Credibility of Traditional Knowledge—The Criterion of Multilocational and Multiethnic Use

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 3(2), April 2004, pp. 137-153

Credibility of traditional knowledge—The criterion of multilocational and multiethnic use

S K Jain A-26 Mall Avenue Colony, Lucknow 226 001 Email: [email protected] Received 27 August 2003

Traditional knowledge often includes practices based on observations over time, but not substantiated by any technical experiments or statistics. Ethnomedicine or folk medical claims are an important component of this knowledge. The multilocational or multiethnic use, i.e. application of same traditional herbal cures in several distant regions, and among distinct tribal ethnic groups is suggested as a good criterion for credibility of folk claims and practices. Over 400 publications on ethnomedicinal plants were checked and over 100 recipes related to six health conditions namely fertility or conception, diabetes, leprosy, jaundice, malaria and skin diseases were found to be employed in more than one locality or ethnic group. On the basis of frequency of such reports, the plants were given a credibility rank on a scale of 1-5. About half of these recipes, which mostly had high ranking between 3-5 are already employed in codified Ayurvedic system. It is suggested that: 1. high credibility ranking based on frequency of reports of use seems directly related to their utility in health care systems, 2. the remaining recipes with high credibility ranking be given priority for laboratory and clinical research, and 3. more such analyses of frequency of particular medicinal use be undertaken for more plants, more diseases, and in more regions and ethnic groups in India. Keywords: Folkmedicine, Ethnobotany, Ayurveda, Antifertility, Diabetes, Leprosy, Jaundice, Malaria, Skin diseases. *IPC Int. Cl.7: A61P 15/00; A61P 5/48; A61P 5/50; A61P 1/16; A61P 17/00; A61P 31/08; A61P 33/06.

The indigenous societies of different regions of the world have discovered various uses of natural resources around them. This traditional knowledge is based on their necessities, instinct, observation, trial and error and long experience. The medicinal uses of plant and animal products are an important component of such indigenous knowledge. Some of this knowledge got widely tested and accepted over period of time, and became part of the recognised or codified indigenous systems of medicine (ISM) namely, the Ayurveda, Siddha and Yunani in India. For wider, more reliable and scientific application of this knowledge, researchers are continuously subjecting it to a variety of tests through field, laboratory or clinical research. Several qualitative and quantitative methods have also ______*For explanation of IPC Int. Cl.7 please see p. 135. 138 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

been suggested for evaluating credibility of such traditional knowledge (or folk claims as they are often called) as has not yet gone into ISM. The following analyses of claims and the discussion are based on the criterion of multilocational and/or multiethnic use of certain plants in human health care, that is, the frequency of reports from different locations about the use of a plant for a particular ailment. The objective is to highlight the prospect for further research of a few dozen plants from the several hundreds of species associated with folk claims for the health conditions selected for this analysis.

Material and methods The material for the following analysis of multilocational and multiethnic uses is based primarily on about three hundred ethnobotanical publications extracted in a 1991 publication, namely Dictionary of Indian Folkmedicine and Enthobotany1, and scanning of another 150 papers published after 1990. This scrutiny is certainly not exhaustive and more reports on similar use in other states or ethnic groups will exist in literature and field notes. In the context of multiethnic use, a brief account of some major or notable tribal ethnic groups in different states of India is relevant. Most of the smaller tribes are confined to a small region or one or two states, like Amchis in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Toda in Nilgiris and Onge in Little Andaman. The larger tribes, like Bhil in western India, Gond in central India, and Nagas in eastern India inhabit several states. By and large, the notable tribes in various staes are: J&K: Amchi, Gujjar; Himachal: Gujjar; Rajasthan: Bhil, Garasia, Kathodia, Mina; Gujarat: Bhil, Dhodia, Dubla, Ravalia; Uttar Pradesh: Banraji, Bhotia, Bhoxa, Jaunsari, Kol, Tharu; Bihar: Bhumij, Ho, Kharia, Kharwar, Oraon, Santhal, Sauria; Orissa: Bagata, Bhuiya, Gond, Kharia, Koya, Oraon, Parja, Saora; Bengal: Bedia, Lodha, Santal, Sherpa, Toto; Sikkim: Bhotia, Lepcha; Arunachal: Abor, Apatani, Dafla, Miri, Mishmi, Monpa; Assam: Bodo, Boro, Kachari, Karbi, Mikir; Meghalaya: Garo, Jaintia, Khasi; Nagaland: Mao, Naga, Zeliang; Manipur: Mao, Naga; Mizoram: Kuki, Mizo; Tripura: Chakma, Jamatia; Madhya Pradesh: Baiga, Bhil, Gond, Halba, Kol, Korba, Mina, Muria, Oraon; Maharashtra: Andh, Bhil, Dhanka, Dhodia, Katkari; Andhra Pradesh: Andh, yagata, Gadaba, Koya, Lambadi, Saora, Yenadi; Karnataka: Koya, Nayak; Tamilnadu: Irular, Kota, Toda; Kerala: Nayadis, Pulayan; Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Andamanese, Jarava, Nicobarese, Onge. For analysis of credibility only such ethnomedicinal plants are selected as are used in a particular disease in more than one region/state or by more than one tribal ethnic group. For practical reasons, the analysis was confined to six health conditions (and their closely related disorders) namely, antifertility (including contraception, but not abortion), diabetes (blood sugar), leprosy, liver disorders (including jaundice), malaria, and skin diseases. Under each disease or medical condition, such of the plant species as are associated with ethnomedicinal claim in more than one state/region or reported from more than one ethnic group are described with mention of the plant part. If part is not known it is JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 139

indicated as (?). The region, and the name of ethnic group, if known (in brackets) are then mentioned. The plants are arranged alphabetically by botanical (Latin) names. Their few selected local and English names (if known) are given. Each plant has been given some point(P) of credibility in the scale of 1-5 based on following criteria:

Criterion Points More than one report, but from same locality 1 Two reports from different localities or from two different tribes within a state, or adjacent states 2 More than two reports from adjacent states but different ethnic groups 3 Two reports from distant states and ethnic groups 4 More than two reports from different states and ethnic groups 5

Observations: Antifertility: (including contraception, but excluding abortifacient plants) Achyranthes aspera L. 'Apamarg', 'Chirchita', 'Latjira' P-5 Root used in Uttar Pradesh(U.P.) (Tharu)2,3, Bihar4, and Assam and Arunacha15 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 'Davai', 'Sangue' P-2 Root used in Bihar (Sauria, Santal)6,7 Calotropis gigantea (L.) Br. 'Madar', 'Safed Ak' P-4 Seed used in Bihar8 Plant(?) used in Meghalaya (Khasi, Jaintia)9 Cissampelo spareira L. 'Kali-pahad', 'Akanbindi' P-5 Root used in Bihar10, West Bengali11 and Assam12 Indigofera linnaei Ali 'Tejomala', 'Latahi' P-l Root used in Bihar (Santal)7,13. Mangifera indica L. 'Am' MANGO P-l Bark of stem used in Rajasthanl4,15 *Plumbago zeylanica L. 'Chitrak' P-5 Root used in Bihar (Santal)7,13 and Assam12 Ricinus communis L. 'Arandi', CASTOR SEED P-3 Plant(?) used in Rajasthan15 Seed used in Rajasthanl4 Plant(?) used in M.P.16

______*For explanation of asterisk mark, please see Analysis and discussion—p. 147 140 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

Diabetes: Adiantum incisum Forsk. 'Mayurshikha' P-l Leaf used in Rajasthan15 Plant(?) used in Rajasthan17 *Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 'Bel', 'Sriphal' P-4 Root, stem and leaf used in Rajasthan15 Leaf used in Maharashtra18 Cassia sophera L. 'Chakonda', 'Kasaundi' SOPHERA SENNA P-4 Bark & seed used in Rajasthan15 Plant (?) used in Bihar (Santals)13 *Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt 'Kundri' IVY GOURD P-3 Fruit used in Rajasthan19 Leaf used in Gujarat20 *Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Br. 'Gurbel' 'Gurmar' P-5 Leaf used in plains of Uttar Pradesh(U.P.)21 Rajasthan15,19, M.P. (Maria)22, Maharashtra23 Andhra Pradesh (A.P.)24 and Tamilnadu(Irulars)25 Helicteres isora L. 'Marorphali' P-3 Root used in M.P. (Maria)26 Plant(?) used in U.P.27 Phyllanthus emblica L. 'Aonla' EMBLIC MYROBALAN, P-4 INDIAN GOOSEBERRY Fruit used in Assam and Arunachal5 Leaf used in U.P.28 *Syzygium cuminii (L.)Skeels 'Jamun' BLACK PLUM P-4 Seed used in Gujarat29 Plant(?) used in Assam30

Leprosy: Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw.' Jhapipak', 'Kanghi' P-4 Root used in Rajasthan19, and Garhwal U.P.31 Ageratum conyzoides L. 'Ajgandha', 'Makadmari', GOATWEED P-5 Leaf used in Garhwal hills, U.P.31,32 Plant(?) used in Maharashtra33 Anagallis arvensis L. 'Jainghani', 'Jonkmari' P-2 Leaf used in Garhwal hills, U.P.31 Whole plant used in Dehradun and Siwalik hills, U.P.27 *Calotropis gigantea (L.) Br. 'Madar', 'Safed Ak' P-5 Latex used in Kumaon region U.P.34 Root used in Bihar35, Orissa36 and M.P.37 JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 141

*Centella asiatica (L.) Urban 'Brahmi', ASIATIC PENNYWORT P-5 Leaf used in Himachal Pradesh (H.P.)38 and Garhwal hills, U.P.39 Whole plant used in Siwalik area27 and hills of U.P.40, and in Bihar (Sauria,Asur)6,41 Datura innoxia Mill. 'Dhatura Sada' P-4 Seed used in Rajasthan19 and West Bengal42 Root also used in West Bengal42 Gloriosa superba L. 'Kariari', 'Kalihari' P-4 Rhizome used in Rajasthan19 and hills of U.P.40 Psoralea corylifolia L. 'Babchi', 'Bakuchi' P-2 Seed used in southern U.P.43,44

Liver diseases (including jaundice, hepatitis) *Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 'Bel' P-l Leaf used in Bihar (Santal)7,13 Allemanda cathartica L. 'Pila-jara' P-l Flowers used in Bihar (Santal)13,45 Aloe barbadensis Mill. 'Ghee-Kunwar' BARBADOS ALOE P-2 Leaf used in M.P.37,46 *Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. 'Kalmegh', KING OF BITTERS P-3 Root, and whole plant used in M.P.37,47 Plant powder used in Bihar (Sauria)6 *Argemone mexicana L. 'Satyanashi', 'Brahmdandi' P-2 Latex used in Salsett island, Maharashtra18 Leaf used in Sagar district, M.P.37 Averrhoa carambola L.'Kamrakh' CARAMBOLA P-3 Fruit used in Karbi48 and Kamrup, Assam49,50 Bark also used in Kamrup (Bodo) Assam50 *Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell-Arg. 'Dantimul' P-4 Root used in M.P.16 and Assam51 *Boerhaavia diffusa L. 'Bishkhopra', 'Punarnava' HOGWEED P-5 Root and whole plant used in Siwalik and Garhwal hills of U.P.27,31 Root used in Rajasthan15,19, Bengal (Toto)52 Leaf used in M.P.37, Orissa53 Whole plant used also in Assam (Karbi)48 and Gujarat54 *Cassiafistula L. 'Amaltas' INDIAN LABURNUM P-4 Fruit and seed used in U.P. (Tharus)2,3 Bark of stem used in Rajasthan15 *Cicer arietinum L. 'Chana', GRAM,CHICK-PEA P-2 Seed used in Rajasthan15 Stem used in Haryana55 142 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

Cissampelos pareira L. 'Kali-pahad' P-5 Leaf used in Rajasthanl5 and Assam56 Root used in Sarguja in Chhattisgarh57 *Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 'Amarbel', 'Akashvel' P-5 Stem and root used in Rajasthan (Bhil and others)15,58,59. Stem used also in Siwalik area, U.P.27 Whole plant used in Assam (Bodo)50 *Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 'Bhangra', 'Bhringraj' P-5 Root and other parts used in Siwaliks27 and other parts of U.P.31 Leaf and oil of whole plant used in Rajasthan15 Leaf used in Gujarat54 and Tamilnadu (Irulars)25 Euphorbia ligularia Roxb. 'Thuhar', 'Sehund' P-4 Latex used in north India60 Stem used in Assam56 *Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.)Merr. 'Bilangra' P-3 Fruit used in Banda (Kol) in southern U.P.61 and in Siwalik hills in northern U.P.27 *Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine 'Talmakhana' P-4 Root used in Rajasthan19 Leaf used in Orissa36 Indigofera tinctoria L. 'Neel' INDIGO P-3 Leaf used in Garhwal in northern U.P.31 Plant(?) used in M.P.37 Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.)St. 'Ghiya', 'Lauki' BOTTLE GOURD P-3 Leaf used in Pithoragarh hills of northern U.P.40 Root used in central India47 *Luffa acutangula (L.) Roth 'Tori', 'Jhinga' RIBBED GOURD P-2 Fruit used as snuff in M.P.62 Leaf used in Maharashtra63 *Luffa echinata Roxb. 'Vindal' P-3 Fruit used as snuff in Garhwal hills in northern U.P.31 Fruit used in Rajasthan15 Mangifera indica L. 'Am' MANGO P-4 Bark used in U.P.21 and Assam49 Seed also used in Assam49 Podophyllum hexandrum Royle 'Papri', 'Ban-kakri' P-5 Rhizome used in Ladakh in J&K(Amchi)64,65 and in Garhwal hills, U.P.66 Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lamk.', Dholiphuli' P-2 Whole plant used in Maharashtra63 Root used in Gujarat54 JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 143

*Rubia cordifolia L. 'Majethi' INDIAN MADDER P-4 Root used in Siwalik area of northern U.P.27 and hilly regions of West Bengal67 *Solanum nigrum L. 'Makoi', 'Kakmachi' BLACK NIGHTSHADE P-3 Whole plant used in Rajasthanl5 and in hilly regions of U.P.31 Sonchus oleraceus L. 'Dudhi' MILK THISTLE P-5 Leaf used in Garhwal hills of U.P.32 Latex used in Siwalik area, U.P.27 Whole plant used in Rajasthan15 *Tephrosia purpurea (L.)Pers. 'Sarphonka' WILD INDIGO P-2 Root used in Rajasthan15 Plant(?) used in M.P.37 *Trianthema portulacastrum L. 'Bishkhapra' HORSE PURSLANE P-4 Root used in Rajasthan68 Leaf used in A.P.24

Malaria: Acorus calamus L. 'Bach' SWEET FLAG P-2 Rhizome used in Assam (Bodo)50 and Meghalaya (Khasi and Jaintia)69 Aerva lanata (L.)Schult. 'Gorakhbunti' P-l Whole plant used in Bihar (Santal)13,45

*Alstonia scholaris (L.)R.Br. 'Chhatin', 'Saptparni' DEVIL'S TREE P-5 Stem bark used in hills of U.P.27, and Bihar (Santal)7,13 *Andrographi spaniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. 'Kalmegh' 'Kiryat' KING OF BITTERS P-5 Root used in M.P.37 Plant used in Bihar(Santal)7 Root and leaf used in Assam (Karbi and Bodo )48,50 Whole plant used in Tamilnadu70 Azadirachta india Juss. 'Neem' MARGOSSA TREE P-l Leaf and inflorescence used in Rajasthanl5,68 Brucea mollis Kurz. 'Koinine' P-l Fruit and seed used in Assam (Karbi)71,72 Canscora diffusa (Vahl) Br. 'Shankhpushpi' P-l Whole plant used in Bihar (Santal)7.13 Catunaregam nutans (QC.) Tiruv, 'Mawnakanta' P-3 Root used in southern M.P.73 and Bihar13 *Cissampelos pareira L. 'Kalipahad' P-4 Root used in Bihar (Santal)7,13 and in M.P. (Gond)59,74 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 'Bhangra' P-3 Leaf used in southern U.P .(Kol)61, and Bihar (Santal)7,13 144 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

Enicostemma hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verd. 'Kirayata' INDIAN GENTIAN P-2 Whole plant used in M.P.75 Leaf used in Rajasthan59 *Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. 'Indrajav', 'Kurchi' IVORY TREE P-5 Bark used in plains of U.P.21,76, Bihar (Santal, Asur)13,41 and in Rajasthan59 Justicia adhatoda L. 'Adusa', 'Vasaka' P-4 Leaf used in M.P.37 and Nagaland (Angami Nagas)77 *Nyctanthes arbortristis L 'Harsingar' 'Parijatak' NIGHT JASMINE P-2 Leaf used in plains of U.P. (Kol)21,61. *Ocimum sanctum L. 'Tulsi' SACRED BASIL P-4 Leaf used in M.P.37 and Tamilnadu70 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre 'Karanj' INDIAN BEECH P-4 Leaf used in Rajasthan15 Bark used in Little Andamans (Onge)78 *Soymidafebrifuga (Roxb.) Juss. 'Rohan' INDIAN REDWOOD P-4 Stem bark used in Rajasthan15 Bark and leaf used in Gujarat29,79 Sphaeranthus indicus L. 'Gorakhmundi' P-2 Leaf used in Bihar (Santal)7,15 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash 'Khas-Khas' VETIVER P-2 Root used in northern and southern U.P.27,21

Skin Diseases: This group of diseases includes many conditions like eczema, leucoderma, ringworm and scabies, and many not distinctly specified conditions. Prescriptions do some times indicate one or other specific condition. In the follwing paragraphs, plants indicated for specific conditions are first described. A general category as skin diseases is given at the end.

Eczema: *Cassia tora L. 'Chakunda'' 'Dadmari' SICKLE SENNA P-5 Seed used in U.P.44,80, M.P. (Maria)22, (Bhil)81 and Maharashtra33 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels 'Chhireta'' 'Patal-garudi' P-5 Leaf used in Rajasthanl5, Gujarat29 and Andhra Pradesh24

Leucoderma: *Abrusprecatorius L. 'Gunchi', 'Chontli' INDIAN LIQUORICE P-5 Leaf used in hills of U.P.43,82 and in Rajasthan19 Root used in West Bengal (Lodhas)83 Achyranthes aspera L. 'Latjira', 'Chirchita' PRICKLY CHAFF FLOWER P-l Leaf and whole plant used in hills of U.P.82,84 JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 145

*Eclipta prostrata (L.)L. 'Bhangra' P-5 Leaf used in Garhwal hills, U.P.82 Whole plant used in Gujarat29 and Maharashtra33 *Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. 'Indra-jav' IVORY TREE P-4 Stem bark used in Andhra Pradesh85 Leaf used in Assam (Boro)86 *Plumbago zeylanica L. 'Chitrak' P-2 Root used in Rajasthan15 and Gujarat79 *Psoralea corylifolia L. 'Babchi', 'Bakuchi' P-3 Fruit used in Rajasthan15,19 Seed used in Gujarat29

Ringworm: Calotropis gigantea (L.) Br. 'Madar' P-5 Leaf used in Meghalaya and Assam87 Latex used in Maharashtra33 Plant(?) used in Bihar(Santal)88 *Cassia fistula L. 'Amaltas' INDIAN LABURNUM P-3 Leaf used in M.P.37 and Maharashtra63,89 Euphorbia hirta L. 'Dudhi' P-3 Leaf used in Gujarat29 Leaf and whole plant used in Rajasthan (Bhil)15,58 *Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.)Pl. 'Papri', 'Kunj' P-5 Stem bark used in hills and plains of U.P.(Bhoxa)90 and in Orissa91 Sap of twigs used in West Bengal (Lodha)83 Polygonum hydropiper L. 'Jiyanti' P-1 Leaves and flowers used in Bihar (Santal)13,45 Tectona grandis L.f. 'Sagaun' TEAK P-4 Wood oil used in southern M.P.22 and Rajasthan15

Scabies: Martynia annua L. 'Bichhua', 'Baghnakha'TIGERCLAW P-5 Seed used in Rajasthan59 Plant(?) used in Bihar(Santal)88 Fruit used in Maharashtra63 Thespesia populnea (L.) Correa 'Paras-Peepal' INDIAN TULIP TREE P-4 Leaf, fruit and root used in Rajasthan15 Leaf used in Kerala (Nayadis)92

Skin diseases (unspecified skin diseases) Plants with low frequency of reports are not included; but to avoid omission of prospective plants, such species as have five or more 146 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

references, or at least three references not given for that plant under eczema, leucoderma, ringworm and scabies, are included. Cassia fistula L. 'Amaltas' P-5 Leaf used in M.P .(Abujh-maria)26, Maharashtra74 Root and leaf used in Assam (Boro)51,86 Cassia occidentalis L. 'Kasondi' NEGRO COFFEE P-5 Leaf and seed used in U.P.(Kol)27,61 Leaf used in Maharashtra93,94 Leaf and root used in Rajasthan15 Leaf, root and seed used in Bihar(Santal)7,13 Seed used in Gujarat20 *Cassia tora L. 'Chakunda' P-5 Seed used in U.P. (Bhoxa)90, M.P.37 and Rajasthanl5 Leaf and seed used in Gujarat29 Root and seed used in Maharashtra63,94 Leaf used in Meghalaya (Garo)95 Plant(?) used in Bihar (Santal)88 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban 'Brahmi' P-5 Leaf used in H.P.38 Fruit and leaf used in Rajasthan19,96 Whole plant used in M.P.46 and Assam51 *Datura metel L. 'Dhatura' P-5 Root used in Garhwal hills, in U.P.31 Root, seed and leaf used in Maharashtra94 Seed used in M.P.37 Fruit used in A.P.24 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 'Bhangra' P-5 Flowers and whole plant used in U.P.27,82 Stem and leaf used in Rajasthan15 Whole plant used in M.P.37 and Maharashtra33 *Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Br. 'Anantmul' INDIAN SARSAPARILLA P-5 Root paste used in Bihar (Santal)7,13, Maharashtra94, A.P.24 and Assam51 *Mallotu sphilippensis Muell-Arg. 'Kamela', 'Sendur' P-5 Fruit, seed and root used in U.P. (Tharu)2,27 Root used in Maharashtra93 Melia azedarach L. 'Bakain', 'Mahanim' PERSIAN LILAC P-5 Fruit used in Jammu and Kashmir97 Bark used in Maharashtra33 Leaf used in Assam30 *Plumbago zeylanica L. 'Chitrak' P-5 Root used in U.P.27,31, Rajasthan96, Gujarat20 and Maharashtra18,33,94 JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 147

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre. 'Karanj' P-5 Seed used in Rajasthanl5, M.P.(Oraon, Korba)98 and Biharl3 *Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 'Bija-sal' KINO TREE P-5 Leaf used in Bihar7,13. M.P .(Abujh-maria)26, Maharashtra93,94, and A.P.24 *Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken 'Kusum' LAC TREE P-5 Seed used in Gujarat29, M.P.(Maria)22 and Bihar99 *Semecarpus anacardium L.f. 'Bhilavan' MARKING NUT TREE P-5 Seed used in Gujarat29, Maharashtral8, West Bengal100 Fruit used in M.P.37 and U.P.21 Latex used in U.P.21 Siegesbeckia orientalis Cav. 'Samara-pong' P-5 Whole plant used in hills of U.P.82, in A.P.24 and Nilgiri Hills (Kota, Irulars and Toda)101 Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. 'Chob-chini', 'Jangli oshbah' P-5 Leaf used in Meghalaya102 Root used in West Bengall03 Plant(?) used in Bihar (Santal)88.

Analysis and discussion Reports of use or acceptance of a herbal cure in many states, in distant locations or by different ethnic groups should lend credibility to its efficacy. This hypothesis is largely true, and is supported by comparison with recipes which are part of ISM today. This point is elaborated in later paragraphs. An effort was made to see as to which multilocational and multiethnic uses if any, are not yet employed in ISM in India. For evaluating novelty of the uses reported by the folk, a comparison with some literature on Ayurveda or medicinal herbs was considered necessary. Literature on Ayurveda as also medicinal plants is very voluminous. It is useful to describe here briefly an anomaly which exits in many books on medicinal plants published in India or other countries. A common reader does not distinguish between the title Ayurvedic plants and medicinal plants of India. The former connotes plants established as useful and curative in Ayurvedic system, while the title medicinal plants can mean plants of all indigenous systems as well as plants reported in folk claims. For this reason and for practical limitation only two books by Kapoor104 and Uniyall05 were consulted in the study. These two books have given only such uses as are based on Ayurvedic texts. They do not include folk claims. Species described above, and mentioned in one or both these books are marked with asterisk(*). This is to indicate species that are already employed in ISM. Some species not marked may also be present in other ISM books, but that will not dilute the point made in this paper. For the number of medicinal plants, the 2-volume work of Jain & De Filippsl06 was consulted. Ranking of credibility: This is discussed under different health conditions, and plants getting three or more points in ranking are highlighted for further research. 148 INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL 3, No. 2, APRIL 2004

Antifertility: About 35 plants are reported to be associated in India with contraceptionl06. Eight folk medicines were analysed here for credibility, of these two, namely Cissampelos pareira and Plumbago zeylanica are employed in ISM104,105. Both these had ranking of 5; of the remaining six, two, namely Achyranthes aspera and Calotropis gigantea score 5 and 4 respectively, and deserve further work for providing antifertility drugs. Diabetes: More than 35 plants are associated in India with excessive blood sugar. Eight ethnomedicinal plants were analysed for credibility; of these, five plants, all with score of 3 or more are already employed in ISM104,105. Of the remaining three, two namely Cassia sophera and Phyllanthus emblica score 4 credibility points, and need to be further researched for useful drugs for diabetes. Leprosy: About 80 plants are associated with treatment of leprosy106. Eight plants were analysed; of these, three are already employed in ISM. Two of these had score of 5. Four plants, namely, Abutilon indicum, Ageratum conyzoides, Datura innoxia and Gloriosa superba score 4 or 5 credibility points and need to be studied for use on leprosy. Liver diseases and jaundice: Over 100 plants are reported to be used in India for liver disorders106. Of the 28 plants analysed in this study, 17 are already employed in ISM104,105. Twelve of the latter, 17 plants have credibility score of 3 or more. Out of 11 plants not yet employed in ISM, eight, namely species of Averrhoa, Cissampelos, Euphorbia, Indigofera, Lagenaria, Mangifera, Podophyllum and Sonchus score 3-5 points, and could provide leads for useful drugs for liver disorders. Malaria: About 50 plants are reported to be employed for malarial fever in Indial06. Of the 19 plants analysed here, seven are employed in ISM104,105; six of these have 4 or 5 points of credibility. Out of 12 plants not yet used in ISM, four namely Catunaregam nutans, Eclipta prostrata, Justicia adhatoda and Pongamia pinnata score 3-5 credibility points and can have more prospect of providing useful drugs. Skin diseases: (specific) Eczema: Out of two species described in the analysis, one with score of 5 is already in ISM105. The other, namely Cocculus hirsutus with credibility score of 5 can be a prospective plant. Leucoderma: Out of six plants analysed for credibility, four are already in ISM104,105, of the remaining two, one namely Holarrhena antidysenterica has score of 4 and could prove useful in this disease. Ringworm: Out of six plants analysed for credibility, three with score of 3 or more are already in ISM104,105. Of the remaining three, two namely Calotropis gigantea and Tectona grandis have score of 5&4 respectively and could have prospect of providing beneficial drugs. Scabies: Both plants namely, Martynia annua and Thespesia populnea analysed in this study have score of over 3 and are not yet in ISM; they need to be researched for useful constituents. Skin diseases (unspecified): Out of 16 plants analysed in this study, eight, all with score of 5 are in lSM104,105. All the reaining plants, namely Cassia fistula, C occidentalis, JAIN: CREDIBILITY OF TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE 149

Centella asiatica, Eclipta prostrata, Melia azedarach,Pongamia pinnata, Siegesbeckia orientalis and Smilax ovalifolia have score of 5 and could provide good cures for skin diseases. The analysis of 103 recipes and discussion show that 50 recipes with multilocational and multiethnic use are already employed in codified system of medicine. There are ample evidences to show that all recipes in codified ISM have come from folk claims and not vice versa. To the best of author's knowledge there are only two very recent attempts to teach the tribal boys and girls about some such medicinal uses of herbs in their forests, which they have not discovered. These training schemes are at Giridih in Bihar (by Mr. P.P. Hembrum) and at the Academy of Development Sciences at Kashale, Maharashtra (by Mr. Darshan Shanker of FRLHT). It supports the proposition that the remaining 53 recipes have good chance of providing useful herbal drugs and multilocational and multiethnic use of plants for a particular disease is a good criterion for credibility of claims. Very recently Lewis107 also showed through laboratory experiments that plants reported by the folk as antimalarials proved far more effective than other ethnomedicinal plants without such antimalarial reports. Further, it is suggested that such studies on more plants, more diseases and among, diverse ethnic groups could provide leads for candidate species for laboratory and clinical research.

Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi for partial financial support, to Institute of Ethnobiology for facilities, and Mrs. Sumita Srivastava for help in making and processing the database on ethnomedicinal plants.

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