Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 307

Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy: A Perspective from Indonesia

Herdi Sahrasad Faculty of Philosophy and Civilizations, and Center for Islam and State Studies, University of Paramadina, Jakarta [email protected] & Al Chaidar Faculty of Social & Political Sciences, University of Malikussaleh, Lhokseumawe, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: As a religion, Islam provides values, ethics, norms and guidelines, but not a quick panacea, for Islam and democracy in Indonesia. So it is very important for Islamic scholars, leaders and Muslim intelligentsia to make their people be aware and conscious that the fundamentalism, radicalism and violence are the wrong answer at the wrong time to address the problems. Fundamentalism and radicalism with violent face are not the answer to tackle the poverty, social crisis, environmental crisis, global inequities and various multi-dimensional problems in recent years. Islam will be come in handy, useful and meaningful if it can make a real contribution as values, ethics, morals, ideas, thoughts, solutions and philosophy for the communities in addressing the real issues, so that Islam would be menaningful and useful in overcoming radicalism and fundamnetalism. Will Indonesian Islam be capable and credible in dealing with this challenge? It depends on its leader and ‘ulamā’s. Keywords: Fundamentalism, Social crisis, ‘Ulamā’

Abstrak: Islam menyediakan nilai-nilai, etika, norma dan panduan agama, bukan obat mujarab yang cepat, dalam memahami Islam dan demokrasi Indonesia. Jadi sangat penting untuk ulama, pemimpin dan Inteligensia Muslim untuk membuat umat mereka menyadari dan sadar bahwa fundamentalisme, radikalisme dan kekerasan adalah jawaban yang salah di waktu yang salah. Fundamentalisme dan radikalisme yang berwajah kekerasan bukanlah jawaban untuk mengatasi kemiskinan, krisis sosial, krisis lingkungan, ketidakadilan global dan pelbagai masalah multidimensional dalam beberapa tahun terakhir. Islam akan berguna, bermanfaat dan bermakna jika dapat memberikan kontribusi nyata seperti nilai, etika, moral, ide, pemikiran, solusi dan falsafat bagi masyarakat dalam menangani isu-isu nyata, sehingga Islam Iebih bermakna dan bermanfaat dalam mengatasi radikalisme dan fundamentalisme. Apakah Islam Indonesia mampu dan kredibel dalam menangani tantangan ini? Semua itu tergantung pada pemimpin mereka. Katakunci: Fundamentalisme, Krisis sosial, Ulama

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Introduction Armstrong brilliantly and sympathetically In the late twentieth century, funda­ shows us how and why fundamentalist groups mentalism has emerged as one of the most came into existence and what they yearned powerful forces at work in the world, con­ to accomplish. The militant religiosity that testing the dominance of modern secular we call fundamentalism has surfaced in all values and threatening peace and harmony the major faiths in the twentieth century, around the globe. Indonesia as a center of and fundamentalism has emerged as an social pluralism and multiculturalism has overwhelming force in every major world been target of terrorist attacks in recent years, religion. It constitutes a reaction against and a reflecting a formidable threat to peace and rejection of modern Western society, but it is not stability in the capital town. Jakarta and Bali a monolithic movement. Each fundamentalist bombings in the past were the perfect crime of movement has emerged independently and is the movement of Islam fundamentalism that a law unto itself, sometimes differing from (or has been new horror in Indonesia. in violent opposition to) other fundamentalist There have always been people who, in movements within a single faith tradition. every age and in each tradition, have fought the The fact that fundamentalism has erupted in modernity of their day. But the fundamentalism almost all cultures indicates a wide-spread and that we shall be considering is an essentially worrying disenchantment with modern society, twentieth-century movement. It is a reaction which so many of us experience as liberating, against the scientific and secular culture that exciting and empowering. Countries such as first appeared in the West, but which has since the United States, Egypt and Israel are deeply taken root in other parts of the world. The West polarized, splitting into two camps, one which has developed an entirely unprecedented and feels positive about secular modernity; the other wholly different type of civilization, so the passionately hostile to it. As the century draws religious response to it has been unique. to a close, these two camps appear to be in an The fundamentalist movements that have incipient state of war, as witnessed in such evolved in our own day have a symbiotic incidents as the bombing of the federal building relationship with modernity. They may reject the in Oklahoma; terrorist attacks on foreign scientific rationalism of the West, but they cannot tourists in Egypt, designed to bring down escape it. Western civilization has changed the Mubarak’s government; and the assassination world. Nothing —including religion— can ever of President Yitzak Rabin in Israel. One of the be the same again. All over the globe, people most dangerous aspects of the fundamentalist have been struggling with these new conditions phenomenon is that it seems incomprehensible and have been forced to reassess their religious to the liberal or secular world. The two camps traditions, which were designed for an entirely within the same society scarcely speak the same different type of society. language and have few values in common. Projects that can seem self-evidently good to Fundamentalist Groups & Democracy a liberal —such as democracy, peace-making, Yet it remains incomprehensible to a large  number of people. In The Battle for God, Karen Karen Armstrong, Battle for God (Guttenberg Project, 2000.) Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 309 concern for the environment, the liberation of dichotomous categories: ‘myth versus logos’ women, or freedom of speech— can seem evil and ‘the conservative versus the modern.’ or even Satanic to a fundamentalist. Drawing on other social scientists work, she Recently fundamentalists have master­ argues that humans have developed two ways minded critical historical events such as the of thinking and obtaining knowledge. Johannes murder of the Israeli Prime Minister Yitzak Sloek similarly terms them ‘myth’ and ‘logos,’ Rabin, the September 11 tragedy, and the in his book Devotional Language. Therein myth frequent suicide bombings characteristic of the is a form of mystical knowledge, having an Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These are examples abstract supra-logical object, based not on fact of the kind of dangerous activities in which and its truth capacity as determined by sense. fundamentalists are reacting to modernism. Myth cannot be confirmed by rational evidence, Though the perpetrators come from different while logos depends on it, i.e. rational, pragmatic religious backgrounds, they share a common and scientific form of thinking. Logos is related characteristic that is religious fanaticism. to the facts and external realities, consequently Fundamentalism is one of the most widely it can be proved empirically. discussed phenomenon of the 20th century. Fundamentalist is a term used since the It has always been a part of the world views 1920’s to refer to the most religiously conser­ of radicals practicing the world’s major vative group within Christianity. Within religions, not only Christianity and Islam, Judaism, Islam and other religions, the term is but also Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and used to refer to the extreme conservative wing Confucianism. There is no lucid definition who Karen Armstrong defines as “embattled for the term ‘fundamentalism.’ Initially, the forms of spirituality, which have emerged as term was used by American Protestants in the a response to a perceived crisis”— namely the early 1990’s to differentiate themselves from fear that modernity will erode or even eradicate the more liberal Protestants. Since then the their faith and morality. term ‘fundamentalism’ has been more freely used to refer to the purification movements to  Its roots in Christianity can be traced to the late be found within all world religions. Therein 19th Century as a reaction against liberal movements all fundamentalist movements share certain of Biblical criticism and analysis. A 1909 publication approaches in that fundamentalism is a defense “The Fundamentals: A testimony to the truth” proposed five required beliefs for conservative Christians; they mechanism which arises as a reaction to a are listed above under ‘Evangelicals,’ items 1 to 5. threat or crisis. Fundamentalists generally believe that other wings of The main argument in this book revolves Christianity, and other religions, are false. The largest around Armstrong’s conception of the world’s Protestant denomination in the U.S., the Southern Baptist Convention, has recently transitioned to belief systems as being divided into two fundamentalism. Bob Jones University, the General Association of Regular Baptists, the Moody Bible Institute and other groups are also fundamentalists.  Karen Amstrong, The Battle for God: A History Among the most generally known leaders are Jerry of Fundamentalism (Ballantine Books, 2001.) Falwell, Bob Jones and Hal Lindsey.  Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (ed.),  Karen Amstrong, “Fundamentalism in Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Christianity & Islam,’’ The Wisdom Fund, at: http:// Chicago Press, 1991.) www.twf.org/ Library/Fundamentalism.html 310 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015

The term has three additional meanings and final section that looks at the difficulties in general usage that cause great confusion: a Islam has faced in its increasing contact with ‘snarl’ word, used by some non-fundamentalists the West. This last section includes a clear to imply intolerance, bigotry, lack of flexibility discussion of the move from agrarian societies and an anti-intellectual bias. When applied by to technological societies in general, and the the Western media to Muslims, it often means difficulties concomitant when modernization ‘anti-American.’ When used by conservative is forced upon colonial lands: a situation faced Muslims themselves, it refers to a person who by a number of countries with large Muslim strictly follows the teachings of the Prophet populations. The explanation is helpful in putting Muḥammad, and who promotes the concept of not only Islamic fundamentalism into context, but theocratic government. any fundamentalism. And, as Armstrong points Karen Armstrong’s book, Islam: A Short out, Islam was the last of the three Abrahamic History, is a concise, eminently interesting, religions to develop a fundamentalist strain. She and quite useful work of art. When the work presents fundamentalism as “a global fact that comes out in paperback—and we hope it will has surfaced in every major faith in response to somewhere down the line—we will use it the problems of our modernity.” as a class text. The first eighty pages are an Armstrong’s presentation of the problems introduction to the Prophet Muḥammad’s life, facing ‘Alī and the early Shiite community is to the establishment of the Muslim community, both sensitive and succinct. She weaves the and to the situations facing this community from development of Shiism in through a number of the time of the Prophet’s immediate successors other topics, but she does so as well as any study through the Umayyad dynasty and the early days we have seen, including much larger works. of the Abbasids. We have yet to find a text that Although she only alludes to the miraculous covers for students all the early Islamic historical powers described by authors like Amir information.We think it is important to cover in Moezzi, she does include the eyesight (France: the amount of time we have, but Armstrong’s clairvoyance) of many other authors do not book ‘fails’ us only in one or two minor areas: even mention in relation to the Shiite imams, we like a little more on Bedouin culture and pre- and she explains (again, clearly and summarily) Islamic Arabia. These short-comings are almost how the Zaydis and the Ismailis split off from nugatory in light of how well Armstrong does the the Twelvers and the main philosophical tenets rest. The remainder of the book deals with the that distinguish them. It was in part because of ‘culmination’ of Islam, including the Crusades the smoothness of this ‘weave,’ and in even and the period of the Mongols; with ‘Islam larger part because of Armstrong’s sensitivity Triumphant’ (section 4), which is an introduction that the words ‘work of art’were chosen in to the Safavids, the Moguls, and the Ottomans; the first paragraph above. She has taken on nearly all of the West’s unenlightened fears, criticisms, and misunderstandings regarding  B.A. Robinson, Tolerance, Copyright © 1996 to 2001 incl. by Ontario Consultants on Religious Islam (inferior status of women, the veil, Originally written on: 1996-MAR-11.  Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (New York: Modern Library Chronicles, 2000),163-4.  Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History, 164. Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 311 fundamentalist violence, polygamy...) and atavistic return to the past, but an attempt to shown how they fit into the Islamic context in impose decent values in Iran again.12 a manner that is lucid and compassionate. Western commentators often use —or Armstrong, a self-avowed woman without misuse— terms taken from Christianity and religious affiliation, is here working to help us apply them to Islam. One of the most commonly understand one another at the deepest level, but used is fundamentalism. As we know it, in its to do so without glossing over difficult issues original application it means someone who and with the scholar’s insight. The West must believes in the fundamentals of religion, that is bear some measure of responsibility for the the Bible and the scriptures. In that sense every development of the new radical form of Islam, Muslim is a fundamentalist believing in the which in some hideous sense comes close to Qur’ān and the Prophet. However, the manner our ancient fantasies. Today many people in that it is used in the media, to mean a fanatic or the Islamic world reject the West as ungodly, extremist, it does not illuminate either Muslim unjust, and decadent. The new radical Islam thought or Muslim society.13 In the Christian is not simply inspired by hatred of the West, context it is a useful concept. In the Muslim however. Nor is it in any sense a homogeneous context it simply confuses because by definition movement. Radical Muslims are primarily every Muslim believes in the fundamentals of concerned to put their own house in order and Islam. But even Muslims differ in their ideas to address the cultural dislocation that many about how, and to what extent, to apply Islamic have experienced in the modern period. It is ideas to the modern world.14 impossible to generalize about this more extreme Mainstream Sunni Islam is possibly the form of the religion. It not only differs from most broad-based, tolerant form and certainly country to country, but from town to town and the one with the largest number of followers village to village.10 —almost ninety percent of Muslims are Sunnis. We constantly produce new stereotypes However, the Wahhābī school within the to express our apparently ingrained hatred of Sunnis believes in a strictly literal interpretation ‘Islam.’11 Another theme of the new fundamen­ of the Qur’ān. It dominates Saudi Arabia, which talism has been an attempt to get Islamic history has a small population of about ten million but back on the right track and to make the umma huge influence because of its oil revenues and (Muslim community) effective and strong once as guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and again. The Iranian revolution was not just an Madīna. This school would interpret everything in the Qur’ān literally: thus the chopping off of hands, death for adultery, and so on.15  Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet (Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1991.) 10 Michael Gilsenan has argued that the differences 12 Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of are so great from one district to another that the term the Prophet, 265. ‘Islam’ or ‘fundamentalism’ is simply not useful in 13 Akbar S. Ahmed, Living Islam: From Samarkand defining the current attempt to articulate the experience to Stornoway (London: BBC Books,1993), 55. of people in the Middle East during the post-colonial 14 Akbar S. Ahmed, Living Islam: From Samarkand period. to Stornoway, 18-9. 11 Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of 15 Akbar S. Ahmed, Living Islam: From Samarkand the Prophet, 42-3. to Stornoway, 208. 312 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015

Fundamentalism is a term popularly used to ranging from German resurgence to new Russian describe strict adherence to Christian doctrines imperialism— the ‘vanishing’ ozone layer, based on a literal interpretation of the Bible. nuclear proliferation, and narco-terrorism.17 This usage derives from the late19th and early Topping the list of potential new 20th century trans-denominational Protestant global bogeymen, however, are the Yellow movement that opposed the accommodation of Peril, the alleged threat to American economic Christian doctrine to modern scientific theory security emanating from East Asia, and the and philosophy. With some differences among so-called Green Peril (green is the color of themselves, fundamentalists insist on belief in Islam.)18 That peril is symbolized by the Middle the inerrancy of the Bible, the virgin birth and Eastern Muslim fundamentalist—the ‘Fundie,’ divinity of Jesus Christ, the vicarious and atoning to use a term coined by the economist19— a character of his death, his bodily resurrection, and Khomeini-like creature, armed with a radical his second coming as the irreducible minimum ideology, equipped with nuclear weapons, of authentic Christianity. This minimum was and intent on launching a violent jihad against reflected in such early declarations as the 14- Western civilization. point creed of the Niagara Bible Conference of George Will even suggested that the 1878 and the 5-point statement of the Presbyterian 1,000-year battle between Christendom and General Assembly of 1910. Islam might be breaking out once more when The name fundamentalist was coined in he asked, “Could it be that 20 years from now 1920 to designate those “doing battle royal we will be saying, not that they’re at the gates for the Fundamentals.” Also figuring in the of Vienna again, but that, in fact, the birth of name was the Fundamentals, a 12-volume Mohammed is at least as important as the birth collection of essays written in the period 1910- of Christ, that Islamic vitality could be one of 15 by 64 British and American scholars and the big stories of the next generations?”20 preachers. In the 1970s, ’80s, and ’90s, however, fundamentalism again became an influential force in the United States. Promoted by popular Indonesia, where nearly 90% of the populace television evangelists and represented by such is Muslim, is the world’s largest Islamic country. groups as the moral majority, the new politically oriented ‘religious right’ opposes the influence 17 Narcoterrorism is a term coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry of Peru in 1983 of liberalism and secularism in American life. when describing terrorist-type attacks against his The term fundamentalist has also been used to nation’s anti-narcotics police. describe members of militant Islamic groups.16 18 Leon T. Hadar, University professor, and Now that the Cold War is becoming a former bureau chief for the Jerusalem Post, describes the creation of the myth of Islamic fundamentalism memory, America’s foreign policy establishment by the US foreign policy establishment. See his work has begun searching for new enemies. Possible “The Green Peril: Creating the Islamic Fundamentalist new villains include ‘instability’ in Europe — Threat,” Policy Analysis No. 77 August 27, 1992. 19 “Fear of Fundies,” The Economist, February 15, 1992, 4546. 16 Paul Merritt Bassett, Grolier’s Academic 20 “This Week with David Brinkley,” ABC News, American Encyclopedia (Arête Publishing and Nielsen December 29, 1991, transcript prepared by Graphic Media Research , 1999.) Journal, 6. Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 313

However, Islam has never played a central role than the differences between ‘traditionalists in the country’s politics. Nevertheless, there ,’‘modernists’ and ‘fundamentalists,’ is that has been a persistent tension between those between those working for the Islamization of advocates of a more prominent and formal role Indonesia and those who wish to Indonesianize for Islam in the country, and those who resist Islam. In some measure, the debates over the making Islam an organized political actor. In the role of Islam in Indonesia have been between late 1980s, under the now defunct New Order (devout Muslims) and the era of former President Soeharto, there was an (nominal Muslims.) The New Order era largely effort to reach out to Muslims and Islam in a succeeded in suppressing this basic (and overly more explicit way. The main reason for this was simplified) dichotomy. President Soeharto’s desire to widen his power In the immediate post-independence period base beyond the military and the secular ruling of parliamentary democracy, Muslim political political party, Golkar. A symbolic indication parties did in fact play an important role in of this effort was President Soeharto’s decision politics. A number of the Prime Ministers of the in 1990 to make his first trip or Hajj to Mecca. period were from the largest Muslim political Other steps on the path to Islamization of the party, Masjumi. But divisions and differences New Order regime included reversing the ban on amongst the various elements that comprised the wearing of jilbab (head covering) for female the party led to the weakening of political Islam students in state-run schools and the founding in Indonesia. of the country’s first Islamic bank. As Sukarno issued in the era of guided Roughly a decade after Soeharto’s attempt democracy, the fortunes of almost all political to encompass Islam in the political sphere, parties began to flounder. The Masjumi was the New Order collapsed. On 21 May 1998, banned in 1960 on the basis of allegations that President Soeharto resigned. In essence, the its leaders were active in a regional rebellion. effort by Soeharto to widen his political base Other Islamic groups also began to come under by reaching out to Islam did not prevent the Sukarno’s control. The rise of the Indonesian fall of his regime. While Soeharto’s efforts in Communist Party (PKI) and Sukarno’s growing the preceding several years to cultivate Islam support for it put Islamic parties and groups may have re-invigorated Islamic groups and even more on the defensive. However, given organizations, the current evolving role of Islamic cooperation with the military in the Islam in the politics and policy-making of context of the fall of Sukarno in 1965, it post-Soeharto Indonesia is likely to be more appeared that Islam might yet again play a sustainable then it was at the beginning of stronger role in the country’s politics. This did Soeharto’s New Order era. A major reason for not materialize however. this expectation is that there has been, over the While working to diminish the role of past decades, a surge in religious consciousness Islam in the politics of the New Order, at the among many circles within the Indonesian same time the government encouraged Islamic Muslim community. religious and ritual activities to flourish. Such A central point about the Islam in Indonesia encouragement took the form of government- is that it is not monolithic. A key divide, other sponsored proselytizing, the increase in Islamic 314 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015 publications and the construction of mosques. nature of the Islamic community. Specifically, In essence, Soeharto’s New Order took a dual- the military elite have suspected that Islam has track approach to Islam. On the one hand, it been a motivating force in regional rebellions resisted any political role for Islam while on the in West Java, Aceh and South Sulawesi to name other it promoted Islam as a private religion. but a few. Second, the military leadership has Between the political and the private, a tended to be dominated by either the abangan third dimension of Islam in Indonesia has been Javanese or secular nationalists. The non- its societal role. In this realm, Islam retained an Muslims in the military have tended to shy important, and in fact increasingly influential away from defining national identity in religious position. For example, Islamic organizations terms. Even more, the military leadership, in as mass-based movements focusing on social perceiving its role as the guardian of national and educational activities remained important unity in an ethnically and religiously diverse aspects of the Indonesian landscape. However, society, has tended to regard attempts by as the two largest Muslim organizations, the Muslims to express political interests through and suggest, protests on economic and cultural grievances even as a social force Islam in Indonesia is not with hostility. Third, in terms of power politics, monolithic. Still three developments arising out ABRI was inclined to deny a formal role to of the societal role of Islam in the last decade or Islam out of concern that it would challenge so of Soeharto’s rule have set the background the military’s prominent position in the New to the role of Islam in the country today. First, Order system of government. However, in the members of the Muslim middle class are now early 1990s and since, there appear to be the culturally and intellectually more self-confident makings of a greater accommodation between than their predecessors. Second, the Muslim Islamists and the ABRI. The ABRI’s suspicion middle class, while accepting that religion about the Islamic community’s rebelliousness and society cannot be separated, including and tendency towards factionalism appears to government and politics, does not support have abated. an Islamic state. Finally, there is a growing In general, Islam has not had an important religious awareness amongst the middle class role in shaping Indonesia’s foreign policy. There of Indonesia. The contemporary significance are two main reasons. First, foreign-policy of such developments is that the long-standing making has been dominated by state institutions, distinctions between santri and abangan and and non-governmental forces have not been between modernism and traditionalism is now allowed to tread on the government’s authority giving way to a more complicated picture of in this area. Second, Muslims leaders themselves Islam’s role in Indonesian society. have been concerned with a relatively narrow Relations between Islam and the Indonesian range of international issues; particularly those military have been problematic. Many reasons that have explicit Islamic dimensions or involve have been offered to explain the troubled, and the Islamic world or the Middle East. This too at times mutually suspicious relationship. First, may be changing. Emerging leaders in the new some in the military elite have been unhappy with political climate of post-Soeharto Indonesia what they regard as the factious and rebellious such as , the ex-leader of the Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 315 political party PAN, are raising questions about Indonesian revolution collapse of this economy Indonesia’s foreign policy. Two compelling has put an end to the ruling group propaganda, issues for these persons are the inter-national and given a room for oppositional forces to identity of the state and the country’s place in improve condition. the Islamic world. Related to these questions is Every ruling group in the world is faced the issue of Indonesia’s relationship with the with an opposition. In a real democracy, an West. It is clear that new voices are emerging important form of opposition can be found in in terms of views on foreign and security policy representative assemblies such as parliament. In in the new political climate, but it is not clear the present-day Indonesia, however, this kind of what these voices will have to say. However, opposition is virtually non-existent because the it does not seem likely that the Islamic factor people representative council (MPR and DPR) will emerge as a major factor or determinant of are representing only a small part of the people. Indonesia’s foreign or security policy. Thus real opposition in today’s Indonesia is Islam has not been a monolithic force in the carried out by extra-parliamentary forces. politics of Indonesia. There have been divergent It is very important to analyze some of these views amongst several Islamic organizations forces in a systematic way. On the whole these and movements, most prominently the NU forces can be divided into two broad categories. and the Muhammadiyah. The New Order In the first one, opponents are ideological government’s policy of diminishing the role of enemies such as, first, the crypto-communistic political parties combined with the military’s party, a PRD (People Democratic Party) which suspicion of Islam, led Islamic organizations to is derived from the spirit of the banned party concentrate on religious, social and educational PKI (Indonesia Communist Party) on the left activities rather than politics. This very shift in and, second, the radical Islam —and even called emphasis led to Indonesian society becoming in notoriously ‘extremist’ or ‘fundamentalist’— more Islamicized, including the rise of a Muslim DI (, Islamic State Movement) middle class that entered both the government or TII (Tentara Islam Indonesia, Indonesian and the military. These changes in part led the Islamic Troop) on the right who are striving military to reassess its view of Islam’s role for a nomocratic state which is in principle in Indonesia. Moreover, in the post-Soeharto based on Islamic laws, shari‘a. In other words, context of Indonesian politics, Islam has what this second opposition leaders want is a emerged as perhaps the most important force. return to the original ideals of the Rasulullah Islam is likely to be a major force in the politics Muḥammad’s Madīna State as enunciated in of Indonesia for the foreseeable future. the seventh century. Southeast Asia is clearly a sub-continent in In the second category are elements which turmoil. Here I would try to provide analysis are, on the whole, of the same ideology with the on the situation in the Indonesian archipelago. leaders of the regime is called as a bourgeoisie The economic growth of the so-called ‘tiger opposition. They are anti-communist and economy’ has also been used by the bourgeois they welcome foreign investments for the to prove the ‘spectacular’ and ‘progressive’ construction of the national economy. There role of capitalism. But now the beginning of the are, however, differences of degree. The army 316 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015 leaders, intellectuals, and student leaders in this of this study, in the quest for implementation category accuse the regime of having ‘sold out’ of shari‘a in Indonesia, are the Muslims and the the national resources to foreign capital for the non-Muslims doomed to clash violently in this sake of ‘development.’ Some of the government century, or are there ways to reconcile the two to leaders are profit taking from this state of create a peaceful co-existence in the world? affairs, as they received the commissions Possibly as yet, we have not closely and kickbacks paid by foreign companies, examined or truly under-stood the situation which go into their personal bank accounts. of Indonesia either through the mass media or Concomitant to this, the regime is condemned directly, and we would probably feel amazed at by these critics because of its rampant, wide how despite the size of the Islamic community spread corruption which has created general there, it is historically and socio-logically demoralization and cynicism (collusions, capable of establishing Daulah Islamiyyah corruptions and nepotisms) thus obstructing (Islamic State) in Indonesia today. The majority the vigorous growth of the nation. In addition, of historians write that Islam came to Indonesia the violation of democracy and suppression of by means of traders. There are those of the civil liberties, such as the freedom of the press, opinion that they came from India around the form the target of attack of these critics. 13th century, there are those of the opinion that The mortal enemy of the Indonesian it came from China around the 9th century. government is comprising of Islam and There is also the opinion of those who say Communism the DI/TII and PRD/PKI. If we that Islam arrived directly from the Arab lands consider the PRD to be on the extreme left around the 7th century CE. During the next —like its predecessor— in the Indonesian phase of its Islamic development, many states political spectrum, then there is also opposition of the Indonesian archipelago became Islamic to the Jakarta regime form the extreme right. kingdoms, including the kingdoms of Demak, The latter is represented by traditional Muslim Banten and Pasai amongst others; and shari‘a leaders who aspire to establish a Negara Islam has been part of Indonesia from the beginning. (Islamic State), a state based on the precepts of It was through out these Islamic Kingdoms the Qur’ān and devoid of the various aspects that there arose the spirit of self defense when of secular Western culture in the form of the colonizing Dutch tried to forcibly take these nightclubs, casinos, massage parlors and the Muslim States which were Indonesian. At that like which are at present mushrooming in the time the Dutch, who were notably Christian bigger cities of Indonesian. came bearing their mission of the 3G (Gold, This group forms a minority considering Gospel [Bible] and Glory [Colonization]). The the fact that officially nearly 90 percent of the ulama and the young of the Islamic community population is Muslim and that the majority who came from various backgrounds arose up of Islamic leaders as represented in the NU, to oppose the Colonialists with the irrefutable Parmusi, PSII and Perti—now all of them spirit of martyrdom (jihad.) The nature of merged into the PPP— do not show a hostile the Islamic communities’ opposition at that and antagonistic attitude toward Western time was indeed still regionally sporadic, and culture and its manifestations. For the purpose amongst those who led against the colonialists Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 317 are such are well-known names such as Imam interregnum, and gracefully succeded under Bonjol, Pangeran Diponegoro and Teungku her current political dispensation. Tjik Di Tiro. As to the movement on a national The supporters of an Islamic State are scale, it emerged firstly in the year 1905 with spread all over Indonesia but there are strong the appearance of the SDI (Sjarikat Dagang reasons to suggest that their leadership was Islam, the United Islamic Merchants) which until 1976 based in the province of Aceh, North was pioneered by H. Samanhudi. Following Sumatra, as embodied in the late Teungku this organisation, came the birth of SI (Sjarikat Daud Beureueh. This is the veteran Muslim Islam, United Islam) in the year 1912 which leader who, as a matter of fact, has always was pioneered by H.O.S. Cokroaminoto, and been in opposition to the successive ‘secular’ during the development of this organisation regimes in Jakarta since the beginning of there arose the PSII (the United Islamic Party 1945 Independence. They consider that the of Indonesia.)21 The movement was orientated Indonesian government is ‘Colonialist.’ The towards the various aspects of life — political ‘Colonialist Indonesia’ efforts, which were ideology, economy and social. By the means held by their cadres, were capable of expressing of a long exhaustive process, in the year enough success in keeping Islam away from 1949, the Islamic State of Indonesia (Negara the native Indonesians. This started with the Islam Indonesia [NII] or Darul Islam/Tentara emergence of people in the Islamic Community Islam Indonesia [DI/TII]) was formed under of Indonesia both from within the ulamas the leadership of Imam Sekarmaji Marijan (Islamic scholars) themselves, their own Kartosoewirjo until he was arrested by the leaders, and lay people, who distinctly stated Sukarno regime of the Indonesian Republic. that they did not want Islam to be the basis of This was achieved using the Muslim hostages their nation. In fact they had already achieved a as human shields (pagar betis) in their battles certain threshold of fear, which was enough to against the Muslim army (TII.) But, Imam discourage those people who could have raised Sekarmaji never surrendered to the secular Indonesia as an Islamic State.22 enemy. Since that time until now some of So, in Indonesia today it can be said the Islamic community in Indonesia —who that there is nobody who clearly states that understand these facts through many transitions it is obligatory for the Islamic community to and power shifts— continue the struggle to establish an Islamic State. There are those return Daulah Islamiyyah. This study will who oppose and compete against Communist be interestingly to discuss how Indonesian triumphed over past Indonesian military 22 The latest information which is important enough to reveal at this state of affairs is that Amien Rais, a son of Indonesia, who as leader of the 30 million 21 The more interesting problem in SI movement is members of Muhammadiyah (an Islamic Organisation a new tendency brought by Semaoen who coloured this which has some potential in Indonesia) is closely radical organization by the ideology of Communism. watched and respected, stated in the Time international The organization split later, one is SI Merah (Red SI, a magazine (September 23, 1996, Volume 148, No. 13) in communist wing) and other is remained in Islam as SI an article entitled “The New Face of Islam” by James Putih (White SI.) The struggle against Islam played by Walsh: “I don’t want to waste any energy talking about communist attracting many political scholars as they study stupid issues like an Islamic State, we must have a deeply about the communist’s strategy of deception. Democratic System.” 318 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015 who yearns for the establishment of Indonesia to the communist, considered by Daud as an Islamic State. They use various kinds of Beureueh as the infidels par excellence. pretexts, amongst which is: “There is no order The PKI was not only hated as an atheistic to set up an Islamic State’’ or “There is no party but also as an enemy which aimed to āya or ḥadīth what so ever which orders us to liquidating the influence of Islam in Indonesia establish an Islamic State.”23 if given the chance. This confrontation But it must be revealed the current between Islam, the state and the Communist Indonesian constitution (UUD 1945) has has been attracking democracy observers provision for the shari‘a in the Djakarta about how their interpretations. Considering Charter (Piagam Djakarta) and this study will that democracy is not an event but a process, revealed this point that dismissed the argument the Islam groups reinterpret the democracy whether shari‘a is part of the Indonesian practiced in Indonesia on pretext that was constitution and might be possibly to urge an Communist’s and secular’s original creed. Islamic State democratically. With regard to the New Order regime Like Kahar Muzakkar or Daud Beureueh emerged in 1967, the criticism of the radicalist sympathised with the Darul Islam movement right-wing group is aimed at the ‘sinful’ of S.M. Kartosoewirjo and TII which had proliferation of nightclubs, brothels in the respectively West Java and Kalimantan/ camouflage of massage parlors or steambaths, Sulawesi as areas of operation. Both had the gambling dens and other dubious attractions same aim of establising a nomocratic stated for tourists in Jakarta and provincial capitals. based on Qur’ānic Law and both where Within this context it is contended that the suppressed by the Indonesian Army in the Government supported Golkar should better first half of the 1960s. If Kartosoewirjo was be called Golkur from Golongan Kuraish, captured, brought to trial and later executed in the aristocrats in Mecca who were against 1962. Kahar Muzakkar was killed in action in the Prophet Muḥammad.24 Also criticism has February 1965. been expressed against the policies of New Although it can be said that Daud Order President Soeharto considered to favour Beureueh has been outside the Indonesian the Christian communities, Catholics and government since 1949, the transfer of Protestants, in the country and to discriminate sovereignty by the Dutch to the Indonesian against the Muslims. people, his opposition to Jakarta was more Within this last context a letter written by vociferous when Sukarno was President in Daud Beureueh to the President on 10 August the period of Guided Democracy. The main 1974 is significant. In it the Muslim leader drew reason for this was his anger because of the the attention of Soeharto to the fact that a wise policies of Sukarno which were advantageous and just leader should devote his attention to the wishes of the majority of the population. If not, 23 said, “There is no order to this leader cannot be considered wise and just. set up an Islamic State,” in discussion of launching ’s book, Tidak Ada Negara Islam: He is then a leader who is zalim (tyrannical) Surat-Surat Politik Nurcholish Madjid (Jakarta: Yayasan Paramadina, Djambatan dan Panji Masyarakat, 7 November 1997.) 24 Sinar Harapan, Jakarta, March 21, 1977. Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 319 and a ‘stupid fool.’ History has shown that great part on the majority of this country, the tyrants in the end will be destroyed so that this umma Islam. Only if you devote the necessary should be taken as a valuable lesson. Sukarno attention to it and evaluate it correctly, will you (the first President of Indonesia) was afraid of succeed in this and the next life. I hope that my Islam and the forces which could be generated advice and message will be of use to you.25 by the umma (Muslim community.) He looked for an opponent and enemy of Islam and found Needless to say this letter infuriated the this in PKI. Sukarno incited the communist ruling group in Jakarta in a tremendous way. to attack Islam, so that the umma would not It seems that the contents have never been become strong. “But Allah intervened, you published in Indonesia itself. Baihaqqi A.K., (Soeharto) were moved to destroy them (the a lecturer at IAIN (Islamic College) Jamiah communist) and finally also Sukarno and the Ar-Raniry at Banda Aceh got hold of a copy communist whom he had encouraged and aided, of the letter and showed it to some people. As were destroyed.” Daud Beureueh continued in a consequence he was arrested and kept in jail his letter: for three months. In the end Daud Beureueh’s message to the President was apparently one of Now I observe that you (Soeharto) are also the factors for the later to advise the Indonesian afraid of Islam and the potentialities of its Council of Churches (PGI) not to organize the umma. You are now searching for an adversary fifth General Assembly of the World Council of of Islam. The communists are no longer here so Churches in Jakarta as originally planned.26 that you have found the disciples of Christianity The opposition of Daud Beureueh to the as a strong and powerful rival. What are you regime is based more on moral forced than on actually seeking? You encourage them, support armed strength. Differing from the Darul Islam them, you incite them to attack Islam, the and the Tentara Islam Indonesia of the 1950s religion of Allah, so that the umma remain weak and 1960s which were movements supported and powerless. Secondly I also observe that by armed units, the radical right-wing Islamic you are keen on expanding your own personal group has no soldiers under its command. power. But believe and I hope you would It is, however, a potential hearth of unrest prevent history from repeating itself. What has for Jakarta as the manifesto or proclamation occurred to Sukarno and his communist friends, (pronunciamento) of its leader could incite could take place again. May however history not the Muslim masses and alienate them from the repeat itself and destroy you and your friends. regime. The ultimate weapon of the movement Therefore, Brother, return to the real and correct is the threat of secession from the Republic.27 path. You being a Muslim, help Islam and its umma. By doing this you would have placed 25 The letter is published in Impact International, the demands of the majority of the people London, May9-22, 1975. 26 high on the list of priorities without forgetting See Indonesia: Feiten en Meningen (Amsterdam, June 1975), 13, as quoted by B.J. Boland, Pergulatan nor neglecting the other groups in Indonesian Islam dalam Politik di Indonesia, tr. (Jakarta: Grafiti society. Trust and believe that your victory, Pers, 1984.) 27 power and greatness will be dependent for a This was once wielded by the same Daud Beureueh in the 1950s against the Ali Sastroamidjojo 320 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015

At next phase there seemed to be a new have held lots of demonstration to protest the version of the movement called the Komando massacre of their community by the military. Jihad (Holy War Command.) Some of its leaders Politically, they are also anti the Dual Function have been arrested. One of them, Haji Ismael of the ABRI (Indonesian Armed Forces.) So it Pranoto, was brought to trial in Surabaya in is also important for the PRD to have tactical September 1978. He was accused of having alliance with such Islamic forces to build an attempted to establish an Islamic State with the anti-militarism front. support of an army with its main base in Central In Indonesia itself, Islam is not a represen­ and East Java near Blitar. At the end of the trial tative of a social class or political interest. It is Pranoto was sentenced to life imprisonment. divided into different political groups based on Some Muslim circles contend that the Jihad their social taxonomy. NU (Nahdlatul Ulama), Command is an invention of the regime with for instance, represents Muslims whose social the purpose of discrediting the Islamic State basis is peasant with the remnants of feudalism supporters. If so, the trial of Pranoto is nothing in political and cultural life. Muhammadiyah else than a sham. and ICMI (Association of Indonesian Muslim The biggest danger of Islam in Indonesia Intellectuals) represent the modern Muslim is not radicalist but fundamentalist who whose social basis are traders, intellectuals and manipulates Islamic practices by the ultra- professionals. Islam does not either represent right groups. This manipulation of Islam has a social class, because it has bourgeoisie, petit been done by the ultra-right groups and the bourgeoisie and workers. military by raising the sentiment of racism, anti- In Indonesian history, the Islamic poli­ Christianity and anti-Communism against the tical parties like Masyumi and NU used to democratic mass movements, in several parts of be a reactionary force which had roles in Indonesia. Like the white terror in Banyuwangi slaughtering millions of members of the East Java, Ketapang Jakarta, Kupang, Sambas, PKI. But the other period of Indonesian Mataram and other regions and the formation of history also shows that Islamic forces like SI the para-military groups to attack the students (Syarekat Islam) were a progressive force. We and people’s demonstrations. Indonesia as cannot generalize whether Islamic forces are the largest democracy in Southeast Asia is progressive or reactionary politically. And the important to the United States and Western fact is that nowadays there are Islamic forces countries. If Indonesia goes down so does the which are anti-militarism and can be pushed sub-continent. The issue of shari‘a and Islamic toward the formation of the anti-militarism State has to be addressed carefully. front. Indonesia is not facing fundamentalism Meanwhile the real Islamic forces grouped as a real threat, but militarism and the civilian- in Darul Islam are those which consistently military or civil militia collaboration. This oppose militarism. The Islamic groups in means that cooperation with Islamic forces Aceh, Lampung, Tanjung Priok and others which are anti-militarism as tactical alliances need to be taken by PRD to fight against mili­ Cabinet and only skilful negotiations between Jakarta tarism and to anticipate the scenario of civilian- and the Achehnese prevented a national disaster at military collaboration. In short, the strategy at that time. Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 321 the moment is to build a broad tactical alliance and America almost three hundred years to with all radical oppositions against the Habibie develop this kind of civilization; it was a and Abdurrachman Wahid regime and military highly complex process that involved advances during 1996-2000 and the tendency of the in several fields and on various fronts at the bourgeois opposition leadership. same time. It did not come fully into its own The betrayal of bourgeois oppositions in the West until the nineteenth century. Once has at least two negative impacts towards the it was up and running in Europe, the need to democratization in Indonesia. Firstly, they give continually expand the economy and find new the old repressive power of Soeharto regime markets led to the formation of Eastern colonies and the military which is already cornered to in Indonesia, the Middle East and Africa during come up again on the political stage and do the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. offence. Secondly, they moderate and lower the These colonies then had to be modernized increasing degree of the resistance of the people. according to Western norms to make them fit In short, they blunt the main contradiction in in with this new Western-dominated economic the society. network. It was at this point, therefore, that Under such Western type of civilization the non-Western nations began the process of built by the New Order Soeharto administration modernization; it became apparent to them that of developments, it is no wonder if now the the only way to take a full part in the new world military rises their confidence. If in last and to shake off European hegemony was to November 1998 the military was the common Westernize. But modernization took over three enemy, now they do lots of provocation by hundred years in the West, and it was a painful, shooting the cabs of demonstrators and drive violent and dislocating process. their tanks to campuses. Under the name of securing the ‘free and democratic’ election A New Cold War? supported by the bourgeoisie, they now Indeed, “a new specter is haunting America, become more repressive and provocative one that some Americans consider more sinister including by training 40.000 para-military than Marxism-Leninism,” according to Douglas personnel as guards and securing forces for E. Streusand, “That specter is Islam.”28 The rise the coming General Election on June 7, 1999 of political Islam in North Africa, especially the and the Assembly. recent electoral strength of anti-liberal Islamic Western society has changed the world by fundamentalist groups in Algeria; the birth of introducing a new type of civilization, based several independent Muslim republics in Central not (as in the pre-modern period) on a surplus Asia whose political orientation is unclear; and of agricultural produce, but on technology the regional and international ties fostered by that enables us to reproduce our resources Islamic governments in Iran and Sudan are indefinitely. This type of civilization depends upon a scientific and empirical rationalism, 28 Douglas E. Streusand, “Abraham’s Other which is not constrained, as in the pre-modern Children: Is Islam an Enemy of the West?,”Policy world, by spiritual, religious or mythological Review 50 (Fall 1989.) See also exchange of letters titled values. It took the peoples of Western Europe “Is Islamic Fundamentalism a New Red Scare?,”New York Times, January 29, 1992. 322 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015 all producing, as Washington Post columnist was perceived as merely a dangerous ‘thug’ Jim Hoagland put it, an “urge to identify Islam who broke the rules of the game and whom as an inherently anti-democratic force that is Washington could suppress by military force. America’s new global enemy now that the Cold Saddam’s Iraq was a threat to a regional balance War is over.”29 “Islamic fundamentalism is an of power, not to the American way of life. aggressive revolutionary movement as militant The alleged threat from Iran and militant and violent as the Bolshevik, Fascist, and Nazi Islam is different. The struggle between that movements of the past,” according to Amos force and the West is portrayed as a zero- Perlmutter. It is ‘authoritarian, anti-democratic, sum game that can end only in the defeat of anti-secular,’ and cannot be reconciled with the one of the sides. The Iranian ayatollahs and ‘Christian-secular universe’ and its goal is the their allies —‘revolutionary,’‘fanatic,’ and establishment of a ‘totalitarian Islamic state’ in ‘suicidal’ people that they are—cannot be the Middle East, he argued, suggesting that the coopted into balance-of-power arrangements United States should make sure the movement by rewards and are even seen as immune to is ‘stifled at birth.’30 military and diplomatic threats. One can reach The Islam vs. West paradigm, reflected a tactical compromise with them— such as in such observations, is beginning to infect the agreement with Lebanese Shiite groups Washington. That development recalls the to release the American hostages but on the efforts by some of Washington’s iron triangles strategic level the expectation is for a long, as well as by foreign players during the months drawn-out battle. leading up to the 1990-91 Persian Gulf crisis. Indeed, like the Red Menace of the Cold Their use of the media succeeded in building War era, the Green Peril is perceived as a up Saddam Hussein as the “most dangerous cancer spreading around the globe, under- man in the world,”31 and as one of America’s mining the legitimacy of Western values and first new post-Cold War bogeymen. Those political systems. The cosmic importance of efforts, including allegations that Iraq had the confrontation would make it necessary for plans to dominate the Middle East, helped to Washington to adopt a long term diplomatic condition the American public and elites for the and military strategy; to forge new and solid U.S. intervention in the gulf.32 There is a major alliances; to prepare the American people for a difference between the Saddam-the-bogeyman never ending struggle that will test their resolve; caricature and the Green Peril. Notwithstanding and to develop new containment policies, new the Saddam-is-Hitler rhetoric, the Iraqi leader doctrines, and a new foreign policy elite with its ‘wise men’ and ‘experts.’ 29 Jim Hoagland, “Washington’s Algerian There are dangerous signs that the process Dilemma,” Washington Post, February 6, 1992. 30 Amos Perlmutter, “Wishful Thinking about of creating a monolithic threat out of isolated Islamic Fundamentalism,” Washington Post, January events and trends in the Muslim world is already 19, 1992. beginning. The Green Peril thesis is now being 31 Brian Duffy et al., “Saddam: The Most Dangerous Man in the World,” U.S. News & World used to explain diverse and unrelated events Report, June 4, 1990, 38-51. in that region, with Tehran replacing Moscow 32 See “Gulf War Coverage: A One Note as the center of ideological subversion and Chorus,”Extra 4, No. 3 (May 1991.) Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 323 military expansionism and Islam substituting winning the elections. The notion that we have for the spiritual energy of communism. to stop the fundamentalists somewhere echoes Islam does seem to fit the bill as the ideal the Cold War’s domino theory. post-Cold War villain. “It’s big; it’s scary; “Geopolitically, Iran’s targets are four—the it’s anti-Western; it feeds on poverty and Central Asian republics, the Maghreb or North discontent,” wrote David Ignatius, adding that Africa, Egypt and other neigh-boring Arab Islam “spreads across vast swaths of the globe countries, and the Persian Gulf states,” explained that can be colored green on the television maps Hoover Institution senior fellow Arnold in the same way that communist countries used Beichman, who is raising the Muslim alarm. to be colored red.”33 Beichman suggested that ‘the first major target’ Foreign policy experts are already using for radical Iran and its militant strategy would be the familiar Cold War jargon to describe the “oil-rich, militarily weak Saudi Arabia, keeper coming struggle with Islam. There is talk of Islam’s holy places and OPEC’s decision about the need to ‘contain’ Iranian influence maker on world oil prices.”36 If the West does around the globe, especially in Central not meet that challenge, a Green Curtain will Asia, which seemed to be the main reason be drawn across the crescent of instability, and for Secretary of State James A. Baker III’s “the Middle East and the once Soviet Central February stop in that region.34 Strategists Asian republics could become in a few years are beginning to draw a ‘red line’ for the the cultural and political dependencies of the fundamentalist leaders of Sudan, as evidenced most expansionist militarized regime in the by a U.S. diplomat’s statement last November world today, a regime for which terrorism is a warning Khartoum to refrain from ‘exporting’ governing norm,” he warned.37 revolution and terrorism.35 The Islamic threat argument is becoming Washington’s policymakers even applauded increasingly popular with some segments of the the January 1992 Algerian ‘iron fist’ military American foreign policy establishment. They coup that prevented an Islamic group from are encouraged by foreign governments who, for reasons of self-interest, want to see Washington

33 David Ignatius, “Islam in the West’s Sights: The embroiled in the coming West vs. Islam Wrong Crusade?” Out-look Section, Washington Post, confrontation. The result is the construction of March 8, 1992. the new peril, a process that does not reflect any 34 ������������������Thomas L. Friedman, “U.S. to Counter Iran in Central Asia,”New York Times, February 6, 1992; grand conspiracy but that nevertheless has its Thomas L. Friedman, “Baker’s Trip to Nations own logic, rules and timetables. Unready for Independence,” February 16, 1992; and The creation of a peril usually starts with Robert S. Greenberger, “Baker Is Wooing Central mysterious ‘sources’ and unnamed officials Asian Republics,” Wall Street Journal, February 14, 1992. who leak information, float trial balloons, and 35 The diplomat, Deputy Assistant Secretary of warn about the coming threat. Those sources State for African Affairs Robert Houdek, warned the reflect debates and discussions taking place Sudanese that they would face ‘grave’ consequences if an international terror is act could be traced to Sudan. See Jane Perlez, “Sudan Is Seen as Safe Base 36 Arnold Beichman, “Iran’s Covetous Glances,” for Mideast Terror Groups,”New York Times, January Washington Times, February 28, 1992. 26, 1992. 37 Arnold Beichman, “Iran’s Covetous Glances.” 324 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015 within government. Their information is then A series of leaks, signals, and trial balloons augmented by colorful intelligence reports that is already beginning to shape U.S. agenda finger exotic and conspiratorial terrorists and and policy. Congress is about to conduct military advisers. Journalists then search for several hearings on the global threat of the named and other villains. The media end up Islamic fundamentalism.39 The George W. finding corroboration from foreign sources who Bush administration has been trying to devise form an informal coalition with the sources in policies and establish new alliances to counter the U.S. government and help the press uncover Afghanistan and Osama bin Laden Network further information substantiating the threat influence: building up Islamic but secular and coming from the new bad guys. pro-Western Pakistan as a countervailing force In addition, think tanks studies add in Central Asia, expanding U.S. commitments momentum to the official spin. Their publication to Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, warning is followed by congressional hearings, policy Indonesia that it faces grave consequences as conferences, and public press briefings. A a result of its policies. governmental policy debate ensues, producing studies, working papers, and eventually Civilizational Dialogues doctrines and policies that become part of the The international community has seen media’s spin. The new villain is now ready to that the fundamentalists have gunned down be integrated into the popular culture to help worshippers in a mosque, have killed doctors to mobilize public support for a new crusade. and nurses who work in abortion clinics, In the case of the Green Peril, that process has have shot their presidents, and have even been under way for several months.38 toppled a powerful government. It is only a small minority of fundamentalists who commit such acts of terror, but even the most 38 See, for example, Barbara Crossette, “U.S. Aide Calls Muslim Militants Big Concern,”New peaceful and law-abiding are perplexing, York Times, January 1, 1992; David Ignatius, because they seem so adamantly opposed to “U.S. Fears Sudan Becoming Terrorists’‘New many of the most positive values of modern Lebanon,’”Washington Post, January 31, 1992; Perlez, “Sudan Seen as Safe Base for Mideast Terror society. Fundamentalists have no time for Groups”; and Robert S. Greenberger, “Islamic democracy, pluralism, religious toleration, Fundamentalism’s Rise in Sudan Sparks Concern peacekeeping, free speech, or the separation over Movement’s Spread,”Wall Street Journal, 40 March 16, 1992; Jennifer Parmelee, “Sudan Denies of church and state. ‘Khartoum-Tehran Axis’ to Promote Islamic Regimes in Africa,”Washington Post, March 12, Is Re-emerging as a Mideast Power as Iraqi Threat 1992; John J. Fialka, “For mer Soviet Republics of Fades,”Wall Street Journal, March 18, 1992. South-Central Asia Have Nuclear Arms, Links with 39 Crossette, “U.S. Aide Calls Muslim Militants Volatile Lands,”Wall Street Journal, October 9, Big Concern.” 1991; Craig Forman, “Islamic Resurgence Sweeps 40 Christian fundamentalists reject the disco­ SovietSouth,”Wall Street Journal, October 9, 1991; veries of biology and physics about the origins of life Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, “Ignoring and insist that the Book of Genesis is scientifically Tehran’s Threat,” Washington Post, March 2, 1992; sound in every detail. At a time when many are Elaine Sciolino, “Iraqis Could Pose a Threat Soon, throwing off the shackles of the past, Jewish CIA Chief Says,”New York Times, January 16, fundamentalists observe their revealed Law more 1992; and Gerald F. Seib, “The New Order: Iran stringently than ever before, and Muslim women, Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 325

History has shown to us that in the era Cold gained growing importance after the tragedy War and after-math, it is not only Muslim and of Black September. Christian who have been the fundamentalists. In this regard, development cooperation There are Buddhist, Hindu, and even Confucian is imperative for the West and Islamic World. fundamentalisms, which also cast aside many It is largely equal to politics beyond cultural of the painfully acquired insights of liberal borders and depends upon building bridges culture, which fight and kill in the name of between cultures-civilizations of the West and religion and strive to bring the sacred into the islamic world, and finding ways of cultural realm of politics and national struggle. This and civilizational understanding in order to religious resurgence has taken many observers enter into a dialogue about ethical, religious, by surprise. In the middle years of the twentieth and political differences and similarites with century, it was generally taken for granted that others cultures-civilizations and in respone secularism was an irreversible trend and that to the criticism which since then has been faith would never again play a major part in expressed in islamic societies about Western world events. It was assumed that as human politics towards developing countries. beings became more rational, they either would The relationship between the West and have no further need for religion or would Islam has been suffering from mutual wrong be content to confine it to the immediately perception of each other which support anti personal and private areas of their lives. But in western and anti Islamic feelings and attitudes. the late 1970s, fundamentalists began to rebel Each others cultures are predominantly against this secularist hegemony and started to interpreted as a monolitihic enemy and not, as wrest religion out of its marginal position and it should be, an area of cultural deversity. For back to center stage. In this, at least, they have a long time, said Norbert Eschborn (a Germany enjoyed remarkable success. Religion has once scholar), the neighbor like relationship again become a force that no government can between Western and Islamic countries has safely ignore. not been maintained resulting in increasing In Indonesia, many intellectuals and tension on religious and cultural issues, such academicians have opinion that the WTC as the discussion about the ability of Islam to terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Bali adjust its value system to the modern world. Bombing 2002 and 2005 and so on, has On the other hand, Islamic extremist could encouraged the need for the significance of be observed for more than a decade doing cultural and civilizational dialogues between everything to pursue a course of action of Islam and the West. There is strong tendency politicizing culture and religion in accordance that the cultural-civilizational dialogues with their belief that Islam is the solution to between the West and Islamic societies have everything, therefore, this long running process support the creation of an unreflected paradigm of Islam versus the West. repudiating the freedoms of Western women, shroud themselves in veils and chadors. Muslim and Jewish Given this background the approach of fundamentalists both interpret the Arab-Israeli cultural differance must be supplemented with conflict, which began as defiantly secularist, in an the perspective of cooperative coexistence. exclusively religious way. 326 Ilmu��� ���Ushuluddin�������, Volume 2, Nomor 4, Juli 2015

Mutual interest in and understanding of each very timely to the West societies for research others culture, history, and social relations are and study on Indonesian Islam that actually a necessary condition for the dialogue of the is very pluralistic and complicated, so often West with Islamic states and societies. Such a misunderstood by the Westerners. Of course, dialogue should not only underline similiarities issue of terrorism is a real matter, especially between both cultures but also identify possible after Bali bombing that has schocked our state areas of conflict in order to mark the positive and society. Meanwhile, the radical movements potential of religious, cultural and political in Indonesia have been rising such as Darul exchange between both regions which are very Islam, FPI, HizbutTahrir Indonesia, Majelis heteregoneous within them and, at the same Mujahidin Indonesia, Angkatan Mujahidin time, share a common history.41 , Ahlussunnahwal As tension in the relationship between Jama’ah, Jamaah Tarbiyah Indonesia, Ikatan Western and Islamic cultures-civilizations have Jamaah Ahlul Bait Indonesia, Dewan Dakwah been growing, any kind of dialogue, therefore, Islamiyah Indonesia, KPPSI and soon. These has not only to be intensified but must take particular movements, which have been among into consideration the changing situasion of the most prominent and influential, have all world politics. been motivated by common fears, anxieties, and desires that seem to be a not unusual response Indonesian Muslim and Crisis to some of the peculiar difficulties of life in the Indonesia, as the largest Muslim country, modern secular world. therefore, after the fall of President Soeharto, We are sure that, facing terrorism can be regarged as a champion of democracy and Islam fundamentalism, no way out to or at least democratic transition for a Muslim solve the issues, except with cultural and nation, although this must still be tested by the civilizational dialogues and economic deve­ passage of time. It is natural that the West has lopment cooperation between the West and viewed Indonesian Islam, at least before the Indonesia. These dialogues and cooperation Bali bombing, as being Islam with a new face. are very contextual and pivotal to eradicate In 1996, international media called Islam in poverty, social unjust, backwardness, and Indonesia modernist, progressive, and a friend multidimentional crises in Indonesian society, of the West and other cultures-civilizations beside to improve mutual understanding. and perceived it as an example of succesful So far, Indonesian society has fallen into harmony between muslim and modernity. debt trap amounted to US$170 billions (state But, to borrow Anthony Reida’s perspec­ and private loans.) That foreign debt, mostly tive, that Indonesian Islam still remains a the odious debt, has depleted economic grossly understudied world appears to be resources of the people. Meanwhile imposition true today ever more than before. So, it is of Washington Consensus to Indonesia in conformity with IMF, World Bank and WTO 41 Norbert Eschborn, “Democratization and the guidelines, has burdened the people economy in Issue of Terrorism in Indonesia,” presentation in which most of them are the poor Muslims. From seminar, Bandung: Universitas Parahyangan & Konrad- this sensitive point, Islam has been rallying Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS), 2004. Herdi Sahrasad & Al Chaidar, Islam, Fundamentalists & Democracy 327 point to youth, students, ulamas and scholars as Bibliography a basic ideology vis-a-vis the West hegemony ABC News, “This Week with David Brinkley,” that they blame as the new imperialists in December 29, 1991, transcript prepared by Indonesia under global capitalism. Graphic Journal, 6. Ahmed, Akbar S., Living Islam: From Samarkand to Stornoway. London: BBC Books,1993. Conclusion Armstrong, Karen, Battle for God. 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