Perspectiva Geográfica ISSN: 0123-3769 Vol. 20 No. 1 de 2015 Enero - Junio pp. 37-70

Departmental Institutions and Decentralised Cooperation in Boyacá

Instituciones departamentales y cooperación decentralizada en Boyacá

José L. Niño Amezquita1

Para citar este artículo, utilice el nombre completo así: Niño, J. L. (2015). Departmental Institutions and Decentralised Cooperation in Boyacá. Perspectiva Geográfica, 20(1), 37-70.

Abstract

The Colombian reality shows how subnational entities have been affected by a process of recentralisation since the beginning of the XXI century, and the weakening of intermediate entities in the decentralisation of the last century. However, these entities are seen as the linkage for territorial internationalization, an empty space that few municipalities have adopted and within which departments have hardly acted. Boyacá, a territory in the middle of the Andes, faces challenges that, until now, it has been unable to answer in the right way. The current document is based on primary data which analyses the cooperation from the department as well as the municipalities. Therefore, the internal dynamics and realities suggest that the solution may lie on the integration that Boyacá and its municipalities might have with inter-subnational peers. However, this is still a long path to walk for the Colombian territorial entities, especially in the Department of Boyacá.

1 Doctor en Instituciones, Administraciones y Políticas Regionales del Centro de Investigación Regional Lombardo: Eupolis (consorcio de las Universidades de Pavía, Milán, Católica y el Politécnico de Milán). Economista de la Universidad de Los Andes con maestrías en Geografía Humana del Instituto de Geografía de París y Gobernanza y Políticas de Desarrollo de la Escuela de Altos Estudios Internacionales y Políticos. [email protected] Keywords: Boyacá, descentralized cooperation, internationalization of territories, intersubnational relations, multilevel governance, paradiplomacy, territorial development.

Resumen

En , las entidades sub-nacionales se vieron afectadas por la recentralización desde comienzos del siglo XXI y con el debilitamiento de las entidades intermedias durante la descentralización del siglo pasado. Sin embargo, estas entidades se observan como el articulador de la internacionalización territorial, espacio vacío que pocas municipalidades han adoptado y donde los departamentos han tenido un nulo accionar. Boyacá, territorio inmerso en los andes colombianos, enfrenta retos que hasta hoy no ha afrontado correctamente. El presente documento, se basa en información primaria que contribuye al análisis departamental y municipal de cooperación. Por ello, las dinámicas y realidades internas; sugieren que la solución estaría en la integración que Boyacá, y sus municipalidades, pueda tener con pares inter-subnacionales. Sin embargo, este es un largo camino que falta por caminar para las entidades territoriales colombianas, especialmente del departamento de Boyacá.

Palabras clave: Boyacá, cooperación descentralizada, internacionalización de territorios, relaciones intersubnacionales, gobernanza multinivel, paradiplomacia, desarrollo territorial.

38 José L. Niño Amezquita Rationale municipalities. Within the context of breaking down of national The problems of territorial borders, strengthening of supra- organisation have led to a new national blocs and the influence topic of study, offering a tool for of multilateral actors in southern any kind of development policy countries, this text aims to revalue applied in the southern countries. how Boyacá’s government and As territorial internationalisation its institutions play the role of and decentralised cooperation take coordinator and bridge for these on more importance, Colombia is new public policies. not exempt from these processes. However, up until now, studies To approach this issue, the and practices have focused on current paper tries to understand well-known cities and regions, the municipal perspective, mainly on Bogota, Medellin and its departmental aggregate of its surroundings. This has resulted decentralised cooperation, and in a widening of the gap between the institutional action of Boyacá territories, leaving other zones House; searching to develop the lagging and without political Department as well as its territories options or any form of theoretical within. To analyse this behaviour research. the research uses primary data, collected with a survey made by This is the case in the department the author to the local mayor or the of Boyacá, which has had to municipal planning secretary. The live with and depend upon the survey is based primarily on closed country’s large economic centres questions, and two open questions and national redistribution that approximate the perceptions policies. After the implementation of each participant. The survey of decentralising policies and was carried out without prior the distribution of functions, the conceptual explanation, avoiding department found it difficult to a conceptual bias and allowing take over responsibilities like the concept definition be based on relationships with external actors. the realities that each territorial The situation was now much more leader lives. Later, because the complex, due to the redistribution data is based on closed forms, it is of financial resources in favour of shown on the document with maps,

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 39 showing if there is any central- one of their main priorities, but periphery behaviour or any shared none have been able to achieve provincial actions. it. What follows is an explanation of the difficulties faced in the In addition, this article contextua- construction of the Colombian lises the Colombian reality and the Nation from its independence in impact that territorial legislation, the early 19th century. The second coupled with policies aimed to- part of this section will focus on the wards institutional strengthening, internationalisation of Colombian has had on new relations between departments and the existing sub- territories and international actors. national units. It is here that one The first part tries as well to un- can observe the difficulties it has derstand the National perspective experienced in the process. This build since the departmental reali- is a result of historic (the conflict) ty. Then, the case of Boyacá and its and geographic (the mountains) municipalities will be presented. dynamics that each of the The study will aim to explain how, departments has to contend with, under the framework set out in establishing relationships outside the previous section and given the the national borders becomes more scarce municipal capacities, the de- complex, given that they do not partment emerges as a central fig- even have strong links with the ure in the use of new decentralised nation or with national peers. cooperation and internationalisa- tion tools, impacting in a real way 1.1 The Colombian territorial its territory and population. reality

1. Colombian Instability and Colombia’s territory has undergone fragmentation huge changes over the course of the two centuries following Colombia has always been independence, which in part led characterised by its fragmented to the 1991 constitution, a result territory, which as well as providing of Colombia’s numerous peace for a diverse cultural make-up, also processes. The new millennium brings with it problems. Over the marked a restructuring of the years, governments have made the central and peripheral perspectives, integration of the national territory resulting in a restructuring of

40 José L. Niño Amezquita powers, a process still under viable option in the face of the construction. Now a historic existing territorial fragmentation. viewpoint of Colombian territories The result was, as Planas explains will be presented. In order to do (1997), six constitutions in less this, three time periods will be than six decades (1832, 1843, considered: the instability of the 1853, 1858,1863 y 1886), each 19th century, the strengthening of depending on the president of the the unitary state which is later put time. in doubt, and the construction of a social state that came with the All of this instability on national 1991 constitution. borders, as well as the question of what would be the best type In the second decade of the 19th of state for the territory, would century, Colombia emerged as an be put to rest by the 1886 magna extensive territory which occupied carta which defined Colombia as a large part of northern South a central unitary state. However, America. From the creation of Gran although this would create Colombia in the post-independence constitutional stability, it would period, the discussion between not be the solution to Colombia’s unitary or federal state would territorial reality. frame 60 years of constitutional instability, which first began when The second period, which began to- Socorro’s 1810 constitution was not wards the end of the 19th century, adopted (Velandia, 1971). After the would bring about two interesting disintegration of Gran Colombia aspects: constant territorial recla- in 1831 and the creation of a less mation and a delegitimisation of extensive national territory, the central entities by illegal groups. opportunity to impose a central During this period, territories took model emerged. As with so many on a greater degree of autonomy, to others, this would be based on the the extent that Panama was granted French system. However, with the independence at the beginning of passing of time and the constant the 20th century, under the presi- changing of the ruling party, the dency of Jose Manuel Marroquin federal system became the favoured (1900-1904). Although this was option for liberals, who saw this a result of international pressure, system of government as the most there already existed within Colom-

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 41 bia a territorial reorganisation pro- regardless of how many attempts cess that allowed for the division were made at reconstruction by of large departments into smaller the Colombian State, efforts which territories, which also aimed to cre- hoped to legitimise national and ate a counterbalance which would territorial institutions. Mendoza favour the centre in its control over (1992) points to five territorial the peripheries (Fals-Borda, 1996). principles: This territorial organisation would not, however, be complete until the a) autonomy of territorial 1990s. Another aspect to consider entities; b) consolidation of arrived in the 1940s, with the start decentralisation; c) economic of the Colombian conflict, which strengthening of territorial would move towards the recogni- bodies; d) the municipality as tion of farmers and guerrilla move- a principal engine of the state; ments. In response, paramilitary e) development of participative groups were formed. Since the lat- democracy. ter part of the 20th century, all these actors found a way to finance the Although conceptually this was the conflict in drug-trafficking, which right way to strengthen the unitary put in doubt the capacity for nation- state, the armed conflict continued al institutions to be present through- to weaken and undermine existing out the national territory (Pécaut, entities. 2012). This period, as with the last, would end with the construction of All of this paved the way for a new political constitution, which President Andres Pastrana’s (1998- would contain two key aspects: a 2002) recentralisation policies framework for the consolidation of of the 1990s which were further the peace process and an interna- strengthened by Alvaro Uribe’s tional focus (where the restructur- (2002 - 2006 and 2006 - 2010) ing of centralist states took on great governments. One example was importance). the changes made to the assigning of resources in the General System Following the 1991 constitution, of Bonuses (SGR)2. At the same the armed conflict and the delegitimisation of the central state 2 The SGR is a compensation mechanism that was originally created to make up for the effects caused on continued throughout the country, nearby areas by the extraction of natural resources.

42 José L. Niño Amezquita time, after the perceived failure of already weak entities, this further Andres Pastrana’s government in weakening led to the restoration managing the peace process, Alvaro of a national sentiment that had Uribe came to power, although been put in doubt throughout the his autocratic image would put 1990s, almost leading Colombia to the efficiency of talks with armed become a failed state. groups in doubt. During his two terms as president, Uribe adopted The current president, Juan Manuel a strong military policy in order to Santos (2010-2014), has continued have the presidency represented to take advantage of this situation to in every corner of the nation, introduce other mechanisms, where thus allowing him to put in place territorial resources are redirected policies which reinforced centralist according to national entities, while ideas and served the presidency. at the same time attempting to create a vision of the territory which There were notable changes on would allow the implementation a territorial level. Firstly, the of policies that contribute to aforementioned reassignment the development of each of the of resources in the SGR gave territories. Throughout this period, a smaller margin to territories. there have been a number of Institutionally, an effect of the national changes that are worth “consejos comunales”3 was studying, due to their implication for a weakening of national and territorial order and the long-term territorial entities, since the effect they would have on public population only legitimised the territorial policies and especially presidency (and thus only the departmental policies. president). This came about as this type of activity was always seen Perhaps the greatest advancement to be the solution to problems, in response to the instability and without necessarily recognising lack of continuity of policies who was responsible for providing linking territories to national answers to the problems. In the entities was the reform brought about by the Organic Law of 3 The Common Councils were created by the mandate to gain a presence in Colombian territories. Inhabitants of Territorial Planning (LOOT) of these populations were invited to share their problems, 2011. This law sought to revive affording them all the national institutional expertise to allow a quick response. what was laid out in the 1991

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 43 constitution, which had faded over Although each one of these tools time as a result of departmental has its own logic, they are pertinent weakening, poor use of resources to this text for two main reasons: the by many municipalities (due to the strengthening of territorial entities lack of technical capabilities) and in order to carry out functions they the recentralisation of the early previously did not, and promotion 21st century (Niño-Amezquita, of associations between entities 2010). This legislation sought to of the same or different levels. strengthen decentralisation without With this comes a strengthening of jeopardising the unitary Colombian territories and, in turn, this can lead state and while understanding to the introduction of functions that that autonomy is one of the best none of the levels had claimed as ways to deal with the needs of the their own, as is the case with inter- population and its territories (ICP, sub-national relations. 2011). Finally, one must evaluate the Within this process of recreating project in terms of a territorial national entities and territories, concept laid out in the 1991 it is necessary to start to develop constitution: the region. As is the projects alongside the different case with many of the processes levels of government. There are that have been developed in three important cases where efforts Colombia, the region as a concept are brought together and the is adapted from the sub-national resolution of territorial problems units of Europe’s Latin countries, is promoted through joint territory- and creates a more complex four- nation action. These actions level political - administrative principally replicate models that structure. This project was never have been developing steadily in wholly followed through, with Latin Europe. As a result, we see there currently being some test associative blueprints between cases in the Caribbean region or territorial entities (EAET), the the central region (near Bogota), Contrato Plan (CP) and Public- which show the first results more Private Alliances (APP) (Borda & than 20 years after the framework Diaz, 2012). was initially put in place. Doubts have emerged over what functions this new structure should take on,

44 José L. Niño Amezquita with the belief that large-scale allowing for new links to be forged projects should be carried out by outside the borders. entities which are larger than the department but not necessarily 1.2 Internationalisation and by the nation (DNP, 2013). Sub- decentralised cooperation in national relations do not enter Colombia into, this framework of ceding responsibilities to regions, but Colombia is not immune to the this does not imply that territorial dynamics that shape the rest of entities that currently exist the world although, due to its (departments and municipalities) geographical characteristics and the demonstrate any interest in continued armed conflict, applying exploiting this responsibility. these processes has been somewhat more complicated. As with other The central-peripheral struggle has countries, cooperation originally existed since Colombia’s creation existed between departments who and can largely be explained by a sought solutions to the armed fragmented territory. In turn, it is a conflict and the creation of relevant territory that has been impossible institutions. Over time, “aid, which to control for a centre that self- has development as its objective, legitimises and which has found became integrated into the logic of several actors who are unwilling international alliances” (Arteaga, to allow the continuance of 2011). institutions throughout the national territory, namely local elites and In Colombia, cooperation is groups operating outside the law a mechanism used to deepen (sometimes they are one and the international relations and same). contribute to the country’s development (APC, 2012). With This all provides a context from regards to the start and evolution which to examine how territories of international cooperation integrate into the new process of in Colombia, the concept has territorial globalisation, with the undergone many changes, due breaking down of national borders to international influence and and some weak or inexistent experiences, moving from a vision national and territorial institutions of Official Aid for Development

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 45 (AOD) towards a vision centred into the hands of Social Action, an around impact on development, entity linked to the presidency. since the country’s recent inclusion in the OECD4. It is necessary to The final restructuring saw the underline that, although the national creation of the Presidential Agency economic reality is one of a large for Cooperation (APC), which was economy on a continental level, responsible for channelling supply this has not implied that traditional and demand through a direct cooperation has continued to be dialogue with national institutions essential in Colombia, due to the (especially the Ministry of Exterior aforementioned conflict. So, the Relations) and territorial entities applicable results end up being (APC, 2012). humanitarian and emergency aid, food aid, cultural cooperation, This previous context demonstrates grants and donations. how cooperation has been no exception in terms of the constant The 1970s saw real steps towards changes in public ordering and international cooperation in administration in Colombia. The Colombia, when the government territories, therefore, have had created a special division in the to develop their own initiatives National Department of Planning in order to forge links with (DNP), called International actors outside the national Technical Cooperation. This borders, although there are few division would be responsible examples of successful cases. for coordinating international An example to take into account cooperation (Guaqueta, 1995). is Colombia’s first decentralised This continued to be dealt with international cooperation agency, by the DNP, until it was adopted the Cooperation and Investment by the Ministry for International Agency of Medellin and the Relations at the end of the century. Metropolitan Area (ACI), set up With the arrival of Uribe’s in 2002. The ACI helps ensure that government and the strengthening the city is part of the global flow of of the presidency, this function fell technical and financial resources, allowing for local development (ACI, 2007). 4 Based on the definitions of the APC. http://www. apccolombia.gov.co/?idcategoria=114#&panel1-6

46 José L. Niño Amezquita Map 1. highlights how irrelevant not taken on much significance in internationalisation (and decen- Colombia, due to the insistence on tralised cooperation) is within the basing this process on the idea of departmental organisation5. Guti- sovereignty, highlighting the fact errez (2011) explains that the in- that these sorts of relations could ternationalisation of territories has create problems with the centre.

Map 1. Level of internationalization of Colombia’s departments. Source: by author, based on the departmental administrative organisation chart.

5 To do so, the position of the person responsible and their closeness to the head of the executive is studied. If they depend directly on them, the value is 1 and so forth.

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 47 In Colombia, there are 32 depart- nal affairs. Within this group are ments plus the capital, but only Arauca, a border department of 42% of them evidence some de- Orinoquia, Caldas and Quindio, gree of internationalisation. Fur- located in the centre of the country thermore, of the departments that (in the area known as the Coffee demonstrate some level of inter- Region), Bogota and its depart- nationalisation, 64% have a value ment, Cundinamarca, La Guajira of two. This highlights the impor- in the north and Tolima, Santander tance of efforts made by interna- and the Valle del Cauca which are tional actors, notably the European located along the Andes. Union, to strengthen departmental and municipal initiatives, as evi- Amazonas and Antioquia are the denced by ACI (2002) at the start departments with the lowest rank of of the century. internationalisation in the country, scoring four and three respectively. The departments of Nariño and However, it is worth pointing out Boyacá have an office that - de that Antioquia is no stranger to the pends directly on the executive dynamics of internationalisation, and demonstrate the first level of with its very own Institute for internationalisation. The two share the Development of Antioquia similar climates, geographical con- (IDEA) which is run by the head ditions and a shared agricultural of cooperation and international dominance. Northern Santander business. has its own secretariat, which is dedicated to international cooper- Additionally, 58% of Colombian ation and border issues, given that departments do not show any kind the department is the main gateway of administration dedicated solely to Venezuela. to the theme of internationalisation, with the majority of these located Only 27% of the departments, and in the south-east of the country. this includes the capital, have a There are a number of aspects that level of internationalisation of two, either promote internationalisation which suggests that, while inter- and the use of decentralised co- nationalisation does not depend operation tools or hinder it within directly on the executive, they do departmental entities: geographic have an office dealing with exter- location, economic vision and the

48 José L. Niño Amezquita decentralised cooperation frame- some time, institutionalising this work of the territory, and the capi- vision will respond to a traditional tal city-department relationship. view of cooperation as a source of aid. 1.2.1 Geographic location The cases of Amazonas and Taking into account the definition Northern Santander are interesting. of decentralised cooperation and The former is relevant given its its interest in crossing national international links, brought about borders, it follows that this is by the inexistence of any kind of an action which is initially seen border limits in the jungle and in border regions. However, the strong tri-frontier links seen Colombia’s frontier zones do not in the capital, Leticia (Colombia- behave in the same way, or if they Peru - Brazil). For Northern do it can be explained by other Santander, internationalisation factors. Within this group we have and decentralised cooperation Arauca, which borders Colombian are imperative. This department Orinoquia, and whose economy presents the perfect example of a is centred mainly on petroleum territory that lies beside an existing and livestock. It does not, geographic border which, in reality, however, have any strong ties with becomes blurred by the constant Venezuela. The other departments flow of people and goods across making up the national corners are said border. This is why there Guajira (north), Nariño (south- emerges a need for a secretariat to west), Amazonas (south) and deal with these topics6. Northern Santander (north-east). Guajira has strong commercial ties Geographically, there is clearly with Venezuela, although its main a behavioural link to the Andes. global vision is framed by its natural Looking at a map of Colombia, resources. In Nariño, commercial it can be seen that the majority ties with Ecuador exist, since the of departments where some part region is geographically better of the government is specifically linked to its neighbouring country dedicated to internationalisation than to the rest of Colombia. are located along this mountain Although part of this breaking 6 The Secretariats are the second level of government in down of borders has existed for Colombia’s departmental order.

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 49 range. This is hardly surprising, internationalisation and the use of given that the Andes are where the decentralised cooperation. majority of the population is located as well as the country’s economic Each department has an economic activities. Therefore, the majority vocation, demonstrating which of southern or eastern departments of their principal products creates show little interest in this type of interest internationally. This is the entity7. Consequently, these roles case in terms of natural resources are taken on by the nation and, in in Guajira and Arauca, and in a few cases, municipalities. An terms of coffee production in example of the distinct lack of Tolima, Quindio and Caldas. These interest in this tool is Colombia’s last two have organised the coffee Pacific coast, although there are producing eco-region, with their some links to cooperation for international position also being aid, which can be taken on by the determined by another key line in national agency. its economy: tourism (Rodríguez et al, 2003). 1.2.2 The economic vocation and internationalisation This economic line forms part of the internationalisation process Colombia’s development has been of the country’s most developed mainly centred around the Andean regions, Valle del Cauca, Antioquia, region. So, the departmental entities Cundinamarca and the Capital in this part of the country can rely District. These territories have gone on greater technical and financial well beyond simply positioning capacities with which to make their themselves as tourist destinations entrance into international spheres. and have been dedicated to However, given the fragmented encouraging investment in their geographical reality, the economic territories. This was made possible situation in the departments is not by the wide range of production the same. This territorial disparity and the concentration of demand has an effect on the application of for goods in these areas. Evidence of this is the internationalisation

7 16 departments from this group contribute less than 2% and decentralised cooperation of the total GDP. 11 of these departments demonstrate evident in development plans, a higher level of poverty than the national average of 37,2% for 2010 (Riffo, 2013) exemplified by the Institute for

50 José L. Niño Amezquita Antioquia’s Development (IDEA), the lack of complementation and which deals with the management cooperation between the levels of of cooperation and international government. This can be seen in business and implements strategies the department’s loss of importance to invigorate departmental and the prioritisation of power and behaviour (Gutierrez, 2011). Also, resources at the municipal level. Cundinamarca has an international This implied that, alongside the cooperation office for strategizing constant flow of migration towards and spreading cooperation. the large population centres, the Olaya and Velez (2009) sum it municipal entities of departmental up perfectly by explaining that capitals redefined their power “these two territorial entities relationship with the sub-national have developed an explicit vision entity (the department). of internationalisation, which is mainly associated with economic The weakening of the department is development and competition”. clear, although this does not imply These territories, therefore, are that it does not have management best placed to establish bridges for capabilities or that departments decentralised cooperation in joint are not the response to certain projects, where all the members territorial characteristics. Bogotá, give and all the members receive. as the Capital District, has created This goes against the situation centralisation policies that have had in the less-developed Colombian an impact on all the departments, territories, since they will seek influencing the internal dynamics territorial internationalisation simply of each one of them. Each one of the in order to commercialise their capitals of developed departments commodities or to facilitate has organisations which are cooperation for aid, for which they focused on internationalisation will have to compete with other and decentralised cooperation. levels of government. Evidence of this is the ACI, which, after its incorporation 1.2.3 The capital city/department into the 2004 development plan, balance gave the guidelines for the global integration of the city of Medellin One of the effects generated by and its metropolitan area (ACI, decentralisation in Colombia was 2011).

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 51 In contrast, the less-developed Therefore, it is necessary to regions have much weaker favour the internationalisation departmental capitals, leaving of Colombian territories, which the job of main actor in demands the construction of internationalisation to the adequate institutions and the department. So the Andean region’s economic material for it (Rhi-Sausi population dispersal means it & Conato, 2008). Establishing the would only become efficient main role of departments in general through its grouping, as is the and Boyacá in particular becomes case of the department. The same necessary in ensuring the best use occurs in Colombia’s plains. The of a tool that has only been used by most relevant example to this study developed areas and which could is the department of Boyacá, which generate changes in the quality of we will look at in the next section, life of the population. since its capital did not manage to consolidate itself as a large centre 2. The Relevance of Boyaca’s and its population spread out across Departmental Entities the territory, the rural nature of its municipalities making the situation Continuing on from the analysis of yet more complex. Colombia’s process of territorial construction after the breaking So while some Colombian down of national borders, this departments are in the process of text will present the case of the internationalisation, there is still department of Boyacá, a complex a long way to go, since, as Ferrari territory which has seen itself (2003) points out: demoted in the eyes of national priorities. Proof of this is the Topics such as this are still lack of specialised scientific far from being part of inter- production8, opposing the claim territorial daily life in areas that it wants to make its capital a which make up countries, and city of knowledge. Therefore, this within these there does not section is based on conceptual exist the purpose of paving the

way to the internal possibility 8 It is necessary to emphasise and underline the work of creating cooperation within of Orlando Fals Borda, who dedicated a large part of his life to investigations aimed at finding a response to themselves. Boyaca’s problems.

52 José L. Niño Amezquita texts, focused on the realities of major economic actors: Santander, similar territories, and carried out in Antioquia and Cundinamarca, with the same way as 2013’s fieldwork. the previous two (taking Bogotá The last part of the text is centred into account) making up 40% of around the survey carried out in the the national GDP9. municipalities of the department. In terms of administration, Boyacá 2.1 A characterisation of the is divided into 123 municipali- department ties10 and 12 provinces. Due to their geographical characteristics, Boyacá is one of Colombia’s 32 there are also special zones in the departments. It is located in the municipalities of Puerto Boyacá centre of the country, with most (next to the Magdalena River), of the department centred around Cubara (bordering Venezuela) and the Andes mountain range. Boyacá the sub-province of La Libertad, is home to most climates and a which is made up of four munici- fragmented territory, although palities, two from the province of its main cities are located in Sugamuxi ( and the plateau known as “Sabana Pajarito) and two from Valderrama Cundiboyacense”. This is (Paya and ). shared with the department of Cundinamarca, within which lies Demographically, Boyacá is home Colombia’s capital, Bogotá. to 1,255,311 inhabitants, of which almost 50% (657,806) live in the The department of Boyacá is central area11. Looking at those 23,012 metres squared, a little located in the urban centres, the over half the size of Switzerland. percentage is even higher: 646,412 To the north it borders Antioquia, people live in urban zones and Santander, Northern Santander of those around 420,000 live in and Venezuela. Arauca and the central zone. Given that the Casanare border it to the south majority of Boyacá’s inhabitants and south-west respectively, while 9 Sourced from the National Department of Statistics it meets Cundinamarca, Caldas (DANE). and Antioquia in the east. Its 10 Boyacá is the department with the second-most geography is significant, due to its municipalities after Antioquia, with 125 (Source: DANE). 11 Made up of the provinces of Centro (capital ), proximity to three of Colombia’s Tundama () and Sugamuxi ().

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 53 live in the urban areas of Tunja, of transport links, a tradition has Duitama and Sogamoso, there been established, which although it is a strong inclination towards retains its rural character, presents centralising the economic sector. In a culture more closely linked to contrast, the other provinces show the south of the department of a much higher number of people Santander. Within these provinces living in rural areas than urban there are indigenous groups which areas. The rural population, in fact, add further complexity to a diverse represents around two thirds of the department. total population of the remaining nine provinces. The central region appears to be the favoured area, being as it is the only Boyacá is culturally diverse, place where one will encounter due mainly to its geography, the main economic activities where factors such as its area, its of the region, industrial carbon location and its proximity to other and cement. This production of departments contribute to blurring commodities was the development a departmental identity. This is why factor from the 1950s, although it the rural tradition is strong in the never spread the benefits to the rest centre and south (towards Bogotá). of the department, as is the case in These are also the same elements Acerias Paz del Rio. As shown by that characterise the grouping of Cuervo & Gonzalez (1997), this Cundiboyacense and represent public industry was just a “chapel the image that the department in the desert”. has outside its borders. To the west of the department, near the Thus, after years of poor adminis- Magdalena River and bordering tration, the 1990s gave rise to the the departments of Caldas and privatisation of the company, which Antioquia, lies the emerald was strengthened by the general production zone. The higher reduction in production of goods temperatures and mountainous by states. Over time, it became a terrain have strengthened a large company, attracting foreign different identity, which takes after investment like that of the Brazil- the “paisa” tradition much more. ian group Votorantim. However, Finally, in the north, due to the the territorial problem remains the distances involved and the lack same, since its production is not

54 José L. Niño Amezquita aligned with any nearby actor and GDP (DANE, 2005). As a result, its economic activity is completely territorial order and regional detached from synergies in favour integration have taken on greater of local and departmental develop- importance - although they are not ment. very clearly laid out - due to the wide range of territorial identities that Other factors which drive exist within the department. Efforts the economy are tourism and by developed areas to integrate commerce12, also found mainly and create joint development, in the centre of the department. which would lead to growth Tourism grew thanks to the throughout the whole department, region’s proximity to Bogotá, were decreased. This problem is coupled with the department’s epitomised by the axis formed by process of expansion aimed at Tunja, Duitama and Sogamoso, turning it into a destination for which has turned into something of weekend getaways. Commerce can an enclave which avoids relations largely be explained by the internal with the rest of the department and dynamic of the department. That blocks the distribution of received is to say that activities which take funds towards agriculture, Boyacá’s place are linked to internal demand principle economic activity. and position themselves mainly in the large urban areas in the centre Thus, the department is home to of the department, with being the iron and steel industry, which the municipality with the greatest has allowed for the construction vocation towards this activity. and development of Tunja- Duitama-Sogamoso’s industrial It is therefore important to arm. This industry has historically understand what happened been associated with Boyacá but and what caused this tendency. there has not been a diversification According to the 2005 census13, the of production or any sustained department’s population dropped, development of other industries as did its contribution to Colombia’s that require iron or other regional resources, leaving the department 12 Annual Manufacturing Survey 2012. Source: DANE. with no productive links, as said 13 According to DANE, Boyaca’s population dropped from before. The other main economic 1,315,579 to 1,255,311 between 1993 and 2005, in contrast the rest of the country’s growth. elements are agriculture and

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 55 tourism, which are directly linked and, consequently, the place to demand in the country’s capital. where decisions in favour of the The department is also home to the development of the department are beverage industry (alcoholic and made. Since colonial times, Tunja non-alcoholic), which has been and its department have represented driven by internal demand. a centre of power based around coexistence and competition with Taking the case of Boyacá, it the large capital, Bogota (Velandia, is clear to see the political and 1971). Since independence, in administrative influence that Bogotá addition to Cauca, Boyacá has has and Boyacá’s dependency on had the highest concentration of the capital. Bogotá’s influence presidents, a clear example of can be seen in the processes of the political power that these two territorial integration which have departments have held throughout been developed until now, and Colombia’s history (Ocampo, which assume that Bogotá’s area of 2006). This situation explains the influence includes the department behaviour and vision of Boyacá with of Boyacá, as can be seen in the regards to the transfer of national development of the city-region, the resources in order to respond to Andean Region and the RAPE14. territorial needs. As such, Boyacá This process has been gaining was one of the departments which formal recognition in 2014 and was most hard-hit by the process of shows how a flexible grouping of decentralisation that began in the territorial entities can play a central 1980s. role in development, although it can also contribute to the subordination This thinking could prove of territories to peers with more fundamental to the development political power. This is relevant that Boyacá could have, but which to placing value on international it does not necessarily seek. The integrations that Boyacá, or its Office of National and International municipalities, can achieve. Relations (Boyacá) was founded in the 1950s, within a context where For Boyacá, Bogota represents it was relevant to influence the the centre of national power decisions of the centre with regards to transferring resources from

14 Platform for Regional Development. national entities. This behaviour

56 José L. Niño Amezquita has not changed over time. After or decentralised cooperation. The the process of decentralisation, survey was carried out by mayors doubts surfaced on a national and or the planning secretary in territorial level over the best way Boyacá’s municipalities. to establish relations with partners. Currently, faced with departmental The surveys offer results which lagging and the new ways in which allow us to establish what the nation supports territorial sort of dynamics are at play redistribution, we see a return to a in terms of cooperation and search for national resources (and internationalisation15. Initially, what sometimes international resources) stands out is the unanimity of the in order to support Boyacá’s needs. territories (100% of those surveyed) In the next section, we will go into in recognising the importance of more depth about the potential role establishing international links to of this institution. help develop territories. It is worth pointing out that this unanimity does 2.2 Internationalisation inside not imply that policies developed at Boyacá. a municipal or provincial level will focus on responding to this need. As we have seen, the process of How important this is perceived to internationalisation is facing by be depends on the characteristics all of the departments, although of internationalisation and this does not necessarily mean decentralised cooperation that we that they are taking action to deal have already seen. Integration into with it and take advantage of the these global spheres allows for the resources that this new process appropriation of new knowledge generates. Boyacá is no exception. and skills and the establishment For the purposes of this study a of links for local products with municipal survey was carried out potential partners. The traditional in order to understand, from the view of cooperation still exists, institution which is closest to the placing emphasis on international population, if the departmental aid. Although Boyacá is not a level is the one which should be made responsible for the efficient 15 Of the 123 municipalities, 95% of them responded to the administration of new resources survey. However, it was not possible to obtain results in the municipalities of , Santa Maria, , relating to territorial cooperation Gameza, Pisba and Coper.

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 57 priority in terms of international survey, it was noted that both large cooperation, it responds to the municipalities and small ones have Colombian conflict and the situation some notion of what this practice of poverty experienced by many of involves. For example, both Tunja Boyacá’s municipalities, mainly and Cuitiva have an understanding those which are further from the of the theme, although the former central axis of cities. has 182,000 inhabitants while the latter has less than 2,000. There are three aspects to consider with regards to With the exception of the generating public policies to departmental capital, Tunja, high promote internationalisation levels of urbanisation do not and decentralised cooperation: guarantee a better understanding of geographic characteristics, the decentralised cooperation. In fact, level of development and the role the highest number of municipalities played by the departmental entity. claiming an understanding of the One must therefore take these into topic are categorised as high-rural account in order to understand a or mid-rural, according to urban- territory and provide an efficient rural classifications. Amongst answer to the question of the these municipalities are Quipama, department’s development. Maripi, , Sotaquira, Toca, Tuta, , 2.2.1 Geographical characteristics , Cuitiva, Topaga, Tota, Sativa norte, Nuevo Colon, As previously mentioned, , Guican and . Boyacá is a fragmented territory, something which has affected Map 2 shows the location of the the urbanisation process, a municipalities, highlighting the prevailing factor in allowing fact that the majority of munici- access to internationalisation and palities with some understanding decentralised cooperation. One of decentralised cooperation are also finds that there is no direct located in the central and western correlation between the size of part of the department. This is clear a municipality’s population and evidence of the links these areas its knowledge of decentralised have with Bogotá. The centre of cooperation. After carrying out the the department not only benefits

58 José L. Niño Amezquita from a constant relationship with economic activities. Parts of this the national capital, it is also home area differentiate greatly from the to the majority of economic activ- department. The importance of a ities. The west of the department departmental figure has been - fad shares direct links with Bogotá, ing, placing significance on a pro- without having the departmen- vincial identification, as we will tal capital acting as an interme- see later (Map 3), exemplified by diary. The main example of this administrative autonomy and the is Chiquinquirá, which is closely individual identity of the munici- linked to Bogota through various pality of Puerto Boyacá.

Map 2. Understanding of decentralized cooperation Source: by author, based on primary data.

Finally, although a spatial analysis the department was faced by of the behaviour of municipalities the same problem, according to has been carried out, it can be Fals-Borda (1957). Territorial seen that, half a century ago, fragmentation has meant that there

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 59 is no dominant central-periphery are with multilateral organisations, model or any consolidated process cooperation agencies, NGOs or in- of urbanisation. In many random ternational peers. We can also see situations, we see behaviour that that less than a third of municipal- highlights the lack of and need ities have been able to make these for intervention from entities that connections and inter-territorial group together these municipalities, connections are even less common. as we will see in the last part of this The departmental capital’s actions section. are guided towards strengthen- ing connections with international 2.2.2 The level of development peers to position itself as a centre of academia and investigation. The survey’s principal findings show that municipalities with a mid-level In these connections we can see two developmental index have a closer previously analysed perspectives; relationship with decentralised one related to links through aid cooperation than those with high or and the other related to economic low index16. Considering this, we interests. Initially the aid perspec- find municipalities such as Toca, tive will be linked to municipalities Miraflores, Quípama, Panqueba with low levels of development and and Topaga amongst others whose a highly rural population. The cen- indices oscillate between 0.3 and tral topics will be basic necessities 0.5 and have thus been able to and attention towards vulnerable benefit from this type of tool. This populations which, in some cases, also allows us to see how difficult have been the effect of a post-con- it is for the most backward zones to flict vision of cooperation. initiate integration processes with actors at an international level. The former map shows how these themes are not necessarily linked Map 3 shows the activity of munic- with support offered under the new ipalities outside national borders. manifestation of decentralised co- In it we can see which borders operation given that territories now have succeeded in making inter- only seek to meet their basic neces- national connections, whether they sities without taking into account which actor provides it (national or 16 Source: Departmental Report on the Human Development Index, PNUD. departmental government, multi-

60 José L. Niño Amezquita lateral governments or internation- leaves this type of decision mainly al territorial peers). This is due to up to the national level. From there, the low technical capacity of many issues are addressed at a national governmental municipalities which level, regardless of the territory.

Map 3. Municipalities with international links Source: by author, based on primary data.

Table 1. Perception of decentralised cooperation17 Aid for Province Joint projects Both None development Centro 1 4 9 0 Oriente 0 1 6 0 Sugamuxi 2 6 4 0 Ricaurte 2 1 10 0 Tundama 2 2 5 0 Lengupa 0 1 5 0 Valderrama 0 2 5 0 Norte 0 4 5 0

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 61 Aid for Province Joint projects Both None development Márquez 0 3 7 0 Occidente 2 4 8 0 Neira 0 1 3 1 Gutiérrez 1 0 4 1 La libertad 1 2 0 0 Cubara 0 0 1 0 Puerto Boyacá 0 0 0 1 Total 11 31 72 3 Source: by author, based on primary data.

The17 economic connection provides the latest policies proposed in the a better-elaborated vision of capital. the tool. Cases like that of the municipality of Chiquinquirá18 2.2.3 The role of sub-national become relevant to this study given entities that its vision (alongside that of Tunja) is the most competent with After taking into account the respect to concepts of territorial geographic snapshot and the internationalisation and the use of economic potential and limitations decentralised cooperation. In the of the various municipalities in first place, the municipality attracts Boyacá, it can be seen that sub- foreign investment that combats national entities can play a major unemployment. In turn, these role in integrating into international types of activities serve to develop spheres and developing their the territory through the transfer territories in a uniform manner. of technologies and experiences. Faced with this situation, this This perspective is shared by the study aimed to examine their municipalities whose principal importance in two spheres: firstly, sector is tourism and, also, those the House of Boyacá, responsible with influence in Bogotá which for the department’s national and thus have the quickest access to international relations and those of its municipalities, and secondly 17 The results are based on the survey conducted, the question was closed; leading the options presented in the association of municipalities the results. (provinces) as a tool for efficiently 18 Located in the west of Boyacá and with a strong relationship with the national capital, Bogotá. managing projects.

62 José L. Niño Amezquita Map 4. Level of dialogue with the House of Boyaca.19 Source: by author, based on primary data.

With regards the use of the depart- These results are consistent mental entity, only 2% ( with the territorial reality of the and Firavitova) claim to have an department. Due to the disparate excellent level of communication population spread across the with the House of Boyacá. A large territory, municipalities often percentage (25%) of municipalities cannot rely on mechanisms to be maintain a low level of communi- able to enter into discussions with cation with the entity, scoring a the House of Boyacá. value of 2, while 50% score a val- ue of 1. This highlights the urgent This is primarily due to the need to strengthen institutional and difficulty of travelling to inter-governmental ties. Bogota and secondly due to the unlikelihood of participating in the 19 1 refers to a low level of dialogue and 5 refers to a high level of dialogue. few activities that the institution

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 63 carries out within the department. border territory has not necessarily This takes us back to the difficulties been an integral factor in its posed by decentralising policies internationalisation, but in fact a in municipalities with a low hindrance to its integration with population, populations which its province and its country. Puerto find themselves unconnected to Boyacá, on the other hand, shows their own municipal heads. In a historic interest in the breaking terms of efficient use of resources down of departmental borders and and the most appropriate answer in the international perspective, to problems within territories, the due to its petroleum production. reconstruction of provinces can act as a tool to help introduce necessary For the other municipalities, policies for internationalisation grouping amongst municipalities and management of decentralised is of little importance. Those that cooperation. have made significant advances are few: , Tota, Santa Map 5 shows the municipal Sofía y Caldas. The majority of advancements in the strengthening municipalities show that, even if the of provincial associations. As topic is of interest or importance, previously witnessed, Boyacá it is not necessarily a priority. is divided into 12 provinces and One fifth of the municipalities two municipalities with a special demonstrate a scarce interest in the character, Cubara due to its construction of provinces, largely properties as a border territory and explained by the lack of financial Puerto Boyacá due to its geographic and technical resources. location and distinctness, both culturally and economically. Although decentralisation has tried These two cases are relevant for to establish mechanisms to ensure understanding the viability of the solution to problems at the provinces within the department. closest level of government, the Firstly, Cubara has made efforts characteristics of the department towards integration with its of Boyacá mean that few can neighbouring municipalities to be answered efficiently by the the south. This shows its interest municipalities themselves. The in participating in departmental promotion of this municipal dynamics and that its character as a grouping (province) should be taken

64 José L. Niño Amezquita as a departmental responsibility, at national entity to plan and identify the same time allowing the sub- the best course of action.

Map 5. Level of provincial strengthening20 Source: by author, based on primary data.

Finally, under the sphere of their inclusion, both nationally and internationalisation, the House internationally. of Boyacá becomes the most appropriate body for cooperating Conclusion with the department of planning and being able to respond efficiently The department of Boyacá shows to the new global realities that a complex snapshot which can the territories in Boyacá will have only be resolved through the to confront at some point, using and promoting the grouping of 20 1 refers low level of perception of provincial strengthening and 5 refers high level of perception of municipalities and supporting provincial strengthening.

Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 65 articulation of territorial actors synergetic connections between the and their connection with national department and its municipalities and international peers. This with international peers. In contributes to solving current this reinforcement, the current problems and to taking advantage territorialisation plays a crucial of the opportunities upon which role in bringing the international the department depends. In order to cooperation policy to a national achieve this, a constant interaction level. between sectorial entities of the government and the municipal Therefore, the Presidential Agency governments must contribute to of Cooperation becomes a supporting the make-up of the department. In actor to the House of Boyacá given this way, accessing global spheres that, as a participating member of comes into play, allowing us to the Departmental Committee of clearly see the role of the House International Cooperation, it can of Boyacá in supporting these provide tools that are otherwise processes, which can be built unavailable in the territory. This is from the municipalities (especially because when territorial liberties intermediary cities) the provinces were ceded during decentralisation (strengthened by the departmental only the most developed territories government) or from the same benefitted. The constant interaction department. This will depend on between said actors generates a the complexity of the problem and space to show how their relations the capacity of the territorial entity. valorise territorial opportunities.

At the same time, under these However, if the territorial agenda conditions, the functions of the is not built in accordance with an House of Boyacá should not accurate and precise identification necessarily be reintroduced but of current problems and capacities, they should be recognised both international peers will derail and within and outside the departmental thus fail to make real changes government. This should strengthen to the reality of department. It the technical and financial aspects may become futile and provide of the entity. To aid this process, the no practical use to improving the office of national and international quality of life of the department’s relations must create the necessary inhabitants.

66 José L. Niño Amezquita To conclude, it is important to territories to address new issues make clear that this chapter on but would also contribute to better decentralised cooperation and the management of departmental internationalisation of Boyacá functions. Territorial associations seeks to encourage further are seen as a step too far for the investigation on the subject. Such current reality in Boyacá. The future investigations should be priority is to know and recognise carried out within Boyacá, aiming decentralised cooperation in order to strengthen the remaining to then develop projects with capacities which have not been international peers who share depleted by limiting financial and the same goals. The new supra- technical factors. Going beyond departmental territorial structures decentralised cooperation, the can become the future mechanism question of the province as a for all departmental projects of this territorial planning organisation type. arises. This would not only help

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Perspect. geogr. Vol. 20 No. 1. Año 2015 enero - junio, pp. 37-70 69 Recepción: 3 de febrero de 2015 Evaluación:24 de marzo de 2015 Aprobación: 2 de mayo de 2015

70 José L. Niño Amezquita