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Entrepreneurship Education for Economic Diversification in Oman

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Entrepreneurship Education for Economic Diversification in Oman Planning for Entrepreneurialism in a Rentier State Economy: Entrepreneurship Education for Economic Diversification in Oman Issa Al-Shabibi School of Social Sciences Cardiff University This thesis is submitted in the fulfilment of the degree Doctor of Philosophy 2020 Declaration This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award i Table of Contents Declaration………………………………………………………………………………. i List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………… viii List of Tables …………………………………………………………………..………...ix Dedication………………………………………………………………………………... x Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………… xi List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………… xii Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. xiv 1. Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………. 1 1.1. Preface ................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Background and Significance ................................................................................. 1 1.3. Objectives, Questions and Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks ..................... 4 1.4. Outline of Study ...................................................................................................... 6 2. Chapter Two: Education and Skill Formation Strategies, Entrepreneurship Education and the Economy………………………………………………………………. 8 2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 8 2.2. Rentier State Context ............................................................................................. 8 2.3. Educational Policy................................................................................................ 11 2.3.1. Human Capital Theory ...................................................................................... 12 2.4. Skill Formation Systems....................................................................................... 13 2.5. Entrepreneurship ................................................................................................. 18 2.5.1. Defining Entrepreneurship ................................................................................ 18 2.5.2. Measurement and Indicators of Entrepreneurial Activities ................................. 20 2.5.3. Entrepreneurship and Context………………………………………………………..21 2.5.4. Society, Culture, and Entrepreneurship ............................................................. 23 2.5.5. Types and Characteristics of Entrepreneurs ..................................................... 26 2.6. Entrepreneurship Education ................................................................................. 28 2.6.1. Education and Entrepreneurship Growth .......................................................... 28 2.6.2. The Political and Economic Context of EE ........................................................ 30 ii 2.6.3. Delivering Entrepreneurship Education ............................................................. 31 2.6.3.1. The UK Model ................................................................................................ 33 2.6.3.2. The U.S.A Model ............................................................................................ 35 2.6.3.3. Singapore Model ............................................................................................ 37 2.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 39 3. Chapter Three: Skill Formation, Entrepreneurship Education, and Economic Diversification in Oman……………………………………………………………….. 41 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 41 3.2. Oman as a Rentier State...................................................................................... 41 3.2.1. Demographic and Political Structure ................................................................. 44 3.2.2. Oman’s Economic Status, Visions, and Plans ................................................... 47 3.2.2.1. First Six Five-year Plans and Vision 2020 ...................................................... 47 3.2.2.2. Seventh and Eighth Five-year Plans (2006-2015) and Vision 2040 ................ 49 3.2.3. Society and Culture, Legal and Welfare Systems .............................................. 50 3.3. Education and Human Capital Development in Oman ......................................... 53 3.3.1. Oman’s Education System ................................................................................ 53 3.3.2. Oman’s Human Capital Development ............................................................... 57 3.3.3. Overview of Oman’s Skill Formation Strategies ................................................ 58 3.3.4. Education Policy and Curriculum Borrowing ...................................................... 60 3.4. Entrepreneurship in Oman ................................................................................... 61 3.4.1. Entrepreneurship Policies, Initiatives, and Impact on Economic Diversification . 61 3.5. The EEP in Oman ................................................................................................ 66 3.5.1. The EEP as Part of Oman’s Skill Formation Strategies ..................................... 66 3.5.2. EEP Overview: Structure and Goals ................................................................. 67 3.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 68 4. Chapter Four: Methodology……………………………………………………….. 70 4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 70 4.2. Research objectives and overview ....................................................................... 70 4.3. Ontology, Epistemology, Research Strategy and Design ..................................... 70 iii 4.4. Mixed Method Approach: Validity and Reliability .................................................. 73 4.4.1. Interviews… ...................................................................................................... 74 4.4.2. Survey….. ......................................................................................................... 75 4.5. Research Methods and Data Collection ............................................................... 76 4.5.1. Documentary Review.. ...................................................................................... 76 4.5.2. Web-based Survey ........................................................................................... 77 4.5.3. Semi-Structured Interviews.. ............................................................................. 80 4.6. Access and Selection of interview participants ..................................................... 82 4.6.1. Study Sites........................................................................................................ 84 4.6.2. Interview Participants ........................................................................................ 86 4.6.2.1. HE Students ................................................................................................... 87 4.6.2.2. HE Faculty/staff (Managers and Lecturers) .................................................... 90 4.6.2.3 Policymakers .................................................................................................. 92 4.6.2.4. Entrepreneurs ................................................................................................ 93 4.7. Ethics ................................................................................................................... 95 4.8. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 96 4.8.1. Survey: Descriptive Analysis ............................................................................. 97 4.8.2. Interview: Thematic Analysis ............................................................................. 99 4.9. Interview Transcription and Translation .............................................................. 101 4.10. Critical Reflections and Method Limitations ...................................................... 103 4.11. Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 105 5. Chapter Five: Understanding Entrepreneurialism in a Rentier State Context…………………………………………………………………………………… 107 5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 107 5.2. A Documentary Review: Meanings of Entrepreneurialism .................................. 107 5.2.1. Entrepreneurship Meanings in EEP Policy and Curriculum Documents .......... 108 5.2.2. EEP Content and its Impact on HE Stakeholders’ Entrepreneurship Understandings ........................................................................................................ 110 5.3. Defining Entrepreneurship in Oman: Stakeholder Views .................................... 112 iv 5.3.1. Students. ........................................................................................................ 112 5.3.1.1. Survey Results….. ......................................................................................
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