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An Investigation Into the Benefits and Processes of Adventure Training Among Disaffected and At-Risk Populations

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An Investigation Into the Benefits and Processes of Adventure Training Among Disaffected and At-Risk Populations An Investigation into the Benefits and Processes of Adventure Training Among Disaffected and At-Risk Populations By Martin Evans, M.Sc., B.A. This thesis presented to the School of Social Sciences, is submitted in fulfilment of the regulations for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Cardiff University November 2013 Abstract Despite the popularity and potential value of adventure activity (AA) programmes, support for the potential claims of these therapeutic interventions to change behaviour, improve social relationships and improve self-concept has been mixed. The present study is an ethnographic investigation into the effects of participation in AA with a particular emphasis upon self-concept that seeks to move beyond description into one of explanation concerning the processes by which changes may be elicited. The study sample consists of three intervention programmes for disadvantaged and at-risk populations. The first is a Pathways to Employment project for disadvantaged youth (n = 10); the second, a Youth Offending Team programme for at-risk youth (n = 9); and the third, a JobMatch programme for unemployed adults (n = 33). Findings indicate that the AA programmes made an important and meaningful contribution towards the positive development of self-concept and may also facilitate positive behaviour change among participants. A number of affective and cognitive components emerged strongly from the data that show improvements to self-esteem, mood and self- confidence (self-efficacy). These in turn appear to effect behavioural changes exhibited and reported by participants. Participants describe improvements in attitudes and behaviour expressed as being more ready to overcome anxiety in fearful situations, take on new challenges, act in a more agentic and self-determined manner and be more trusting of others. A number of elements such as the concept of ‘challenge by choice’, the application of constructive dissonance and the personal characteristics of instructors/ staff created an autonomy-supportive environment that facilitated participants to engage internal sources of motivation which appear to play a significant part in the adventure training process. Findings also suggest that the AA represented mastery-oriented situations engendering cogent perceptions of risk and danger allowing displays of competence described as ‘self-esteem moments’ that accounted for elevated levels of self-esteem and self-competence. Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my parent – Captain Theodore Evans & Margaret Evans “Gwell Dysg Na Golud” Acknowledgements I would like to thank the supervising team: Dr Raya Jones, Dr Christopher Taylor and Dr Leslie Noakes for their sound advice, which has been greatly appreciated. I am also extremely grateful to Elizabeth Renton for her support and kindness throughout the many years, working on this study. I would also like to thank the many individuals, who have facilitated access to the three programmes under study, for their consideration, cooperation and the many humorous and enjoyable moments - to name but a few I would like to acknowledge Christine Cresswell, Catherine Kennedy, Jayne Davies, Peter Norman, Richard Davies, Robert Morgan, Ryan Stokes and Martyn Humphreys. Finally, I would like to thank my wife for her understanding and support in this indulgence. Table of Contents Chapter 1. Government Initiatives and Investment in Physical Activity Page 1.1: Introduction 1 1.2: Purpose of Study 1 1.3: The Political Agenda for Sport and Physical Activity 2 1.4: Physical Activity: From Social Control to Social and 8 Personal Development 1.5: Issues Relating to the Volume and Quality of Research 13 in Adventure Education and Training 1.6: Utility of Study 14 1.7: Structure of Thesis 16 Chapter 2. Benefits and Theories Underpinning Adventure Education 2.1: Introduction 18 2.2: Developments and Applications of Outward Bound 18 Training 2.3: Theoretical Perspectives in Adventure Education 20 2.3.1: Cognitive Dissonance Theory 20 2.3.2: Self-Determination Theory 24 2.3.3: Self-Efficacy Theory 28 2.3.4: Attribution Theory 30 2.3.5: Competence-Effectance 34 2.3.6: General Expectancies for Internal versus External 35 Control of Reinforcement 2.4: Benefits of Outward Bound and Adventure Education 36 2.5: Summary 46 Chapter 3. Experiential Learning and the Unique Characteristics of Adventure Education 3.1: Introduction 47 3.2: Defining Experiential Learning 47 3.3: The Value of Experiential Learning 48 3.4: Various and Confusing Categories of Outdoor Pedagogy 50 3.5: Combating Disaffection through Adventure Activities 53 3.6: Learning Through the Unique Medium of Adventure 55 Education 3.7: Summary 66 Chapter 4. Adventure Education and its Contribution to Self-Esteem Enhancement 4.1: Introduction 68 4.2: The Politicisation of Self-Esteem 69 4.3: The Effects of Esteem and Efficacy on Behaviour 72 4.4: Success and Failure and its Effect on Self-Esteem 75 4.5: Self-Esteem Rhetoric Superseding its Substance 77 4.6: Summary 79 Chapter 5. Ethnography 5.1: Introduction 81 5.2: Ontological and Epistemological Issues Relating to 83 Plausibility (Validity) and Dependability (Reliability) 5.3: Justifying the Research Design 87 5.4: Strategies and Directions to Naturalistic Inquiry 89 5.4.1: The Natural Setting 89 5.4.2: The Human Instrument 90 5.4.3: Utilisation of Tacit Knowledge 92 5.4.4: Inductive Data Analysis 94 5.5: Ethical Considerations 96 5.6: Programme Profiles 99 5.6.1: Programme One: Pathways to Employment Project 99 5.6.1.1: Ethics 103 5.6.2: Programme Two: Youth Offending Team 103 5.6.2.1: Ethics 108 5.6.3: Programme Three: JobMatch 108 5.6.3.1: Ethics 112 Chapter 6. Pathways to Employment and YOT Programmes: Evaluation of Outcomes 6.1: Introduction 113 6.2: Participant Characteristics and Programme Aims 114 6.3: The Sweet Taste of Success 118 6.4: Enhancing Self-Esteem through Challenge and 120 Achievement 6.5: The Influence of Staff in the Adventure Process 128 6.6: Fun and Enjoyment 132 6.7: Summary 134 Chapter 7. The JobMatch Programme: Evaluation of Outcomes 7.1: Introduction 136 7.2: Field Experiments 138 7.3: Participant Characteristics and Programme Aims 139 7.4: The Effects of Mastery on the Self-Concept 140 7.5: Facing up to Dissonance 163 7.6: Architects of the Learning Environment 185 7.7: Teamwork, Trust and Responsibility: Products of the 191 Adventure Experience 7.8: The Autotelic and Physiological Basis of Enjoyment, Fun 196 and Peak Experiences Chapter 8. Discussion and Conclusions 8.1: Introduction 207 8.2: Findings 207 8.3: Recommendations 221 8.4: Future Research Directions 223 8.5: Conclusion 224 References: 226 Appendix A: National Citizen Service. 252 Appendix B: Emotional Rescue: developing a resilient 254 approach to youth wellbeing. Appendix C: BBC Newsnight Broadcast. 256 Appendix D: YOT Prevention Activity Programme. 257 Appendix E: ‘The Sunday Times’: Esteem? It’s a brat thing. 258 Appendix F: Adventure & Challenge, Team & Leadership 259 Development – a case study: Aimhigher, Tendering Partnership. Appendix G: Outward Bound Trust Social Impact Report, 261 2011. Appendix H: Supporting the development of disadvantaged 262 young people in East London: HSBC and the OBT. Appendix I: Getting started in the Outdoors with the John 263 Muir Award – a case study: The Prince’s Trust. Appendix J: Compass Programme with John Muir Award – a 265 case study: Calendar Youth Project, Perthshire. Appendix K: Informed Consent Forms 267 Appendix L: Inductive Content Analysis: Youth Offending 269 Team Appendix M: Inductive Content Analysis: Pathways to 271 Employment Project Appendix N: Inductive Content Analysis: JobMatch 1 273 Appendix O: Inductive Content Analysis: JobMatch 2 282 Figures, Tables and Photographs Figure 2.1: Taxonomy of Human Motivation 27 Figure 2.2: Diagrammatic Representation of Outcome 32 Dependent-Attribution Independent and Attribution Dependent Emotional Reactions Figure 3.1: Walsh and Golins’ Model of the Outward Bound 56 Process. Figure 3.2: The Adventure Experience Paradigm. 62 Figure 5.1: Staffing Structure of the Pathways to 102 Employment Project. Figure 5.2: Sentencing Outcomes, Procedures and 105 Alternatives within the Youth Justice System. Figure 5.3: Staffing Structure and Multi-Agency 106 Representation on the Youth Offending Team. Figure 5.4: Structure of JobMatch Project. 109 Figure 5.5: Staffing Structure of the JobMatch Project. 110 Figure 7.1 & Showing the Process by which Participants 171 7.2: Overcome Dissonance Figure 7.3: Diagram of Climber Negotiating an Overhang 177 Table 7.1: RSES Scores in Two Climbing Course Field 139 Experiments. Photograph High Ropes Confidence Course. 122 6.1 & 6.2: Photograph Sailing at Pontsticill Reservoir. 125 6.3 & 6.4: Photograph River Jump. 128 6.5: Photograph The Zip Wire 173 7.1: Chapter 1: Government Initiatives and Investment in Physical Activity 1.1: Introduction Sports and physical activities play a key role in delivering the Government’s strategy to empower individuals by raising aspirations; alter their attitudes towards themselves, their community and wider society; improve skills and educational opportunities and change behaviour by encouraging them to be more responsible, law abiding and productive citizens. 1.2: Purpose of Study This study is an attempt to evaluate three Government sponsored intervention programmes that employ adventure activities (AA) directed at disaffected, at-risk populations and, as such, may be viewed as falling within the area of policy research. The investigation attempts to analyse the effectiveness of these interventions in order to determine their capacity to develop human and social capital in one of the most deprived regions in Wales. The principal aim of the current study is to analyse the experiences participants have within an AA programme that may explain the possible processes by which they exhibit and report changes to the way they feel, think, and behave. As a preliminary first step in this investigation it is necessary to identify the nature of the outcomes emerging from the adventure activities under study.
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