. Moreover, they learnt afterwards, had father of biocontrol in Uganda.” the soldiers not been holding their topees on their heads with one hand as they came towards them at The purpose of establishing CIBC stations in Africa the double, someone might have been shot, for the was, David later wrote in the opening chapter of Bio- soldiers had been told to shoot. Little surprise, then, logical control in IPM systems in Africa3, to assist that David later showed scant regard for, by compar- African countries and to find natural enemies for ison, minor privations experienced by his staff – and export to other countries. This, as he outlined in the incredulity at the luxuries some biocontrol scientists chapter, was during the aftermath of the era when regarded as essential in the field. synthetic pesticides had led many countries to abandon biological control, while remaining practi- Cliff Ashall remembers David as a “pleasant, cooper- tioners often tried to show that biological control was ative and industrious colleague of great integrity.” cheaper and permanent. The ease of shipment that Nevertheless the locust days gave rise to one of the air travel afforded had tempted many to economize enduring legends about him, as Cliff recounts. David on detailed ecological studies, and instead ship large and Jerry Roffey, a fellow Imperial College graduate, numbers of species for release to see which would joined DLS at the same time and “spent some time establish; lessons learnt from an earlier era were for- News 3N gotten, inappropriate species were introduced, the wide-ranging abilities. One of the first projects he success rate fell, and biological control came to be tackled concerned the Antestiopsis spp. complex, the seen as something unlikely to succeed and to be used main pests of Arabica coffee, which demonstrated only as a last resort. Against this background, how David went straight to the root of a problem and David’s emphasis on science-based biological control had the scientific skill to solve it; in this case, the was invaluable. identity of the pest was unclear. Donald McNutt, at the time working on Arabica coffee pests on Mt Elgon Sean Murphy notes how: “From the start it was clear as Entomologist at Mbale, describes David as “a fine that David saw the need for creating centres of excel- entomologist” and was “very impressed by the way lence – across the globe – to allow the science to he sorted out the Antestiopsis spp. complex”; David flourish and for it to make a contribution to develop- published a series of papers on this. Subsequent ment”, and this was long before ‘development’ work on the sugarcane scale (Aulacaspis spp.) led to became the buzz word it is today. Gordon Tiley (then the establishment of a coccinellid introduced from Pasture Agronomist at Kawanda, now at the Scot- Uganda to Mauritius but not control of the pest. tish Agricultural College), describes how David However, another coccinellid, Rhyzobius lophanthae “developed the East African station from practically (syn. Lindorus lophanthae) introduced from Mauri- nothing to a compact unit. A number of young expa- tius to northern Tanzania was outstandingly triate and Ugandan scientists worked with and were successful in the continuous cropping system there trained by David, who placed particular emphasis on and brought the pest under control within 18 months this particular aspect of the Unit’s work.” Encourage- of being released. A (rare) well-funded project on ment of young scientists was to become one of cereal stemborers brought a second expatriate ento- David’s hallmarks. Gordon also says: “CIBC work mologist to the Station from about 1965 (Ed Milner, frequently took David away on safari to all parts of followed by Ikram Mohyuddin, then David Girling to East Africa in the Unit’s Land Rover. Being a small 1973). David also worked on lantana biological con- satellite, the Unit was constrained by limited labora- trol – a weed that continues to frustrate biocontrol tory and library facilities. Conditions for working scientists to this day. Insect agents (Teleonemia scru- were frequently technically and administratively pulosa) achieved severe defoliation and dieback, but, challenging, though there was an excellent and com- David Girling says, “David came to realize that once prehensive insect collection. However, with a quiet the insects had knocked it down it just grew again if and organized approach, David sought to promote the land wasn’t cleared and used – early IPM?” high standards of scientific professionalism.” David’s capacity to do excellent work under difficult circum- Professor Fred Legner from the University of Cali- stances could make him a hard act to follow. Ian fornia at Riverside (where he is now Emeritus Robertson (a lifelong friend from locust days) was Professor) spent time searching for natural enemies thinking of David’s work in Uganda when, as Officer- of the common housefly in Kenya and Uganda in in-Charge, CIBC Kenya Station in the mid 1980s, he 1966–67, under a joint project he and David were observed to junior colleagues that it was no point conducting for the US National Institutes of Health. complaining to David about what he was expecting of This proved a significant partnership for Mauritius, them, because he had done far better work under far where Stomoxys spp. stableflies were a severe con- worse conditions and with far fewer resources. This straint to dairy farming and cattle were kept in tenacity, which David was to exhibit again and again straw huts to protect them. First attempts to control during his career, was already matched by other flies by releasing New World parasitoids from dung- traits Gordon Tiley describes that were to become feeding flies had been unsuccessful in humid inland familiar, and remain so, even as Director of IIBC: areas. Subsequently it was discovered the parasi- “He was approachable by staff at all levels and toids controlled dung-breeding S. calcitrans, but not always willing to discuss a problem or to offer level- S. nigra which bred in the plentiful rotting vegeta- headed advice, in characteristic measured tones and tion (notably sugarcane trash) of the humid zone. generally while lighting up or extinguishing his Fred explains: “After I left, David supervised a study pipe!” Donald McNutt’s recollections from when he on breeding sites in Uganda. We came up with Tachi- was posted to Kawanda as an Entomologist in 1967 naephagus stomoxicida out of the work.” Between highlight David’s open-mindedness: “My main work 1972 and 1975, sampling was carried out on banana was testing the effectiveness of insecticides for pest trash and cut elephant grass. Pupae were shipped to control and the use of spraying machinery as opposed Mauritius for study, and it became apparent that the to biological methods but despite this David was natural enemy complex was markedly different from always available to discuss problems with me. In that in dung pits. Tachinaephagus stomoxicida was particular he gave useful advice for a booklet I was released and rapidly established in Mauritius, where writing on Insect collecting in the tropics.” He adds: it provided substantial control of S. nigra for most of “He was a realistic person who didn’t mind asking the year – a case of careful ecological study reaping me to treat his house against possible cockroach benefits. breeding while he and his family went on vacation to South Africa.” In 1971 David published A review of biological con- trol in the Ethiopian Region4, the fifth in CAB’s Professor Tecwyn Jones (Director, East African Agri- Technical Communications series, designed to culture and Forestry Research Organization review the development of biological control in the [EAAFRO]; later Director, Commonwealth Institute British Commonwealth. Tecwyn Jones pays tribute of Entomology [CIE]) says that David “was rightly to David’s wider influence in East Africa: “As head of widely commended for the success of CIBC’s biocon- the CIBC East African Station, David, like all other trol projects in East Africa.” This owed much to his entomologists in the region, was required to report 4N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) annually on his work and plans for future research to ally returned to the UK and David was based at the East African Specialist Committee for Agricul- Imperial College at Silwood Park, they regularly ture and Entomology of the East African High entertained CIBC/IIBC staff and ‘Silwood’ students, Commission (EHC) – later the East African Commu- and are particularly remembered for their hospi- nity (EAC). I, as entomologist at EAAFRO, chaired tality to overseas students stranded in the UK at that Committee (and submitted its findings and rec- Christmas-time. ommendations for approval to the EHC) and perhaps better than most came to know David’s value and David and Annette remained in Uganda under standing on the committee. increasingly difficult political circumstances under the regime of Idi Amin until 1973. By then permis- “Throughout his time in East Africa, David was a sion to leave the country even temporarily was major contributor to the deliberations of the Spe- difficult to obtain, but David managed to extract a cialist Committee and was held in the highest letter personally signed by the Minister of Internal esteem by all his fellow members. Thorough plan- Affairs allowing him to leave, with Annette and ning, meticulous attention to detail, and immaculate Emma, to conduct annual field work in neighbouring execution of every stage of his work, were the hall- Kenya (where their two older children were at marks of David’s own research, and of research school). With the CIBC Station Landrover filled with projects under his authority. He also enjoyed the laboratory equipment, and what possessions they highest respect of his peers for his substantial and could fit in once this was all stowed, they set off, invaluable contribution to the delineation and work arriving at the border after dark. It was, as David of the EA Plant Import and Export Committee and recounted in later years, a particularly tense hence to the EA Plant Quarantine Service with its moment when he handed over the letter. They excellent record.” watched the soldier read it, slowly. They were not sure what to expect next – but it was certainly not If what has gone before suggests David was an over- what happened. The soldier, clearly awed by the sig- whelmingly serious character, this was not the case. nature on the bottom, asked reverentially whether Although he was dedicated to his profession and crit- he could keep it. Bemused, David cordially replied ical of what he considered poor scientific standards, that of course he could. And so they were waved Tecwyn Jones is keen to stress that there was through. But their troubles were not yet over. On another side to him: “David will long be remembered reaching Nairobi, the Landrover was broken into and by his professional colleagues for his unique contri- the microscopes stolen; CABI folklore has it that bution to pest-management in East Africa – but no David was reprimanded for his carelessness. less so by all friends and acquaintances who knew him well for his personal attributes. He was a When a new CIBC East African Station was subse- modest, unassuming, ever-helpful and kind person, quently established at the Kenya Agricultural whose advice and wise counsel was greatly valued by Research Institute (KARI) at Muguga, the Lan- all. He was by nature rather shy and retiring but his drover found a permanent home and the staff studious thoughtful demeanour belied his keen sense cherished it for many years, putting up with its of humour and a quick and healthy appreciation of increasingly cranky habits with varying degrees of the ridiculous – a combination which assured his forbearance until a new breed of four-wheel drive welcome in professional and social gatherings of vehicles, of less character but also less likely to shed diverse composition and character.” windscreen wipers in heavy rain, superseded it. Even so it was not forgotten, and at David’s retire- Gordon Tiley saw similar qualities: “He was a close ment dinner at Silwood Park in 1991, Garry Hill, family man, with wife Annette and children Andrew, then Director of the IIBC Kenya Station, presented Sarah and Emma, plus their affectionate dog, Sheba. him with the Landrover’s wing mirror as a memento. They were all popular and active members of the Sta- tion community and did much to contribute to its From East Africa, David moved back to the UK, social life. David himself possessed a somewhat dry where he was based until his retirement. One of the reserved sense of humour but he was always con- first tasks he took on, with David Girling and col- genial company. A valuable steadying influence in leagues at the CIBC European Station at Delémont times of argument or the inevitable personality con- in Switzerland, was editing a companion to his flicts among the more boisterous elements in a review of African biological control: A review of bio- compact community.” Charles Dewhurst, then logical control in western and southern Europe5 was working under the late Eric S. Brown with African published in 1976. At first he had an office in the CIE armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), remembers visits headquarters at 56 Queen’s Gate, London, and later to Kawanda, where they had one of their light traps, he moved to the old headquarters of CAB at for the typical hospitality with which they were Farnham Royal where he was, as Richard Hill (now invited for supper by David and Annette. He also with Hill & Associates, New Zealand, and on the BNI recalls David’s interest in bombyliids, adding: “David Editorial Board) recalls, “the sole CIBC staff member always requested us to bring any specimens of Bom- in the UK at that time and I would visit him at byliidae that we might come across, and that has to Farnham Royal to seek advice. The move to Silwood be my main memory, as everywhere I have visited in and the growing of CIBC UK soon followed, all driven the world, seeing and collecting bombyliids and by David.” During this period, David Girling adds, knowing that David was always interested.” Hospi- David continued with project work; for example sur- tality is a thread that runs through many people’s veying in Kenya and Ethiopia for parasitoids of olive memories of David and Annette. When they eventu- pests for Mediterranean countries. News 5N

David, with David Girling’s assistance on the neer, and a stalwart for biocontrol, who encouraged ground, was also involved with plans for the new diverse approaches so long as they had been field- CIBC East African Station in Kenya. The agreement tested. FAO's first field biocontrol training course in for this was signed in January 1981 and it began rice, hosted by CIBC in India 25 years ago [in 1982], business in facilities provided by KARI at Muguga, was made possible because David agreed to our near Nairobi. However, the status of CIBC in the UK nearly exclusive emphasis on conservation-oriented, was far from assured at this time, but David, as rather than ‘classical’, biocontrol.” Harry Evans, a David Girling puts it, “characteristically turned plant pathologist recruited by David from CIBC’s crisis into opportunity, persuading CAB that CIBC sibling institute, the Commonwealth Mycological needed an information officer (me), a journal to pro- Institute, CMI (later the International Mycological mote biological control (BNI, later handing over the Institute, IMI), says, “David had the vision to realise editorship to me), as well as an Assistant Director that CIBC needed a more holistic approach to biolog- (David) and a new headquarters (Silwood).” Silwood ical control, and, despite serious internal Park formed part of Imperial College’s Department reservations, he managed to persuade CABI to of Zoology and Applied Entomology (now Biology), invest in a pathology capability. Subsequently, a and was home to world-renowned ecological pathologist was appointed in 1984 to develop projects research, and to one of the few MSc courses in against both invasive weeds and arthropod pests. Applied Entomology in the UK – a magnet for over- More investments followed as specialist facilities seas students. David moved to Silwood in June 1981. were included in the plans for the new building and David Girling, who retired from CABI and as Editor greenhouse infrastructure in order to handle both of BNI in 1997 adds, “much of what you see today low- and high-risk pathogens. This also gave CIBC stems from that time.” David’s ability to think ahead the opportunity to further enhance its role as a third- of his time became familiar to a succession of scien- country quarantine centre. Thanks to David’s legacy, tific colleagues over the course of his career. What high-profile pathology projects could be undertaken; was less well known was that he came from a family including the highly successful one against the of innovators (and he himself put a good deal of effort desert locust – a subject, of course, close to his heart.” into tracing and writing up the family history6). To The IIBC UK Centre grew to have a substantial cite but one, David’s great-uncle, James Henry pathology staff who also became involved in classical Greathead (1844–1896), is known as the ‘Father of biological control of weeds, including the successful the Tube’ and a statue of him stands outside Bank control of rubbervine (Cryptostegia grandiflora) in underground station in London; his improved design northern Australia by a rust fungus; David had first for a mechanical shield “made tunnelling deeper, looked for natural enemies of this plant on the Kenya cheaper and safer for the army of workers building coast in 1973. the London Underground”7. The inclusion of quarantine facilities at the Silwood At first housed in a few rooms in the Victorian manor Park site also meant that staff and students based at house that was the centre of Imperial College at Sil- a UK university were able to study tropical pests. wood Park – in Richard Hill’s words – “ensconced in David took advantage of the stability of a managerial the gallery rooms ‘through the looking glass’ as I role and association with Imperial College to get always thought of them”, David oversaw the plan- involved in supervision of research students in the ning and construction of a new IIBC headquarters 1980s, including PhD students Aristóbulo López- building in the developing science park, which was Ávila from Colombia working on parasitoids of opened by Professor M. S. Swaminathan in 1989. Bemisia tabaci and ‘Ravi’ Raveendranath from Sri David became Director of IIBC in 1989, on the retire- Lanka working on Telenomus spp. egg parasitoids of ment of Fred Bennett, and continued to develop the Spodoptera spp. UK Centre with strong links to Imperial College. His belief, as Sean Murphy puts it, “that good science David’s easy engagement with people created a net- was the way forward” lay behind the recruitment of work of international linkages that CABI benefits Jeff Waage from Imperial College as Chief Research from to this day. Dr S. P. Singh (formerly Director, Officer (he became Director after David’s retire- Project Directorate of Biological Control [PDBC], ment). David supported Jeff in the establishment of Bangalore, India) describes David’s role in the evolu- the Leverhulme Fellowship scheme, a joint CABI– tion of CABI’s links with India. From when he was a Imperial College initiative that was to produce useful post-graduate student in Russia, S. P. Singh had research with applications to biological control. He harboured a desire to meet the “stalwarts of biolog- also took advantage of the proximity to Imperial Col- ical control from CIBC.” His opportunity came in lege to apply his inclusive approach to integration of 1984 when, working in Bangalore as a Project Coor- biological and non-biological control technologies – dinator of the All India Coordinated Research Project IPM in short – by developing links with the experts on Biological of Crop Pests and Weeds, “I got the in pesticide application in tropical countries at the news that Dr David Greathead is visiting” and of college’s International Pesticide Application their meeting he says, “when I met Dr Greathead, Research Centre (IPARC). Both these were to later then Assistant Director, CIBC, I eagerly explained prove his wisdom in engaging widely with other the activities and the progress of work and also put disciplines. forth the expansion plan of the project to co-ordinate research, transfer viable technology on biological David’s outward-looking approach is endorsed by control of important crop pests and weeds and to many people he worked with over his career. Peter serve as a nodal agency for introduction, exchange Kenmore (Food and Agriculture Organization of the and conservation of biological control agents at United Nations, FAO) describes him as: “A real pio- national level. He listened carefully and offered sev- 6N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) eral suggestions, and told me that such a type of David’s return to Europe did nothing to dim his expansion requires a lot of public funding.” Of this enthusiasm for helping developing countries conduct first meeting, S. P. Singh sums David up as “a very safe and effective biological control. It was one of his pleasant, modest, unassuming and helpful person motives in championing the need for international with depth of knowledge and breadth of vision.” guidelines. Increasing environmental awareness had Although S. P. Singh was to meet David only once had a double-edged impact on biological control: more, they continued to correspond, and he drew on potential environmental as well as economic non- David’s published material – notably, he comments, target effects of introduced biocontrol agents were the BIOCAT database. In the years that followed, starting to be seen to be significant; meanwhile, the “collaboration and interactions with CABI improved” emergence of IPM, in response to overuse of pesti- and continued to flourish after the formation in 1993 cides, was leading to increased adoption of biological of PDBC with its 16 co-ordinating centres and labo- control as its cornerstone. Thus countries with little ratories. The association has led to joint CABI–ICAR or no previous experience of biological control were workshops and many other meetings and seminars starting to make introductions of biological control involving CABI staff – indeed some have become reg- agents, both for classical biological control and for- mulated as biological pesticides. Around 1989, ular visitors and collaborators. Thus, S. P. Singh David, on behalf of IIBC, together with the Interna- concludes, “The seeds of collaboration sown by Dr tional Organization for Biological Control (IOBC), Greathead seem to have germinated and flourished.” approached FAO to propose an international code of conduct. As David later wrote8, “FAO commissioned Sean Murphy recognizes the importance of David’s Professor Michael Way from Imperial College of Sci- influence and impact at a personal level: “I met with ence, Technology and Medicine, London, an advisor David in the early 1980s (when I was a student in the to FAO on IPM, to prepare a review and discussion UK) when he was already a leading light in biological document on the need for a code, in association with control. I (and others) quickly learnt that this was a IIBC and in collaboration with the FAO Integrated man who had real-life practical experience of trying Pest Management Programme.” With this as the to get science working for mankind – and who was starting point, a worldwide consultative process over succeeding – but also (somehow!) managed to keep the ensuing years led to the development of the code the ‘romance’ of the science alive by being a prac- as an International Standard for Phytosanitary tising scientist and a teacher. This was so important Measures (ISPM) of the International Plant Protec- to younger scientists who at that age need to be tion Convention (IPPC: an international treaty for shown how what they have learnt can make a differ- protection of plant resources), under the guidance of ence.” Sean stresses that alongside all his ‘political’ Dr Gerard Schulten of FAO and with support from and technical achievements was, “David the teacher David, culminating in its endorsement by FAO and mentor. David always had time to discuss and member countries at the end of 1995 and formal pub- share experiences, and most of all to help.” And also, lication in 1996 as ISPM No. 39. “David the scientist. Once one of my staff in Kenya showed David some (we thought) beautifully pre- An assessment of ISPM No. 3, conducted by Moses pared insect specimens (from coffee plants) for Kairo, Matthew Cock and Megan Quinlan in 200310, identification. David sucked on his pipe and after a described its publication as timely: in many devel- long pause said, ‘Mmm, they need proper labels.’ But oping countries the economic and social factors this was not a critical David – it was just David the influencing biological control decisions tended to be professional.” Richard Hill remembers with grati- more concerned with economic and food security tude David's guidance in his early research, when he issues than impact on indigenous species. They com- was a student at Imperial College at Silwood Park ment: “It is those mostly developing countries but also responsible for the New Zealand Depart- recently starting to use biological control or with an ment of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) opportunity to use biological control, which benefited gorse biocontrol project. He recollects how “a green, most from ISPM No. 3. Until ISPM No. 3 was pre- early 20-something New Zealand scientist first vis- pared, there was little guidance available to these countries and none with the international authority ited David at Farnham Royal to talk about the gorse that is embodied in ISPM No. 3. [It] gave them project. He was always helpful and full of ideas, and increased confidence to proceed, based on the assur- of course I soaked up the stories about biological con- ance that they were following international trol history.” Richard’s memories of those days standards and procedures.” The authors also note include “David's good company and droll sense of that it “has provided a good basis for facilitation of humour.” James Ogwang tells how, also as a student regional projects and dialogue between countries at Silwood Park, “Dr Greathead was a reference for facing similar problems.” The authors end by me, perhaps one of the pillars that influenced me to acknowledging that although many people were develop interest in biocontrol. I remember him as a involved in the process, the efforts of Gerard simple easy-to-approach fellow who was always Schulten and David Greathead were particularly smoking his pipe.” The significance to biological con- important in seeing ISPM No. 3 through to finaliza- trol of David’s encouragement of young scientists is tion and ratification. David’s thoroughness and well-illustrated by this, for James went on to be a patience were key to the ultimate success of an initi- driving force in the biocontrol effort against water ative. He himself used to observe ruefully that he hyacinth in East Africa, and the instigator of the was often labelled as pessimistic when he pointed out community-based mass releases of Neochetina wee- difficulties with other people’s bright ideas; his vils that famously led to the weed’s biological control strength was that he not just foresaw problems, but on Lake Victoria in the late 1990s. persevered until ways had been found to overcome News 7N them. [ISPM No. 3 was revised and republished in I was his Deputy, perhaps because he had such an April 2005.] influence on me, when I finally took that role.” He realized that, “David was not one of those people who The quantity and quality of David’s publications likes management for its own sake. For him, man- were recognized in 1977 when London University agement seemed more of a duty or a service, awarded him a DSc. He continued to contribute sig- undertaken in order to support his team, to help us nificantly to biological control literature, including, to develop our programmes and to protect us from with Jeff Waage, Opportunities for biological control the whims of the organization above. He was of agricultural pests in developing countries pub- approachable, sympathetic, and supportive, as such lished in 198311, and he edited with Jeff the Royal a manager would be. He could be a powerful calming Entomological Society of London’s symposium force to a fretful scientist. He did this with the aid of volume Insect parasitoids in 199412. However, a a pipe, the filling, lighting and smoking of which cre- major contribution during this phase, and still used ated those frequent, thought pauses that turned the today, was the BIOCAT database. This, according to crisis into a process of solution.” David Girling, was initially a card database, kept by David, of all introductions of insect natural enemies Jeff also saw characteristics many others have recog- (parasitoids and predators) for biological control of nized: “The other feature of David’s management insect pests worldwide; his wife Annette took over that left a permanent stamp on the persona of IIBC running it when it was put on computer. David rec- was his continuing interest in research and the day- ognized, and he and Annette say in their 1992 review to-day business of biocontrol. In so many organiza- of BIOCAT in BNI13, “the results of introductions of tions, you find staff and management tend to agents of classical biological control are of great differentiate, taking on different interests and prior- interest, not only to biological control practitioners, ities. In IIBC, we were all, like David, just curious but also to ecologists interested in biogeography, and scientists. He set the example, and that enabled us to the process of colonization by invading species, to all remain one team of colleagues, whatever our sec- taxonomists who may encounter unfamiliar species ondary management role might be. And he let us all and to conservationists concerned with their impact be our own managers – under David, IIBC was a on native biota.” place where you could chase any good idea you wanted, as long as you could find the money. In Notwithstanding his progressive approach to biolog- gentle and supportive ways, David would get ical control, David had definite ideas about what involved with many projects.” made a good biological control scientist, and among things he instilled into his recruits was the impor- This was to prove crucial in a ground-breaking tance of taxonomy, encouraging them to develop a project that, not entirely by coincidence, brought specific interest. His own interest in Bombyliidae David’s career full circle (although not in a literal and other Diptera, especially in the Afrotropical sense) to where it started in Eritrea when, as Eileen Region, was how Neal Evenhuis came across him: “I Stower described to Cliff Ashall, David first joined first became acquainted with David 23 years ago DLS and he and fellow recruit Jerry Roffey could when I was compiling for a book all the published sci- often be seen in Asmara “full of the joys of spring entific literature of bee flies and was adding to it a careering round the town in the back of a 15-hun- short history of its workers.” Neal wrote to co- dredweight truck hanging onto the canopy irons.” workers he was including, requesting a photo. “Eve- Jeff Waage picks up the story more than 30 years ryone sent me portraits very quickly and without later: “I remember clearly coffee time conversations much fanfare, wishing me well in my endeavor. [at Silwood] with him and Chris Prior [now Head of Except David. I had never corresponded with him Horticultural Science at the Royal Horticultural previously and he said he would get back to me, but Society, Wisley], batting about the challenges of only after finding just the right photo. I was baffled locust control, the effect of oils on fungal spores and by the response. What could he have in mind? I was insect infection in Papua New Guinea, and my rant- just asking for a simple portrait. All the photos of the ings about getting enough resources to do successful other workers sent to me were the run-of-the-mill tropical biopesticide development. And then, eureka, portraits or the typical pose by the microscope. an idea was born that grew and grew and much later Except David. David had a photo done especially for became LUBILOSA (Lutte Biologique Contre les my book. It was of him smartly dressed, smoking his Locustes et Sauteriaux). Around other cups of coffee, pipe, and his head slightly tilted as though finding he would challenge us about classical biological con- something of interest while examining flowers on a trol, drawing from his vast knowledge and his shrub. It was the best photo of the bunch and it typi- BIOCAT project. Again and again, David contributed fied David's method of work.” Neal acknowledges while manager to so many of IIBC’s most creative David’s influence in a way that many will recognize: moments in his modest way. Gentleman manager “He generously took me ‘under his wing’ as it were and gentleman scientist, he was a very singular and – in addition to letting me in on his incredible person.” knowledge of African bee flies – he also taught me about the necessities of scientific work: patience, The LUBILOSA programme14, which went on to thoroughness, and even diplomacy in dealing with develop Green Muscle® as a biopesticide for acridids, co-workers.” grew out of concerns about the use of chemical pesti- cides during the locust plagues of the late 1980s Jeff Waage (now Professor of Applied Ecology, Impe- which fuelled a demand for an alternative. A short rial College London) says: “My favourite memory of concept paper by Chris Prior and David in the FAO David was during his time as Director of IIBC, while Plant Protection Bulletin in 198915 identified deuter- 8N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) omycete fungi as promising candidate pathogens for lems and dispense advice based on his unparalleled locust control. From this initial idea, CABI went on knowledge. to lead, with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, a multi-national, multi-institutional Sean Murphy reflects on David’s influence: “I think team which confirmed that an isolate of the fungus most would agree that as one moves through life, one Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum (IMI 330189) crosses paths with a few people who end up deeply was the most effective biological control agent avail- influencing one’s thoughts and even how one able, and developed robust formulation and approaches a significant part of one’s life. David was application technology to allow it to be deployed as a leader, a great thinker, and a visionary and path an effective biopesticide, Green Muscle®, which has maker and (as the messages I have seen from across subsequently proved its credentials in many field the globe clearly show) he had a ‘guiding’ impact on trials against locusts and grasshoppers in Africa. many people.” Speaking for CABI, he adds: “He com- Commercially produced for the first time in South manded respect because of who he was and what he Africa in 1999, it is registered throughout West and stood for. David will not leave us – there is too much East Africa, and is recommended by FAO for use in of him in what we now do.” S. P. Singh echoes these environmentally sensitive areas; most recently FAO sentiments on behalf of the wider biocontrol commu- organized a trial of Green Muscle® against local nity in saying, “the community will continue to hopper outbreaks in Mauritania in October 2006. traverse the path shown by him.” But, in the words David’s early population studies with Bill Stower2 of Gordon Tiley, “News of his most untimely death are achieving new significance: understanding mul- will have been received with shock and sorrow by all tiplication rates and population numbers is who knew him.” becoming important in deploying Green Muscle® to manage population size in pre- and early post- We extend our deepest sympathy to Annette and her swarming locust populations. family at the loss of this most singular scientist, man, husband, father and grandfather.

The significance of David’s contribution to 1 LUBILOSA went beyond the belief that biological Greathead, D.J. (1963) A review of the insect ene- control could work as part of locust control. The mies of Acridoidea (Orthoptera). Transactions of the groundbreaking work in the programme was not Royal Entomological Society of London 114: 437– 517. based solely on the recognition of a suitable path- ogen, but also relied on advances in formulation and 2Stower, W.J. & Greathead, D.J. (1969) Numerical application technology, so the fungal spores could be changes in populations of the desert locust with spe- formulated as an oil suspension with a long shelf life, cial reference to factors responsible for mortality. and sprayed using standard ultra low volume spin- Journal of Applied Ecology 6: 203–235. ning disk spray equipment. His conviction that biological control should be based on science meant 3Greathead, D.J. (2003) Historical overview of bio- there was support for the recruitment of postdoctoral logical control in Africa. In: Neuenschwander, P, researchers, such as Matt Thomas (now with CSIRO Borgemeister, C. & Langewald, J. (eds) Biological Entomology, Australia), under the Leverhulme Fel- control in IPM systems in Africa. CABI Publishing, lowship scheme to investigate critical features of Wallingford, UK, pp. 1–26. locust biology and ecology. Roy Bateman (then CABI, now returned to IPARC), who was involved in the 4Greathead, D.J. (1971) A review of biological control application aspects of the biopesticide development, in the Ethiopian Region. Technical Communication says that “what marked David out was his breadth of No. 5. Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control. view. He was inclusive in his thinking; for example, CAB, Farnham Royal, UK, 162 pp. welcoming of the pesticide scientists and recognizing their value, despite being a world authority on bio- 5Greathead, D.J. (ed) (1976) A review of biological logical control – and this was ultimately to the control in western and southern Europe. Technical benefit of the locust programme.” Although much of Communication No. 7. Commonwealth Institute of this took place after David retired, it was his knowl- Biological Control. CAB, Farnham Royal, UK, 182 edge and foresight that allowed it to germinate, and pp. his encouragement of scientists from diverse disci- plines that laid the foundations for its ultimate 6Greathead, D.J. (1997) A passage to the Cape of success. Good Hope. D.J. Greathead, Wargrave, UK, 132 pp.

At 60, David came up against CABI’s obligatory 7Cooper, J. The Greathead family one name study: management retirement age, and against his wishes www.greathead.org/ stepped down as Director of IIBC. However, he was awarded an Honorary Senior Research Fellowship at 8Greathead, D.J. (1997) An introduction to the FAO the Centre for Population Biology, Imperial College code of conduct for the import and release of exotic London at Silwood Park, and remained profession- biological control agents. Biocontrol News and Infor- ally very active in biological control and bombyliid mation 18: 117N–118N. taxonomy. He continued to maintain BIOCAT, for example, and kept up a regular flow of information 9IPPC (1996) ISPM No. 3. Code of conduct for the and ideas to BNI. Although saddened by some of the import and release of exotic biological control agents. changes at CABI, he remained a stalwart support to [Revised as: ISPM No. 3 (2005) Guidelines for the staff, and as ready as ever to discuss ideas and prob- export, shipment, import and release of biological News 9N control agents and other beneficial organisms. successful biological control has been and is likely to www.ippc.int/IPP/En/default.jsp] be in the future, and then considers other measures that might be integrated with it to help bring about 10Kairo, M.T.K., Cock, M.J.W. & Quinlan, M.M. a permanent solution to the Mimosa pigra problem. (2003) An assessment of the use of the code of con- duct for the import and release of exotic biological Evaluation of biological control is vital for improving control agents (ISPM No. 3) since its endorsement as the efficiency and safety of future programmes, espe- an international standard. Biocontrol News and Infor- cially as these are likely to involve more stringent mation 24: 15N–27N. testing procedures and release of fewer agents whose selection will be based on predicted effectiveness. In 11 Greathead, D.J. & Waage, J.K. (1983) Opportuni- terms of the on-going programme, information on ties for biological control of agricultural pests in impact is useful for prioritizing redistribution of developing countries. World Bank Technical Paper proven agents and the selection of complementary No. 11, pp. 1–44. agents. In addition, successful biological control of 12 woody legumes can take decades, so if evaluations Waage, J.K. & Greathead, D.J. (eds) (1986) Insect forecast the ultimate success by agents already parasitoids. 13th Symposium of the Royal Entomo- released, then work on additional agents can cease logical Society of London. Academic Press, 406 pp. with a significant cost saving. 13 Greathead, D.J. & Greathead, A.H. (1992) Biolog- Seven biological control agents have been ical control of insect pests by insect parasitoids and established: predators: the BIOCAT database. Biocontrol News and Information 13: 61N–68N. • The seed-feeding bruchid Acanthoscelides puniceus was introduced in 1983. 14LUBILOSA website: www.lubilosa.org/ • The twig- and stem-mining moths Neurostrota 15Prior, C. & Greathead, D.J. (1989) Biological con- gunniella and Carmenta mimosa were introduced in trol of locusts: the potential for exploitation of 1989. pathogens. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 37: 37–48. • The flower weevil Coelocephalapion pigrae was introduced in 1994. We are grateful to Cliff Ashall, Roy Bateman, Keith Cressman, Charles Dewhurst, Harry Evans, Neal • The geometrid moth Macaria pallidata was Evenhuis, David Girling, Keith Harris, Jocelyn introduced in 2002. Hemming, Richard Hill, Tecwyn Jones, Peter Ken- • All five above agents are now relatively wide- more, Fred Legner, Joyce Magor, Donald McNutt, spread; two more have limited distribution at Sean Murphy, James Ogwang, Mark Ritchie, Ian present: Robertson, S. P. Singh, Gordon Tiley and Jeff Waage for help and contributions. We owe a particular debt • The leaf-feeding chrysomelid beetle Chlamisus to Keith Harris for sources, contact details and mimosae, released in 1985, established in one loca- advice. tion. • Another chrysomelid, Malacorhinus irregularis, By: Rebecca Murphy & Matthew J. W. Cock, CABI. was released more recently, in 2000, and has estab- lished. Evaluating Lessons from Mimosa Biocontrol in The first agent to be released, Acanthoscelides puniceus, was initially found to destroy less than 1% Australia of Mimosa pigra seed and was described as a failure. The end of the biological programme for Mimosa A more recent study put the figure higher, at 10%, pigra in Australia is in sight, with the last agent due and noted that although this would not impact suffi- to be introduced in 2007. This provides an opportu- ciently on seed production to control established nity to reflect on what has been learnt, particularly dense stands of the weed, it might impact on expan- 1 as the weed is a growing menace in Asia and Africa. sion if establishment at the edge is seed limited .

Mimosa pigra is a thorny woody legume that grows Results for one of the mining moths, Carmenta up to 6 metres high, and each plant produces thou- mimosa, are extremely promising. A 3-year study sands of seeds per year. It is native to the Neotropics that compared a range of parameters in sites where but now forms impenetrable thickets over more than it was and was not present1 found Carmenta mimosa 800 km2 of the wet–dry topics in Australia’s associated with a decrease in seed rain, particularly Northern Territory. It invades both open floodplains in Melaleuca woodland, reaching 90% where agent (replacing native grass and sedge vegetation) and the density was highest. The seed bank was also reduced understorey of Melaleuca spp. woodland, greatly and, although it was still large enough to allow weed reducing biodiversity. It also invades pastureland, recruitment, Carmenta mimosa density was also cor- hindering stock movement and blocking access to related with cover of competing vegetation. By water. killing Mimosa pigra stems and allowing light to penetrate to ground level the agent promoted devel- A biological control programme was initiated against opment of competing vegetation, which in turn it in 1979 and a number of studies assessing its suppressed M. pigra germination. Overall, where the impact have been published (see sources below and agent was present, M. pigra seedlings were typically references therein). This article assesses first how rare or absent and three out of nine stands con- 10N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) tracted, and where they were not, seedling density study conducted since it established2 failed to find a was high and four out of eight stands continued to significant effect but the evaluation method was expand. Thus, as plants senesce, absence of recruit- probably not the best for this species: although the ment should lead to stand decline with a time lag of adults are leaf feeders, its larvae are soil dwelling 10–12 years (the maximum age of a mimosa plant). and adults feed on lower stems by night and shelter There is also an interesting interaction with fire in the soil by day and were probably under-repre- events (see below). The conclusion of the study was sented in trap catches. Hopes are also high for that Carmenta mimosa alone can suppress M. pigra Macaria pallidata which is now widespread and populations, and to maximize benefits this slowly abundant4. In the laboratory, high levels of her- dispersing agent should be redistributed to infesta- bivory significantly reduced plant growth5 but tions it has not yet reached. quantitative evaluation in the field is required. Although large numbers of Leuciris fimbriaria have This was confirmed by another study2 that compared been released, it is too early to confirm litterfall recorded in 1984–86, before agents were establishment. released, with litterfall in 2001–03, and correlated the latter with observed agent damage. Although Not Just Waiting Patiently total litterfall was similar in the two periods, it was significantly less at the stand edges in 2001–03. It is clear from what has gone before that biological Looking at the components of litterfall, leaf litterfall control is likely to provide a long-term solution for was 20% higher and seed rain 47% lower (67% lower Mimosa pigra in Australia. But this is likely to take 3 at the stand edge) in 2001–03; seed rain was reduced decades , and what happens until then? by as much as 60% at highest Carmenta mimosa den- sities – and at highest densities of the other mining Even before the M. pigra biological programme was moth, Neurostrota gunniella. Both these agents were initiated, changes in populations of grazing feral Asi- most abundant at stand edges. atic water buffalo had demonstrated the importance of vegetation management. Overgrazing by these There have been conflicting reports on the impact of animals had been blamed for the M. pigra invasion. N. gunniella. The above results confirmed an earlier When they were culled and floodplain flora recov- assessment, which showed feeding correlated with a ered, the rate of discovery of new M. pigra 60% reduction in seed rain and a 14% reduction in infestations fell and an experiment demonstrated radial canopy growth over one growing season, while that removing competing vegetation enhanced its one generation of larvae reduced seedling growth by seedling establishment6. 30%. This was not taken to mean N. gunniella would be able to control M. pigra by itself, but it did suggest One of the field studies described above1 highlighted the agent would be a useful member of a biological the possibility of balancing grazing, fire and biolog- control community. However, the other study ical control. Even after fire, so long as Carmenta described above1 unexpectedly failed to find an mimosa was present, stands did not expand and impact, possibly because only very large stands of M. indeed some continued to retreat. The greater fuel pigra were sampled and N. gunniella impacts almost load from increasing competing vegetation meant exclusively at stand edges. fires were more intense, which in some cases drove back the edge of the M. pigra stand. Subsequently The litterfall study2 found that Coelocephalapion the grasses and sedges regenerated and stifled the pigrae consumed less that 11% of flowers; its abun- regeneration of mature burnt M. pigra, sometimes dance lagged behind variations in flower fall, and almost completely. Stands expanded after fire only there was no correlation between abundance and where Carmenta mimosa was absent. Healthy M. seed rain. Other data collected supported the view pigra is fire resistant so the flames did not penetrate that this agent alone was not responsible for the far into the stands; with the competing vegetation observed decrease in seed rain. However, the study burnt, the M. pigra stands were able to expand. By was conducted in an area with a very marked dry altering the susceptibility of M. pigra to fire, Car- season when few if any flowers are produced. The menta mimosa has the potential to reduce its prediction that flower- and seed-feeding agents abundance so long as overgrazing does not reduce would lag behind seed and flower production in such the fuel load for fires. climates is borne out by the lag observed and the absence of impact. Coelocephalapion pigrae may be Modelling is now an increasingly important compo- more effective in areas with less marked seasons. nent of invasive weed management. The model referred to in the previous section3 predicted that The three most recent releases (Malacorhinus irreg- biological control should enhance the impacts of her- ularis, Macaria pallidata and Leuciris fimbriaria) bicides, mechanical control and fire. In a field trial are all leaf feeders, as is the next agent, to be integrating biological with other methods7, herbi- released in 2007. This is an example of theory cides (applied in the wet season in 1989 and/or 1999), instructing practice, as a recent modelling study3 mechanical control (crushing by bulldozer in the dry recommended leaf feeders. Data for Malacorhinus season of the same years) and burning (in the dry irregularis are so far insufficient to draw conclu- season of 2000) were assessed alone and in combina- sions, but much is expected of it. It has an adult leaf- tion on a seasonal wetland area infested with M. feeding stage, but its soil-dwelling larvae feed on var- pigra carrying abundant numbers of five biological ious plant parts, particularly seedlings and control agents. In isolation, none of the methods was germinating seeds. This ‘double-barrelled’ strategy effective, but several combinations were effective; in means the potential for added impact is great. One particular, two herbicide treatments + crushing + News 11N fire (– fire if sharp stumps are not an issue) cleared 5Wirf, L.A. (2006) The effect of manual defoliation thickets and promoted competing vegetation that and Macaria pallidata (Geometridae) herbivory on inhibited M. pigra seed recruitment; biological con- Mimosa pigra: Implications for biological control Bio- trol agent abundance was unchanged or increased on logical Control 37: 346–353. surviving M. pigra plants. After burning, all agents colonized regenerating plants within a year, 6Lonsdale, W.M. & Farrell, G. (1998) Testing the although while Neurostrota gunniella increased dra- effects on Mimosa pigra of a biological control agent matically, Carmenta mimosa abundance was Neurostrota gunniella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), reduced. The increase in N. gunniella abundance plant competition and fungi under field conditions. was probably related to its habit of colonizing stand Biocontrol Science and Technology 8: 485–500. edges: all treatments had the effect of breaking up dense stands into smaller patches with more ‘edges’, 7Paynter, Q. & Flanagan, G.J. (2004) Integrating so more plants were susceptible to attack by this herbicide and mechanical control treatments with agent. The startling features of this study were the fire and biological control to manage an invasive wet- speed with which useful grazing land was re-estab- land shrub, Mimosa pigra. Journal of Applied lished and the low degree of re-infestation by M. Ecology 41: 615–629. pigra. The conclusion was that dense thickets can be controlled by integrating control measures, and that 8Paynter, Q. (2004) Revegetation of a wetland fol- this can be implemented successfully where long- lowing control of the invasive woody weed, Mimosa term biological control is underway. pigra, in the Northern Territory, Australia. Ecolog- ical Management and Restoration 5: 191–198. The nature of the replacement vegetation is impor- tant, as exotic grasses used in habitat restoration Contacts: Tim Heard, CSIRO Entomology, Australia. have in some cases gone on to become invasive them- Email: [email protected] selves. In another study8, a native floodplain grass was identified that regenerated well from stolons fol- Quentin Paynter, Manaaki Whenua Landcare lowing M. pigra clearance at a trial site. Natural Research, Private Bag 92170, Auckland, New Zea- regeneration can be slow, notably where dense land. thickets have shaded out all competing vegetation or Email: [email protected] it has been destroyed by fire, while some M. pigra Fax: +64 9 574 4101 seed can survive fire, germination can be promoted by fire and seeds disperse widely so cleared land is prone to recolonization. Repeated applications of Wasp Fights: Understanding and Utilizing broadleaf herbicides may be necessary before a Agonistic Bethylid Behaviour grass/sedge sward re-establishes and M. pigra seed banks (which can have half-lives of up to almost 2 The Bethylidae is a family of parasitoid hymenop- years) have been depleted. However, the native grass teran wasps comprising three extant subfamilies Hymenachne acutigluma, while re-establishing well, (Bethylinae, Epyrinae and Pristocerinae) and a total did not suppress M. pigra, so other measures would of around 2000 described species. Here we consider need to be followed assiduously against M. pigra their effectiveness as biocontrol agents and espe- seedlings until the floodplain flora has recovered. cially focus on how studies of agonistic interactions between adult females can be used to both warn of The Australian Government Department of Environ- detrimental non-target effects and suggest ways to ment and Heritage supported this research through improve their biocontrol potential. the Weeds of National Significance programme. Bethylids and Pest Control 1 Paynter, Q. (2005) Evaluating the impact of biolog- Bethylids attack almost exclusively the immature ical control against Mimosa pigra in Australia. stages of coleopterans and lepidopterans, including Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 1054–1062. pests of many important agricultural crops, such as 2 coffee, coconut, sugarcane and almonds, in the field, Paynter, Q. (2006) Evaluating the impact of biolog- stored product pests and pests that damage domestic ical control against Mimosa pigra in Australia: carpets and museum specimens. Aside from a few comparing litterfall before and after the introduction species that can cause human dermatitis, bethylids of biological control agents. Biological Control 38: can be regarded as beneficial insects and they have 166–173. been deployed in around 50 classical biocontrol pro- grammes around the world since the mid-1920s. 3 Buckley, Y.M., Rees, M., Paynter, Q. & Lonsdale, M. Despite their apparent potential, there have been no (2004) Modelling integrated weed management of an biocontrol programmes that have achieved complete invasive shrub in tropical Australia. Journal of pest control (such that no other measures are Applied Ecology 41(3): 547–560. needed) using bethylid wasps. Overall, establish- ment of introduced bethylids has been achieved by 4Routley, B.M. & Wirf, L.A. (2006) Advancements in about a quarter of programmes, with around 5% of biocontrol of Mimosa pigra in the Northern Terri- the total achieving partial control. The available evi- tory. In: Preston, C., Watts, J.H. & Crossman, N.D. dence, however, suggests that the rates of (eds) Proceedings of the 15th Australian Weeds Con- establishment and (partial) success have improved ference. Weed Management Society of South since the 1970s such that about half of the relatively Australia, Adelaide, pp. 561–564. recent programmes have resulted in establishment 12N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) of released bethylids and around 10% of programmes Bethylid Contests: Pure have achieved partial control of the target pest. Evolutionary game theoretic models predict that Model Organisms when two animals contest an indivisible resource, the winner will be determined by the interplay Despite being underachievers as biocontrol agents, between three factors: which contestant is the better there is a manner in which bethylids have proven (e.g. more able or more powerful) fighter, which is the undoubtedly beneficial: as study organisms in behav- prior owner, and to which contestant the resource is ioural and evolutionary research. Parasitoid wasps worth the most. Bethylid wasps, particularly two in general are extraordinarily useful organisms for species of Goniozus (subfamily Bethylinae), G. behavioural and evolutionary ecologists; to some nephantidis, a parasitoid of coconut pests, and G. leg- extent this is due to their ease of handling in the lab- neri, a parasitoid of almond pests, have proven to be oratory and short and relatively simple life cycles, extremely useful organisms for testing these theo- but the crucial attribute is the direct link between ries. On finding a suitable host, a female Goniozus many of their behaviours and their evolutionary fit- first stings and paralyzes it and then stays with it for ness. This link is strong because female parasitoids 24 hours before laying a clutch of eggs onto it. If often forage directly for reproductive opportunities another foraging female encounters the paralyzed rather than for food that will be at some, possibly dis- host and its ‘owner’, violent female–female fights tant, time in the future be converted into a difficult- readily ensue, with the loser female being driven to-quantify number of offspring. Bethylids have away and the winner eventually laying its eggs on played an important role in several key areas of par- the host. These Goniozus species also remain with asitoid behavioural ecology research, most notably the host after laying eggs until their offspring reach the evolution of clutch size and sex ratio decisions the advanced larval or pupal stage; this is unusual for parasitoids in general but common among the and also factors determining the outcomes of dyadic Bethylidae, and owner–intruder contests for host contests for indivisible resources. For instance, W.D. bearing offspring also occur. Hamilton’s seminal work explaining female biased sex ratios in terms of local mate competition (justifi- By experimentally manipulating differences in size, ably one of the most famous theoretical advances in age, the number of mature eggs stored, and prior evolutionary biology) was bolstered by his knowledge owner status between contestant females, and var- of the sex ratio biology of three bethylid species. Sub- ying the size (quality) of the contested host and the sequent sex ratio theory was stimulated and tested stage of the brood it bears (no eggs, eggs or larvae) by empirical and comparative work on numerous fur- the relative importance of the predicted influences on ther bethylids, leading to a sound understanding of contest outcomes has been established. Differences sex ratio precision and the effects of offspring devel- in female body size are usually of major importance, opmental mortality on optimal sex ratio decisions, as with bigger females tending to win4. This finding led well as useful knowledge concerning the relation- to a theoretical advance connecting size-dependent ships between sex ratio and clutch size and the contest outcomes to optimal clutch size decisions possible influence of some degree of non-local mating based upon the relationship between body size and 1 ( and references therein). Similarly, in clutch size parasitoid fitness: even though only one female lays research, bethylids have been used to test theory pre- eggs on a given host, her clutch size decision is influ- dicting the ‘Lack clutch size’, the evolution of enced by the sizes of clutches that other females in gregarious clutches and relationship between off- the population lay because, on a fixed sized host, 2 spring size and clutch size . smaller clutches give rise to larger offspring which will fare better in subsequent contests for hosts2. We Payback Time have recently found empirical support for this predic- tion, namely that females exposed to several Much of the background knowledge, and indeed intruder females before laying eggs reduce the size of some of the data, on which these theoretically-ori- the clutches they lay compared to undisturbed ented studies were built was gleaned from the females. The above-mentioned empirical studies of taxonomic and biocontrol oriented literature. Recip- contests further showed that outcomes can also be rocally, an understanding of parasitoid behavioural influenced by all of the listed factors additional to ecology has great potential to improve biocontrol body size. These can be interpreted in terms of a dif- practice and success. For instance, there are already ference in the value that the contestant females place good examples of the understanding of sex allocation on possession of the host5,6. Prior ownership status behaviour being used to reduce significantly the cost does not appear to be of direct importance but has an of parasitoid mass rearing for augmentative effect via the larger number of stored eggs that 3 biocontrol , although it seems that many of the owners have compared to intruders which enhances insights generated by behavioural ecology have yet their ability to exploit the host thus giving it, to to be fully utilized in biocontrol. them, a higher value7. While there are many other studies of dyadic contests in the animal behaviour Here we focus on two ways in which initially ‘pure’ or and behavioural ecology literature, the particular ‘basic’ studies of parasitoid contest behaviour have value of these studies of bethylids is that an unusu- generated results useful, or at least potentially ally large number of many factors contributing useful, to biocontrol programmes involving bethylid effects on contest outcome has been explored, both wasps. separately and simultaneously. News 13N Bethylid Contests: Applied these bethylids may not be able to coexist ecologi- cally. However, factors other than fighting behaviour Two issues of ongoing concern to biocontrol practi- may also influence both coexistence and the choice of tioners are the question of how many species of biocontrol agents to encourage. Investigations of the natural enemy to deploy to best control a given pest, biology of C. hyalinipennis further revealed that it with the associated danger of detrimental intra-guild can act as a facultative hyperparasitoid of other interactions, and the dangers of non-target effects of bethylids10, including those deployed against the introduced biocontrol agents. Given that multiple coffee berry borer (constituting disruptive intra-guild species are involved, these are essentially issues at predation) and G. legneri and G. nephantidis the ‘community ecology level’ but can be addressed deployed against almond and coconut pests (consti- reductively at the ‘behavioural’ or ‘individual’ level. tuting a potential for detrimental non-target effects Studies of bethylid contests, and associated behav- if C. hyalinipennis were to spread into coconut or iours, have played a role in evaluating intra-guild almond agroecosystems). A small number of prelimi- interactions in the coffee agroecosystem. Coffee, an nary observations suggest that C. hyalinipennis may originally African crop, is now grown in many trop- even be able to win fights against Goniozus females, ical regions and is of great economic importance. The despite being very much smaller, and then hyperpar- principal insect pest of coffee, the coffee berry borer asitize their developing offspring. Studying dyadic (Hypothenemus hampei, a scolytid beetle) also has contests, normally the preserve of ‘pure’ behavioural African origins but has now spread to virtually all ecology, has thus indicated that the initially prom- coffee growing regions where borer infestations can ising C. hyalinipennis should probably not be be intense and coffee production seriously affected. encouraged in Mexico nor released as a biocontrol Two species of African bethylids in the subfamily agent of the coffee berry borer elsewhere. More gen- Epyrinae, Cephalonomia stephanoderis and Prorops erally, this case history supports the view that when nasuta, were released into New World and other candidate biocontrol agents are screened, considera- coffee growing regions in an attempt to control the tion may need to be given to potential intra-guild 8 borer . Generally, these species established but, typ- effects and not just host specificity selection criteria. ical of bethylids, failed to control the borer sufficiently. Therefore, further candidate agents of Bethylid Volatiles: Pure biological control were sought. In the late 1980s, Cephalonomia hyalinipennis, a bethylid native to Until recently, the understanding of bethylid con- North America, was found naturally attacking the tests was based only on visually observable physical borer in southern Mexican coffee plantations. The behaviour. However, a few chemically-oriented biology of this ‘new’ species was evaluated: one studies had shown that Cephalonomia species can encouraging facet of C. hyalinipennis was that it is a emit a volatile chemical when behaviourally gregarious species, producing more than one off- stressed11. We recently investigated the occurrence spring per host attacked (in contrast the two African of chemical release by G. legneri and G. nephantidis species released only lay one egg per host) which is (subfamily Bethylinae) and six species in the sub- predicted to lead to better host population family Epyrinae (including the natural enemies of suppression. the coffee berry borer mentioned above): when artifi- cially stressed the bethylines emit a spiroacetal, In considering whether to encourage, for instance by called 2-methyl-1,7-dioxaspiro [5.5]undecane (molec- mass rearing and release, C. hyalinipennis in Mexico ular weight 170), while the epyrines emit a (augmentative biocontrol) or to introduce it in other methylindole called 3-methylskatole (molecular coffee producing countries (classical biocontrol) its weight 131). By coupling contest behaviour experi- possible intra-guild interactions with the two African ments to chemical analysis apparatus (atmospheric bethylid species were studied. There are many ways pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometer, in which populations and individuals of different spe- APCI-MS) which is able to monitor continually the cies could interact in an agroecosystem but female– chemical composition of the air around interacting female contests can provide a direct means of wasps we were able to show that, when two Goniozus assessing the strength and outcomes of inter-specific females fight for possession of a host, spiroacetal is interactions in the laboratory and thus offer an ini- usually only released during the most behaviourally tial approach to evaluating the possibility of aggressive interactions12. Once release occurs, the disruptive intra-guild interactions in the field. The frequency of the most aggressive behaviour is greatly three bethylids attacking the coffee berry borer were decreased. duly competed against each other, with pairs of females contesting possession of small groups of host Because both contestant females produce and release inside an artificial coffee berry9. It was found that the same volatile, and thus their natural emissions intense contests readily occurred and that the losing are chemically indistinguishable, we developed a female was often killed (C. stephanoderis being the method of chemical marking by molecular weight most violent and generally successful species). In manipulation12. We reared some females on hosts contrast, when contests were set up between females injected with insect saline made up with deuterated of the same species, the death of the loser was never water (heavy water). Deuterium is an isotope of observed, even though fighting behaviour appeared hydrogen, bearing an ‘extra’ neutron: some deute- to be equally intense. Community ecology theory pre- rium atoms became incorporated into the wasps’ dicts that species will not be able to coexist when bodies during development. We have found no dis- competition is stronger between species than within cernable effects on life-history characteristics, such species: thus oft-fatal inter-species interactions and as longevity or fecundity, of the wasps following the non-fatal intra-specific interactions suggest that exposure to deuterium, except that deuterated indi- 14N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) viduals have reduced fighting abilities but considering its association with agonistic behaviour, fortunately this effect is much smaller than factors of leads to released wasps choosing to disperse rather more biological interest such as differences in body than remain in the target locality. It seems, there- size or ownership status. Importantly, we found that fore, that an understanding of how to reduce deuterated females emitted volatile profiles that chemical release behaviour can improve the efficacy were readily distinguishable from undeuterated of these wasps in pest control. females because around 25% of the spiroacetal they emitted had molecular weight raised to 171, i.e. some Conclusions spiroacetal molecules produced had 17 hydrogen atoms and one deuterium atom rather than the usual Bethylid wasps have proven to be highly useful 18 hydrogen atoms. This chemical marking revealed research organisms in the study of behavioural that, without exception, it is the losing female that ecology but only moderately useful as agents of bio- releases the volatile12. Although we have currently logical pest control. Nonetheless, they are generally found no negative effects of exposure to the spiroa- beneficial and the greater understanding of their cetal on Goniozus, at high concentration the same biology gleaned from investigations into female– chemical has been shown to kill Drosophila fruit flies female contests, volatile release and other areas of rapidly. Current evidence suggests that Goniozus behavioural ecology has been, or at least has the employ spiroacetal released as a weapon of rear- clear potential to be, usefully applied to the improve- guard action to increase their chance of being able to ment of biocontrol strategies. withdraw from a behaviourally aggressive encounter. Given that these encounters will often Acknowledgements take place within the confines of small tunnels and We dedicate this article to the late David Greathead cavities excavated by the host, the concentration of who provided us with BIOCAT database information spiroacetal could become locally high and thus the which was essential for the first section of this contestant remaining near the host could be tempo- article. We thank colleagues at Nottingham and rarily incapacitated while the spiroacetal-releasing ECOSUR (Mexico) for discussion and the BBSRC for loser retreats. funding.

This work advanced the study of chemical interac- 1Hardy, I.C.W., Dijkstra, L.J., Gillis, J.E.M. & Luft, tions between organisms because we were able to P.A. (1998) Patterns of sex ratio, virginity and devel- monitor simultaneously chemical events and physi- opmental mortality in gregarious parasitoids. cally-observable behaviours. We consider that the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 64: 239– technique will be used to study a wider array of 270. chemically related behaviours, such as the attraction of wasps to plant-released volatiles. Deuterium 2Mesterton-Gibbons, M. & Hardy, I.C.W. (2004) The marking also has wider potential, for instance in influence of contests on optimal clutch size: a game- mark–recapture studies which could help address theoretic model. Proceedings of the Royal Society Bio- the well-known problem of tracking the activities of logical Sciences Series B 271: 971–978. small parasitoids in the field. 3Ode, P.J. & Hardy, I.C.W. Parasitoid sex ratios and Bethylid Volatiles: Applied? biological control. In: Wajnberg, E., Bernstein, C. & van Alphen, J.J.M. (eds) Behavioral ecology of insect To date the study of volatile emissions by bethylids parasitoids. Blackwell, Oxford, UK. [in press] has been largely ‘pure’ in scientific nature but does have a link with biocontrol practice. It has been 4Petersen, G. & Hardy, I.C.W. (1996) The impor- found that when C. stephanoderis is mass reared in tance of being larger: parasitoid intruder-owner laboratory facilities for release against the coffee contests and their implications for clutch size. berry borer in southern Mexico, its rate of establish- Animal Behaviour 51: 1363–1373. ment (in terms of entering and remaining within target berries) in the agroecosystem is very low, 5Humphries, E.L., Hebblethwaite, A.J., Batchelor, seemingly because adult females disperse away from T.P. & Hardy, I.C.W. (2006) The importance of val- the release site13. Such results are obtained if dozens uing resources: host weight and contender age as of wasps are collected into large jars in the laboratory determinants of parasitoid wasp contest outcomes. and then transported to the field for release. Estab- Animal Behaviour 72: 891–898. lishment rates at the release site can be improved five-fold (but still remain low) if berries containing 6Goubault, M., Scott, D. & Hardy, I.C.W. (2007) The developing wasps are placed in the field, allowing the importance of offspring value: maternal defence in wasps to emerge and start to forage naturally13. parasitoid contests. Animal Behaviour [in press]. Recently, chemical analysis has shown that there is no volatile release in jars containing 20 female C. 7Stokkebo, S. & Hardy, I.C.W. (2000) The impor- stephanoderis when the jar is not subjected to tance of being gravid: egg load and contest outcome disturbance11. There are, however, considerable in a parasitoid wasp. Animal Behaviour 59: 1111– releases of 3-methylskatole within jars that are sub- 1118. jected to one minute of shaking. Given that transport to the field is likely to involve shaking, it is likely that 8Barrera, J.F., Baker, P.S., Valenzuela, J.E. & the difference in establishment between naturalistic Schwarz, A. (1990) Introduction of two African para- and en masse releases from jars can be explained by sitoid species to Mexico for biological control of the the latter method stimulating volatile release which, coffee borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleop- News 15N tera: Scolytidae). Folia Entomologica Mexicana 79: attain an estimate of the costs associated with con- 245–247. trolling the plant with traditional methods. The survey was a success and a number of natural ene- 9Batchelor, T.P., Hardy, I.C.W., Barrera, J.F. & mies were shipped back to the UK under quarantine Pérez-Lachaud, G. (2005) Insect gladiators II: Com- conditions for initial host specificity screening and petitive interactions within and between bethylid life cycle studies. parasitoid species of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Bio- In the UK Himalayan balsam is predominantly a logical Control 33: 194–202. weed of riparian systems where it forms monocul- tures along river banks, often attaining a height of 10Pérez-Lachaud, G., Batchelor, T.P. & Hardy, 2.5 m. Himalayan balsam can outcompete native I.C.W. (2004) Wasp eat wasp: facultative hyperpara- plant species, reduce biological diversity and, when sitism and intra-guild predation by bethylid wasps. the plant dies down in the autumn, plant material Biological Control 30: 149–155. can become incorporated into the water body increasing the potential for flooding. The autumn 11Gómez, J., Barrera, J.F., Rojas, J.C., Macias- dieback also leaves the bank bare of vegetation and Samano, J., Liedo, J.P., Cruz-Lopez, L. & Badii, M.H. liable to erosion. Control, be it manual or chemical, (2005) Volatile compounds released by disturbed must take place on a catchment scale and preferably females of Cephalonomia stephanoderis (Hymenop- start upstream. Often this is fraught with problems tera: Bethylidae): a parasitoid of the coffee berry due to the sheer scale of occurrence and the division borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolyt- of land ownership which restricts access to areas of idae). Florida Entomologist 88: 180–187. the bank. Chemical control near water bodies is restricted in Europe and often difficult to implement 12Goubault, M., Batchelor, T.P., Linforth, R.S.T., due to the inaccessibility of the habitat. The Environ- Taylor, R.J. & Hardy, I.C.W. (2006) Volatile emission ment Agency, the UK Government’s environmental by contest losers revealed by real-time chemical body, has estimated a figure of UK£150–300 million analysis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London to eradicate Himalayan balsam from the UK. B 273: 2853–2859. Himalayan balsam is native to the western Hima- 13Damon, A. & Valle, J. (2002) Comparison of two layas (Pakistan and India) with a distribution range release techniques for the use of Cephalonomia of approximately 800 km in length by 50 km wide stephanoderis (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae), to control and at altitudes of 2000–2500 m. For the first phase the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Cole- it was decided to survey Himalayan balsam in Paki- optera: Scolytidae) in Soconusco, southeastern stan mainly due to the high levels of damage Mexico. Biological Control 24: 117–127. observed on herbarium samples (Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, UK) from this area, but also as CABI Further information on the coffee berry borer: has a regional centre in Pakistan (in Rawalpindi, www.cabi.org/datapage.asp?iDocID=476 near Islamabad) which was a valuable source of local information and an essential component in planning By: Ian C.W. Hardy & Marlène Goubault, and conducting the field work. The survey centred on School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, the region in and around the Khagan Valley north of Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, Islamabad, where Himalayan balsam is known to be Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK. locally common. However, unlike in the UK where Email: [email protected] Himalayan balsam is found in almost every river Fax +44 115 9616060 system, in Pakistan the plant proved to be highly elu- sive. Constant searching, 5-hour treks in high altitude mountain ranges accompanied by a police Biocontrol Can Touch Touch-Me-Not escort owing to the sensitivity of the area, landslides and misinformation all hampered the search, but In April 2006 scientists at CABI embarked on the eventually we were able to pinpoint the exact habitat first phase of a biological control programme against requirements for Himalayan balsam and the sam- Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) in the pling began. UK. Himalayan balsam, also known as touch-me- not, is a highly invasive annual species which has In the native range it was very encouraging to spread rapidly throughout watercourses since its observe that Himalayan balsam was considerably introduction from the Himalayas in 1839. As smaller than in its introduced range. It was often described in a previous issue [BNI 27(2), 32N–33N found in clusters of 30–60 individual plants and (June 2006), ’Can biocontrol clear Britain’s balsam mixed in with other native vegetation as opposed to highways?’], funding was obtained from a consor- the monocultures found along river banks in the UK. tium of UK sponsors including the Environment Every population of Himalayan balsam surveyed Agency, Network Rail and West Country Rivers exhibited a high degree of natural enemy damage by Trust to conduct the first phase, a scoping study, to both arthropods and plant pathogens. Almost all determine the feasibility of using biocontrol as a parts of the plant above ground showed symptoms of management tool to control Himalayan balsam. The attack and where both pathogens and arthropods project consisted of a survey, to collect natural ene- were involved, as was often the case, this combined mies from Himalayan balsam in the plant’s native effect severely damaged the plant. Leafspot damage, range, a full literature and herbarium review and a indicative of three Coelomycetes species (Phomopsis questionnaire posted to interested stakeholders to sp., Phoma sp. and Ascochyta sp.), was exerting con- 16N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) siderable pressure on Himalayan balsam ladybird or ladybeetle) with particular reference to populations in the field. Large round ‘shot holes’ Europe was outlined in BNI in December 2004 indicative of the damage caused by the leafspot [25(4), 81N–82N, ‘Ladybird strikes discordant note’]. lesions punctured almost every leaf of every plant. The species had recently arrived in the UK, having Other pathogens, including a downy mildew (Perono- flown/blown in from continental Europe, as well as sporaceae), a powdery mildew (Erysiphaceae) and a arriving on produce from Europe and North rust fungus (Puccinia) were not as common as the America1. In Europe it has been sold since 1982 as a leafspot and only found in a few locations, but all biocontrol agent of aphids and coccids on a wide were just as damaging. range of crops and has established in the wild in Ger- many, Belgium, the Netherlands, France and The rust fungus tentatively identified as Puccinia c.f. Luxembourg2. argentata was found in one location in the Khagan valley north of Naron, though it is thought this spe- Harmonia axyridis has now spread into other Euro- cies would be associated with Himalayan balsam pean countries, with first records of the species in the throughout its native range. The ‘c.f.’ (close to) wild in Switzerland in 20043, Austria in 20064 and denotes that an exact identification of this rust was clear signs of expansion in France in 20045. The spe- not possible and P. argentata was the known cies was introduced in Greece but it is not clear (described) species it most closely resembles. Puc- whether it has established there in the wild, and in cinia argentata has been recorded on two Impatiens Italy, where it does not seem to have established species in Europe, Impatiens noli-tangere in Central despite suitable conditions being present6. Europe and Impatiens capensis in the UK. The fact that this rust species has not been recorded on Hima- In the UK a detailed monitoring project, the Harle- layan balsam in the UK or mainland Europe, in the quin Ladybird Survey7, was set up by the National latter case where rust-infected I. noli-tangere plants Biodiversity Network Trust, Centre for Ecology & grow mixed in with symptom-free Himalayan Hydrology, Anglia Ruskin University and University balsam populations, strengthens the case that either of Cambridge, funded through Defra (Department (a) the rust on Himalayan balsam in Pakistan is a for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs). Online different species or (b) it is a different pathotype of P. recording of the species and extensive national and argentata. The potential to use this rust as a biolog- local media interest enabled wide recording of the ical control agent seems high, though considerable species by members of the public. By the end of 2006 work is required on its host range and life cycle. How- over 6600 online species records had been received. ever, further research is warranted if consideration Over 40% of these were able to be verified by means is given to the behaviour of other rusts on other of a specimen or photograph. The huge rise in digital Impatiens species. Impatiens parviflora, a non- photography and use of the internet has made this native species introduced into Europe from Central web-based monitoring scheme both practical and Asia, is often infected by the highly specific co- highly successful. Projects for monitoring other inva- evolved rust Puccinia komarovii which caught up sive species in the future may wish to follow suit. with its host in the mid 1920s. This damaging path- ogen has spread with I. parviflora throughout The spread of H. axyridis in the UK has been mainland Europe attacking the stems of young seed- dramatic1,7. In 2004 it was recorded in 14 English lings and reducing the seed set and reproduction counties, all but two in the southeast of the country7. potential of the plant. In 2005 it was recorded in 24 counties and by the end of 2006 it was found in 41 English plus two Welsh Of the many arthropod species collected, two were of counties7. Abundance is highest in the southeast, immediate interest due to the high levels of damage and in London H. axyridis is already being reported observed to be inflicted by them in the field. After ini- as one of the most common ladybird species. tial host range testing and identification the flea beetle Altica himensis was rejected as a potential bio- A long-term study of the impact of H. axyridis on control agent whereas the thrip species Taeniothrips native ladybird species has begun. Sites around the major could be a promising candidate, though more UK are being surveyed regularly to establish popula- research is needed into its host range. A suite of tion data on the ladybird species present. other arthropods found feeding on Himalayan balsam were collected including four lepidopteran The human nuisance factors reported previously in species, two species of coleopteran weevils and BNI have all begun to be realized in the UK, with numerous hemipteran species. Further surveys are large swarms of H. axyridis recorded in southern now needed across the whole of the native range of England in autumn 2006. Houses have been invaded Himalayan balsam to compile a full inventory of the by over-wintering ladybirds aggregating in their natural enemies associated with this plant species. hundreds, with reports of damage to furnishings by the yellow reflex-blood emitted by the ladybirds as By: Rob Tanner, CABI, Silwood Park, Ascot, part of their defence mechanism. There have also Berks, SL5 7TA, UK. been one or two reports of allergic reactions to the Email: [email protected] ladybirds.

The speed of range spread by H. axyridis is hap- Update on the Spread of an Invasive Ladybird pening as predicted by Michael Majerus, scheme organizer of the UK Ladybird Survey8. It is expected The spread of Harmonia axyridis (variously known that H. axyridis will continue to spread north and as the harlequin, multicoloured Asian or Hallowe’en west in 2007 and 2008 and that the species will reach News 17N

Scotland, as well as further counties in England and because it is an efficient predator for controlling Wales during this time. mealybugs, soft scales and aphids.

1 Roy, H.E., Brown, P., Rowland, F. & Majerus, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri rearing was imple- M.E.N. (2005) Ecology of the harlequin ladybird – a mented in Cuban laboratories and quality criteria new invasive species. British Wildlife 16(6): 403– such as sex ratio, adult length, predatory capacity 407. (determined on mealybugs and aphids), adult 2 deformities and the length of the developmental Majerus, M.E.N., Strawson, V. & Roy, H.E. (2006) cycle (egg laying to adult emergence) were included The potential impacts of the arrival of the harlequin to check the quality of reared insects. ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in Britain. Ecological Entomology The beetle has adapted successfully to the rearing 31(3): 207–215. conditions established and more than 30 generations have been obtained up to now. The laboratory popu- 3Klausnitzer, B. (2004) Harmonia axyridis (Pallas, lation reared under the quality assessment regime 1773) in Basel-Stadt (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae). showed effectiveness in aphid and mealybug control Mitteilungen der Entomologischen Gesellschaft Basel and should be maintained. Efforts should also be 54(3–4): 115–122. made to increase its reproductive capacity and thus 4Rabitsch, W. & Schuh, R. (2006) First record of the to set up an efficient, ecologically beneficial and fast multicoloured Asian ladybird Harmonia axyridis alternative to employ in protected cultivation sys- (Pallas, 1773) in Austria. Beiträge zur Entomofau- tems and ornamental and fruit trees. nistik 7: 161–164. By: J. Alemána; Maria A. Martíneza; Ofelia Miliánb; b b 5Coutanceau, J.-P. (2006) Harmonia axyridis Elina Massó and Esperanza Rijo a (Pallas, 1773): an introduced Asian ladybird, its National Center for Animal and Plant Health. b acclimatation and extension in France. Bulletin de la National Institute for Plant Health Research. Société Entomologique de France 111(3): 395–401. Email: [email protected]

6Burgio, G., Santi, F. & Maini, S. (2005) Intra-guild predation and cannibalism between Harmonia Down But Not Out: Australian Weed Biocontrol axyridis and Adalia bipunctata adults and larvae: laboratory experiments. Bulletin of Insectology 58(2): In less-enlightened parts of the world, weed biocon- 135–140. trol scientists have envied their Australian 7 collaborators for the financial support the Australian Harlequin Ladybird Survey: Government gives its own scientists, including, in www.harlequin-survey.org recent years, through the Cooperative Research 8 Centre for Australian Weed Management (the UK Ladybird Survey: www.ladybird-survey.org ‘Weeds CRC’). However, this changed in November 2006 when the Weeds CRC’s application for a third 7- By: Peter Brown, Helen Roy & Michael Majerus. year term was rejected; funding is now due to end in Contact: [email protected] June 2008. This, the Weeds CRC pointed out in a statement1, leaves Australia “without a national organisation to coordinate weed research and to Quality Control of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri package and deliver these results to farmers, Nat- Rearing in Cuba ural Resource Management (NRM) regional bodies Early detection and swift action are key elements in and other users.” If successful, the Weeds CRC would combating invasive species. In Cuba, pre-emptive have become the Invasive Plants CRC with funding initiatives mean that the country is prepared in the for the period 2007–2014. In this era of increased event of any incursion of the pink hibiscus mealybug, invasions and heightened biosecurity concerns, the Maconellicoccus hirsutus. This mealybug is native to decision not to fund an Invasives CRC is out of kilter Asia and has been spread to other continents such as with current opinion – the more so as Australia has Australia and Africa. More recently it has been intro- long been a leader in both combating plant invasions duced into the sub-region of the Caribbean and and developing effective biosecurity measures. North and Central America, but so far Cuba remains free of the pest. In the January/February 2007 (#152) issue of the respected and widely read IPM email newsletter, 2 The Cuban national programme for the detection IPMnet NEWS , Editor Allan Deutsch found a wor- and control of M. hirsutus includes technician and rying similarity to “events in the UK not so many farmer training and raising public awareness, explo- decades ago”, when: “A relatively small group of ration for promising native natural enemies in Cuba highly dedicated scientists with great depth of expe- and the importation of biocontrol agents found most rience and international acumen had established effective in biological control programmes against and nurtured what became the world renowned the pest elsewhere. Weed Research Organization. Even with its minus- cule budget, governmental entities decided the As part of the Cuban programme, the predatory coc- organization was not generating enough financial cinellid beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, was payback and, despite a global outcry, summarily imported into Cuba from Trinidad and Tobago shut down WRO. In one ill-advised move, the UK 18N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) immediately forfeited its weed science leadership senator explains: “If we can’t get the CRC over the position and has not regained it to this day.” line, there will be something else put in its place to continue with important national weed research. We The Federal Department of Education, Science and still have 18 months to find a solution, and we are Training turned down the Weeds CRC’s proposal on looking at all the options.” the grounds that it did not meet selection criteria on delivering returns to taxpayers, scientific capabili- At present the final outcome is unknown but, as the ties, and capacity to commercialize research results English cricket team has found out to its cost, Aus- and secure their uptake. In reply, the Weeds CRC tralians fight best when they’ve previously taken a has argued that improved weed management leads beating. to increased productivity and, in this regard, the Weeds CRC has delivered significant commercial 1www.weeds.crc.org.au/main/ benefits across the whole agricultural sector. This weeds_crc_to_end.html capacity would have increased through the Invasive Plants CRC, with benefits largely delivered through 2Email: [email protected] information products, which were under-valued under selection criteria that emphasised direct com- mercialization processes such as spin-off companies Biocontrol and the Californian Cyclist and licensing products. Allan Deutsch finds the list of CRCs successful in this round, “at least to the out- Occasionally, changes in policy throw up opportuni- sider, thin at best if not woefully devoid of centers of ties for a technology to make an impact in a excellence in agriculture pest and invasive organ- completely new area. In its own small way, classical isms management.” biological control of a weed can be credited with assisting ‘green’ transport in California. In highlighting its achievements, the Weeds CRC points out that it is increasingly “seen as the national Successful classical biological control of an exotic voice for weeds research and delivery and its weed does not mean eradication, but reduction of researchers are in international demand in the populations to acceptable levels. These can still have important areas of herbicide resistance, biological impacts which may disproportionately affect partic- control and weed risk assessment.” It adds that, “The ular sectors of a community, as cyclists in California economic case for urgent, science-based, national know to their cost. According to a report in The Davis action in weed control is clear. Results from a 2005 Enterprise (22 October 2006)1, about 80% of punc- Australian Bureau of Statistics farm survey demon- tures brought into one cycle repair shop in Davis in strate that weed control is the largest cost for most the autumn months are caused by spines on the agricultural enterprises. Weeds CRC research has seeds of the aptly named puncturevine, Tribulus ter- shown that at least Au$2b per year is spent on con- restris. This annual species has a prostrate creeping trol costs and another $2b is lost through lower habit with stems up to a metre long bearing yields. Furthermore, weeds are the major issue iden- numerous small yellow flowers; the flowers develop tified by most of Australia's NRM [National Resource into fruit which bear the damaging sharp and rigid Management] regions.” spines.

The Weeds CRC believes that “stakeholders do not The situation would be far worse were it not for the want to lose the dynamic and productive system built biological control exerted by two introduced biolog- up over the last 11 years.” And it is: “exploring alter- ical control agents, a stem weevil (Microlarinus native funding models to enable core collaborative lypriformis) and a seed weevil (M. lareynii), intro- research and delivery capacity to continue in the long duced from Italy in 1961. The weevils established term.” readily and spread in California, aided by extensive redistribution of field-collected adults. They were Amongst messages of support posted on the Weeds also introduced successfully to other US mainland CRC webpage devoted to the funding issue1, Senator states, and subsequently to Hawaii and to St Kitts in Christine Milne declares that, “[The] decision has the Caribbean. put an end to the coordination of national weed research programs on the biological control of Post-release studies in California indicated a signifi- grazing, cropping and environmental weeds. It has cant level of predation by native species. They also also jeopardised a raft of CRC work on biosecurity, indicated that the seed weevil could in some cases agronomic advice and community education.” In a increase flower production. Nonetheless, 15 years letter to the Education and Science Minister Julie after their introduction, the weevils were estimated Bishop, the Minister for Fisheries, Forests and Con- to have effected an 80% reduction in weed cover and servation, Senator Eric Abetz, acknowledged that seed production in 1200 field plots monitored funding was limited: “But I still strongly believe that throughout the state. A resurgence of the weed Australia is losing a great asset in dealing with the occurred in central California in the mid 1990s, problem that costs the agricultural sector at least $4 prompting a repeat introduction of the agents, and billion every year. I would be grateful if you could the plant can, as cyclists know, still be troublesome urge those responsible for this decision to recon- in places. sider.” Senator Abetz is also reported as saying that the government recognises the weed problem and is Puncturevine is one of more than 750 terrestrial weed working with the research centre to see “what other species covered in Weeds of California and other avenues might be available.” A spokesman for the western states. This new two-volume identification News 19N manual, produced by Joseph DiTomaso and Evelyn Surveys in the Old World and subsequent field and Healy, is sponsored by the California Weed Science laboratory studies during 1950–61 suggested the two Society and published by the University of California Microlarinus weevils to be the most promising candi- Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC dates. However, the weevils fed on a wide range of DANR)2. With its publication in January 2007, this is host species, and reproduced successfully on Tribulus the most comprehensive weed identification book yet terrestris, as well as a few native southwestern USA produced in the USA. The two volumes together com- species in the same family, Zygophyllaceae (e.g. Kall- prise 1808 pages and contain over 3000 colour photos stroemia sp.). Nonetheless the weevils were approved of infestations and whole plants, as well as close-up for release at the time following an evaluation from photos of flowers, seedlings, and seeds. For each spe- which it was judged that the benefits of controlling puncturevine outweighed the possible harm the wee- cies, detailed descriptions of seedlings, mature vils might inflict on non-target plants. Whether this plants, flowers, fruits and roots are given, as well would be the case under today’s different regulatory information on germination and propagation charac- climate is debatable. In the 45 years since they were teristics and descriptions of similar species. The book released, the weevils have been recorded feeding on is accompanied by two CDs containing all the photo- non-host plants, but have proved to reproduce only on graphs in the book. Tribulus spp. and closely related Zygophyllaceae.

Controlling puncturevine was not without contro- 1Hudson, J. (2006) Bicyclists’ bane. See: versy. Tribulus terrestris has a native distribution www.davisenterprise.com/articles/2006/10/22/news/ extending through Mediterranean Europe and North 070new0.txt Africa. It was first introduced to North America through livestock imports into the US Midwest; the 2DiTomaso, J.M. & Healy, E.A. (2007) Weeds of Cali- spiny seeds stick to animal coats. It is now wide- fornia and other western states, 2 Vols. UC DANR, spread in the USA but most common in the Publ. #3488. 1808 pp. Price US$100.00 (discounts on southwestern states. First recorded in California in bulk purchases available). 1902, probably introduced as a contaminant of www.calweeds.com railway ballast, it spread rapidly along railways and Additional source for this article: Puncturevine pages roadsides. It became one of California’s most prob- on Professor F. Legner’s ‘Discoveries in Natural His- lematic weeds during the first half of the nineteenth tory and Exploration’ website, hosted by the century because the tyres of early cars were easily University of California Riverside. See: punctured by the spines on the seeds; archival photos www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/biotact/ch-88.htm show roadsides lined with cars that had flat tyres thanks to puncturevine. The weed also infests agri- Contact: Joe DiTomaso, Weed Research and Informa- cultural land where the seed interferes with manual tion Center, University of California at Davis. Dept. harvesting, can cause livestock injury and contami- of Plant Sciences, Mail Stop 4, One Shields Ave., nates others seeds, animal feed and wool – and it is a Davis, CA 95616, USA. familiar weed of residential and waste land. Email: [email protected] IPM Systems

This section covers integrated pest management (IPM) value-added products. For the countries involved, the including biological control, and techniques that are coconut sector is important to their national econo- compatible with the use of biological control or mini- mies, but production is currently constrained mize negative impact on natural enemies. particularly by pests. By seeking to solve these prob- lems in a holistic way, the project aims to ensure coconut production remains an attractive economic IPM Supports Sustainable Coconut-Based option for smallholder farmers. Farming The findings of the project so far were summarized at The activities of a multi-donor, multi-national project the Dissemination Workshop of the CFC/DFID/ led by the Asian and Pacific Coconut Community APCC/FAO1 Project on Coconut Integrated Pest (APCC) mean that coconut farmers in Asia, the Management in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 17–20 Pacific and East Africa will soon have a range of IPM October 20062. technologies from which to choose. These are being developed and validated in the nine participating As a generalization, rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhi- countries. Eighty farmer field schools (FFS) have noceros) is the most serious pest in eight of the been initiated in the nine countries to empower par- participating coconut-growing countries (India, Indo- ticipating farmers, the majority of which are nesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea (PNG), the completed, with some still in progress. Regional dif- Philippines, Samoa, Sri Lanka and Thailand); ferences in pest problems and socioeconomics were coconut production in PNG is also constrained by the identified and are being taken into account. The additional rhinoceros beetle species Scapanes aus- project also recognizes the wider needs of smallholder tralis, and Tanzania is ravaged by O. monoceros. The farmers, who may grow coconuts as one of a number eriophyid coconut mite (Aceria guerreronis) is a of crops, and is investigating companion crops and serious pest in India, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Con- 20N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) trol measures are being investigated by the affected mass production of the fungus in Indonesia, the Phil- countries. For example, all nine countries have par- ippines and Sri Lanka as well as in other countries. ticipated in trials to test combinations of fungal and The techniques used for mass producing, inoculating viral products and pheromone traps, together with and releasing the pathogens are described in the pro- basic sanitation, for rhinoceros beetle control (see ceedings, as indeed are techniques for all the below). Individual countries have identified other technologies developed by the project2. pests, such as red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferru- gineus) and Plesispa sp. in Sri Lanka; a chrysomelid Re-infestation by rhinoceros beetle when replanting beetle, Sexava sp. and two ‘wild’ diseases in various coconut is always a danger, and measures were devel- parts of Indonesia; wild boar in Malaysia; a coreid oped and trialled to prevent this, including filling leaf bug, termites, a leaf spot and monkeys in various axils in young palms and seedlings with naphthalene locations in Tanzania; and the hispine beetle (the Philippines) or naphthalene and neem oil cake Brontispa longissima (a serious invasive pest threat- (India and PNG); naphthalene has a remarkable ening the Asia–Pacific region) in Thailand and the repellent effect, reducing damage to zero in the Philippines; management measures for these are youngest leaf. Sanitation – digging deep trenches for incorporated into country project activities, and are dumping and burying all coconut trash – has been being given a high priority where appropriate. Other found effective in Indonesia (see below) and useful on constraints, such as drought in Tanzania, also tend to a plantation scale in the Philippines. be country-specific, as discussed below. In the Philippines and PNG, experimental IPM iden- Control methods for some of the pests were known tified the importance of sanitation and trapping. when the project started, and these have been refined Coconut logs to be sold as lumber or used as firewood, for local conditions. Others in the developmental together with coconut buds for using or selling, were stage when the project began have been further removed from the field. Unusable coconut debris, developed. Yet more have been discovered during the including the boles, unused portions of trunks, and course of the project. Which measures are adopted fronds, was dumped in deep trenches and covered depends on local factors, including the availability of with soil. This was highly effective in reducing beetle necessary materials, the stage of the crop, and the damage through removing potential breeding sites. economics of coconut production in the different Sawdust traps containing M. anisopliae and OrV countries. were deployed to spread infection of the two patho- gens, and PVC pipe traps with pheromones and Rhinoceros Beetle sawdust/dead coconut wood acted as effective syner- gists for trapping adult beetles. Rhinoceros beetle (O. rhinoceros) has long been recog- nized as a serious pest of coconut. In Indonesia, for The pheromone traps were a tremendous success. example, an outbreak caused yield reductions to Replacing the pheromone ethyl chysanthemumate reach 50%. IPM technologies were in use to varying with ‘Oryctalure’ (ethyl 4-methyloctanoate) from degrees in different countries at the outset of the Chem Tica International, Costa Rica has been very project, notably application of green muscardine effective. These measures are now being trialled in fungus (Metarhizium anisopliae) and O. rhinoceros farmers’ fields and demonstrated through FFS. In the virus (OrV), and the use of pheromone lures in traps Philippines farmers have taken on this activity them- made from dead coconut wood. These have been fur- selves, and it has restored their hope for the recovery ther developed and refined to meet local needs and of their beetle-ravaged coconut economy. conditions. Other new and in some cases preferred methods are also emerging as a result of the project, Data from the trial conducted in all nine countries is including, from India, chopping a common weed still being collected. However, there are some prom- (Clerodendron infortunatum) and adding it to com- ising indications. What works best varies between post and farmyard manure pits to control rhinoceros countries, underlining the need for site-specific beetle larvae. Monitoring trees for adult beetles is regimes: pheromone traps are giving good results also proving beneficial, and in Tanzania steel or even particularly in the Philippines (confirming the trials wooden hooks have been adopted for extracting bee- above), India and Sri Lanka, but also elsewhere, tles from tree crowns. while OrV shows promise in Malaysia, PNG and the Philippines in particular, and also in other countries; Metarhizium anisopliae has fulfilled its promise for M. anisopliae has shown promise in the Philippines rhinoceros beetle control. Surveys led to the discovery and Malaysia, while M. anisopliae and pheromone of 15 new isolates from rhinoceros beetle in the Phil- traps seem most promising in Thailand. Importantly, ippines; a new virulent strain, ‘DRC’, was identified the project has estimated the costs of each technology and is being mass produced. Outreach facilities have for controlling rhinoceros beetle in each country. been established in India, Indonesia, PNG, the Phil- ippines, Samoa, Sri Lanka and Tanzania to provide Coconut Mite training in mass production and use of the fungus, in the expectation that these units will be able to make The eriophyid coconut mite (A. guerreronis) also M. anisopliae available on a continuous basis across a causes severe economic damage. In Tanzania, for large area of each country. Surveys for OrV in the example, it is reported to cause 20–30% losses in Philippines recovered five new isolates; one new viru- copra production. Neem-based methods have been lent strain, ‘Dacudao’, is being mass produced, along developed and rated for effectiveness, adoption and with the most virulent strain from PNG, ‘Kokopo’. environmental sustainability, and have shown The project has demonstrated successful on-farm promise in India, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Applica- News 21N tion methods for azadirachtin include spraying it on menting FFS and were familiar with participatory bunches of coconuts up to 6 months old, and root methods, they were totally new concepts to others, feeding. In India, a neem oil/garlic soap mixture has such as Samoa. Apart from providing farmers with given convincing results: reduced incidence of mites the latest in pest and crop management technologies, and nut damage, and improved yield potential other knowledge – about product diversification, com- (through better nut retention) has been observed on post making and food processing – is also being demonstration farms. Costs for each option have been acquired, especially by farm women, and this is both estimated for the three countries. Another potential enhancing income and increasing empowerment of control involved applying used engine oil to 2- to 5- women in these rural communities. month-old bunches. The FFS allow farmers, and their assessments of Surveys for natural enemies (predatory mites and technologies, to be heard. For example, Indian partic- pathogens) were conducted in India and amongst ipants thought the Clerodendron weed treatment the these, four virulent isolates of Hirsutella thompsonii best option for smallholders to use to control rhinoc- were collected. Natural levels of the fungus were eros beetle larvae in compost/manure production and, monitored in the field and, while it occurred in all dis- in their view, M. anisopliae would have most applica- tricts surveyed in the Indian state of Kerala, in Sri tion for larger producers. It is what they decide that Lanka it is one of the most important natural ene- will ultimately determine which technologies are mies of coconut mite. Assessments of spraying with taken up; by listening to the farmers, future research the fungal isolate H-2 have given promising results in and training can be honed to meet their needs. Sri Lanka, with coconut mite populations showing reductions in about 6 weeks. Importantly, isolates of 1CFC/DFID/APCC/FAO: Common Fund for Com- the fungus showed no non-target effects on the pred- modities/UK Department for International atory mite Neoseiulus baraki which attacks A. Development/Asian and Pacific Coconut Community/ guerreronis. Currently, varying frequencies of appli- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United cation are being studied. Large-scale validation with Nations. mass-produced fungus has yet to be undertaken. 2Singh, S.P & Arancon, R.N. Jr. (eds) Proceedings of Coconut-Based Farming Systems and FFS the Dissemination Workshop of the CFC/DFID/ APCC/FAO Project on Coconut Integrated Pest Man- Other technologies developed for management of agement, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 17–20 October 2006. coconut-based farming systems have been assessed APCC, Jakarta, Indonesia, 268 pp. and successful ones are now being introduced through FFS. For example, in India, experiments on Contact: Dr S. P. Singh, Asian and Pacific Coconut integrated nutrient management compared the Community, P.O. Box 1343, Jakarta 10013, effects of applying farmyard manure and growing Indonesia. cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) around the boles of Email: [email protected] / [email protected] coconut trees as a green manure; the plant is dug into Fax: +62 61 5221714 the soil at the end of the growing season (September/ Web: www.apccsec.org October) and allowed to decompose. The efficacy of mulching with palm fronds to preserve soil moisture during the dry season was also shown, and a method From Wild Pecans to Profitable IPM for worm-based composting of organic waste has been developed. The use of Ocimum (the herb basil) and The cost of IPM compared to pesticide-based methyl eugenol traps are being assessed for control of approaches is one reason farmers may eschew IPM. mango fruit flies in India, as these were identified as However, a recent survey in the US state of Texas has a problem by the farmers. The potential for the shrub shown that the Pecan Integrated Pest Management Gliricidia as an energy crop is being investigated in Program has been a financial benefit to both pro- FFS in Sri Lanka, where intercrops/companion crops, ducers and consumers. Very unusually, a large irrigation, nutrient deficiencies/fertilizers and the proportion of this crop is still harvested from ‘wild’ vital topic of safe pesticide use are also being trees, which provided a starting point for developing addressed. Farmer requests led to crop husbandry the IPM programme. and nursery practices being included in Tanzanian FFS, while intercropping is part of the FFS curric- Pecan nuts are the most economically important ulum in Thailand. Carya spp. (others include hickories and walnuts) in the USA. Texas is the country’s second-largest grower A variety of income generating technologies has been of pecans, producing 13–40 million kilograms per devised in the participating countries and these are year from some 69,000 ha of improved varieties and being trialled: from growing oyster mushrooms in native pecans; the variation in the yield is because coconut waste, and manufacture of coconut thatch pecan is a masting species whose wild trees (many of and baskets from leaves and leaf midribs, to prepara- which are also harvested) irregularly but synchro- tion of a wide range of products from the nuts nously produce heavy crops in a range of 2–7 years. including many foods and drinks and a number of cos- metics, together with coconut shell and wood Domestication of this wild natural resource began carvings. seriously less than a century ago and is still pro- gressing slowly. About 80% of production in Texas The FFS element in the project is seen as a particular came from these semi-domesticated (i.e. land only success. While some countries had a history of imple- thinned of competing trees and brush to allow for 22N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) cattle/pecan based agriculture) wild trees in 1972 mid 1970s and early 1980s. The Pecan Integrated and in 2006 production from wild trees still accounts Pest Management Program is a partnership among for 50% of production. Wild trees live for 150–200 Texas Cooperative Extension, Experiment Station, years and nuts are commercially competitive with Texas Pest Management Program, Texas Depart- improved varieties, if wild trees are already present ment of Agriculture, Cooperative State Research, in abundance. They are not, however, considered eco- Education and Extension Services and producers. Its nomical to replace. Conservation of this currently two major goals were determining at what point it still abundant natural resource will require delib- became economically necessary to treat for pests, erate planning soon, or the next century will and then developing and implementing a monitoring chronicle the replacement of these natural stands of programme for use by producers. majestic trees, each genetically distinct from the other, with a few vegetatively propagated varieties Wide-scale implementation of IPM has meant that, currently in vogue, or perhaps some other crop since the 1980s, growers have reduced insecticide altogether. use by 35%, fungicide use by 30%, and total pesticide applications by 9%. But how did this measure up As Texas is in the native range of Carya spp., most of financially? The Texas Pecan Growers Association, its pests co-evolved in the same region as the which has some 500 members, sent out a survey present-day crop. The main insect pests are the nut- developed by entomologist Marvin Harris and exten- damaging pecan nut casebearer (Acrobasis nux- sion specialist Bill Ree, both at Texas A&M vorella) and pecan weevil (Curculio caryae), while University, and Alexandra Gomezplata, who was the crop is also attacked by foliar pests: including studying for a master's degree there. Analysis of the pecan aphids (Monellia, Monelliopsis and Melano- replies indicated that pesticide use in pecans is an callis), gall-makers (i.e. Phylloxera sp.) and estimated 192,000 kg per year less than in 1980, webworms (Hyphantria cunea). The most common before IPM was implemented. This equates to a diseases are pecan scab (Cladosporium caryigenum), saving for pecan growers of some US$4.4 million per powdery mildew (Microsphaera ulni) and stem-end year in material costs. Consumers also benefit blight (causal agent unknown), while weed problems because both the environment and the economy are come largely from perennials and Bermuda grass healthier. (Cynodon spp.). According to the survey report, Texas pecan pro- The basis for the IPM programme emerged (and is ducers have not only reduced the amount of still developing) from an attempt to understand how insecticide and fungicide sprays used in the last 25 the wild pecan survived pest attack in the natural years but when they use them they time them more system and then devising management strategies to precisely. This has reduced the incidence of pesticide work with these natural defence mechanisms when- resistance in harmful insects but conserved their ever possible to conserve commercial production. natural enemies. It has also minimized harmful This ‘basic’ research, for example, shows that pecan effects of the pesticide sprays. nut casebearer can be ignored with impunity in some years, but must be vigorously managed in others or the entire crop will be lost. Another example con- According to Marvin Harris, the greatest reduction cerns the aphid complex: the role of the in insecticide use since 1980 has been seen in the blackmargined aphid (Monellia caryella) in the nat- 50% of the growers who spray insecticide but now ural system appears to be to maintain a robust label themselves ‘IPM producers’; nonetheless, self- natural enemy complex that, in turn, reduces the labelled ‘conventional’ producers also report using threat posed by more insidious pests; spraying for progressively less insecticide in the five surveys con- this aphid in response to easily visible accumulating ducted since 1980 and the gap separating the two honeydew is discouraged because production is usu- groups has narrowed from 2+ insecticide sprays/year ally minimally affected, if at all, and unneeded in 1980 to < 0.5/year in 2006. insecticide will reduce natural enemies and release the more insidious pests. IPM success requires edu- The survey showed that programme information on cating one producer at a time to these and other IPM from the Texas A&M University System is used nuanced approaches involving whether or not to con- by virtually all producers, and most producers also duct overt management. factor in discussions with neighbours in making management decisions. Marvin Harris observes, Additional problems occur that involve nutritional “The practice of and benefits from pecan IPM are management requiring use of the spray machine. being widely adopted, even if the labels growers iden- Trees growing in alkaline soils, as commonly occur in tify with are slower to change.” Texas, also benefit from 3–5 foliar applications of zinc annually to remediate deficiency of that ele- Sources: Chenault, E. (2006) Pecan integrated pest ment. Zinc can be tank mixed with insecticides and management program pays plenty for producers. fungicides, and this increases the temptation to pro- AgNews: Texas A&M University System Agriculture phylactically spray the latter as ‘insurance’ when Program press release, 15 December 2006: needed zinc applications are made in the spring. http://agnews.tamu.edu/dailynews/stories/ENTO/ Dec1506a.htm Despite these challenges, Texas pecan producers participated in programme development and some USDA Crop Profile: began converting from conventional chemical pesti- www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/ cide programmes to an IPM-based programme in the txpecans.html News 23N

Further information: Texas IPM Program: Contact: Dr Marvin Harris. http://txipmnet.tamu.edu/index.html Email: [email protected] pecankernel.tamu.edu/ pecanspiders.tamu.edu/ Training News

We welcome experiences of working with the end- an intensified campaign of pruning VSD infected users of biocontrol agents or in educational activities branches in West Java in the 1990s resulted in a on natural enemies and IPM. But the article in this decline of the disease to negligible levels. However, issue is not about biological control: it discusses chal- as mentioned above, most cocoa in Sulawesi is grown lenges faced when two very different groups of people by smallholders, many of whom worked as labourers (plant breeders and farmers), with different back- on Malaysian plantations and who, on returning grounds and agendas, undertook to work together; home, established their own small cocoa farms. In the general lessons learnt are more widely applicable. fact, the increasing importance of smallholders in cocoa production is typical of a worldwide trend in cocoa farming and now most cocoa in the world is Learning Lessons from Participatory Breeding grown by smallholders. Centralized management Research with Sulawesi Cocoa Smallholders* programmes are not possible or are too difficult to implement. Farmer education and effective dissemi- The five provinces of Sulawesi produce more than nation of information to farmers are now seen as the 80% of the national cocoa crop of Indonesia. This pro- keys to improving farm management. Farmer field duction is largely the result of a boom in cocoa schools (FFS) and farmer education programmes farming driven almost wholly by smallholders that have proliferated5. has taken place since the 1970s and has brought great economic benefits to this region of Indonesia1. In line with an increased emphasis on farmer Almost all of the cocoa in Sulawesi is now grown by training programmes, farmer participatory research smallholders (around 400,000 in number) on farms of (FPR) is increasingly being recognized as a useful 1–5 ha. Following the initial rapid expansion of cocoa way of conducting research, with important advan- production with very few pest or disease problems, tages for technology development, uptake and Sulawesi cocoa smallholders are now facing serious dissemination. By participation in research on their problems: own or neighbouring farms, farmers are introduced to the problems they are facing and the options avail- • CPB: Cocoa pod borer (Conopomorpha able to them to address these problems. Farmers cramerella), a gracillariid moth, is the most impor- participating in research that tests technologies tant insect pest of cocoa in Southeast Asia. In experience these at first hand and are more likely to Sulawesi it causes huge crop losses and has a detri- adopt any new technologies that work. Participatory mental effect on bean quality. It is thus regarded by research, especially in farmer groups, can result in buyers and processors in Indonesia as the main rapid and effective dissemination of information of problem facing the Sulawesi cocoa industry. new successful technologies to neighbouring and • PPR: Phytophthora pod rot caused by the fungus- other farmers. It also ensures that research realisti- like pathogen Phytophthora palmivora can, in par- cally addresses the problems on the farms. ticularly wet areas, cause losses exceeding even those from CPB. Under the Australian Centre for International Agri- cultural Research (ACIAR) Project CP/2000/102, • VSD: Vascular-streak dieback caused by the Australian and Indonesian institutions, including basidiomycete fungus Oncobasidium theobromae universities, government research institutions and causes dieback from the branch tips and may development organizations and a private chocolate severely affect cocoa trees, especially in prolonged manufacturing company (see author list), have been dry spells. working in Sulawesi as research partners to test Changes in the social landscape of cocoa farming methodologies for on-farm selection and trialing of have led to a need for a different approach to pest and cocoa genotypes and other technologies with the aim disease management. In the late 1800s and early of improving pest and disease control and overall 1900s most Indonesian cocoa was grown on large yield and quality characteristics on cocoa smallhold- estates in Java and an outbreak of CPB at that time ings. The project has been underway since 2001 and was controlled successfully by centralized pest man- was due to finish at the end of 2006. Working in agement schemes. For example, during times of CPB research partnerships is the approach fostered and epidemics, stripping trees completely of cocoa pods encouraged by ACIAR. Indonesian government (rampasan) was successfully used by Dutch planta- research and estate crop extension officers have led tion managers to break the life cycle of the pest2,3. the research process with the support of Australian Using such methods CPB was eliminated from colleagues. We have also worked closely with farmers Java4. Much of the cocoa in Java is still managed by and, lately, with farmer groups. This approach is government-run estates or private companies. These similar to models based on farmer participatory organizations can apply highly centralized pro- training (FPT) and FPR developed by CABI and grammes of pest and disease control. For example, other organizations5. Here we outline our experience 24N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) with this approach to cocoa improvement in clones with only resistance could be used in breeding Sulawesi. activities. Particularly susceptible clones were also identified to act as controls. The genotypes were col- Problems on Sulawesi cocoa farms were approached lected as budwood, propagated by side-grafting onto from the farmers’ standpoint. How could farmers and mature cocoa trees and tested in trials established on local institutions act to improve production and farms in South and Southeast Sulawesi. The locally quality of cocoa on Sulawesi farms and what selected clones were named after the contributing resources were available locally to achieve this? One farmer. The current results of these tests are mixed resource is the widely spread network of government in terms of the farmers’ predictions, e.g. some clones extension and research services in Indonesia but selected as CPB resistant were mediocre in perform- these have limited funding. A common aim of ACIAR ance, but there were some successes (although it projects is to improve the research capability of over- should be noted that genotypes that perform well in seas institutions and, in line with this, some funding one location may perform differently elsewhere). from ACIAR was allocated for training and capacity building purposes, including almost full employment • Some genotypes selected with farmers’ help for of two Indonesian government officers on the project. potential CPB resistance showed significantly A second local resource is the genetic stock of cocoa higher resistance than other clones. on farms in Indonesia which is characterized by con- • In Ladongi, Southeast Sulawesi, total (i.e. the siderable diversity due to introductions of various sum of light, moderate and severe) CPB infestation cocoa genotypes over a long period of time and rates for selected clones exceeded 80% and in some hybridizations between them. A third resource is the clones over 40% of pods were severely infested with local knowledge of farmers. Most farmers are able to CPB (determined as when 50% or more beans were identify their best yielding trees and, in many cases, irrecoverable). However, a genotype selected by individual trees that appear resistant to particular farmer Andi Aryadi had a total infestation rate of pests or diseases. The ACIAR project’s main activity 63% with only 5% severely infested. was to encourage farmers and local institutions to select promising genotypes from among the great • A number of the farmers’ CBP resistant clones genetic diversity on farms and to test the usefulness had moderate to high rates of total infestation but of this approach by establishing trials of selected very low rates of severe infestation, meaning that clones, and some imported clones, on working farms most of the beans from these clones escaped severe using side-grafting onto mature cocoa trees as the damage and could be sold. method of propagation. Mature grafts are now being • Clones identified by farmers as very susceptible evaluated for performance against pests and dis- to CPB and included as controls were among the eases, and for yield and bean quality. The trials most susceptible in the trial. included some control clones selected as being sus- In general, CPB resistance is hard to identify since ceptible to CPB, PPR or VSD. It is expected that nearly every cocoa genotype becomes infested, espe- following the trial evaluations farmers will be able to cially in the low pod season when infestation rates retest, on their own farms, the clones identified as are highest. More success was met with local selec- the most promising in the research trials. Generally, tions for PPR and VSD resistance. it is hoped that the project will help to demonstrate basic methods of statistically sound research to • Two local selections had a level of PPR resistance Sulawesi researchers and farmers. We hope to show comparable to clones widely recognized for resist- that low-tech methods, basic science and local ance (including DRC 16). human resources are enough to conduct productive and rewarding research linked to the real problems • A genotype selected on-farm for VSD resistance on farm. The method of side-grafting onto mature was as resistant as two international clones, cocoa also demonstrates a way in which less produc- Catongo (from Brazil) and KA2 106 (one of the most tive cocoa farms can be rehabilitated. VSD-resistant clones to emerge from the severe epi- demic of VSD in Papua New Guinea in the 1960s). The ACIAR project involved the cooperation of • Again, the susceptible controls for both these dis- farmers from the selection stage right up to the eases proved to be among the most susceptible of the retesting stage. As discussed below, this has not been clones in the trial. without its problems especially as farmers are very In general, some farmers, but not others, could iden- diverse in terms of their ability and commitment. tify superior trees based on their general Therefore, we found it is especially important to set productivity as well as pest or disease resistance. up cooperative arrangements with farmers who are The results from the trials indicate that testing and committed and reliable. evaluation of performance of clones in local environ- ments is important and necessary to confirm the On-farm Selection of Genotypes initial observations by farmers and to determine whether some of these clones could be recommended Selection of local and promising cocoa genotypes was to other farmers as clones that are high yielding in done with the participation of farmers. Project per- the presence of local pests and diseases. sonnel visited farms affected by one or more severe pest/disease problems in different parts of Sulawesi. Establishing Trials on Farms Farmers were asked to identify trees that yielded well and/or were comparatively resistant to CPB, The ACIAR project in Sulawesi established two PPR or VSD. Clones with both characteristics could major trials on farms in two provinces, South and be recommended to farmers after testing, while Southeast Sulawesi, at an early stage in the project News 25N and a number of smaller trials with a simple design that the yield of the existing trees was threatened. In at a later stage. The larger trials had a single-tree one trial in South Sulawesi, this remained a problem replicate design as commonly used in research on and the grafted clones are yielding very few pods. It forest trees. They consisted of twenty replicate blocks transpired that this trial was established on land of with each block containing a single representative of neighbouring farmers, not just on the land of the each clone under test. Budwood collected from each farmer with whom agreements were made, and that, of about 50 selected genotypes was side-grafted onto in one case, all the trees belonging to one farmer had a mature cocoa tree with a total of 800–1000 trees been side-grafted. This farmer saw his livelihood as used for each trial. The owner-farmers were asked to being threatened by the trial. Also, this trial site was progressively prune back the root-stock (mother) subjected to two major flooding events which weak- trees as the side-grafts developed so that ample light ened the cocoa trees, thereby increasing graft and other resources were available for the graft to mortality and decreasing fruiting. In Southeast develop. Because some loss in production was Sulawesi, the situation was complicated by the fact expected as the mother trees were pruned back and that the farm manager, who was the son-in-law of before the grafts had developed fully, farmers were the owner, refused to prune back the rootstock trees, given compensation payments. Establishing these contradicting the agreement we had made with the early trials was fraught with problems. Lessons owner. The owner, one of the wealthier farmers in learned are outlined below, and these led to some the area, stepped in and made sure the trial trees changes when establishing further trials. were pruned properly. This farmer is particularly encouraging of cocoa research in his area. Also, as he Firstly, difficulties were encountered in the logistics owns a large acreage of farms in Ladongi sub-dis- and time taken to transport collected grafting mate- trict, he is risking less than the owner-farmers in rial over long distances and sometimes from island to South Sulawesi. Our experience suggests that social island in Indonesia. Even though the budwood mate- aspects of the cocoa farming situation need to be con- rial was kept as fresh as possible by sealing the ends sidered when proposing on-farm research. It is of budsticks with wax and wrapping them in moist important to understand who are the main decision- banana leaves or foam while they were transported, makers. What risks are they taking by allowing the a high mortality of grafts occurred in the trials trials on their farms? Who else would be affected by largely because it took at least 3 days from collection the proposed research (family members, casual to grafting at the trial sites. To overcome this we rec- labourers)? And what is their level of understanding ommend in future trials that farmers and of the objectives of the research? Gaining informa- researchers place more emphasis on testing local materials in smaller trials established in the same tion on social considerations is particularly area. International clones could be propagated in important when entering into agreements with clone gardens under the management of an agricul- farmers to conduct on-farm research. tural research or extension facility and this material could then be easily transported to local testing sites. Education and Research Combined Other factors also contributed to graft mortality Three further trials have been set up, under the coor- including the skill of the grafters, the condition of the dination of the extension service Dinas Perkebunan, rootstock trees (especially trunk infection with Phy- tophthora canker), infection of grafts with O. at different locations in Southeast Sulawesi in collab- theobromae or P. palmivora, blight and weather con- oration with farmer groups formed through ditions. We recommend exploring other methods of SUCCESS Alliance, a US-funded NGO that is propagation for trial establishment (see below). involved in fostering participatory education of cocoa smallholders with a focus on farm management and Secondly, although the single-tree replicate design is a primary aim of reducing the impact of CPB on useful where trials are planted on cleared land, in smallholders’ livelihoods. Some of the promising our trials where budstock was side-grafted onto clones from the earlier ACIAR project trials, in addi- existing cocoa trees, the replicates were widely dis- tion to local genotype selections made by the farmers, persed over the trial site and were sometimes are being retested in these smaller trials. The farmer difficult to locate for evaluation purposes. Later groups work together on specified days to help with trials set up with plots of six or more trees for each the grafting, take care of the grafts, assess survival clone replicated in three blocks were much easier to rates of the graft and replace dead grafts. There is a establish accurately and to evaluate. Furthermore, high level of enthusiasm and involvement among the single-tree replicates lack any demonstration value farmers in all the groups in these trials. Often whole because visiting farmers and other personnel cannot families, including older children, become involved, easily view different clones and compare their per- for example by helping with the grafting. It is also formance. Plots of six trees or more are much easier planned that the farmer groups help in the collection to locate and view for demonstration purposes. of basic data when the trials reach the evaluation stage. Through the research trials the farmer groups Thirdly, we have found that establishing trials on are adding participatory research to the participa- farms requires sensitivity to farmers’ expectations tory education method used by SUCCESS Alliance. and needs, and clarity on what is expected of them It is hoped that the participatory element in this from the outset. Although the owner-farmers agreed research will help to train and encourage farmers to in principle to the trials and the offered compensa- employ the method of local selection and testing of tion payment, at both trial locations farmers were clones themselves and also lead to enhanced dissem- reluctant to prune back the mother trees to allow ination of this approach to other farmers. Such grafts to grow and develop. There was a perception participation also encourages farmers to think inde- 26N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) pendently and experimentally rather than relying on keen to learn about new methods they could apply on external help. their own farms. Farmer groups set up by extension organizations such as SUCCESS Alliance are partic- The ACIAR project has also conducted field work- ularly committed and enthusiastic as a whole. Some shops for extension, research and quarantine officers farmers involved in the project have already side- and cocoa smallholders. The workshops covered the grafted portions of their own farms with locally- important pest/disease problems on cocoa in selected better genotypes. However, caution does Sulawesi and various management or control need to be preached: it is crucial to warn farmers options. An important aim of the workshops was to never to graft significant proportions of their farm transfer knowledge from the venerable agricultural with a clone that has not been tested in a proper rep- research institutions in Java, a legacy from colonial licated field trial, as especially the high yield times, to Sulawesi, which has become the current component is very easy to misinterpret from one tree centre of cocoa production. In fact, an important pri- selections. It is crucial to inform farmers about all ority in the Ministry of Agriculture in Jakarta is to the advantages of improved planting materials, and decentralize research and foster knowledge transfer ways to make selections and test selected clones, and from its older centralized base in Java to regional also about all the problems and work that is involved provinces. The ACIAR workshops thus represented a with doing this well. This is even more important as golden chance for local officers and farmers in South- the level of skills and commitment vary greatly east Sulawesi to learn about cocoa pests and diseases between individual farmers. Also, farmers are and their management from the experienced Java- understandably wary about research that might risk based cocoa researchers. the production capacity of their own farms. Our expe- rience suggests that research that includes value- Conclusion adding to their farms and strong educational compo- nents are better received in farming communities. The establishment of two (rather than one) large- scale trials for testing selected genotypes has served 1Ruf, F. & Yoddang (1996) How Sulawesi cocoa the ACIAR project well, since due to unforeseen cir- smallholders achieve 2000 kg/ha? Why two-day fer- cumstances only one of these has been successful in mented beans? Proceedings of 12th International producing enough pods for evaluation of pest/disease Cocoa Research Conference, Salvador–Bahia, Brazil, resistance and quality characteristics. Having alter- 17–23 November 1996. natives sites for such trials not only allows materials to be tested in different environments but also 2Van Der Knapp, W.P. (1955) Involved Van het ram- ensures some concrete results are obtained. passan op de productie van cacao-bomen. Bergcultures 24: 219–223. The heavy pruning back of mother trees (root stocks) required in the current trials created a very negative 3Van Willingen, B. (1954) Report on the control of the perception of the research as it definitely involved cocoa pod borer of Ngobo Plantation, Ungaran. destruction of some existing cropping potential. In Translation from Bergcultures 23: No. 24. Shell Agri- future research arrangements with farmers we feel it cultural Bulletin. is important that the research is perceived as adding value to the farms. One way to do this would be to 4Parnata, Y. & Pardede, D. (1979) A retrospection of bud-graft clones onto seedlings in nurseries and cocoa moth problem in North Sumatra. Bulletin BPP plant these out in gaps where trees have died (from Medan 10, 51–64. disease, age, storm damage, etc.) in cocoa farms chosen as trial sites. The farmer thus gets a direct 5Vos, J.G.M. & Krauss, U. (2004) Working with advantage from the interplanting of test trees on his Farmers. In Flood, J. & Murphy, R. (eds) Cocoa or her land and the filling of gaps. Such an approach Futures: a source book of some important issues con- has other advantages: more plants can be produced fronting the cocoa industry. The Commodities Press, from a given quantity of budwood (one bud/seedling, Chinchina (Columbia), CABI-FEDERACAFE, compared to the 2–3 budsticks each with 2–3 buds USDA, pp. 141–149. often used for side-grafting) and graft mortality is See: www.cabi.org/datapage.asp?iDocID=476 lower; also, easier and more uniform nurturing will give more uniform grafted material. For example, in By: Peter McMahona, Suntorob, Abdul Wahabc, Agus the current work there were problems in the timing Purwantarad, Arief Iswantoe, Agung Susiloe, of the removal of plastic covers from the grafts. Endang Sulistyowatie,Smilja Lambertf, David Guestg & Philip Keanea We learned that it is better to establish many smaller trials with simple designs (6–10 tree plots, three rep- aDepartment of Botany, La Trobe University, Bun- licates and no more than 10 clones) rather than one doora, 3086, Victoria, Australia. or two large trials. The use of many small trials can bDinas Perkebunan, Kendari, Sulawesi Tengarrah, enhance the extension and demonstration value of Indonesia. the trials by allowing many more farmers to partici- cBPTP SULTRA, Kendari, Sulawesi Tengarrah, pate. This will be the approach taken in a new Indonesia. ACIAR project that will undertake participatory dBiotechnology Research Institute for Estate Crops, research with cocoa farmer groups in Sulawesi com- Bogor 16151, Indonesia. mencing in early 2007. Overall, our experience with eIndonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute, working cooperatively with farmers has been very Jember, Indonesia. positive. Farmers are generally enthusiastic and fMasterfoods Australia/NZ, Ring Road, Ballarat, News 27N

3350, Victoria, Australia. *This article first appeared in a shorter form in the gSchool of Horticulture, The University of Sydney, CABI/USDA cocoa newsletter, GRO-Cocoa No. 10 Sydney, Australia. (December 2006), pp. 5–8. Announcements

Are you producing a newsletter or website, holding a workshop can be registered via the EMAPi9 website meeting, running an organization or rearing a nat- (www.congresswest.com.au/emapi9). ural enemy that you want biocontrol workers to know about? Send us the details and we will announce it The Australia Weed Risk Assessment System has here. recently been reviewed and the report can be down- loaded from: www.weeds.org.au/docs/ IPPC and BCPC Together in 2007 Review_of_the_National_Weed_Risk_Assessmt_Sys tem_2005.pdf The International Association for the Plant Protec- This document is a good background reading for tion Sciences (IAPPS) and the British Crop anyone interested in the process and is recom- Protection Council (BCPC) are holding the XVI mended reading for potential workshop participants. International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC) in association with the BCPC International Conference and Exhibition on 15–18 October 2007 in Glasgow, UK. Want to Read Wyo-Bio? Wyo-Bio newsletter gives biocontrol news and views Amongst the traditional wide range of topics, a ses- for the US state of Wyoming. The editors are cur- sion on ‘Efficacy of biological control, using living rently updating their mailing list and would like to organisms and natural products’ has been allotted a hear of anyone who would like to receive it (electron- double slot to allow more presentations. Other rele- ically or printed) and is not doing so already – vant sessions are ‘Assessing and managing the risks although you can access it online too. posed by invasive alien species’, ‘Biodiversity in crop- ping systems’ and ‘Developments in crop protection, Contact: Fremont County Weed and Pest Control including IPM-strategies, in modern horticulture’ District, 450 North 2nd St., Rm 315, Lander, (all double sessions) and ‘The use of beneficial organ- WY 82520, USA. isms in plant protection – population level Email: [email protected] management’. Web: www.fcwp.org/wyobio Novel sessions this year include biofuels and bioen- ergy, bioterrorism, biosensors, biopharmaceuticals, viruses and phytoplasmas. Specialist sessions IPGRI now Bioversity International include post-harvest-disease control, neonicotinoids, semiochemicals, soyabean rust and mycotoxins. The adoption of a new name, Bioversity Interna- Another new development is sessions covering much tional (Bioversity in short), for the International wider social issues in recognition that worldwide Plant Genetic Research Institute (IPGRI) reflects the agriculture is under the spotlight, while a special evolution of the organization and the work it now debate marks the centenary of the birth of Rachel does. Bioversity remains a research organization Carson, author of Silent Spring. dedicated to conserving and using biodiversity, but its scope extends far beyond plant genetic resources, The deadline for offering papers and posters is 5 to the conservation of all types of biodiversity, April 2007, and this must be done online. including animal, aquatic and even microbial genetic resources. The new name is also intended to reflect Further information: that people are at the centre of all Bioversity does. BCPC, 7 Omni Business centre, Omega park, Along with the new name, there is a new website: Alton, Hampshire, GU34 2QD, UK. Email: [email protected] Web: www.bioversityinternational.org/ Web: www.bcpc.org/IPPC2007 Bioversity has identified its themes as: Agricultural Ecosystems, Bananas for Livelihoods*, Communities Weed Risk Assessment and Livelihoods, Conservation and Use, Economics, Genebanks, Germplasm Collection, Germplasm Doc- The 2nd International Workshop on Weed Risk umentation, Neglected and Underutilized Species, Assessment is being held on 14–15 September 2007, Nutrition and Policy and Law just before EMAPi9 (9th International Conference on the Ecology and Management of Alien Plant Inva- *The ‘former INIBAP’ (International Network for the sions, 17–21 September 2007) in Perth, Western Improvement of Bananas and Plantain). See: Australia. An expression of interest in the WRA http://bananas.bioversityinternational.org/ 28N Biocontrol News and Information 28(1) Conference Report

Have you held or attended a meeting that you want papers have been rejected for publication and dark, other biocontrol workers to know about? Send us a dead and dated data relating to industrial secrecy. report and we will include it here. There was also a very interesting lecture on the life and work of Edward A. Steinhaus given by Elizabeth Invertebrate Pathologists Meet in China Davidson, Arizona State University, USA. Edward Steinhaus set up the first insect pathology laboratory The IX International Colloquium on Invertebrate in the USA and taught the first insect pathology Pathology and Microbial Control, XXXIX Annual course at the University of California, Berkeley in Meeting of the Society for Invertebrate Pathology 1945. It was from this laboratory that many of our (SIP) and VIII International Conference on Bacillus pioneers in insect pathology came. Edward Stein- thuringiensis [Bt] were held on 27 August – 1 Sep- haus was one of the founding members of SIP and tember 2006 in Wuhan, Peoples’ Republic of China. was the founding editor of the Journal of Inverte- The conference was well attended with 285 delegates brate Pathology. from 32 different countries, including 110 Chinese delegates most of whom were students from the local There was a session on new commercial products. Six university which specializes in Bt. commercial companies presented their new products SIP holds annual meetings, alternately in North and Roy Bateman (Imperial College London, UK) America and somewhere else in the world to presented the new MycoHarvester Mark V. All of the encourage greater participation of non-North Amer- companies specialized in virus products, Bt or plant ican scientists. SIP encourages students, especially growth regulators. One company, Andermatt Biocon- the host nations’ students, to become involved in the trol AG, Germany also had two entomopathogenic meetings and provides opportunities for students to nematode products under development. No fungal present oral papers or posters. products were presented, which suggests commercial companies still have no strong desire to champion One very good session in this year’s meeting, with mycopesticides. standing room only, dealt with ‘Novel approaches for dealing with difficult data’. There were three talks Adapted for BNI from a report by Belinda Luke and aimed at bioassay data analysis, top reasons why Feng Zhang, CABI