1965 THE PATANJALA DARSANA 57 the idea of existent truth. It only falsi­ an empirical or pragmatic reality. (ibid., fies that truth; and since it is contradict­ 222) The absolute experience is itself be­ ed only by the absolute experience, it has yond the categories.

THE PATANJALA YOGA DARSANA

SWAMI HARSHANANDA

An Indian philosophical system is termed subscribe to this view of the identity of the a dariana, which literally means seeing or two Patafijalis. They concede that the knowing. The secondary meaning, viz a Pataftjali must have flourished before philosophical system containing the way the 3rd century A.D. leading to the direct realization of the The earliest commentary extant on this Truth, IS derived from this primary terse and technical work of Patafijali is meaning. that of one Vyasa. It is well known as The Pataiijala Yoga Darsana is one such Vyasabhi£ma or Yoga-b~ya. This Vyasa philosophical system, associated, as its should not be mistaken with the famous very name indicates, with the great sage Knn;tadvaipayana, the author of the Patafijali. . :, ~ Mahiibharata. He is generally placed in According to the Hindu traditional view, the 5th century AD. the Yoga system is one of the most ancient Though Vy,ij8abh~ya is a little ambigu­ sciences. Its founder is supposed to be ous in a few places, but for its invaluable Hira1}.yagarbha (Brahma) himself. Sage help, the Yoga- could not have been Pataiijali just followed in the footsteps of understood clearly. the great yogins who were his predecessors The Tattvavai$aradi of the famous and systematized their philosophy in his Viicaspati (9th century A.D.) is a commen­ aphorisms. Tradition also attributes two tary on Vy&ab~a and is of great help, more works to this Patafijali, viz the especially where the latter is laconic or Mahiibh/¥ya on Pii;~ini's grammatical ambiguous. aphorisms and a treatise on the science of There are a few other manuals on Yoga medicine, as revealed by the following which are very useful: Vrtti and Yoga­ verse: mar.tiprabhii of Bhojaraja, Yoga..tViilrttika and Yogasiirasangraha of Vijiilinabhik~u, Y ogena cittasya padena viicam and the Yogasudhiikara of Sadii.Siva­ Malam saiirasya tuvaid;yakena; brahmendra. Yo' piilcarot tam pravaram mun'iniitri?, The Y oga-Sutra of Patafijali is divided Patanjalim pranjalir iinato'smi,.- into four piidas Or parts: samiidhipiida, 'I bow down to that Patafijali, the best siidhanapiida, vibhtUtipada, and kaivaltya­ among sages, who destroyed the dirt accru­ piida. The first deals with the nature, aim, ing to the mind, speech, and body through and forms of yoga, modifications of the the sciences of Yoga, word, and medical (mind-stuff), and the different treatment.' methods of attaining yoga. The second However, the modern scholars do not deals with kriya-yoga as a means of attain- 3 68 PRABUDDHA BRARATA February ing samiidhi, the kWas or mental affiictions, series of exercises aimed at achieving this. karmaphala or fruits of actions and their These are detailed later on. painful nature, and the fourfold theme of lSvara is the supreme Person who is suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the above all the individual selves and is free means thereof. The third gives the inward from all defects. The conception of ISvara, aspects of yoga and also deals with the being a special contribution of Yoga via-a­ supernormal powers acquired by the prac­ via the 8aIikhya, will be dealt with in a tice of yoga. The last describes the nature separate section. and forms of liberation, the reality of the transcendent self and other world, etc. YOGA PSYCHOLOGY In the SiiIikhya-Yoga system, the THE PHll.OSOPHlC BACKGROUND Puru~a, who is pure consciousness, is asso­ The Yoga system is very closely associat­ ciated and identified with the gross body ed with the SiiIikhya system, so much so and the subtle body, the latter being that many scholars believe that the twin constituted of the eighteen products of systems have originated from a common Prakrti beginning with mahat and ending source. The former accepts all the cate­ with the five subtle elements. (vide gories of the latter, but substitutes its athe­ Sarikhya-kiirika, 40) It is through this ism with theism. The conception of God is subtle body that the Puru{ia, who is essen· the special contribution made by the Yoga. tially free, appears. to know and enjoy the The ultimate Reality is threefold: things of the world. What is termed citta Prakrti (Nature), Puru~a (individual in the Yoga system is very comprehensive Self), and Isvara (God). Prakrti is in­ in its scope and actually represents the sentient and is made- up of the three subtle body. But, for all practical pur­ rajas. and tamas. When poses, we can translate it as 'mind-stuff'. associated with the Puru{ia, who is con­ This citta or mind-stuff, though essentially sciousness itself, it evolves into this world unconscious, appears to be conscious be­ through the stages of mahat (intelligence), cause of its proximity to the Purulla, who ahailkiira (egoism), manas (mind), the is reflected in it. five sense-organs, the five motor-organs, The process by which the Pur~a cog­ the five subtle elements, and the five gross nizes the external objects is like this: The elements. citta gets related to the antal},kararw, (the The Purullas are many in number. internal organ or the mind) and flows out Though they are of the nature of pure con­ through the respective sense-organ and sciousness and absolutely unattached, they envelops the object, itself assnming the become attached to and identified with shape of the object in the process. Then,

Prakrti and its modifications owing to the consciousness of the Purusa- is reflected avive;kaor indiscrimination. This results in the modified citta, and there is a re- in sorrow and suffering, and is rightly called ciprocal reflection of this in the Puru~a bondage. Hence,' the way to liberation himself. Then arises the knowledge of lies through the separation of the Puru~a iliat· external object, and the Pul'~ frolD the Prakrti. Looking from this angle, 'knows' it. yoga is actually viyoga (separation). Ordinarily, the citta will be constantly

It , is this viveka-jMna that ultimately modified in this manner, and the Purulla, brings about the sense of distinction of the owing to aviveka, appropriates to himself Puru~a from Prakrti. Yoga lays down a those states of the citta, thus enjoying 1965 THE PATANJALA YOGA DARSANA 611 pleasure or suffering pain. (Yoga-Sidra, fications in the citta, the reflection of the I. 4) This is bondage. Puru~a therein, as also the identification

The citta-vrttis• or modifications of the owing to the absence of discriminative citta (i.e. the cognitive mental states) are knowledge, is bound to occur. Conse­ many and varied. But the Yoga classifies quently, the Pu~a feels pleasure and pain them under five heads: pramiinJ,a (true out of the objects of the world, which cognition), viparyaya (false cognition), generate attachment or hatred accordingly. vikalpa (verbal cognition), nidra (deep This, as we have seen, is the bondage of sleep), and smrti (memory), Pratyak$a the Puru~a. If, therefore, he has to attain (perception), anumana (inference), and kaivalya or liberation (literally, aloofness), iZgama (verbal testimony) constitute true the activities of this citta have to be re­ cognition. False cognition is wrong knowl­ strained and, finally, suppressed in toto. edge of things as they really are not, and It is this restraining (nirodha) of the includes doubts or uncertain cognitions. modifications of the citta, with· a view to Verbal cognition arises by hearing a word realizing the distinction of the self from it, which has no corresponding reality.' Sleep that is termed as 'yoga' in the Yoga system. stands for dreamless sleep, and is due to When the waves of the empirical conscious­ the preponderance of tamas in the citta, ness (kiiryacitta) die down and leave tbe which tamas is the cause of absence of citta in its causal state (kiiTa'T].acitta) , ordinary perception at that time. Memory which is a state of perfect placidity, the

is the reproduction of past experiences Purusa, realizes his distinction from the without any alteration or innovation. All mind-body complex and attains freedom. other cognitive mental states can be in­ Patafijali defines yoga as citta-vrtti­ cluded under these heads. nirodha. (ibid., I. 2) Hence, yoga, accord~ All these citta-vrttis can again be classi­ ing to him, is cessation of all mental modi­ fied as kl~ta (afflicted) and akli$ta (un­ fications and not any kind of union or con­ afflicted) . Klesa8 or sources of afflictions tact between an individual self and God al'e five in number: (1) aVidyii or wrong or the Absolute. (vide Vacaspati on knowledge of the non-eternal as eternal, Vyiisabha$ya, Yoga-SutTa, I. 1) of the not-self as self, of the unpleasant as The citta, which is constituted by the pleasant, and of the impure as pure; elements of sattva, rajas, and tamas, has (2) asmitiZ or the faIse notion of the self as five states, viz k$ipta (restless) ,mriuJha identical with the buddhi or the faculty of (dull), vik$ipta (distracted), ekiigra (con­ perception; (8) r.aga or desire for pleasure centrated), and niruddha (restrained) . and the means of its attainment; (4) dve$a In each of these states, there exists some or aversion to pain and the causes thereof; kind of repression of mental modifications, and (5) abhinive8a or the instinctive fear and each state excludes all the other states. of death common to all creatures. '(ibid., Though there is repression of mental modi­ II. 8-9) . fications in all these states, yoga is possible The vrttis, when free from these klesa8, only in the last two states. (vide Vyii3a­ have true knowledge for their object and bh/i.ma on Yoga-Sutra, I. 1) oppose the activity of the gu;r:tas to be­ In the first state, viz k$ipta, the mind is

come aklista., , under the sway of rajas and tamas. Hence it jumps from one ohject to another with- . . . THE NATURE AND FORMS OF YOGA out resting on anything in particular. This SO long as there are changes and modi- being the case, yoga is impossible in this 60 PRABUDDHA BHARATA February

state. In the second, viz mu(lha, there is all mental modifications are stopped and, an excess of tamas, and hence the tendency consequently, nothing is known or thought is towards vice, sleep, ignorance, etc. of by the mind. Both these states of Obviously, yoga is not possible in this state samadhi ~are known by the common name also. In the third state, viz vik{Jipta, the of samii,dhi-yoga, since both are conducive mind is distracted, being free from tamas to self-realization. and having only a trace of rajas. This SamprajiUita samadhi is of four kinds, state has the capacity to manifest all ob­ the distinction being made according to the jects, and makes for knowledge, virtue, etc. object of contemplation. They are savi­ It is thus a temporary stage of concentra­ tarka, savicara, sananda, and sasmita. tion followed by distraction. This also is (Yoga-Sidra, I. 17) The samadhi is said to not yoga, since it does not permanently be savitarka when the mind is perfectly stop all the modifications of the mind-stuff concentrated on any external gross object, or put an end to avidya. like the image of a god or goddess. When The fifth state is emgra (concentrated). the object of contemplation is subtle like Here the citta is purged of all impurity of the tanmatras (the subtle elements), the rajas and there is the perfect manifesta­ samadhi is called savicara. It is termed tion of sattva. It marks the beginning of as sananda when the object of concentra­ prolonged concentration of the citta on any tion is still subtler like the senses. It be­ object so as to reveal its true nature, and comes sasmita when· the concentration is paves the way for the final cessation of all uponasm'ita or ego-sense. mental modifications. The citta which was Thus, the mind realizes the nature of being modified in hundreds of ways before different objects within or without the body is now modified· in only one way, viz flow­ and leaves them, one after another, till it ing towards the object of concentration. becomes completely free from thoughts of Thus, in this state, all mental modifications, all objects and attains what is called except one, are restrained. Hence, yoga is asamprajnata samadhi. This puts a stop to very near to achievement. all mental modifications and does not rest At thl' last stage called niruddha, there on any object. This being the final stage is the cessation of all mental modifications, of samadhi, the whole world of objects including even that of concentration, which ceases to affect and to exist for the yogin. marks the previous stage. Here the succes­ He then abides in his own essence as pure sion of mental states and processes is com­ consciousness enj:oying the still vision of pletely checked, and the citta is left in its isolated self-shining existence. He is original unmodified state of tranquillity. liberated. This state, when well established, is itself yoga. OBSTACLES TO YOGA Actually, in the language of Yoga, the There are nine obstacles to yoga. They last two stages of ekagra and niruddha, are: vyadhi (sickness), styana (languor), when well established, are called sampra... sainJaya ( doubt), pramada (heedlessness), jiUita samadhi and asamprajiUita sarniidhi iJ1asya (sloth), avirati (absence of non­ respectively. In the samprajnata samtidhi, attachment), bhrantidarsana (mistaken also called samapatti, there is pNfect con­ notion), alabdhabhumikatva (non-attain­ centration on the object of contemplation, ment of the stage of communion), and with a clear and distinct consciousness of anavasthitatva (instability). (ibid., I. SO) the same .. In the asamprajii.ata samadhi, Vryiidhi is physical sickness brought about 1965 THE PaTANJALA YOGA DARSANA 61

by disturbance of the equilibrium of the long as one's mind is tainted with impurities humours. StJy.ana is the inability of the and one's intellect is vitiated by evil mind to work, resulting in the lack of will thoughts. It is in the pure heart and and drive. SairtJaya is vacillation, lack of clear· understanding that the truth of the definiteness. Pram/ida is the lack of re­ spirit is revealed and directly experienced. flection upon the means of attaining. con­ The SiiIikhya-Yoga system maintains that centration. Aw,sya is the inactivity of liberation is to be attained by means of body and mind. A virati is the yearning prajiUi, spiritual insight into the reality of of the mind in the form of hankering after the self as the pure immortal spirit which contact with the external objects. Bhranti­ is quite distinct from the body and mind. darsana is misconception. Alabdha­ But spirilual insight can be got only when bhumilcatva means· not reaching the stage the mind is purged of all the impurities and of communion. Anavasthitatva is the consequently rendered· perfectly calm and failure 01 the mind to remain steady in the serene. In order to achieve this, Yoga stage attained. prescribes the eightfold discipline to the The Yoga system lists five more obstacles aspirant: (1) yama (restraint);· (2) and calls them vi~epasahabhuva1J, (com­ niyama (culture); (3) iisana (posture); panions of distraction). They are: duJpkha (4) pralJ)iyiinna(control of the psychic (pain), daurmanasya '(irritation), angame­ priiPJ,a· through breath-control) ; (5) jaya;tva (trembling), Svasa (in-breathing), pratyahiira (withdrawal of the senses); a.nd prastJii,sa (out-breathing) . (ibid., (6) dlWra'1})i (fixed attention); (7) dhy;{iJna I. 31) (meditation); (8) samMhi (perfect con­ Dulpkha is· the pain caused by internal, centration). (ibid., II. ~9) external, and supernatural causes. Daurma­ Yama is a moral discipline and consists nasya is the irrit"ation caused by the failure of: (1) aMrhsii (abstention from all kinds of a cherished wish. Angamejayatva is of injury to life); (~) satya (truthfulness trembling of the body. The last two refer in thought and speech); (3) asteya (non­ to the involuntary b.reathing. stealing); (4) (control of These have to be checked by abhyasa carnal desires and passions); (5) apa~ (practice) and vair.iigya (dispassion) in graha (non-acceptance· of unnecessary general, and each of them has to be met gifts). The yogin must scrupulously follow by an antidote of its own. By fixing the them. (ibid., II. SO) mind on Isvara, the one Principle, these Niyama consists in cultivating the follow­ distractions cali be obstructed. (ibid., I. 32) ing good habits :(1) sauca (purification By the cultivation of maitrl (friendliness), of body and mind); (~) santo{Ja (content­ karu'1})i (compassion), mudiM (joy), and ment); (3) tapas· (penances) (4)sVii~ upek$a (indifference) towards people who dhyaya (study of religious books); and are happy, unhappy, righteous, and un­ (5) 1.Svarapra1}idhiina· (meditation on :llld righteous respectively, composure of mind resignation to God).. (ibid., II. 32) is gained. (ibid., I. 33) Controlling of the Asanais a discipline of the body, and pra1}a through prii'rprlyiima will also help in consists in the adoption of steady and coni~ the achievement of concentration. (ibid., fortable postures for the sake of medita­ 1.34) tion. This is achieved through relaxing the physical and mental exertions and THE EIGH'}WLD DISCIPLINE through the contemplation on Ananta (the None can realize the spiritual truths as earth-bearing serpent or the infinite sky). PRAllUDDHA BHARATA February

The steadiness of the body thus achieved meditation. There is still the con­ is conducive to the steady flow of the mind sciousne&s of the trio the ego-sense, the towards the ideal. object of meditation, and the process of Prii1}iiyama is to be practised after attain­ meditation. ing steadiness in posture. It aims at con­ When d!vyana becomes perfect and the trolling the psychic prili~a (nervous energy) mind is so deeply absorbed in the object through the control of breath, which is that it loses itself and has no awareness of closely linked with it. The process of itself, then the state attained is called breath regulation consists of recaka (ex­ sam,adhi. (ibid., III. 3) So, here only the halation), pUraka (inhalation), and kum­ object of meditation will be shining in the bhaka (retentil)n), the last one being ex­ mind and the yogin is not even aware of ternal or in terna!. the thought process involved in it. It It is interesting to note that the great should be observed here that this samadhi sage Patafijali has finished all about the as a discipline is different from the asa'IULS and priifl:tayama, about which so samadhi.. yoga previously defined as citta­ much fuss is often made, in only eight vrtti-nirodha.• The former is the means, aphorisms (ibid., II. 46-53). It must be re­ and the latter is the end. A long and membered that the object of practising continuous practice of the one with devo­ these two disciplines as also the others is tion leads to the other. to obtain samtidhi and that one gets These last three steps in the practice of a right to practise them only after yoga are called antaraibgasadhaoo, the in­ scrupulously following moral disciplines and ternal means. They should have the same clllture as enjoined by yama and niyama. object, i.e. the same object sh()uld first be Pratylihiira is the withdrawal of the attended to, then meditated upon, result­ senses from their respective external ob­ ing in perfect concentration. When thus jects and keeping them under the control combined, the three constitute sarhyama of the mind. (ibid., II. 54) When the (ibid., Ill. 4), which is very necessary for senses are effectively controlled, they the attainment of samadhi-yoga. follow not their objects, but the mind itself. So, in this state, the mind is not disturbed THE YOGIC POWERS by sights and sounds coming through the Patafijali says that the yogin, during the eye and the ear, but makes these senses different stages of his practice attains a • follow itself and see and hear its own number of extraordinary powers. For object. instance, the practice of ahirhsii leads to the These five disciplines are regarded as creation of such an atmosphere about him bahirmiga-sadhana (external aids) of yoga. that the tame as well as the ferocious DMraJ7J,a is the fixing of the mind on a animals will live in harmony there. (ibid., definite locus, such as the lotus of the heart, II. 35) Practice of truth gives him the the light in the brain, the tip of the nose or power to grant boons. (ibid., II. 00) the tongue,. or. on an external object like Steady establishment in aparigraha leads to the moon or the image of gods, etc. (Vyasa the knowledge of previous lives. (ibid., and V:acaspati on Yoga-Sutra, III. 1) II. 39, III. 1'8) By making sarhyama on the When dhara1}ii ripens so that the flow of sun, he gains the knowledge of the celes­ the thought current becomes unbroken, it tial regions. (ibid., III.Q6) If he does becomes d!vyana. (Yoga-Sutra, III. 9l) sarhyama on the throat pit, he becomes Here the mind hovers round the object of free from the pangs of hunger and thirst. • • 1005 THE PATANJALA YOGA DARSANA 68

(ibid., III. 31) Similarly, by making through the eightfold discipline can also be samyama on other corresponding things, he achieved independently through medita­ can also gain the perception of super­ tion upon lSvara. (ibid., L Q3) natural sights, sounds, etc., get mastery Yoga adduces the following arguments to over the material substances, the eight prove the existence of God: (1) The siddhis like aJ'f.Limii (the power to become Sastra, viz Sruti (the Vedas), S11lJf'ti (of atomic) etc., become omniscient, fly in the Manu and others), Itih!asa (the epics), sky, etc. (ibid., III. 36, 44, 45, 49, and 42) PuriiJ},a (like the VirrJ,u Pwriirta), declares But Pataiijali severely warns the as­ the existence of God or the supreme Self; pirant against running after them, saying (2) According to the law of continuity, that these are obstacles to samiidhi. (ibid., whatever has degrees must have a lower III. 39) Yoga is meant for attaining libera­ and an upper limit. Since there are differ­ tion, and hence the yogin must not get ent degrees of knowledge and power in the himself entangled in the quagmire of these selves, there must be a self in whom there powers. is perfect knowledge and perfect power. Such a supreme Self is God; (3) The crea­ THE PLACE OF GOD IN YOGA tion and dissolution of this world is due As distinguished from the Sarikhya, the respectively to the association of the Puru~a Yoga is theistic. It admits of lSvara or with the Prakrti• and his dissociation there- God on both practical and theoretical from. Since neither of them is capable of grounds. To Pataiijali, God has more bringing this about, one has to assume the a practical than a theoretical value. existence of an intelligent, efficient cause Devotion to God is one of the means which brings about this association and for the final attainment of samiidhi­ dissociation in accordance with the arirlJta yoga. But the subsequent commentators (unseen moral desert) of the individual evince also a theoretical interest in God selves. Therefore, there must be such a and discuss more fully the speculative prob­ perfect and omniscient Being. lems regarding the nature of God and the Devotion to God is not only a part of proofs for His existence. the practice of yoga, but is the best means According to the Yoga, God is a Puru~a­ for the attainment of concentration and vise~a, the supreme Person above all the restraint of the mind (samiidhi~oga). individual selves, and is eternally free from The reason is that God is not only an ob­ all defects like kl&a (afflictions), karma ject of dhy

KATHA UPANISAD SANKHYA POINT OF VIEW-

DR. ANIMA SEN GUPTA

Anyatra dharmad anyatra adharrnad unrelated to past, present, and future. anyaf:triinniit lcrtalcrtat; Accordlllg to the Siiilkhya, Purll$a is Anyatra bhtUtacca bhavyacca pure, revealing consciousness. As mere yattat paiyasi tadvada:­ revealing consciousness, Puru~a is unrelated (Naciketas said) 'That which thou behold­ to , adharma, and time. It is also pst as different from dharma and adharma, neither the cause nor the effect. It is only as different from cause and effect, as due to a'!Jiveka that the unchangeable, ever different from what had been and what free soul appears to be associated with .shall be, please tell (me) that.' (I. ii. 14) dharma, adharma, etc., which are the products of Prakrti. The object about Adhy,{Umayo.ga has already been de­ which Naciketas is making an earnest en­ scribed as the means to be adopted in the quiry is this pure revealing consciousness path of spiritual s,(idhana for attaining the (prakMatmaka caitanya). He seeks to highest end of human life. This path has know the Self because, in the opinion of the also been described as modaniya. Now, SMkhya Daciana, liberation is to be gained Yama has to give instructions to N aciketas through Self-knowledge (AtmajiWna). regarding the nature of that highest prin­ That the Purusa• is neither the cause nor ciple which is different from dharma and the effect has been clearly stated in the adharma, from cause and effect, and is also 8ankhya-karika (na prakrtirna vikrtilJ,).