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I " SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD

UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED

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J l Abstract Wang, H. L., G. C. Mustakas, W. J. Wolf, and others. 1978. SOYQeans as Human Food-Unprocessed and Simply Processed. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Utilization Research Report No.5. I~, Unprocessed and simply processed soybeans used as human food and the pattern ,of soybean consumption and production are reviewed ,. counh'y by country. Traditional soybean foods used have been limited to the Orient where soybean foods are eaten by everyone-young and old, rich and poor. The kinds of soybean foods people in the Orient like, the ways to pl'epare such foods, and the manner of consuming them are deeply imbedded in their culture. Preparation and use of these traditional soybean foods are described. In recent years, various approaches have been taken to incorporate soybeans into native diets of countries that do not traditionally use soybeans as foods. These studies indicate that soy flour' may be the most versatile product. A village process for making soy flour is discussed. Although soybeans are grown in small areas throughout the world, soybean production is concentrated in three countl"ies: The United States, Brazil, and China. World food consumption of soybeans, how­ ever, is low; most of the soybeans produced are used for ("Iii and feeds. Even in China and Japan, which consume significant amounts of soybean foods, the percentage of soybeans used as food is only 15 and 22 percent, respectively. In the past years, the United States has distributed cereal-soy blends to be used as food to many countries. Key Words: Soybeans, production, consumption, simple processing, economics, fermentation, soybean foods, Asia, Africa, Europe, Lati~ America, North America, oriental soybean foods, traditional soybean foods.

.' Soybeans as Human Food­ Unprocessed and Simply Processed

H. I.. Wang, G. C. Mnstakas, W. J. Wolf, L. C. Wang, C. W. Hesseltine, E. B. Bagley l \ .\ I ~ i .,~ Compiled fol'

The Agency fol' International Development U.S. Department of State Washington, D.C.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Science and Education Administration

January 1979 Preface Inadequate diets in many developing countries (DC) have con­ tributed to their population's high mortality, poor mental as well as physical growth, and general deterioration in the quality of life. In turn, the economic growth of these countries is inhibited. Thus, the lack of nutritious foods is a basic link in a cycle of poverty and primitive existence. To provide low-cost and highly nutritious foods for DC, the U.S. State Department's Agency fOl' International Development (AID) supports the approach of introducing soybeans for human consump­ tion. Accordingly, a project was initiated to promote soybeans as a food staple among tlie rural poor in selected DC and to develop meth­ ods for introducing unprocessed 01' simply processed soybeans as a direct food for 1o,w-income segments of the population of other DC. This review on tlie use of unprocessed and simply processed soybeans as human food is a part of that project. Its primary pnrpose is to reveal the state of the art of soybean food uses and the pattern of soybean consumption around the world. Barriers affecting the use of soybeans a~ food are also identified.

This study was dope on contract AID AG/TAB-225-12-76.

1,2" Contents Introduction, 1 Burma, 21 Soybean food uses in Asia, 2 India, 22 China, 3 Malaysia, 22 Soaking dry soybeans, 3 Nepal,23 Tau chiang (soybean milk), 3 Singapore, 23 Tau iu (soybean curd), 5 Sri Lanka (Ceylon), 23 Processed tou fu products, 7 Vietnam, 24 Tau fu pi (protein-lipid films), 8 Middle East, 24 Huang tou ya (soybean sprouts), 9 References-Soybean food uses in Asia, 24 Whole soybeans, 10 Soybean food uses in Africa, 26 Fermented soybean foods, 10 Ethiopia, 26 Production and consumption, 11 Injera, 27 Japan, 11 Wots and allichas, 27 Tofu (soybean curd), 11 Kitta, 27 Kinugoshi tofu, 13 Dabbo, 27 Processed tofu products, 14 Dabokolo, 27 i i Yuba (protein-lipid film), 14 Porridge, 27 Soybean milk, 15 Kenya, 27 i Go (ground soybean mash), 15 Morocco, 27 Daizu no mayashi (soybean sprouts), 15 Nigeria, 28 Whole soybeans, 15 Whole soybeans, 28 Fermented soybean foods, 15 Soybean paste, 28 , PI'oduction and consumption, 15 Corn-soy mixtures (soy-ogi), 28 I Korea, 16 Tanzania, 29 j Tubu (soybean curd), 16 Uganda, 29 '/ Processed tubu product, 16 Production, 29 ,~ Soybean sprouts, 16 ReferenceS-,Soybean food uses in Africa, 30 Whole soybeans, 16 Soybean food uses in Europe and U.s.S.R, 30 Soybean flour, 16 Soybean food uses in Latin America, 30 Fermented soybean food, 17 Argentina, 30 Production and consumption, 17 Bolivia, 31 ~ Indonesia, 17 Bl'azil, 31 ! Tahu or tahoo (soybean curd), 17 Chile, 32 ~ Bubukkedele '(soybean powder), 17 Colombia, 32 " 'I Tempe kedele, 17 Ecuador, 33 Tempe gembus, 18 GUyana, 33 Oncom tahu, 18 Paraguay, 33 Other soybean products, 19 Peru, 34 Food mixtures, 19 Uruguay, 34 PI'oduction and consumption, 19 Venezuela, 34 Thailand, 20 Mexico, 34 Philippines, 20 New village process, 35 Soybean sprouts, 21 Commercial developments, 36 Soybean coffee, 21 Honduras, 37 Soybean 'cake, 21 Costa Rica, 37 Soybean milk, 21 Panama, 37 Tau fu and processed tou fu products, 21 Dominican Republic, 37 Production and consumption, 21 Jamaica, 38 iii Haiti, 38 Experimental soybean foods, 43 Trinidad, 38 Whole soybeans, 43 References-Soybean food uses in Latin Soybean paste, 43 Amel'ica, 39 Soy flour, 43 Soybean food uses in North America, 39 Soy beverage, 43 United States, 39 Production and consumption, 43 Canada, 41 Simple village process for processing whole soy- References-soybean food uses in North beans, 46 America, 41 Equipment, 46 Soybean food uses in Australia, 41 Process, 46 Summary of soybean food uses, 41 Sanitation requirements, 50 Traditional soybean foods, 41 Quality of product, 50 Soybean milk, 41 . Evaluation of product in formulas and proce­ Soybean curd and processed soybean curd dures for family and institU:tional use in products, 42 developing countries, 51 Protein-lipid film, 42 NRRC village process, 51 Soybean sprouts, 42 Industrial production' and selling prices of edible Tempe (Tempeh), 42 soybean protein products, 52 Green soybeans, 42 Barriers to accepting and using soybeans in Boiled soybeans, 42 food, 52 Roasted soybeans, 42 Availability, 52 Soybean flour, 42 Cultural and social factors, 52 Soy 'sauce, 42 Texture, 53 Fermented soybean paste, 43 Flavor, 53 Fermented whole soybeans, 43 Nutrition and food safety, 53 Natto,43 Technology development, 53 Fermented soybean curd, 43 Technology transfer, 53

Metric Conversion Factors

1 inch ...... 2,5 centimeters, 25 millimeters 1 teaspoon ...... 5 milliliters 1 tablespoon ...... 15 milliliters

1 ounce (fluid) ...... 30 milliliters 1 cup ...... 0.24 liter, 237 milliliters 1 gallon ...... 3.8 liters

1 ounce ...... 28 grams 1 pound ...... 0.45 kilogram, 454 grams 1 ton ...... 0.9 metric ton

1 acre ...... 0.4 hectare F ...... (9/5 C) + 32

iv

.i Soybeans as Human Food­ Unprocessed and Simply Processed ,

H. L. Wang, G. c. Mustakas, W. J. Wolf, L. C. Wang, C. W. Hesseltine, and E. B. Bagley'

Introduction The soybean, a native of China, is perhaps about methods used to cook soybeans, and those one of the world's oldest crops. No one knows who do find the flavor peculiar to their taste. how long ago man started to cultivate soy­ Some people outside of the Orient have the beans. Ancient Chinese litera tnre reveals that idea that soybeans are not 'suitable for human soybeans were cultivated, and highly valued as food. Undoubtedly, cultural traditions dictate a food long before written records were kept, food customs, but the inherent aversion of and, for many centuries, their' cultivation was people to anything new also curbs the popu­ confined to oriental countries. On a small scale, larity of soybeans. soybeans were grown in Europe as early as the Problems in using soybeans for foods include 1700's and in the United States in the 1800's. antinutritional and flatus factors, beany flavor, Not until the 1930's did the United States begin disagreeable taste, and cooking difficulty. to produce soybeans as a commercial crop and, These problems are not really unique to soy­ since then, this phenomenal growth is history. beans but, rather, are common to many beans The United States leads the 'ivorld in soybean and other pulses consumed around the world. production with 41,406,000 metric tons (t) in Because of the high fat and low carbohydrate 1975. China, the chief soybean-producing coun­ content, lack of starch, and compact texture, try in Asia, produced only 10,000,000 t that soybeans do not cook as soft nor as readily as same year. many other beans. However, when cooked Traditionally, soybeans have been used in the properly, soybeans do not require much longer Orient as food. To a great extent, they have cooking time than other beans to be palatable. provided all the oriental population with needed Therefore, with some education and promotion, protein since ancient times. In the United the public may find that soybeans, as food, States and Europe, soybeans were used as a could be included in diets the same as other forage crop through the 19th century. Since beans. then, soybeans have become valued as a source Cooking soybeans is a fine art in the Orient. of edible and industrial oil and as defatted meal Elaborate fermentation methods, as well as for animal feeds. But soybeans have never been many other simple ptocesses, produce a variety well accepted as food by the people of Western of fresh, dried, and fermented products. The countries. majority of products are made at home or in Soybeans are scarcely known to people in family-operated shops, and preparation meth­ many areas of the world. They know nothing ods are usual1y kept as a family secret. Conse­ quently, these products, and the simple tech­ 1 Chemist, chemical engineer, chemist, chemist, chief nology of making them, are not widely known of Fermentation Laboratory, and chief of Engineering or adopted outside the oriental population. In and Development Laboratory, Northern Regional Re­ search Center (NRRC), Science and Education Admin­ recent years, major cities in the Orient have istration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1815 N. Uni­ become industrialized, but the fine household versity Street, Peoria, m. 61604. art of making soybean food products remains 1

• 2 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE active in small towns, as well as in other areas international organizations, and letters wel"e around the globe to which people from the Ori­ sent to individuals, Government agencies, and ent have emigl:ated. Today, millions of oriental educational institutions of concerned countl·ies. people still enjoy and rely on soybean foods prepared by methods developed many centuries Sources of information on soybean production ago. are many: Foreign Agriculture Service (FAS) Because of the increasing awareness of the and Economics Statistics, and Cooperatives Ser­ nutritional value of soybeans and the shortage vice (ESCS) of USDA; Food and Agriculture or nonexistence of animal protein in many areas Organization of the United Nations (FAO) , of the world, soybeans are being used in ever­ International Soybean Program at the Univer­ increasing amounts in a variety of food prod­ sity of Illinois (INTSOY), American Soybean ucts and perhaps by more people than ever. Association (ASA), and responses from the in­ This literature survey attempts to reveal the dividual countries. However, production figures state of the al·t of worldwide use of soybeans from different sources often do not agree, and as food. Emphasis here will be on unprocessed in some instances, the difference is sevel'aHold. and simply processed soybean foods used in the Two main sources of information are avail­ home and in the village processes. able on soybean consumption: national food The survey, which was mainly derived from balance sheets and dietary surveys. However, the files of Northern Regional Research Center in many food balance sheets as well as dietary (NRRC) scientists, covers existing literature sUl'veys, edible beans are reported in the cate­ as well as information obtained from contacts gory "pulses, nuts, and ceeds," "pulses," or "dry with scientists from various countries, insti­ seeds." This indicates, perhaps, that soybeans tutes, industries, and voluntary agencies; visits or any othel' beans cited, are insignificant in to other countries; and firsthand know-how. To those countries. Dietary surveys often cover supplement and update this information, a lit­ only limited groups, not always representative eratul'e search was made in AGRIOLA (Agri­ of countries as a whole. The data on production culture On-Line Access) from the Science and and consumption, therefore, are less complete Education Administration's Technical Informa­ and less accurate. These data, however, may tion Systems data base using subject key words point out the extent of production and con­ as well as key words of voluntary agencies and sumption of soybeans in a· given country.

Soybean Food Uses in Asia Soybean foods are common in the Asian soy sauce, bean paste, soybean cheese, tempeh, countries, but they are most popular in China, natto, and fermented black beans. Some of Japan, Korea, and perhaps Indonesia. Because these products are flavodng agents and others of China's long history, the Chinese have had are staples. Many soybean foods are simply a great influence on the use of soybean foods. prepared while others are prepared by complex As a result, many soybean foods from different fermentation processes. However, all these countries are similar, but the details in prepar­ foods are versatile and can be served in endless ing and serving such foods may vary. Some ways. soybean foods al'e still unique to one particu­ lar area or country. Information for this study was gathered In Asia, all soybeans are classified as edible. from many sources and variations in the pro­ To make the beans as palatable as possible, cedures of making and serving anyone food many methods of preparation have been de­ frequently occur, even in the same country. vised. Not only are soybeans cooked whole, but Therefore, only some of the relatively simple they are processed to make such products as and fundamentally sound processes with sig­ soybean milk, soybean curd, soybean sprouts, nificant variations and adaptations will be pre­ soybean protGin and oil film, soybean flour, sented. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROGESSED 3

China Tau chiang (soybean milk) Soaking dry soybeans Tou chiang is said to have been originated QY a Chinese philosopher long before the ,Christian Regardless of the process used and the end era. Because it resembles dairy milk, tou chiang product desired, the first and most important is generally known· as soybean milk to the step in making soybean foods from dry soy­ people outside of China. Tou chiang has a sub­ beans in the Orient is to soak the beans thor­ tle milk sweetness and a strong characteristic oughly. The soaking process has long been be­ flavor liked by practically all Chinese. A cafe lieved to reduce the cooking time as well as to specializing in -tou chiang often has an open increase the wholesomeness of the product. A pot of boiling tou chiang in the front of the general description of this process follows. shop to· lure customers. Beans are first rinsed several times with fresh water and rubbed with the hands or Preparation stirred vigorously with a paddle to clean. This Materials.--Soybeans and water. Although water is then poured ,off and clean water added any variety of beans maY be used, those that to cover the beans; the proportion, zoo g (1 have uniform size, light color, thin seedcoat, cup) beans to 0.72 L (3 cups) water can be and high protein are preferred. used. Depending on the air temperature, beans Equipment.-Soaking containers, cooking are soaked from several hours to overnight; in pots, cloth bag, cheesecloth-lined strainer or summer 6 to 7 h and in winter Z4 h. Overnight fine screen for filtration, and efficient grinder. soaking, however, is widely used. On a hot sum­ In China, a stone mill, consisting of two mer day, water should be changed ~everal times pieces of flat, circular stone with ridgelike during soaking to prevent bacterial growth. grooves on one side of each stone, is generally Under controlled laboratory conditions, beans used for grinding. One stone is ,put on top the reach maximum water absorption after soaking other with rough sides touching. The top stone at 20 0 C for 18 h, or at 28 0 C for 8 h. Thor­ can be turned around by hand against the lower oughly soaked beans usually weigh about 2.2 one. The beans and water are fed through a to 2.4 times their original weight depending on hole near the -edge. The liquid that flows out between the stones is run into a container. In the variety of beans, or slightly less than 3 some shops, motor-driven mills with vertically times their original volume. Soaked beans are mounted stone wheels are used for grinding. drained and rinsed and ready for use. In laboratories 01' at home, electric blenders Beans can be dehulled easily after soaking by 01' liquifi'ers, such as Waring Blendors; are rubbing them against each other. The loose convenient, to use for producing small quanti­ seedcoats are discarded with the water. In In­ ties of milk. Other automatic food grinders, in­ donesia, as well as in some other areas, dehull­ expensive bUlT-type feed grinders, and stone ing is sometimes done by placing the soaked mills used by cornstarch manufacturers in the soybeans into a bamboo basket at the edge of United States are useful (Chen and Chen a river and then treading on the beans to loosen 1962) .' the seedcoats. The seedcoats then float away Procedures.-Making tou chiang is a simple with the flowing water. process that has been described by several in­ Another method of prepming the dry beans vestigators (Piper and Morse 1923, Chen and is to parboil the beans for 1 min, and then let Chen 1962, and Wang 1967). In general, these procedures which are similar can be carried them soak overnight. This procedure will facili­ tate dehulling. 2 The mention of firm names or trade products does In Thailand, soybean foods are relatively not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by new. The Thai prefer to soak soybeans in a the U.S. Department of Agriculture over other firms or sodium bicarbonate solution to reduce the beany similar produch not mentioned. :!: The author's name and the year (italics) are the key flavor. to References;. p. 24. . 4 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE out :either at home or at village levels as well developed to reduce the beany flavor of soybean asfin a modern factory. milk (Kanda and others 1976, Kon and others ,About 200 g of beans are first washed, 1970, Nelson and others 1976, Wilkens and soaked, and drained as described in the section, others 1967). The simplest ones include grind­ Soaking Dry Soybeans. The soaked beans (500 ing the beans with boiling water or boiling the g) are ground with a stone mill, while a small beans in dilute sodium bicarbonate solution be­ stream of water is added. Or the beans can be fore grinding. The heating process, however, blended with a small amount of water in an may denature the soybean protein and thus re­ electric blender for 2 min at high speed. The duce the protein solubility. ground soybean mass is placed in a cooking pot Byproduct.-Tou cha, the only byproduct and more water is added to make an 8:1 ratio from making tou chiang, is highly nutritious of water to beans based on the weight of the (Hackler and others 1963, 1967). Although it is dry beans (amount of water needed after soak­ commonly used as animal feed, it is also eaten ing, 1.3 L). The ground mass is stirred for a by some people. few minutes and heated to boiling with con­ stant stirring to prevent scorching. Often, Composition skimming off the froth on the surface is neces­ The composition of tau chiang varies with sary to prevent sudden boiling over. The cooked variety of the soybeans used and with the ground mass is strained through a cloth bag or method of preparation (Lo and others 1968a,b; double-layered cheesecloth. Some people prefer Wilkens and Hackler 1969). In general, tou to filter the ground mass before cooking, even chiang is low in fat, carbohydrates, calcium, though filtering is much easier after cooking. phosphorus, and riboflavin but high in iron, The tou chiang or soybean milk (about 1 L). thiamin, and niacin in comparison with cow's passes through the bag leaving tau cha or soy­ milk Tung and his coworkers (1961) give the bean pulp. following composition of 100 g of tou chiang In many shops, the ground soybean mass is sold in Taiwan: water, 94 g; protein, 3.3 g; fat, heated in a drum using steam from a coal­ 0.9 g; carbohydrates, 1.4 g; ash, 0.3 g; calcium, heated boiler. It is then run into a device simi­ 12 mg; phosphorus, 40 mg; iron, 0.7 mg; thia­ lar to a Buchner funnel but fitted with a fine min, 0.04 mg; riboflavin, 0.02mg; and niacin, metal screen. The device is set over a big bar­ 0.2 mg. rel into which the soybean milk filters. The properties of tau chiang are quite similar To produce tou chiang that feels smooth to those of animal milk Acids and inorganic when eaten, and has a fine-textU1"ed consis­ salts will coagulate the protein. Like cow's milk, tency, the beans should be fed slowly into the tou chiang can also be fermented by some glinder with a small amount of water. Grind­ Lactobacillus bacteria to yield acid milk and a ing soybeans with a large amount of watel' yogurtlike product. often results in a coarse-textUl'ed ground mass which, in turn, yields low-quality milk. Ways of serving A ratio of 10:1 water to dry beans is com­ Direct uses.-Traditionally, tau chiang is monly used in China. The ratio is not a critical made fresh daily and sold on the street or in factor in making tou chiang; however, a ratio small cafes. Even though tau chiang can be higher than 10:1 will result in a low-protein made easily at home, it is not commonly product without increasing its total protein re­ done because tau chiang is available commer­ covery. On the other hand, a ratio lower than cially. 8:1 may yield milk with a high-protein content, Tau chiang is a breakfast food. It is boiled but the total protein recovery might be low. and served hot either flavored with sugar, or Based on experience of the Chinese, ratios of 8:1 soy sauce (chiang yu, a fermented soybean to 10: 1 water to beans are most suitable for product containing 16 to 18 percent salt), a good-quality product. little green onion, a dash of sesame oil, and In recent years, various procedures have been even little salt-pickled vegetables. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 5

Traditionally, adults rather than children ing tou fu is to make soybean milk. When, a drink tou chiang. A middle class office worker mineral salt or acid is added to soybean milk, or a college student who has enough education coagulation occurs that is similar to cottage to know the nutritional value of tou chiang and cheese produced from dairy milk. When the who also has extra cash is the typical con­ coagulated mass is drained, the end product is sumer. a soft-white curd called tou fu by the Chinese As people are becoming more aware of the and soybean curd by the people from the West­ nutritional value of soybeans, tou chiang'is in­ ern world. creasing in popularity. In Taiwan, tou chiang Tou fu has a bland taste and is white or gray­ stands or cafes are on almost every street cor­ ish white. It has a soft but firm texture like ner. Tou chiang is also bottled and sold as a cream cheese. Traditionally" tou fu is made cold drink, but its popularity in China is daily and sold in the form of a wet cake. The limited. size of the cake is usually 10 by 10 by 3 em. To increase the nutritional value of tou although the size may vary. chiang for infant feeding, Huang and his co­ Tou fu is, perhaps, the most important soy­ workers (1976) suggested enriching soybean bean food in the Orient. It has much the same milk with partially autolyzed egg. Communica­ importauce to the people of the Orient that tion with Huang' indicated that the idea of meat, eggs, and cheese have for the people in adding an egg to a bowl of tou chiang is prac­ Western countries. ticed. However, this egg-soybean milk is usu­ ally consumed by adults and to a lesser extent Preparation by children. It is rarely given to infants. Manufacture of tou fu started during the era Indirect uses.-Many soybean foods, which are of the liang dynasty; Liu An (179-122 B.C.), more important and popular than tou chiang King of Wainan, invented the method of prep­ itself, are made from tou chiang. These foods aration. Centuries later, numerous procedures will be discussed in the later sections. for making tou fu have been described (Adolph Suggested uses.-Tou chiang can be used the and Kiang 1920, Chen and Chen 1962, Chin and same way as cow's milk in many Western reci­ Van Duyne 1961, Piper and Morse 1923, Shurt­ pes. It can also be made into yogurt, or acid leff and Aoyagi 1975, Smith and others 1960, milk-type products. First, it is heated to boil­ Wai 1964, Wang 1967); however, the underlying ing, mixed with sugar (S percent), poured into principle for making tou fu is still based on the a container, allowed to cool, and then inoculated simple one invented by Liu An. The details of with pure culture (Wang and others 1974, these procedures may vary to some extent, just Kanda and others 1976), yogurt, or a commer­ as any household art may vary from one family cial yogurt starter. The container is then cov­ to another, but in general they are similar. ered and kept in a wm:m place, nsually over­ Materials.--Soybeans, water, and coagulants. night depending on the temperature, until yo­ Any val'iety of soybeaus may be used for mak­ gurt consistency is obtained. Inoculated soy­ ing tou fu; however, yield, color, and texture bean milk was incubated in the laboratory for of tou fu vary with the variety (Piper and 20hat37° C. Morse 1923, Smith and others 1960). Original Yogurt made from soybean milk is best when protein and oil content of the beans is a factor sel'ved cold, or it can be mixed with equal parts in yield as well as in the final protein and oil of water and served as a sour-cold drink. content of the tou fu. In general, Chinese pl'e­ fer beans having high protein content, uniform Tou fu (soybean curd) maturity and size, thin seedcoats, and a bright, Tou fu is closely associated with tou chiang light color, which are essentially the same as (soybeau milk) because the initial step iu mak- those required for making soybean milk. The most commonly used precipitating agents -i Huang, P. CO J professol' of nutrition, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, or coagulants are powdered gypsum (a mixture R.O.C. 1976. of calcium sulfate and magnesium carbonate) ~ 6' UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE and' yen-lu (the concentrated liquid obtained The kind of salt used also affects the quality in the manufacturing of salt from sea water, of the'tou fu. Calcium sulfate seems superior containing mainly magnesium sulfate and mag­ to other calcium or magnesium salts. It coagu­ nesium chloride). Because the Chinese diet is lates the protein slowly to give the most gela­ low in calcium, the most desirable coagulant tinous type of precipitation and the smoothest would be calcium salts: calcium sulfate, c.alcium texture. chloride, calcium lactate, calcium gJuconate, The salt should first be dissolved or sus­ and calcium citrate (Wai 1964). Acids, such as pended in hot water and then added to the hot citric or vinegar, have also been used but not milk (70 0 to 80 0 C) with gentle mixing by a pad­ commonly in China. dle 01' scoop. Adding an insufficient amount of Equipment.-In addition to the equipment salt or adding it too quickly not only causes in­ required for making soybean milk, as described complete precipitation but also results in a tur­ under tou chiang, square wooden boxes about bid suspension. This makes separating the 4 to 5 cm deep are used to press and mold tou whey from the preCipitated protein difficult. fu. The boxes should have small holes or slits, On the other hand, too much salt makes the lined with cloth so the excess whey can be tou fu too hard, which is not liked by most drained off, and the curd formed into the size Orientals. of the box. . Satisfactory and c'omplete curd formation is Procedures.-The first step in preparing tou indicated by the slow aggregation of the small fu is to make tou chaing (soybean milk as pre­ curd into a large mass, which gradually settles viously described). Next, the protein is' pre­ to the bottom of t!le container, and change of cipitated by a coagUlating agent and then the milk into a light yellowish, clear liquid. A placed into a molding box to form a cake. sudden flocculation usually means excess pre­ About 1 L 'of tou chiang obtained from 200 g cipitating agent. With close obsel'vation and of dry beans is brought to a boil and 3.5 g of some practice, this most difficult step of mak­ calcium sulfate (CaSO.o ZH20) suspended in 20 ing tou fu can be easily achieved. ml hot water is slowly added to the hot milk After the curd settles, the whey (superna­ (70· to 80· C). In many shops, where the tant) is partially removed, and the curd is ground bean mass is cooked before filtering, no transfel'l'ed to a wood box lined with coarse cooking is applied to the resulting soybean milk filter .cloth. A 12 by 12 by 5 cm box with 'small before the addition of the coagulant. Because holes or slits in the sides and at the bottom is tou fu is frequently eaten without further a convenient size to handle the quantity of curd cooking, boiling the milk for 20 to 30 min before made from 200 g of soybeans. The ends of the adding the coagulant increases the nutritional filter cloth are folded over, and a board placed value and also lessens the beany flavor. During upon the curd. It is then subjected to pressure cooking, constant sth'ring is necessary to avoid from the top with about 500 g of stones or other scorching. Steamers or double boilers are con­ weights to squeeze out the whey. When drain­ venient for this purpose. ing has stopped, a cake, which should be solid Coagulating the soybean protein by adding enough to stand handling, is ready to be re­ salt is the most difficult step in making tou fu. moved from the box. Froin 200 g of soybeans, The right amount and the kind of salt used are 450 to 500 g of tou fu with a moistUl'e content two factors necessary to attain a satisfactory of 85 percent is made. The amount of curd, the curd. Recommended is 3 to 4 g of CaSO.o 2H20 weight of pressure, and the pressing time will per liter of milk obtained from zoo g of dry affect the hardness of the tou fu. Large batches beans. Shurtleff and Aoyagi (1975) suggest of tou fu can be made by using the same pro­ using 24 to 36 g (3 tbsp) magnesium chloride, cedure and the same simple and inexpensive calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, or magnesium but .larger equipment. When pressing curd, the sulfate for the amount of soybean milk obtained wooden boxes can be stacked and pressed under from 1.6 kg of soybeans (ratio of water to a weighted lever. beans is 8:1). Byproducts.-Tou cha and whey are the only SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 7 byproducts from tou fJI manufacture. Both are gredient in huo-kuo (firepots), which is an en- used for animal feed. Tau cha is also used for tire meal similar to fondue. 1 food. Quick sthTing.-Using a small amount of oil in a heated skillet, cook slices of tau fu until Compositron both sides are brown. Add soy sauce or odier The composition of tou fu may vary depend­ flavoring agents as desired and serve hot. ing on the valiety of bean used and the method Sometimes, sliced pork or beef are browned of preparation. The following is the composi­ and theu mixed with tou fu. tion of tou fu (100 g) made in Taiwan, as re­ Simmering.-8h1·edded pork 01' beef are ported by Food Industry Research and Develop­ cooked in a little hot oil, stirring constantly. ment Institute (1971): water, 86.3 g; protein, Add small cubes of tau fu, salt, soy sauce, hot 7.3 g; fat, 3.5 g, carbohydrates, 2.3 g; fiber, bean paste and a small amount of water, and 0.3 g; ash, 0.7 g; calcium, 95 mg; phosphorus, bring to a boil. Covel' and simmer for about 5 106 mg; iron, 2.8 mg: .vitamin B 0.05 mg; min. vitamin Bo, 0.03 mg: and niacin, 3.8" mg. Shrimp is also cooked with tau fu in the same manner. Ways of serving Steaming.-Tou fu cakes ~re stuffed with Becau.se tau fu is rich in protein, fat, and flavored ground meat or shrimp and then minerals, it is known in China as "meat without steamed. Tou fu is also steamed just with fla­ bones," even though tau fu, as used in the voring agents, such as soy sauce or sufu (fer­ Orient, has a soft, cream cheeselike consistency mented tau fu). that is quite different from meats. However, a Stewing.-Bean curd cooked in an earthen variety of products processed from tau fu are pot is a common way of eating tou fu in the available that have less moisture content and a Szechuan regiou. Place cut-up chicken, pork, more chewy textm·e. ham, dry seafoods, vegetables, mushrooms, tau Tau fu is consumed almost daily by everyone fu, 01' any other foods one prefers in the earth­ in China-rich and poor, young and old. No en pot. Add salt and soup stock, and simmer report has been given of the amount of tou fu over low heat until served. consumed by each person daily, but a figure of Chinese dishes are usually meat or seafoods 84 to 112 g is reasonable. cooked together with vegetables or tou fu, so Tau fu is usually made, sold, and eaten the that the vegetables and tou fu are enriched same day, although it can be kept in cold water with the meat flavor. Here, Tau fu can be for a couple of days when the weather is not cooked in all the major ways it is available in too hot and for as long as.2 to 3 wk in the re­ China. Its versatility is evident. With a little frigerator with changes of water. When fresh, imagination, tau fu can be used in the national tau fu is a rather bland pI'oduct, but it can be cuisine of countries around the world. made into a great variety of delicious dishes. Without cooking.-A delightful way to serve Processed tau iu products tau fu without further cooking is simply to Tou fu nao, tou fu kan, chien chang, yu tau serve it with the addition of soy sauce, sesame fu, and tung tou fu are different forms of tau oil, green onion, hot oil (if one has a taste for fu. These products, with different degrees 'of hot food), 01' with any other spices or flavoring hardness and water content, are made from tau agents one prefers. fu by applying val'ious amounts of p1'essure Boiling.-Tou fu is frequently used in soups when tau fu is pressed at the molding stage. with vegetables, such as chicken broth with tou The material and equipment and the procedure fu and peas, depending on availability and pref­ to make these products are the same as for erence. Cooking time for tau fu is short, just a making tau fu. few minutes, but not critical. Tou fu is also served by boiling and then Tou fu nao (soft curd) dipping into a favorite sauce. It is the key in- Tau fu nao has a softer consistency than' tou 8 ~ UTILIZATION'RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

.[uAt is prepared by adding less than the regu­ then cooked, lanamount of coagulant l'equired for making Mei chien chang (fermented chien, chang) is toupfu, and it is not pressed. The soft custard­ made by rolling chien chang into thin rolls, like curd looks like thickened soybean milk and sprinkled with salt, and then packed into a is served just like soybean 'milk. Some prefer bowl and covered. After setting at room tem­ to add a sweetner'to tou fu nao; others like it perature for a few 'days, a natural fel'menta­ with soy sauce, sesame oil, pickled vegetables, tion takes place which yields the strong-fla­ dry shrimp, and even chopped meat. vored product. It is steamed before serving. Tou fu nao is also served as a part of break­ This fer!llented product is usually made at fast, but it is not as common.as tou chiang. home. Tou fu kan (dry bean curd) Yu tou fu (fried tou fu) Kan in Chinese means dry; tou fu kan con­ The fresh tou .fu with a low-moisture content tains less water than tou fu, When tou fu is is cut into small squares and deep-fried. Yu tau' pressed under pressure until as much .whey as fu is just another form of tou fu and can be possible is expelled, a product with a low 50 per­ served just like other tou fu products. cent water 'content can be obtained. With thin­ ner cakes of tou fu, drier products can be made. Tung tou iu (frozen tou fu) These products ,are known as peh tou fu kan Because of lack of freezing facilities, frozen (white, dry bean curd) because they are still tau fu is usually consumed only during the white. The curd can be sliced into thin strips winter months. Fresh' tou ,fu is cut into small and used as noodles in soups or sauteed with pieces' and exposed to severe cold weather until meat and vegetables. White, dry bean curds frozen. The structure of tou fu when frozen is sometimes ,are immersed into a special vegeta­ greatly changed; all the water becomes ice. ble stalk-salt solution that yields a fermented When the frozen tou fu is thawed, only a net­ product. work of protein and other solids is present; it :F1requently, the curds are simmered in hot looks like a piece of sponge-resilient and ab­ strong tea and burnt, sugar for a 'short time sorbent. It has a chewy texture, which is re­ followed by surface-drying over a slow open markably similar to that of tender meat. fire to produce a brown product generally Frozen tou fu is used in soups or stewed in known as toufu kan. Tou fu kan has a chewy, an earthern pot with meats, seafoods, and vege­ meatlike texture 'and also has a special aroma tables. In general,- processed tou fu products and,taste. are not as frequently eaten as tou fu. Many variations of tou"fu kan exist. Usually it is' further seasoned with soy sauce, star an­ Tou fu pi (protein-lipid film) ise, ,pepper corn, or a special Chinese five-spices Tau fu pi is 'another pr~duct closely related powder, and then dried over low heat. All these to soybean milk or tou chiang, It is the film products can be eaten as a side dish' with regu­ formed on the surface of soybean milk during lar meals or as between-meal snack. However, heating, just as skin forms .in the heating of they are usually cooked with meat and vegeta­ cow's milk, The cream-yellow film is usually bles in sauteed and simmered dishes. Tou fu air-dried and sold in the form of sheets, sticks, kan .is not as commonly consumed as tou fu, or flakes.

Chien chang , , Preparation This'. product is formed by ,pressing thin lay- In preparing tau fu pi, soybean milk is heat­ ers of bean curd between sheets of cloth. Chien ed to a boil in an open pan and then maintained .1 chang, which looks like a piece of cloth, can be at a temperature just below boiling over low I cut into thin strips and used as noodles in heat. When a film is formed, it is removed soups. It can also be stewed with meat. Some­ from the milk by passing a stick underneath times it is, wrapped around ground meat and the film surface. The stick with the film is then

, ' SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 9

hung to air-dry or to dry over a low ehareoal a vegetarian's banquet, is made by folding sev­ fire (Piper and Morse 1923). Succeeding films eral rehydrated sheets of tou fu pi seasoned are removed in the same fashion until no film is with soy sauce and other spices, and then formed. Piper and Morse (1923) reported that steamed and sliced. the milk from 1.35 kg (3 Ib) of beans would yield about 30 sheets of tou fu pi. Wu and Huang tou ya (soybean sprouts) Bates (1972a) reported that after film forma­ Bean sprouts, which are quite popular in the tion ceased, the soybean milk remaining con­ United States, are not made from soybeans; tained about 34 percent protein, 11 percent total they are sprouts of the tiny green mung bean lipid, 28 percent carbohydrates, and 13 percent (Phaseolus aurrms). Soybean sprouts are populal' ash (percent drY-basis), whereas the starting in China and are known as huang tou ya, which milk contained 50 percent protein, 29 percent means yellow bean sprouts. They look like total lipid, 16 percent carbohydrates, and 6.6 mung bean sprouts except that the bean portion percent ash. (cotyledons) of the soybean sprout is more dis­ Frequently, the tou fu maker harvests a few tinct because it is large and light yellow. Soy­ sheets of tou fu pi before adding salt to make bean sprouts have the same crispy texture as tou fu. mung bean sprouts but are more tasty. How­ ever, mung bean sprouts are more frequently Composition eaten than soybean sprouts because they cost The composition of tou fu pi is not consistent. less. Wu and Bates (1972a) found that the protein and lipid content of successively formed films Preparation generally decreased. The carbohydrate content Materials and equipment,-Soybeans, sprout­ of the first groups was always the lowest and ing container, and cover. Any container increased in the subsequent groups. The ash equipped with draining outlets is suitable. Bam­ content of the successive groups of films also boo baskets are frequently used with straw increased gradually and was especially high in mats as cover. Clay flower pots can also be the last groups. Wu and Bates (1972b) also used. Covel' the bottom hole of the clay pot found that the film is not a compound of fixed with rustproof screen wire or cheesecloth to chemical composition because the ratios vary prevent beans from faIling through the hole. somewhat with the composition of soybean milk Procedures.-Sprouting beans at home is quite and processing conditions. In general, they simple with only a few rules to follow. Beans found the film contained 55 percent pmtein, 28 need enough moisture to germinate, but with per cent total lipids, 12 percent carbohydrate, too much water they may rot; with too little, 2 percent ash, and 9 percent moisture, which is they will not germinate. Germination occurs comparable to that cited by BOl'gstrom (1968), best in a dark place and at a temperature of 52 percent protein and 24 percent fat. about 25' C. Even though the moisture content of tou fu Soybeans (200 g) are washed and soaked in pi is Jow, its shelf life is short because of the water overnight. Soaked beans are poured in high lipid content. the sprouting container (24 by 20 em), rinsed thoroughly, drained well, and covered tightly Ways of serving to keep out the light and to prevent evapora­ Tou fu pi, or Yuba in Japan, is a popular tion. The container is then kept in a dark place. foodstuff in the Orient; however, it is not eaten The beans must be watered 3 to 4 times daily daily. by pouring water through the container with­ Tou fu pi is quite brittle. It is always soft­ out disturbing the sprouts. If the room tem­ ened by soaking in cold water before cooking. perature is quite high, the beans should be It can be used in soups or wrapped ground watered more often. It usually takes from 3 to meat or vegetables and then steamed, sim­ 5 days in the summer and almost 2 wk in the I mered, Ol' fried. Vegetable chicken, a must for winter for the sprouts to reach full growth. At I I I 10 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE that time, they can be ,pulled out from the pot. When they are in season, they take the place of Mter most of the seedcoats have been washed some other soybean products and vegetables. out, the sprouts are ready for cooking. Dry soybeans Composition Roasting and frying.-Dry soybeans are The composition of soybean sprouts as l'e­ often roasted over an opan fire and are eaten ported by Leung and others (1972) is moisture, as a snack, like peanuts. Some p1'efer to fry 81.5 percent; protein, 7,7 percent; fat, 1.8 per­ soybeans in deep oil, which seems to give added cent; carbohydrates, 8 percent; fiber, 0.7 per­ tasta. The taxture of roasted or fried soybeans cent; ash, 1.0 percent. is too hard to suit the American's taste, but they have been enjoyed by Chinese for cen­ Ways of sel'Ving turies. Bean sprouts are eaten as a common vegeta­ Stewing and boiling.-After soaking, dry ble throughout the year. However, like many soybeans are also cooked with pork, similar to vegetables, they are not eaten daily. pork and beans in the United States, but with Sprouts, used frequently in soups, can also be different seasonings-soy sauce being the most steamed with salt, oil, and some green onion. cornmon one. Cooking time is usually about 2 h. They may be used in almost any way that Longer cooking time may result in a more tasty green vegetables are used. They must be dish, but soybeans will not cook as soft as other cooked, but requiTe only a shOTt cooking time. beans because they contain little starch, Some­ times, soaked soybeans are boiled with soup Whole soybeans bones to make a tasty soup. Or they are cooked Whole soybeans can be used in seveml ways with bamboo shoots, soy sauce, and other spices in the Chinese diet, even though the use of followed by snn-drying to use as a snack food. whole soybeans as food in China is not as com­ mon as that of the other processed soybean Roasted soybean flour pToducts. Roasted dry soybeans al'e sometimes gl'ound into flour and then mixed with lard and sugar. Mao tou (hai1'!J bean, green soybean, This mixture is used as fillings for pastry, or or immature soybean) to coat the surface of other pastries. Soybean When soybeans are picked green or at three­ flour as processed in the United States is not fourths maturity-pods are greenish yellow commonly used in China, and the beans are large and soft-they are the most delicious and nutritious green vegetable. Fermented soybean f(lods Standal (1963) found steamed green soybeans Fermented products such as sufu, tau shih, to have the highest net protein utilization value soy sauce, and bean paste, made from soybeans among all soybean products investigated in the or soybeans with cereals, have been used in study: tou iu, natto, green soybeans, soybean China fol' centuries (Hesseltine and Wang sprouts, Green soybeans are composed of mois­ 1972), Most of the products have a strong char­ ture, 68.2 percent; protein, 13 percent; fat, 5.7 acteristic flavor and are commonly used as fla­ percent; carbohydrate, 11.4 percent; fiber, 1.9 voring agents. From theit experiences, the Ori­ percent; ash, 1.9 percent (Leung and others entals consider fermented soybean products 1972). noul'ishing and easily digestible foods. The Ori­ Green soybeans cooked in the pods with salt ental diet consists mainly of rice and vegeta­ for 10 to 15 min are a good between-meal bles, which can be rather bland. The strongly nourishment. They can also be shelled and flavored fermented foods not only add taste to cooked like peas. Chinese like to cook their the rice-vegetable diet, but also, through stimu­ vegetables with meat, so the shelled green lating the appetite, contribute nutritional value beans· are often steamed or sauteed with meat. to people who may otherwise not consume Green soybeans are a seasonal vegetable. enough food to meet their caloric requirements. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 11

The Chinese developed these processes with­ TABLE I.-Soybean production and imports in out the knowledge and the beuefit of micro­ Taiwan, 1962-75' biology and modern technology. Today, many Year Production Imports Total supply of them are still carried out as natural pro­ 1,000 metric tons cesses at home. However, some processes such 1962 ...... '.' 53.0 62.4 115.4 as soy sauce, bean paste (miso), and sufu (fer­ 1963 ...... 52.6 182.5 235.1 1964 ...... 57.6 181.8 239.4 mented tou fu), have been extensively studied, 1965 ...... 65.7 161.4 227.1 and pure culture fermentation methods have 1966 ...... 63.3 164.5 227.8 been developed (Hesseltine and Wang 1972). 1967 ...... 75.2 347.0 422.2 Because these fermentations require a long 1968 ....•.••.. 73.0 384.9 457.9 period and involve a number of complicated 1969 ...... 67.1 472.2 539.3 1970 ...... 65.2 617.5 682.7 steps, their technology is not reviewed in this 1971 ...... 61.0 524.9 5S5.9 report. 1972 ...... 60.2 711.6 771.8 1973 ...... 60.6 626.0 686.6 Production and consumption 1974 ...... 66.9 528.6 595.5 The People's Republic of China produced 10 1975 ...... 61.9 827.3 889.2 million t' of soybeans in 1975. Also, the FAO , Republic of China (1975). food balance sheets average for 1964-66 (1971) indicated per capita consumption of 6.7 kg year­ water-packed in a polyethylene container, ly and a total food use of 5,123,000 t of soybeans sealed with a sheet of transparent fihn, and per year. pasteurized by immersion in hot water for 1 h In Taiwan, soybeans axe mostly imported; to give a shelf life of up to 1 wk. This tofu is however, sufficient crop grown on small acre­ sold in supermarkets and neighborhood gro­ age accounts for less than 10 percent of total soybeans used in Taiwan. Soybean production cery stores at a price slightly below that of the and imports from 1962 to 1975 are given in ta­ tofu made by neighborhood shops. ble 1. In general, 85 percent of the soybean goes Preparation into oil, and the remaining 15 percent is for The preparation of tofu and other tofu prod­ food use. In 1975, about 93,000 t of soybeans were used in making tou fu, 30,000 t for soy sauce, ucts in Japan has been described by Smith (1958), Smith and others (1960), and more re­ and 20,000 t for miscellaneous food use. The yearly per capita consumption of soybean foods cently in much detail by Shurtleff and Aoyagi (1975). The basic steps of making tofu and the by Chinese in Taiwan is shown in table 2.

Japan TABLE 2.-Consumption of soybean foods in Taiwan, 1964-74' Tofu (soybean curd) Toufu Tofu is the most popular soybean food in Year Soybean tood (80 percent Ir::zO) Japan. It was brought to Japan from China (Kilograms per capita per year) centuries ago by Buddhist monks who used 1964 ...... 1.08 18.75 1965 ...... 1.13 20.14 tofu as a daily diet. Although Japanese tofu is 1966 ...... 1.12 19.64 similar to Chinese tou fu, the Chinese product 1967 ...... 1.40 28.50 generally has a firmer texture. 1968 ...... 1.19 23.91 In Japan, tofu is processed into many forms; 1969 ...... 1.87 28.95 however, fresh tofu is used in the largest 1970 ...... 2.34 33.34 1971 ...... 2.85 32.30 amount and is the starting point for all other 1972 ...... 2.61 33.89 types. Fresh tofu is usually made in small shops 1973 ...... 2.36 31.30 which process from 45 to 135 kg of beans daily. 1974 ...... 1.99 32.04

In recent" years, large plants have begun to 1 Chinese-American Joint Commis­ mass-produce tofu; each tofu cake (300 g) is sion on Rural Reconstruction (1975). "... ' 12 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

equipment required are essentially the same as To filter go, transfer hot dilute go into press­ described for tou fu in China. Following is a ing sack, quickly place pressing rack across the bl'ief account for making tofu in a village or opening of pressing barrel, and set sack on top community; the method is detailed in the of the rack. Twist sack closed and put a heavy "Book of Tofu" by Shurtleff and Aoyagi pressing weight on top of the sack to expel as (1975). much soybean milk as possible. Pour another Materials.-Soybeans, 1.6 kg, water, solidi­ 3.8 L of hot water in the sack to l'inse the resi­ fiers or coagulants. For subtly sweet tofu, use due and press again. Bring soybean milk to a 30 g gramilar magnesium chloride or calcium boil, stirring bottom of the pot to prevent stick­ chloride, or 37.5 to 60 ml natural nigari (the ing, reduce heat to medium, 'and continue to mineral-rich liquid l'emllining after salt is ex­ heat for 5 min. Add 1.4 L of hot water to the tracted from seawater), or 45 to 120 ml com­ solidifier, and then add the mixture to the hot mercially prepared liquid nigari, or 1.9 L of milk. freshly collected clear seawater. For mild soft Every tofu maker has a unique way of adding tofu, use 36 or 24 g epsom salts (magnesium coagulant. Some stir in a circle and some stir sulfate) or calcium sulfate. For slightly sour back and forth across the pot; some sth' rap­ tofu, use 0.30 L lemon juice or lime juice or idly, some slowly; some add all the coagulant at 0.24 L vinegar. once, some in two or three portions; some pour Equipment.-Grinding stones, electric blend­ it in from 15 to 30 cm above the milk surface, er, or electric stone mill; cooking pots and lids; some sprinkle it gently over the surface, and pressing sack; rectangular sack (such as a some do both. However, it is the chemical na­ small flour sack) about 60 cm long and 32 to 37 ture and the quantity of coagulant used, not cm wide made of coarsely woven strong fabric; the manner of adding coagulants, that dictate pressing barrel (22 to 30 L) made of wood or the quality and yield of tofu. After the curd metal; pressing rack consisting of' rods placed settles for about· 8 to 10 min after the addition across the opening of the pressing barrel with of coagulant, remove portion of clear whey and several inches between each rod; and settling transfer curds to cloth-lined settling box. Fold boxes for pressing and molding tofu. Use a corners of the cloth neatly over curds, place lid 10 by 30 by 30 cm box with many holes 1 cm in on top of cloth, and set a 2- kg weight on top diameter in all sides and bottom to allow drain­ for about 5 min. Increase weight to about 4.5 age. The box should be lined with a piece of kg and press for 30 to 40 min more or until cheesecloth or. other coarsely woven cloth and whey no longer drips from the box. Remove fitted with a flat lid. cloth-wrapped tofu from box, allow it to cool Procedures.-Use 1.6 kg of dry soybeans that for 10 to 15 min and then unwrap_ Tofu may be have been rinsed and soaked in 6 L of water served immediately. for 8 to 10 h, or in cold weather for as long as Many'tofu makers in Japan soak tofu in 15 to 20 h as described under the section Soak­ water for a short time and then slice it into ing Dry Soybeans; they are again rinsed well standard size cubes for the market. and allowed to drain. In small portions (500 g), the soaked beans are blended with an equal Composition volume of water in an electl'ic blender at high The composition of tofu varies depending on speed for 2 to 3 min until smooth. The resul­ the bean variety used. A typical analysis of tant soybean mash (known as "go" in Japan) tofu (Smith 1958) is 88 percent water, 6.0 per­ is transferred to a large container. Pour the cent protein, and 3.5 percent fat. Protein rang­ combined go into 3.8 L of boiling water and ing from 6 to 8.4 percent has been reported. continue to heat the diluted go over high heat, stirring bottom of pot frequently with wooden Ways of serving paddle to prevent sticking. When foam sud­ Although Japanese cookery generally has denly l'ises in pot, quickly remove from heat. some similarity to Chinese cuisine, the use of SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED ,.13 ingredients and ways to serve are distinctive. Broiling.-Tofu dengaku is made by taking The following are Japanese ways of serving firm pieces of tofu, the size of small matbh tofu, which show its versatility. boxes, place on bamboo skewers and broil Without cooking.-One of the most popular lightly. A simmered miso sauce ot barbeque ways to serve tofu in Japan is chilled and un­ sauce is then spread on tofu surfaces. Then cooked. A creative cook can serve chilled tofu broil the pieces again until brown. In Japan, in different ways every day of the year by tofu dengaku is usually prepared over a bed of choosing seasonal garnishes, subtly flavored red, hot charcoal. dipping sauces, and seasoned toppings. Cut tofu Deep.fat frying.-Deep·fried tofu is used in into small cubes and place in a shallow bowl. virtually every type of Japanese cuisine and is Sprinkle shoyu (soy sauce) or other favorite commercially available. At home, tofu tempura sauce over the tofu and top with garnishes. is prepared by deep-fat frying. Also, sauces and garnishes can be served in Japan is famous for its tempura cuisine. A separate dishes to satisfy individual taste. typical tempura batter can be made by mixing Chilled tofu is best to serve 'on a hot summer 1 egg yolk with 0.24 L of ice-cold water. Add day. It is served with the meal or as a snack. zoo to 240 g of wheat flour and 3 g of salt, and Boiling.-Fresh tofu adds protein, flavor, and stir the flour lightly in the egg mixture until variety to almost any kind of soup. It can be all flour is moistened and large lumps disap­ cut into small cubes, thin slices, or even crum­ pear. Dip sliced tofu in the batter and fry in bled and added to soup just. a few minutes be­ hot oil until both sides are brown. Serve hot fore cooking is finished. If cooked too long, tofu with shoyu or other favOl'ite sauces. may lose some of its fine texture. Miso soups Tofu·egg pancakes.-Pancake batter is made and other delicately flavored soups almost al­ with wheat flour, egg, and milk or water with ways contain tofu and are among the most pop­ the addition of tofu and chopped vegetables. ular at home or in restaurants. Miso, a flavor­ Serve pancakes with Worcestershire sauce, ing agent containing 16 to 1& percent salt, is a shoyu, or miso sauce. paste made from soybean and cereals by a fer­ mentation process. Of the three most popular Kinugoshi tofu ways of serving tofu-chilled, simmered, or in Kinugoshi tofu has a silky texture, soft and mise soup-only the latter is enjoyed through­ white; it is made from thick soybean milk. The out the year and at any of the day's three curd and whey are not separated and pressed. meals. Miso soup is an indispensable part of the Because whey is not removed in making kinu­ traditional Japanese breakfast, together with goshi tofu, it contains more of the nutrients or­ rice and salt-pickled vegetables. In Japan, more iginally present in the soybeans. This product tofu is used in miso soup than in any other is the same as tou fu nao in China. types of cookery. In addition to tofu, miso soup Kinugoshi is easier and faster to prepare contains seasonal vegetables and garnishes. To than regular tofu. The procedures fOl' making prepare, bring soup stock or water to a boil. tofu can be followed except only half as much Add vegetables and continue to boil for a few solidifier is required. After the addition of the solidifier, let the curd stand for 20 to 30 min minutes. Add tofu and simmer for 1 min. Stir or until it is firm before serving. No pressing in miso creamed with a little of the hot broth is required. and return just to a boil. Serve immediately. Kinugoshi is best served cool just as chilled Simmering.-In nabe (one-pot) cookery, tofu. Other main uses of kinugoshi are in mise which is similar to Chinese huo-kuo, the food soups, clear soups, and dishes served with is prepared right at the table in a large earthen sauces. pot placed on top of a charcoal brazier. The Kinugoshi is now prepared by many Japanese nabe contains the entire meal, and each indi­ shops in the United States from powdered soy­ vidual cooks and serves himself from a wide bean milk coagUlated with lactone or calcium range of seafoods, meats, vegetables, and tofu. sulfate. 14 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

,Processed tofu products Kori tofu (dried-f1'ozen tofu) Many types of tofu products are made in Frozen tofu has a spongy appearance 'and a Japan from regular tofu by frying and drying. meatlike chewy texture quite different from These products are so popular that they are that of fresh tofu. Because 'of lack of freezing made commercially. facilities, frozen tofu is usually made by expos­ Aburage (or age), nama·age, and ganmo ing it to cold weather; therefore, it is only con­ sumed during the winter months. To create the AbUl'age is fresh tofu fried in deep fat and is spongy texture of frozen tofu and to prolong popular in Japan. Fresh tofu used for frying its shelf life, Japanese dry the frozen tofu. usually contains less moisture than regular The tofu slabs are cut into' 1.5-cm thick tofu. To give the best results, the tofu slabs are slices, pressed in layers between boards to expel cut into small pieces and fried in two oil pots at excess water, and then exposed to severe cold diffel'ent temperatures. The first pot is at 100 0 weather for 8 h or until frozen solid. The sliced to 110° C, where the tofu is held for 2 to 3 min. tofu is maintained in the frozen state from 1 to Then the tofu is removed to the second pot at 3 wk to develop the spongy textul·e. At the end 200 0 to 220 0 C, where it is held until golden of the freezing period, It is thawed in warm brown (Smith 1958). In deep-fat frying, the water and pressed to expel all the water. At water content is reduced and the oil content is this stage, it has a spongy look and is ready' increased, thus aburage is rich in oil and pro­ for drying. The villagers use a shed, heated tein. with charcoal braziers, to, dry the tofu cakes. A piece of aburage is about 20 cm long, 8 to Today in Japan, based on these basic proce­ 10 cm wide, and about 2 cm thick (Shurtleff dures, there are large capacity plants for mak­ and Aoyagi 1975). The outside has a skinlike ing dried-frozen tofu. In modern plants, the formation. When the piece is cut in half, the cakes are given a final treatment with gaseous cut end of each half is the opening of a pouch ammonia to increase water absorbing and swell­ about lO-cm long. One way of eating aburage ing properties. is to fill these pouches with rice, vegetables, Dried-frozen tofu shOUld be l'ehydrated by eggs, or meats. placing it in cold water before cooking. It is Aburage can also be used in the place of tofu. commonly used to nabe cooker,)', in soup, and in Like tofu, aburage has a rather bland taste,and simmered and sauteed dishes. Properly dipped is served with sauces. Unlike tofu, abUl'age has in tempura batter or eggs and deep-fried, it more body and a chewy texture. makes an excellent food. Besides regular aburage or age, there are nama-age (thick age). and ganmo. Nama-age 01' thick age refers to age that is made from Yaki tofu (grilled tofu) thick or whole cakes of fresh tofu. When a Regular fresh tofu is thoroughly pI'essed and thick cake of tofu is deep-fried, it combines the then lightly broiied or toasted over open fire. softness of tofu with the crisp firmness and Yaki tofu is delicious served hot with a favo­ flavor acquired from deep-frying. rite sauce. Ganmo is a deep-fried tofu patty. Tofu, lnixed with sesame seeds and finely slivered Yuba (protein-lipid film) vegetables, is kneaded as if kneading bread. The lnixture, after shaping into burger-sized Yuba is the dded sheets of soybean protein patties or balls, is then flied in oil until golden containing emulsified oil and is equivalent to tou broWl!, Grated yam or lightly beaten egg is fre­ fu pi of China. It is made by boiling soybean quently added to the lnixture to sel'Ve as a lnilk and then removing and drying the film binding agent. CalTots, onions, peas, mush­ formed over the surface of the milk, Yuba is rooms, and chopped nuts are the COlnmon vege­ commonly made in three different forms: tables used; sometimes they are slightly sau­ fresh, half-dried, and dried. Dried yuba is brit­ teed to increase their flavor. tle and is rehydrated before cooking. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 15

In Japan, yuba, especially fresh, is- prized as of cooking dry soybeans: In one, soaked soy­ a delicate hal's d'oeuvre. The variety of shape, beans are boiled in water with shoyu; in the textures, and flavors is unlimited. Fresh and other, soaked, and drained soybeans al'e deep­ warm yuba served with shoyu or othel: dipping fried in a sweetened batter and sold as a soy sauce can be delicious. Yuba is also cooked with brittle. many other dishes, and it requires only a few minutes of cooking time. Kinako Kinako is a Japanese full-fat soybean flour Soybean milk product (Smith 1958). Soybeans are roasted Although soybean milk is made at the fh'st for one-half hour 01' longer until the character­ step of making tofu, it is not traditionally con­ istic toasted flavor is acquired. The beans are sumed by the Japanese. then cooled by spreading in the open air and are ground to a moderately fine flour. This Go (ground soybean mash) process was originally carried out at farm Most of the go made in tofu shops is used homes as a small-family industry; later, mech­ directly in the tofu-making process. Tradition­ anization of the process was improved, and it ally, go has also been used in home cooking. became established as a commel'cial process. The most popular use for go is in thick miso However, the production is still small as com­ soup, known as gojiru. pared with all the other soybean foods. Kinako is sprinkled on rice or rice cake. The Daizu no mayashi (soybean sprouts) poor people of Japan are said to be the principal users of kinako. Daizu no mayashi is equivalent to Chinese huang tou ya, which has been discussed under Fermented soybean foods China (p. 9). In Japan, soybean sprouts are The Japanese consume great amounts of miso also used as vegetables, either parboiled for (fermented soybean-cereal paste) and shoyu fresh salads, in soups, or in sauteed and sim­ (fermented soybean-cereal liquid) as flavor­ mered dishes. ing agents. Although these fermentation pro­ Whole soybeans cesses, as well as other fermented soybean processes, have been carried out at small fam­ Like the Chinese, Japanese do not eat whole ily-owned factories, they do require more so­ soybeans as much as processed soybean prod­ phisticated equipment, knowledge, and time. ucts. Miso, shoyu, and other fermented soybean foods, natto and hamanatto, are not reviewed in Edamame (fresh green soybeans) this publication. Fresh, green soybeans are a favOlite vegeta­ ble in Japan just as they are in China. The Production and consumption green soybeans are simmered in the pot until Japan is one of the world's major soybean tender, lightly salted, and sel'ved as a delicious consumers, 5.1 kg per capita yearly (FAO hol'S d'oeuvre, often with sake 01' beer-or as a 1971) ; however, it pl'oduces less than 2 percent part of a meal. FI'om mid-June until October, of the soybeans used as shown in table 3. Japan the green soybeans are served at the dining ta­ uses more than 3 million t of soybeans yeal'ly- bles of restaurants and private homes through­ 78 percent for oil and ZZ percent for food uses. out Japan. Cooked, green soybeans (hitashi The amount of whole soybeans used in making marne) are packaged commercially. each one of the major soybean foods is given in table 4. Of the 2 million t of defatted soy­ Whole dry soybeans bean meal produced yearly from oil extmction, Dry soybeans are only occasionally cooked at 15 percent was used for traditional foods (table home; most people buy them at the local delica­ 5). The yearly production of traditional soy­ tessen as a snack. There are two common ways bean foods in Japan is shown in table 6. 16 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5; U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 3.-Supply and disposition oj soybeans in percent of soybeans grown in KOl·ea is con­ Japan, 1971-74' sumed as soybean curd. 1911 1972 1913 1974 Soybean curd has been made at home, especi­ 1,000 mettlc tORS ally by farm families, as well as in more than Supply: a thousand small shops. According to Smith .Beginning stocks 269 251 278 401 (1949), small shops, which on the average em· Domestic ...... 58 55 53 60 ploy five men, can work up about 273 kg (10 Imports ...... 3,212 3,396 3,635 3,244 Total supply ...... 3,518 3,702 3,966 3,705 bushels) of soybeans daily. Disposition: The method of preparing soybean curd is Crushing ...... 2,481 2,636 2,739 2,729 essentially the same as that used by the Chi­ Traditional foods .... 731 758 796 726 nese and Japanese. The curd is consumed as it Feed ...... 55 30 30 30 is or in soup with fish, meat, and vegetable Total disposition. .. 3,267 3,424 3,565 3,485 dishes. Ending stocks ...... 251 278 401 220

1 Japan Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (tUrD). Processed tubu product Tubu is the only traditional variety of Korean soybean curd.· During the Japanese occupation, TABLE 4.-Whole soybeans used in the production the Koreans developed a val·iety of deep·fried of traditional foods in Japan, 1970·74' products, which are popular among the Japa­ Type of food 1970 19,/1 1972 1973 1974 nese. 1000 memc tom Miso ...... 177 180 185 193 192 Soybean sprouts Shoyu -...... -. 13 12 15 16 14 Tofu and others '" 508 521 537 550 539 Soybean sprouts are as much in demand as 'Japan Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (1978). vegetables, especially during the winter months. They are sprouted and used much the same way as in China. In Korea, soybean TABLE 5.-Defatted soybean ?neal used in the pro­ sprouts al'e more popular than mung bean duction of traditional foods in Japan, 1970-74' sprouts. Type of food 1971 1972 1973 1974

l~OOO metriC tons Whole soybeans Miso ...... 4 3 3 2 Following am a few ways of eating whole Shoyu ...... 163 167 182 176 Tofu and others ...... 130 130 130 NA soybeans in Korea. 'Japan Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (1978). Green soybeans In Korea, eating soybeans before they reach TABLE 6.-Production of traditional soybean foods full maturity is common practice. The beans in tn Japan, 1970-74' the pods are simply boiled and eaten. Type of rood 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Parched or roasted beans 1.000 metric tons Miso' ...... 552.2 560.7 578.8 590.0 587.2 Soybeans are placed in a pan and heated slow­ Shoyu ...... 1,334.1 1,354.6 1,416.6 1,529.8 1,455.8 ly until the skin breaks and part of the bean is Tofu and others .1,867.8 1,928.8 2,177.8 2,264.9 NA blackened. They are used as snacks, mostly 'Japan Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (1976). during winter months. Boiled 80ybea1l8 Korea . Soybeans are cooked with rice or with sea­ Tubu (soybean curd) sonings and served with regular meals., Soybean curd is an important item in the Korean diet, even though it may not be used Soybean flour . as .extensively as in China and Japan. A large Soybeans are first roasted and then ground

I SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED i 17

into flour. The flour is used extensively as an TABLE 7.-Production and food use of beans-and ingredient in food preparrations. conwmption of some soybean products in Korea, 1964-67 Fermented soybean foods Year and Food Amount Per capita Soy sauce and bean paste are commonly used food items Production us. consumed per-year in Korea as flavoring agents. Natto, a Baciilus­ 1.000 metric tons Kilograms fermented soybean product, is also enjoyed by 1964: many Koreans (Kwon 1972). Beant ...... 190 94 5.8 Bean curd ...... 223 Production and consumption Bean sprout .... 227 Bean sauce 57.4 Soybeans have been grown and consumed in Bean paste .... . 22.9 Korea for centudes. In the Korean diet, rice is 1965: the most important and preferred grain, but Bean ...... 203 104 6.9 soybeans provide protein. A dietary survey of Bean curd · ..... 243 Bean sprouts ... 240 1964·67 conducted by Pak and Han (1969) Bean sauce 61 showed that about 45 percent of the total food Bean paste ..... 24.3 consumed in 1964 was rice. The yearly con­ 1966: sumption of rice per capita increased from 129.8 Bean ...... 195 117 10.2 kg in 1964, 146.3 kg in 1967 and 167.2 kg by Bean curd · ..... 263 Bean sprouts ... 254 1971. Bean consumption was low compared to Bean sauce 64.8 rice, but it increased at a greater rate: 5.8 kg Bean paste .... . 25.8 per capita in 1964, 11.6 kg in 1967, and 25.1 kg 1967: in 1971. Furthel"InOre, the consumption of beans Bean ...... 236 134 11.6 per capita per year was greater in amount and Bean curd · ..... 290 Bean sprouts ... 270 in growth rate than that of either meat or fish. Bean sauce ..... 69.7 Pl"Oduction and food uses of beans and the Bean paste ..... 27.7 consumption of four soybean products (Pak 1971: ...... 361 206 25.1

and Han 1969) are summal'ized in table 7. 1 Based on the production average of the 4 years sur­

veyed1 the beans consisted of 85 percent soybeans, 8.5 percent red beans, 1.6 percent green beans 1.3 percent Indonesia 1 peanuts, and 3.4 percent other beans. Tahu or tahoo (soybean curd) Prepadng tahu or soybean curd in Indonesia is essentially the same method as that used in Bubuk kedele (soybean powder) China and Japan. Two types of tahu, regular Soybeans of the white variety are roasted and Chinese, are available in Indonesia. In mak­ until no beany flavor can be detected. They m'e ing regular tah u, ground bean mash is filtered ground into powder and mixed with such spices after heating. The curd is achieved by adding as garlic and chili. Bubuk kedele is kept in a acetic acid, lactic acid, or biyang (the overnight jar and served on special occasions with a rfee whey from a previous batch of tahu). The Chi­ product, longtong (rice wrapped in banana nese tahu makers, on the other hand, prefer to leaves and boiled for 3 to 4 h). Bubuk kedele is filter the ground bean mash before heating and always homemade and is eaten by everyone.: to coagulate the milk with calcium sulfate. Tempe kedele ., Tahu can be bought in the market every day. It is eaten by everyone. Spicy dishes are pre­ Tempe (commonly referred t~ as tempeh in pared daily from tahu by almost every house­ the literature) is one of the most important hold." soybean foods in Indonesia. It is a cakelike product made by fermenting soybeans with

~ Communication with I. Gandjar, Nutrition Research R hizop1lS oligosporus (Hesseltine and Wang and Development Center, Bogor, Indonesia. 1976. 1972). The fermentation process is so simple 18 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE that traditionally it is made in most 'households. the beans are covered with white mycelium and TeII)1Je is not only easily made, but it also pos­ bound together to form a cake (Hesseltine and sesses the kind of texture and flavor that is others 1963) . universally acceptable and that cllnnot be pro­ vided by any other known soybean product. Ways of serving Tempe has a pleasant aroma and is usually Prepamtion consumed within a day. There are many attrac­ Material.-Soybeans and tempe starter. Any tive ways to serve tempe. The simplest and the variety of soybeans is suitable for making most popular way, howevel', is to cut tempe tempe, and a piece of fresh-made tempe is often into thin slices, dip into a salt solution, and fry used as starter in Indonesia. Recently, a powder in coconut oil. Sliced tempe can also be baked spore preparation of R. ohgosporus (Wang and or added to soup as a vegetable. others 1975) was developed for tempe fermen­ Tempe is available in the big cities as well as tation. in the villages. It is served daily as a side dish Equipment.-Incubator and fermentation with rice and is also eaten as a snack. When container. The optimal temperature for tempe fried dry, tempe is often served at official re­ fermentation is around 3D· to 32· C. The Indo­ ceptions. nesians use no special incubator at home; they carry out the fermentation at air temperature. Tempe gembus A simple incubator, however, can be con­ Tempe gembus is made with the insoluble structed from a Styrofoam picnic basket (30 by residue from making soybean mil!;: and soybean 40 by 30 em) by connecting a 7112 watt light bulb curd. In other oriental countries, the residue is as heat source. The basket can maintain a tem­ used as animal feeds or is considered as waste. perature between 3D· to 31· C. In making tempe gembus (Gandjal' 1972), the Traditionally, the Indonesians wrap the beans residue is washed two to thl'ee times with cold in banana leaves for fermentation. Shallow (2 water, pressed to remove excess water, to 2.5 cm) wooden, metal, or aluminum trays steamed, and then inoculated with ragi tempe. with pin-sized perforated bottoms and covers, The inoculated bean residue is placed in a or perforated plastic bags and tubes, are quite wooden tray and covered with banana leaves to satisfactory. Pin-sized perforated containers ferment for 24 h. Also a tempe-like product can would provide enough aeration to support ade­ be made from onggok (waste of, the tapioca quate mold gl'owth without excessive spore plant). formation. Tempe gembus is soft as a sponge and easily Procedure.-Making tempe in Indonesia is a sliced. When fried, tempe gembus has the soft household art. The procedures may vary in de­ texture and taste similar to that of french-fried tail from one household to another, but the potatoes, It is prepared and served just as principal steps are as follows: Soybeans are tempe kedele. By Indonesian standards, the soaked in tap water overnight until the hulls taste of tempe gembus is .inferior to that of can be easily removed by hand. Some prefer tempe kedele, which has a nutty texture and to first boil the soybeans for a few minutes to aroma. Because tempe gembus is a low-cost loosen the hulls and then to soak the beans food, it is consumed more by low-income peo­ overnight. After dehulliug, the beans are boiled ple. It is a popular food in central and eastern with excess water for about 30 min, drained, Java. and spread for surface drying. Small pieces of tempe from a previous fermentation, or ragi Oncom tahu tempe (commercial tempe starter), are mixed Oncom tahu is another fel'mented product with the soybeans. The inoculated beans are made from the residue of soybean curd, but wrapped with banana leaves and allowed to fer­ Neurospora sitophila, a mold used in the fer­ ment at room temperature from 24 to 48 h mented peanut product, ontjom, is used. On­ depending on the air temperature. By this time, com tahu is similar to tempe gembus and is SOYBEANS AS HUMAN. FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 19 served in the same way. It is popular in western Production and consumption Java. Soybeans are an important crop in Indonesia. Other soybean products Indonesian exports account for 0.02 to 0.25 per­ cent of the total world soybean export and be­ Soybean sprouts and green soybeans are used tween 0.2 to 6.7 percent of the total national as vegetables; roasted and boiled soybeans are production (Somaatmadja and Gubardja 1976). eaten as snacks. Data on soybean use in Indonesia have not In addition to tempe, fermented soybean been available. A- team of experts are conduct­ products used in Indonesia are kecap (soy, ing a nationwide soybean survey to obtain sauce) and tauco (bean paste), which are used data ·on soybean production, total use, and food as flavoring agents. . . use. Food mixtures From a phase-I progress report of the survey (Winarno 1976), some preliminary data on pro­ A number of soybean-containing food mix­ duction and food use of soybeans in Indonesia tures developed or produced in Indonesia were have been obtained and are listed in tables 8, reported by Winarno and Karyadi (1976) •. to 10. These foods, however, are not traditionally used - in Indonesia. TAllLE B.-Soybean pro­ duction (metric tons) in Saridele Indonesia, 1960-741 Because soybean milk is not a traditional Year Production Indonesian soybean product, a similar commer­ 1960 · ...... 442,862 cial product known as saridele has been avail­ 1961 · ...... 423;294 able. Made from soybean milk. enriched with J 1962 · ...... 396,839 peanuts and sesame seeds, ·saridele production 1963 · '.' ...... 350,204 was discontinued after 1966 because of the 1964 .. , ...... 391,693 irregular supply of soybeans and marketing 1965 · ...... 409,529 1966 · ...... 416,769 problems. 1967 ·...... 415,852 1968 .. , ...... 419,932 Tempe·fish..nce (TFR) 1969 ...... , .... 388,907 This mixture is 30 percent tempe, 10 percent 1970 · ...... 497,883 fish, 30 percent rice, 25 percent sugar, and 5 1971 · ...... 515,664 1972 ...... 518,229 percent peanut oil. 1973 ...... 541,040 1974 · ...... 550,000 Soy-rice baby toad 'Winarno, W. F. (1976). This was a mixture of one part saridele to four parts of ground brown rice. The mixture was TABLE 9.-Consumption kilograms .per capita per intended as a supplementary food for infants year of soybeans in parts of Indonesia in 1970' and children before 1966. ProvInce Consumption Soybean residue·fish·rice Aceh ...... 0.'71 Sumatera, North ...... '71 In ;the preparation of soybean curd, a sig­ Sumatera, West •...... •...... ••. .20 nificant amount of protein is left in the residue. Sumatera, South .~ ...... 1.05 The soybean residue is dried and then blended Jakarta dan Jawa ...... 5.04 with fish flour and rice flour. A blend of 75 Kalimantan ...... ~ ...... ~ .. .16 Sulawesi, South, East, Central ...... ~ .. .68 percent dried soybean residue, 15 .percent fish Sulawesi, North ...... 10 flour, and 10 percent rice flour has 43 percent Bali ...... 3.43 protein. The blend can be made into cookies and Northel'n Territory of Borneo .•...... 14.14 crisps, added to vegetable soup, or roasted and Maluku dan Irja ...... 90 eaten as is with rice. 'Winarno, W. F, (1076). 20 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 10.-Production (metric in Thailand. But in recent years, production tons) of soybean foods in central has been increasing as oil extraction expands Java' and demand for soybeans on the foreign market Year Ke<:ap Tahu Tempe increases. Data on soybean pl'oduction (table 1968 914,695 18,570 506 11) for the past decade indicate that between 1969 1,865,560 19,610 602 1972 and 1974 the area planted doubled, whereas 1970 1,249,848 18,913 1,204 total production more than tripled from 72,000 1971 1,289,000 14,500 44,200 to 252,400 t. The utilization data are, however, 1972 1,524,000 17,000 39,000 scanty. The U.S. Interdepartmental Committee 'Winarno, W. F. (1976). in Nutrition for National Defense (ICNND) Nutrition Survey, conducted in Thailand (Oc­ Soybean production in Indonesia was fairly tober-December 1960) by the Ministry of constant from 1960 to 1974 (table 8), but efforts Health, revealed that the average daily per are being made to incl'ease' total yields. Per capita consumption of soybeans by Thai civil­ capita consumption (table 9) vades greatly ians was 0.9 g. The FAO Food Balance Sheets from one location to another, which perhaps 1964-66 (1971) average showed an increase per reflects the disti'ibution of the crop and also the capita of daily consumption to 1.5 g or 0.6 kg eating habits. Kecap (soy sance), tahu (soy­ yearly. Average yearly soybean. use as food bean curd), and tempe are the most important during 1964-66 was 17,000 t and average pro­ soybean foods in Indonesia. The yearly produc­ duction was 41,000 t. tion of these foods in central Java is shown in table 10. Philippines The bean most commonly consumed by the Thailand Filipinos is the mung bean known locally as Soybeans are not a major agricultural mongo. Soybean foods are eaten in the Philip­ product in Thailand, although traditionally pines, but not to a great extent. In the Hand­ they have been grown here. After having been book of Philippine Agriculture (1931), the brought to Thailand, probably by migmting methods of preparing the following soybean Chinese, soybeans became part of the Thai diet, foods were described: soybean sprouts, soybean and have been favored by people of Chinese coffee, soybean cake, soybean milk, tao-si (fer­ origin. Tau hu (soybean curd) and soy sauce mented soybeans), and toyo (soy sauce). Other are the most commonly used soybean products. However, green soybeans in the pods known as tau rae are also consumed. TABLE 11.-Area planted Although soybeans have been consumed by to soybeans and total the Thai for many generations, they are not soybean production in a popular food. The Government of Thailand, Thailand 1 realizing the seriousness of the protein defi­ Year Rais area2 Production ciency problem in the Thai diet, has established (1000) Me/ric lOW a protein food development project at Kasetsart 1964 ..... 213 31,300 University, Bangkok, with the cooperation of 1965 ..... 117 19,100 1966 ..... 285 37,900 AID to produce inexpensive u,rotein foods for 1967 ..... 399 52,800 the nutritionally vulnerable grlfups of the popu­ 1968 ..... 329 44,800 lation. A number of protein foods have been de­ 1969 ..... 299 48,200 veloped; some of these products are soon to be 1970 ..... 368 50,400 1971 ..... 359 54,300 manufactured by small-scale industries (Bhu­ 1972 ..... 500 72,000 miratana 1970, 1976). Because they are not tra­ 1973 ..... 893 152,300 ditional soybean foods, these processes are not 1974 .••.. 1,oi6 252,400 .reviewed. 'Tongdee, A. (1976). In the past, not many soybeans were grown z 6.25 rais = 1 hectare. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 21 soybean foods consumed in China al'e also sold Soybean milk on the market in the Philippines" The beans are washed and soaked in water Soybean sprouts for about 6 h with three changes of water, drained, and then ground in a grinder with, Soybean sprouts are prepared and salad. In both cases, they make ex­ though no production figure is available, the cellent food. largest tou fu shop in Manila uses 550 kg of Soybean coffee soybeans daily. Dried soybean seeds, when roasted and finely Production and consumption ground like dry coffee beans, make an excellent Soybeans have long been grown in the Philip­ substitute for coffee because the color and pines; however, in spite of attempts to intro­ flavor are similar to coffee. duce several varieties, only a fmy may be con­ To prepare soybean coffee, clean the dried sidered adapted to Philippine conditions. Based beans of dust and other foreign matel'ials and on a report by Coffing (1975), the Philippines roast them in a pot or frying pan as is done prOduced 1,000 t of soybeans in 1969, and pro­ with coffee beans. Roasting usually requires duction doubled by 1974. The Philippines im­ fl'om 15 to 20 min, depending upon the moisture ported soybeans to meet their requirements. In content of the beans, the color of the roast de­ 1973, 6,400 t of soybeans were used for foods sired (light, medium, or dark), and the skill of and 5,500 t for oil, The food use of soybeans, the operator. After roasting, the beans are however declined to 4,300 t in 1974. No figure ground finely in a grinder. The coffee is then was re;orted for oil in 1974. The pel' capita ready for boiling. Although the protein content consumption of soybeans was 0.1 kg!Yl' as re­ of soybean coffee has not been reported, it con­ ported by Darby and others (1959) and 0.2 kg! tains soluble soybean protein. yr during 1964-66 based on the FAO food bal­ Soybean cake ance sheets 1964-66 (1971). Data from the FAO report also indicated that the amount of soy­ Soybean flour is pl'epared by cleaning and beans used for food from 1964 to 1966 aver­ grinding the soybeans in a grinder using the aged 19,000 t, which is about three times the fine-sized plate. If the flour is too coarse after soybeans used for food in 1973 as reported by one grinding, it may be run through the grind­ Coffing (1975). er a second time. To make a soybean cake, use equal amounts of soybean and wheat flour. Burma

OlPersonal communication with S. Ling, formerly man­ Burma is not one of the Asiatic countries ager planning, Manila Canning Corporation, Philip­ known to use soybeans as food. Based on the pines. 1976. report of a nutrition sUTvey in 1961 conducted .' 22 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT '0, US. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

by',the ICNND (1963)', the Burmese have been called Bal-Amul. It has a soybean and milk base eating a significant amount of groundnuts and but 'hi' enriched with several vitamins and am­ pulses. Pulses constitute' about 19 percent of ino acids, as well as calcium and iron. When their daily protein intake. ' mixed with warm water or fl'Uit juice, it forms FAa food balance sheets, 1964-66 (1971), indi­ a smooth paste. Other soybean products tl'ied cated that the average soybean production was in India include a' 'precooked soup, soybean 6,000 t, all of which was used for soybean oil. flour, and soybean milk. Over the years, the production of soybeans has At present, a small soybean milk plant is increased from 12,000 t in 1969 to 15,000 t in operating at G. B. Pant University of Agricul- 1974 (Coffing, 1975). The use of soybeans as · tiire and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttar Pra­ food is still a question. desh, India, with assistance from INTSOY,1 , About" 600 to 700 L of soybean milk are sold India daily on campus. Anbther pilot program has Dry legume seeds have an important place - been planned that will produce 10,000 L of milk in the traditiomil Indian cuisine. The common­ · for the surrounding village area. est way of preparing legumes for food (Ayk­ -In promoting the home use of soybeans in royd and Doughty 1964) is to boil them until India, a team of 10 housewives at the Univer­ soft, after which they are mashed, mixed with sity from different states of the country tested water, and boiled again to give'a soup or gruel · and'tried-hundreds of Indian dishes using soy­ of uniform consistency. This soup may be beans as a-basic ingredient. As a result, a cook­ eaten by itself with salt, a little oil, or s1)ices; book containing 221 recipes of low-cost, nutri­ sometimes vegetables may be added and the tious, attractive, and palatable dishes was com­ mixture boiled again. Other methods of pre­ piled (Singh 1970). paring legumes include grinding into flour, Soybean production, occupying an obscure po­ roasting, sprouting, and feI'menting. They may sition in India before 1964, has l'ecently been be eaten as a main dish or as a side dish in a brought into limelight as a new crop of great variety of forms. They also serve as the basis promise. In the past 10 years, several Univer­ of soups, grules, sauces, and savory snacks. sity of Illinois agronomists have ,been associ­ Soybeans", however, a~'~ not. ~aten by the In­ ated with the soybean production research pro- dians. The flavor and high oil content of soy­ · gram in India. The 'results have been encour­ beans make them unsuited to the Indian taste aging (Leng'1969, Hittle 1974). Many on-farm when prepared in the same way as the 'other . demonstration' 'plots, were grown throughout legumes. Thus, if soybeans are to be consumed the state of Madhya .Pradesh; the yield varied in India, a different pr~cessing technology is from '405 to 1539 kg/A. According to a recent needed. preliminary report prepared by Coffing (1975), A method for parching soybeans is given: by soybean' production in India increased from C. V. Ramakrishnan of the University' of Ba­ 11,000 t in 1970 to 40,000 t in 1974. Soybean use roda-Z, India. The beans are soaked in water is still negligible. for about 5 min. Then remove the surface mois­ ture and put the beans in i large frying' pan Malaysia that contains preheated sand (heated 250 0 to . Soybean products are consumed in various 280 0 C over an open fire) and place the pan forms by both humans and livestock in Malay­ in a specially built oven. The beans are rapidly sia. Tau foo (soybean curd), soybean milk, fu stirred with an iron ladle for 4 to 5 min till they chok (yuba or tou fu pi), bean sprouts, and pnff out, quickly transferred to a sieve, and the soy sauce are the soybean foods recorded in a sand removed. report by ICNND (1964). In a special report for the Rockefeller Foun­ dation, Streeter (1969) indicated that one of 'Personal communication :from Professor L. K. Fer­ the most interesting new high-protein food rier, INTSOY, University of Illinois, Urbana-Cham­ products in India is a precooked weaniL,,: "ood paign. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED . 23

In making soybean milk, the soaked soybeans beans in the pods are eaten after steaming. are wet-ground in a stone mill, and then the Recently, people in Nepal have started-,pre­ ground mass is filtered. The resulting milk may paring milk and products similar to Yogurt be sold as such, or with a sweetener and flavor from soybeans. Rice cooked in soybean milk added, bottled, and sterilized. The milk may be with coconut pieces is becoming popular. ,Ne­ heated in a shallow pan and the resulting skim palese also use soybean flour in baby foods. removed and dried to be sold as fu chok. Tau foo is produced by coagulating the milk with Singapore calcium sulfate. All these products are pro­ Because 80 percent of Singapore's population duced mainly in small three- to eight-person is Chinese, the use of soybeans as food is not establishments. surprising. Based on communication with Bak,s Soybeans have been grown in western Ma­ tau fu (soybean curd) is the most common laysia for SO years. The soybean, which is soybean food in Singapore, at home as well as grown among young rubber plants or as a sin­ in restaurants. However, tau fu is not popular gle crop in rotation with other annual crops, is among the younger generation. They prefer planted primarily on small farms. The domestic bottled soybean milk as a coM drink. demand, however, greatly exceeds the'local sup­ Most of the other soybean foods eaten in ply (Abu Kassim and Abu Baker 1976). China are also eaten in Singapore. Some, sUmillet Information on production and use of soy- in the same row, or as the borders of rice fields beans in Sri Lanka shows that soybeans are (Panday 1975). Growing soybeans or other edi­ used as food but not often,' When available, the ble legumes with other -crops in an intercrop­ cost of soybean products is high; also, soybeans ping pattern is an old practice in Nepal. Ac­ do not appeal to everyone as a source of protein. cording to Panday (1975), the farmers only Simple soybean processes such as manufacture grow enough soybeans for domestic use be­ of flour and the village preparation of soybean cause of lack of marketing facilities. The farm­ beverages have been proposed but have not ers u,se soybeans as animal feeds, especially for been implemented on a large scale. cows and buffalos during their lactating period. Because of the serious nub·itional problem in No information is available on how popular Sl1 Lanka. the Sl1 Lanka Department of Agri­ soybeans are as food in Nepal, but Panday culture has prepared a booklet on soybean reci­ (1975) mentioned the methods of using soy­ pes with the hope that the families will make beans for food as follows: (a) Roasted soy­ more use of soybeans in their daily diet. The beans mixed with roasted corn are eaten in the booklet provides information on simple ways daily tiffin, or lunch. (b) Roasted soybeans mixed with garlic, onion pieces, salt, and chili S Communication from H. S. Bak, Soybean Oil Com­ pany, Singapore. 1976. seasonings are served as a cocktail. (c) Sprout­ 'C. Breckenridge, food technologist, Central Agricul­ ed soybeans mixed with other sprouted pulses tural Reseal'ch Institute, Grannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri are used in vegetable soups. Cd) Green soy- Lanka. 24, . UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE to: prepare 'soybean flour and soybean drinks, is still in an experimental stage, even though it how to' use soybeans as breakfast foods, sweet was introduced to Iran about 36 yeal's ago. Po­ dislies, cakes, biscuits, and stews, and how to tentially, soybean production is good. Under boil. and toast soybeans. favorable conditions, Iran has produced 3 to 3.5 With the assistance of -the INTSOY program, t/ha of soybeans. In 1973, Imn pl'oduced 22,000 soybeans are now grown in Sri Lanka on a t of soybeans; the production increased to large seal!'. At present, 600 ha are used to plant 90,000 t in 1975 (Lee 1976). Turkey produced soybeans with a yield of about 10 hundred­ about 13,000 t in 1974 (Coffing 1975). weight/A. The Sri Lanka Department of Agri­ For expanding soybea,n cultivation in Iran, culture is taking steps to increase the acreage the problems are many. Lack of timely rainfall, to about 3,200 ha by 1978. fertilizer, propel' inoculum, and problems in Most of the soybeans produced are used in breeding, disease, agronomic operation, and the U.S.-sponsored CARE project for blending planting technology are just a few. Despite all with wheat flour and other cereal flour to make these problems, planting area in Imn is. ex­ triposhi-an infant ~v.eaning food. Present re­ pected to increase to about 120,090 ha 5 years quirement for .this' project is 396 t. from now. Currently, soybean production in INTSOY is setting up a village demonstration Iran is in Khuzistan and northern littoral plain plant in Sri Lanka for making soy beverages, of the Caspian Sea area. baby foods, and meatlike products using the Other potential soybean growing areas in processes developed at the University of Illinois western Adia include Imq, Mauritius, and Saudi (Nelson and others 1971, 1976). According to Arabia; however, these are in observation plots A. I. Nelson, the plant will be in full operation and field trials. by'1978. Soybeans used in western Asia are mostly for oil production. Defatted soybean meals are usu­ Vietnam ally for livestock feed. Human consumption of Soybeans are produced as well as used for soybean is limited to population with Chinese food by the people of Vietnam. Dan fu (soy­ origin, and prepamtion methods follow tradi­ bean curd) and soybean sprouts are the most tional Chinese ways. popular foods. Information on serving and pre­ paring .these foods is not available. Probably References-Soybean Food Uses in Asia these foods are prepared using the traditional Abu, Kassim, and Abu, Baker. 1976. Soybeans in Chinese methods. Malaysia. Third Regional Soybean Conference for Based on the infol'1nation from FAO food Scientists in Asia and Oceania Proceedings, Chiang­ balance sheets, 1964-66 (1971), the average soy­ mai, Thailand. bean production in Vietnam during these years Adolph, W. H., and Kiang, P. C. 1920. The nutritive value of soybean products. National Medical Jour­ was 13,000 t, all of which was used for food. nal of China 6: 40. The yearly per capita soybean consumption was Aykroyd, W. R., and Doughty, J. 1964. Legumes in between 0.3 to 0.4 kg. human nutrition. Food and Agrieulture Organiza­ tion of the United Nations, Rome. Bhumiratana, A. 1970. How Thailand closes the pro­ . Middle East tein gap. Protein Food Promotion Report. The In­ stitute of Food Research and Produc.t Development, In the Middle East, where dry weather pre­ Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. vails, crop output suffers. Low rainfall affects -- 1976. Small-scale processing of soybeans for the total agricultural production in such coun­ food in Thailand. In Third Soybean Conference for tries as Jordan, Cyprus, Iraq, Israel, and Leb­ Scientists in Asia and Oceania Proceedings, Chiang­ al)on. However, in 1975 crop production in­ mai, Thailand. creased substantially in Turkey and Iran, the Borgstrom; G. 1968. Principles of food science, yol. II, p. 426. The Macmi1lian Co., New York. two largest agricultural countries in western Chen, P. S., and Chen, H. D. 1962. Soybeans for Asia. Wheat and cotton are the two big crops health, longevity, and economy. The Chemical Ele­ in that area (USDA 1976b). Soybean planting ments. South Lancaster, 'Mass. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 25

Chin, W. C. L., and Van Duyne, F. O. 1961. Soy­ Kon, S., Wagner, J. R., Guadagni, D. G.; and Horvat, bean curd. In Illinois Research, Illinois Agricul­ R. J. 1970. pH Adjustment control of oxidative 'off tural Experiment Station, Urbana. Fall. flavors during grinding of raw legume seeds. Jour­ Chinese-American Joint Commission on Rural Recon­ nal of Food Science 35: 343.

struction. 1975. Taiwan food balance sheet, Tai­ Kwont T. W. 1972. Fermented foods in Korea. pei, Taiwan. Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Coffing, A. 1977. Economics of soybeans as a food Korea. staple. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economics, Lee, K. 1976. Middle East and soybeans. Soybean Statistics, and Cooperatives Service (unpublished ma­ Digest 36(12): 18a. terial). Leng, E. R. 1969. U.S: soybeans perform well in Darby, W. J., McGanity, W. J., Harshbarger, K. E., India. In Illinois Research, Illinois Agricultural Ex­ and others. 1959. A nutrition survey of the armed' perimental Station, Urbana. Fall. forces o:f the Philippines. American Journal of Leung, W-T. Wu, Butrum, R. R., and Chang, F. H. Clinical Medicine 7: 657. 1972. Food composition table for use in East Asia. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na­ U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, tions. 1971. Food balance sheets, 1964-1966. FAO, and Food and Agriculture Organization of United Rome. Nations. Food Industry Research and Development Institute. Lo, W. Y. L., Steinkraus, K. H., Hand, D. E., Wilkens, 1971. Table of Taiwan food composition. Hsinchu, W. F., and Hackler, L. R. 1965b. Yield of ex­ Taiwan. tracted solids in soymilk, as affected by -temperature Gandjar, I. 1972. Some Indonesian fermented foods of water of various treatments of beans. Food from waste product. Work-Study on Waste Recovery Technology 22: 1322. by Microorganisms Report, University of Malaya. --- Steinkraus, K. H., Hand, D ..B., and others. Hackler, L. R., Hand, D. B., Steinkraus, K. H., and 1968a. Soaking soybeans before extraction as it af­ Van Buren, J. P. 1963. Comparison of the nutri­ fects chemical composition of soymilk. Food Tech­ tional values of protein from several soybean frac­ nology 22: 1188. tions. Journal of Nutrition SO: 205. Nelson, A. I., Wei, L. S., and Steinberg, M. P. 1971. --- Stillings, B. R., and Polimeni, R. J. 1967. Food products from whole soybeans. Soybean Di­ Correction of amino acid indices with nutritional gest 31(3) : 32. quality of several soybean fractions. Cereal Chem­ --- Steinberg, M. P., and Wei, L. S. 1976. Illi­ istry 44: 63S. nois process for preparation of :soymilk. Journal 0:£ Handbook of Philippine Agriculture. 1931. Govern­ Food Science 41: 57. ment of the Philippines. Pak, K. H., and Han, K. C. 1969. An analysis of Hesseltine, C. W., Smith, M., Bradle, B., and Djien, food consumption in the Republic of Korea, 1964- K. s.. 1963. Investigations of tempeh, an Indo­ 1967, with projective trends, 1968-1971. Yonsei Uni­ nesian food. Developments in Industrial Mierobiol­ versity, Seoul, Korea. ogy 4: 275. Panady, M. 1975. Soybeans in Nepal. In Conference --- and Wang, H. L. 1972. Fermented soybean on Soybean Production, Protection, and Utilization food products. In Soybeans: Chemistry and Tech­ for Scientists of Africa, the Middle East, and South nology, A. K. Smith and S. J. Circle, eds. The Avis Asia Proceedings, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Conn. 14-17,1974. Hittle, C. N. 1974. The international soybean pro­ Piper, C. V., and Morse, W. J. 1923. The soybeans. gram-INTSOY. In Workshop on Soybeans for McGraw-Hili Book Company, Inc., New York. Tropical and Subtropical Conditions Proceedings, Republic of China. 1975. Taiwan Agricultural Year­ University of Puerto Rico, Mayagriez Campus, Rio book. Taipei, Taiwan. Piedrat Shurtleff, W., and Aoyagi, A. 1975. The book of Huang, P. C., Tung, T. C., and Chen, T. Y. 1976. tofu .. Autumn Press, Inc., Brookline, Mass. Nutritive value of soybean milk formula supple­ mented with partially autolyzed egg in infants and Singh, R. 1970. Soyahar: Indian Recipes of Soy­ bean. Uttar- Prades.h Agricultural University, Pant~ rats. Republic of China-United States Cooperative nagar, Distt. Nainital India. Program. Seminar on Food Science and Nutrition. 7 College of Medicine, National University, Taipei, Smith, A. K. 1949. Oriental methods of using soy­ Taiwan. beans. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricul­ Japanese Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 1976. tural Information Bulletin 234. Supply and Dispos.ition of Soybeans, Tokyo, Japan. --- 1958. Us~ of U.S. soybeans in Japan. U.S. Kanda, H., Wang, H. L., Hesseltine, C. W., and War­ Department of Agriculture, Bulletin ARS-71-12. ner, K 1976. Yogurt production by Laotobacillus --- Watanabe, T., and NaSh, A. M. 1960. Tofu fermentation of soybean milk. Process Biochemistry from ."!'apanese and United States soybeans. Food 11(4): 23. Technology 14: 332. '26' UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Somaatmadja, S., and .Gubardja, E. 1976. Current Wai, N. 1964. Soybean cheese. Bulletin of the In­ status of soybean research and utilization in Indo­ stitute of Chemistry. Academia Siniea, Taiwan 9: 75. llesia. In Third Regional Soybean Conference :for Wang, H. L. 1967. Products from soybeans. Food Scientists in Asia and Oceania Proceedings, Chiang­ Technology 21: 115. mai, Thailand. --- Kraidej, L., and Hesseltine, C. W. -1974. Lac­ Standal, B. R. 1963. Nutritional value of proteins of tic. acid fermentation of soybean milk. Journal of Oriental soybean foods. Journal of Nutrition 81: Milk and Food Technology 37(2): 71. 279. --- Swain, E. W., and Hesseltine, C. W. 1975. Strecter, C. P. 1969. A partnership to improve food Mass production of RhizopU,8 oligospO'r'l1.8 spores and production in India. pp. 78-85. The Rockefeller their application in tempeh fermentation. Journal Foundation. New York. of Food Science 40: 168. Tongdee, A. 1976. Soybean production in Thailand. Wilkens, W. F., Mattick, .L. R., and Hand, D. B. 1967. In Third Regional Soybean Conference for Scientists Effect of processing method on oxidative off-flavors in Asia. and Oceania Proceedings, Chiangmai, Thai­ of soybean milk. Food Technology 21: 1630. land. --- and Hackler, L. R. 1969. Effect of processing Tung, T. C., Huang, P. C., Li, H. C., and Chen, H. L. conditions on the composition of soymilk. Cereal 1961. Composition of foods used in Taiwan. Jour­ Chemistry 46: 39l. nal of the Formosan Medical Association 60: 973. Winarno, F. G. 1976. -Progress report of Phase-I, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1976a. The agri­ National Soybean survey, Bogor Agricultural Uni­ cultural situatiQn in the Fa!' East and Oceania. versity, Bogar, Indonesia. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricul­ --- and Kal'yadi, D. 1976. Nutrition and process­ tural Economic Report No. 12L ing of soybeans. In Tliird Regional Soybean Con­ --- 1976b. The agricultural situation in Africa ference for Scientists in Asia and Oceania Proceed­ and West Asia. U.S. Department of Agriculture, ings, Chiangmai, Thailand. Foreign Agricultural Economic Report No. 125. Wu, L. C., and Bates, R. P. 1972a. Soy protein-lipid U.S. Interdepartmental Committee on Nutrition for films. I. Studies on the film formation phenomenon. National Defense. 1963. Union Burma-Nutrition Journal of Food Science 37: 36. Survey, October-December 1961. --- and Bates, R. P. 1972b. Soy protein-lipid --- 1964. Federation of Malaya-Nutrition Sur­ films. II. Optimization of film formation. Journal vey, September-October 1962. of Food Science 37: 40.

Soybean Food Uses in Africa '. Soybeans are a compw:atively new crop to large number of nations involved, they ate not Africa, consequently traditional foods based on discussed individually. However, table 16 in the them have not yet developed. Studies have been Summary lists the nations receiving cereal-soy conducted, however, to incorporate soybeans or blends and the quantities l'eceived during fiscal soybean derivatives into traditional African year 1974. diets. Meat protein and total protein consump­ tion is low, and many diets are also lacking in Ethiopia calories. As a result, protein-calorie malnutri­ Work on the use of defatted soy flour in tra­ tion exists in some African nations. Using ditional recipes began about 1969 at the Ethio­ whole soybeans in their diet would be advan­ pian Nutrition Institute. Results were quite tageous, if those needing mOl'e protein and successful and work .was later initiated with calories would eat soybean food products. Prob­ whole soybeans (Hiwot 1975).'· Full-fat flour lems with cooking and palatability are often was prepared by one of the following ways: cited in attempts to use whole soybeans; spe­ 1. Untreated soy flour: Cleaned soybeans cific details concerning these difficulties are were split to dehull and ground into flour. not given. 2. Roasted soy flour: Cleaned soybeans Examples of studies in different nations have were roasted, dehulled, and ground. been selected to illustrate the approaches taken 3. Blanched soy flour: Cleaned soybeans to incorporate soybeans into African diets. 'were blanched in boiling water for 10 min, air- Many African nations have been exposed to soybeans in the form of cereal-soy blends under 10 The author's name and the year (italics) are the the Food for Peace Program. Because of the key to References, p. 30. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 27

dried, dehulled, and ground. Porridge The full-fat flours were added to a number of A porridge made from barley, corn, or sor­ traditional Ethiopian foods and evaluated by a ghum is frequently used in the lowlands and on trained test panel. Foods tested include the fol­ special occasions in the highlands. Up to 20 per­ lowing: cent blanched soy flour was added successfully to barley and corn, but sorghum-soy blends did Injera not give a satisfactory porridge. A fermented pancakelike bread made from The Ethiopian Nutrition Instit~te also pro­ teff (Eragrostis tet), barley, sorghum, 01' corn, duces two soy-containing food items used in , is used by almost all highland Ethiopians. Soy­ famine relief activities. One is faffa, which is bean flours were blended with each of the a weaning food, and the other is soy-wheat cereals and converted into injera. Acceptable flour (SWF), an enriched wheat flour. Tons of products were obtained with roasted soy flour, the two products sold in 1973-74 and projections but the usable level varied with the cereal. Up for 1975 are as follows: to 20 percent soy flour could be blended with Sales (metric tons) teff whereas only 5 pei-cent soy flour could be mixed with either sorghum or barley. However, Product 1973 1974 1975 soy flour could not be added to corn and con­ Faffa 700 800 1,000 verted into an acceptable injera. SWF ..... 1;000 2,000 2,UOO Kenya Wots and allichas Attempts have been made by the local gov­ These sauces are served with injera and usu­ ernment to develop soybeans as an oilseed crop ally are made from meats, fish, legumes, eggs, in Kenya with financial assistance from inter­ and vegetables. Roasted soy flour was found to national agencies (INTSOY, Rockefeller Foun­ be a successful replacement for the legumes­ dation, and AID). At present, soybeans are be­ pea flour, split peas, or split lentils. ing imported, but maj 01' interest is in the oil for cooking. Poultry and livestock production Kitta is low; hence, there is no demand for protein This unleavened bread used in the highlands feeds. The Ministry of Agriculture has at­ and lowlands is made from wheat, barley, sor­ tempted to develop simple recipes including soy­ ghum, 01' -ensete (false banana). Blanched soy beans for rural families, but aceeptance is poor flour was successfully added at levels of 15 per­ because of problems with long cooking times, cent to wheat and barley and 10 percent to bar­ flavor, and flatulence (Rackis and Akers 1976). ley. Roasted flour was preferred for addition to ensete; up to 20 percent soy flour was added Morocco satisfactorily. Cereal-soy blends have been used extensively in Morocco. In fiscal year 1974, 6.7 million kg Dabbo of cereal-soy blends were shipped to Morocco Traditionally, dabbo is leavened bread made (table 16). Shipments of soy-fortified rolled from wheat. However, up to 30 percent soy oats and soy-fortified bread flour increased in flour can be added to the wheat. Blanched soy fiscal year 1976. Wheat-soy blend is nsed in the flour gave excellent results; roasted soy flour school lunch program and apparently is ac­ resulted in a darker, but still highly acceptable, cepted as a food item. However, wheat-soy product. blend is not sold in the commercial retail mar­ kets (Rackis and Akers 1976). Dabokolo Mmbaga (1975) reported briefly that soy This snack food is commonly known as the flour is used in making porridge using one part travelers' food because of its keeping quality. soy flour to three parts maize flour. Breads Adding up to 9 percent of either untreated or containing 10 percent soy flour and 90 percent blanched soy flour was acceptable. wheat flour are common, particularly in the .28' UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Morogoro region. School-feeding programs use 10 to 20 min, Because of the grassy-beany fla­ porridge and soy milk extensively, and accept­ vors that result when the beans are ground ability is reported to be high. with water, the Cornell University method (Bourne 1970) has also been considered. This Nigeria process consists of grinding the beans with hot Soybeans are an established crop in several water (80' C or higher), filtering, and then areas of the country, but they have never become simmering the filtrate for 10 to 20 min. Soy a popular foodstuff. Ashaye and others (1975) milk can be used to prep.are protein-enriched list the following problems encountered in try­ pap (soy milk mixed with guinea corn meal and ing to incorpol'ate soybeans into the Nigerian sugar and reboiled) and protein-enriched fu-fu diet: (a) poor soaking and cooking qualities, (gari mixed with hot soy milk instead of hot (b) lack of palatability, and (e) undesirable water). The residue remaining after prepara­ changes in color during cooking. Most of the tion of soy milk by the Cornell process still con­ soybeans produced in Nigeria are exported as tains about 30 percent protein and can be in­ a cash crop to Europe, and a small amount is corporated into alele (main-main). Alele is fed to animals. Kay (1974) has worked exten­ made by mixing soy milk residue with akamu sively to develop simple ways of incorporating (guinea cornmeal), corn 01' wheat flour, or soybeans into the Nigerian diet. These include beaten egg, minced onion, salt and pepper, using whole soybeans and a paste obtained by wrapping the mixture in leaves, and then grinding beans after soaking them in water. steaming for 20 min 01' longer. Soy milk has also been used to make tofulike Whole soybeans products by adding calcium or magnesium sul­ Whole beans are used in baked (roasted) fate 01' an acidic fruit juice (such as lemon or form and in stews. The baked form is some­ pineapple) to coagulate the pl'Otein-lipid com­ times ground and mixed with ,sugar to taste. plex, For stewing, the beans are boiled in water con­ taining a small amount of baking powder. Corn-soy mixtures (soy-ogi) Corn (maize) is the principal cereal culti­ Soybean paste vated in southern Nigeria and is an important This paste is the starting material for a va­ part of the human diet. Corn is eaten as whole riety of food uses. It is made by soaking the grain in roasted or boiled form or may be con­ beans 8 to 10 h with about two volumes of sumed in the fOl'm of ogi, which is a partially water, crushing with a grinding stone or corn fermented starchy product obtained by a wet­ gl'inder, and then grinding to a creamy paste in milling process. Corn is soaked in watel' for 3 d a mortar, and allowed to ferment, During this time, an Two direct uses of soybean paste have been extensive microbial popUlation develops. The described. In one, the paste is mixed with cereal steeped kernels are then ground in a corn mill. (guinea corn. meal, maize, or wheat flour), The resulting slurry is sieved to remove the minced onion, salt and pepper, and then deep­ hull. Next, the ,sieved stal'ch suspension is al­ fat fried to yield kosei (akara ball), In the lowed to settle to yield the product called ogi, second direct use, the soybean paste is mixed The water is decanted, and the wet cake is with wheat flour, baking powder, beaten egg, added to boiling water to form a gruel known and sugar, The resulting batter is then dropped as pap, which is popularly consumed for break­ into hot peanut oil and deep fried to give panke fast (Oke 1967). (puff-puff) . Because ogi is primarily starch and its pro­ Less direct use of soybean paste consists of tein has a low biological value, it has been preparing soybean milk in essentially the tra­ mixed with full-fat soy flour to improve its ditional oriental way. The paste is mixed with overall nutritive quality, Akinrele and Edwards two to three parts of cold water. The resulting (1971) assessed the nutritive value of a 70 :30 bean slurry is filtered and the filtrate boiled mixture of ogi and full-fat soy flour called soy- SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED. 29 ogi. They found it had a protein efficiency ratio Production equal to that of a commercial milk-based infant Soybeans are still a minor crop in Africa" and food. Soy-ogi is well tolerated by weaning chil­ production is so small that listings of commodi­ dren, and clinical responses with it were as ties often do not include this crop. Because of good as those obtained with the .milk-based the small crop, production figures from differ­ product. ent sources frequently do not agree. Areas har­ Soy-ogi is currently produced on a pilot-plant vested and production estimates for six Afri­ scale in which corn is soaked, wet-milled, can nations are as follows-: - sieved, and blended with cooked, full-fat soy flour. After mixing, the slurry is spray-dried. Nation Area harvestedl Production1 Addition of vitamins and flavors yields an in­ 1,000 hectares 1,000 metric tons fant food of excellent acceptability. Commercial Ethiopia ...... 10 6 production is envisaged in the near future.1i Nigeria ...... - 1 South Africa .. ,...... 12 19 Tanzania ...... () 4 Tanzania Uganda ...... 5 3 Soybeans are grown on a limited scale, but Zaire ...... 2 1 Tanzanians are showing an interest in expand­ 'U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricul­ ing growth of this legume and in its use for ture Service, (1976). human food. In 1973, workers described a study in which soybeans we~'e converted into full-fat South Africa is the major producer and ac­ flour in three Tanzanian villages t'

References-Soyb'ean Food Uses in Africa Hiwot, B. G. 1975. Home preparation of soybeans in Ethiopia. In D. K. Whigham, ed. Soybean Produc­ Akinrele, 1. A., and Edwards, C. C. A. 1971. An as­ tion, Protection, and Utilization. Conference for sessment of the nutritive value of a maize-soy mix­ Scientists of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia ture, "Soy-Ogi," as a weaning food in Nigeria~ Brit­ Proceedings. INTSOY Series No.6, College of Agri­ ish Journal of Nutrition 26: 177-185. culture, University of Illinois, Urbana. As!laye, T. 1., Asenime, 1. O. E., Afolabi, N. 0., and Holm, H., Fossum, K., and Eide, W. B. 1973. Chemi­ Van Rheenan, H. A. 1975. Soybean production in cal and biological evaluation of protein quality of Nigeria. In D. K. Whigham, ed. Soybean Production, locally produced and processed full-fat soya bean Protection, and Utilization. Conference for Scientists flour from three Tanzanian villages. Journal of the of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia Proceed­ Science of Food and Agriculture 24: 333-341. ings. INTSOY Series No.6, College of Agriculture, Kay, T. 1974. Soyabeans in the Nigerian diet. Sam­ University of Illinois, Urbana. aru Agricultural Newsletter 16: 18~22. Bourne, M. C. 1970. Recent advances in soybean milk Mmbaga, E. T. 1975. Highlights of soybean produc­ processing technology. PAG Bulletin, FAOJWHOI tion in Tanzania. In D. K. Whigham, ed. Soybean UNICEF Protein Advisory Group, United Nations, Production, Protection, and Utilization. Conference N.Y., No. 10, 14-21. for Scientists of Africa, the Middle East, and South Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na­ Asia Proceedings. INTSOY Series No.6, College of tions. 1975. Production Yearbook 1974, vol. 28·1. Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana. FAO, Rome. Oke, O. L. 1967. Chemical studies on the Nigerian Harrison, D. W. 1969. Analysis of the Uganda ex­ foodstuff "Ogi." Food Technology 21: 202·204. perience based on Africa Basic Foods Inc. Expert Rackis, J. J., and Akers, H. 1976. Joint trip report: Group Meeting on Soya Bean Processing and Use, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Zambia, and Nigeria.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization, American Soybean AssociatiohJ Hudson, Iowa. Northern Regional Research Center, Science and Ed­ United States Department of Agriculture. 1976. Oil­ ucation Administration, U.S. Department of Agri­ seeds and products. Foreign Agricultural Service

cultureJ Peoria, Ill. Circular FPO 17-76.

Soybean Food Uses in Europe and U.S.S.R.' Soybeans are grown in only a few countries The major producer is U.S.S.R., followed by of Eurqpe. Area and production estimates for Romania and Bulgaria. These three countries Europe and the U.S.S.R. for 1976 are as follows: account for 85 pel'cent of "the total crop grown in this area. Country Productionl Most likely, no simple home or village uses of 1,000 hectarea 1 jOOO metric tons soybean protein in foods exist. The soybeans France...... 4 10 Spain ...... •..••.... 22 35 are processed into oil and meal, and the latter Bulgaria ...... •..... 58 100 is used pdmarily as an animal feed.~ Hungary...... 40 55 Romania ...... 200 250 Yugoslavia ...... 32 50 Food uses of soy protein in Europe al'e typi­ U .S.S.R. • ...... • . • .. 850 500 cal of those in such developed countries as the

1 U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricul­ United States. Two- publications summarize tural Service (1978). food applications in Europe.>'

Soybean Food Uses in Latin America Argentina consumption in Latin America in 1972 as well as the highest meat consumption. Synthetic meats and In 1974, Argentina had a soybean production extenders are expected to comprise only 5 percent of 496,000 t (FAO Production Yearbook 1975), of total meat consumption in 1985 because of the but soybeans are not used as foods at the horne abundance of natural meats available to the con .. or village level in this country. According to U American Soybean Association. World Soy Protein Predicasts (1974) ; Conference Proceedings, Munich, GermanY1 1974; Soya Argentina had the highest per capita protein Protein Conference Papers, London, 19'75. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 31

sumer. Because of thisJ protein enrichment of the According to Buchanan (1976), covering his average diet is not really necessary in Argentina. initial tour of Latin American countries, con­ In addition1 consumer resistance to synthetic meats is expected to have a more adverse affect than in sidemble migration has been shown from the other Latin American countries. Consumption of rural areas of Bolivia to the urban outskirts. soy-derived meats is projected at 50,000 [metric] Jobs have not been available for the migrants. tons in 1980 and 150,000 [metric] tons in 1985; This has compounded the malnutrition problem. highest consumption will in all likelihood be in Buchanan states: scattered, very low-income, urban areas. Soy flour, for the same reasons cited for syn­ The Ministry of Health has started Mothers' thetic meat, is projected to constitute a very small Clubs supplying foods for the family and educa­ percent of total protein consumption, in all likeli­ tional materials for use by groups as they meet. hood less than 0.5 percent in 1985. Wheat flour is Mothers who are more educated and tend to he providing (and will continue to provide) over 25 leaders are chosen to continue the program after percent of Argentina protein consumption. Very the first meeting with a representative from the little need is foreseen for protein-rich flours to Ministry. There is some question as to the success augment a diet centered around meat and high­ of this program. Also, the Ministry of Health sup­ quality wheat' flours (corn is not even utilized to ports a rural school lunch .program which is bene­ any appreciable degree as a human food). Conse­ ficial. The breakfast program in, urban centers, quently, all engineered soy protein loads will -com­ however, is being phased out. prise less than :3 percent of overall Argentina pro­ tein consumption in 1985~ up slightly over an initial Brazil penetration of about 1 percent by 1980. Soybean production in Brazil for 1974 was 7.5 Bolivia million t (FAO Production Yearbook 1975) and In 1974, Bolivia had a soybean production of estimated to increase to 11.6 million t for 1976 2,000 t, but soybeans are not grown or used as (World Agricultural Production 1974). Soy­ foods at the home or village level in this coun­ beans have not been used at the home or vil­ try (FAO Production Yearbook 1975). Accord­ lage level in this country. ing to Predicasts, In 1967, at the l'equest of the Brazilian Min­ istry of Health, Mustakas (1967), demonstrated All other Latin American countries except for Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay, had pro­ his village process (full-fat soy flour) in Brazil tein-defic.ient diets during 1961-19'72, derived from for foi:tifying milks and other weaning foods low-quality grains. Per capita. protein consumption with soy protein. Brazilian scientists were in­ did not appreciably rise between 1961 and 1972 due terested in the process and consequently, to inordinately high population growth (about 3% UNICEF made available six sets of machines per year) which outpaced supply of many high­ protein foods. for experimental study in Brazil. The ma­ Natural meat consumption will continue to in­ chinery was sent to the Ministry of Health at crease at about the historical rate, 3% per yearJ to Rio de Janeiro, Santa Maria Federal University about 4.2 million metric tons in 1985, because of at Rio de Janeiro, University of Ceara at For­ programs in Ecuador, Chile, and Uruguay to stim­ taleza, Federal University of Pernambuco at ulate meat production mOTe economically on mas~ sive corporate ranches. Recife, Federal University of Paraiba at Cam­ Soy flour use will exceed 200,000 tons by 1985, pina Grande, and the Ecole Superieure at Pira­ eapturing about the same share of the total protein cicaba, State of San Paulo. mixture as meat substitutes, about 2.5 to 2.6 per­ So far, little information has been received cent. Use of soy flour bakery additives and substi­ tutes will not be as widespread in most of these on the results with these machines because no countries as will be evident in Brazil and Mexico, national organization was responsible for co­ because of less familiarity with soy products and ordinating the experimental results. Chavez their taste. Public dietary improvement projects and retail prepared food distribution channels are (1967) and his group at the University of Per­ less evident than in Mexico or Brazil. Also, priority nambuco not only processed soya, which is not will inevitably be placed upon domestic soybean use produced in northeast Brazil, but also other as feed (rather than human food) to aid in bolster­ edible beans like the feij ao macassa bean. His ing output for already established meat and poul­ try export programs in Ecuador, Columbia, Chile, results were encouraging_ He stated that he and Peru. would like to make the process available to the 32 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE rural: areas of the south. According to Predi­ percent annually due to penetration of soy-derived casts, substitute products which are expected to be about 13 percent of meat consumption by 1985 .... Soy Per capita Brazilian protein consumption was flour USe will exceed 200,000 [metricl tons by 1985 below the average world minimum of 0.070 kg per capturing about the same share of the total protein capita per day in 1972, and qualitatively the pro­ mixture as meat substitutes, about 2.5 to 2.6 per­ tein mix was characterized by large quantities of cent. Use of soy fiollr bakery additives and substi­ food having poorly balanced and incomplete amino tutes will not be as widesprea"d in most of these acid components (such as fruits, vegetables, and countries as will be evident in Brazil a.nd Mexico, low protein grains). Total meat consumption grew because of less familiarity with soy products and 3.5 percent per year.. their taste. Public dietary improvement projects Total meat and substitute consumption will in­ and retail-prepared food distribution channels are crease 4~5 percent per year to cover 4.2 million less evident than in Mexico or Brazil. Also, prior­ [metricl tons in 1985 due to rapid market penetra­ ity will inevitably be placed upon domestic soybean tion by soy-derived substitutes. Consumer resis­ use as feed (rather than human food) to aid in tance to the new synthetic meats is expected to be bolstering output for already established meat and j less of a hindrance than in Argentina 'Brazil is a poultry export programs in Ecuador, Col()mbiaJ major soybean producer and the vast majo.rity of Chile, and Peru. its people are acquainted with and accustomed to the taste of this and other bean products in their Colombia diet. In fact, Bra~i1ian culinary tradition includes wide us.e of related vegetables and fruits as inte­ Our findings show that soybeans are not used gral parts of meat, poultry, and egg dishes. in foods in ,this countI·y. Although considerable Soy flour is already a small part of the Brazilian effort is being made to intl'oduce soy foods protein mix, especially in depressed urban areas. hel'e, these efforts are all in the experimental Consumption will grow over 14 percent yearly be­ tween 1972 and 1980 and as :fast as 25 percent an­ stages. nually thereafter to about 180,000 tons in 1985_ By Colombia has a population of 24 million with 1985, flour is projected to make up over 2.5 percent a pel' capita income of $370, of which 37 percent of total protein consumption. is spent for food. In 1974, 156,000 t of soybeans (FAO Production Yearbook 1975) were grown Chile in the country that exports coffee, petroleum, Chile is producing only about 250 t of soy­ cotton, sugar, and bananas. beans yearly (Crowley and Edozien 1976), but Five oilseed processors are in Colombia. soybeans are not used as foods at the home. 01' Grasas S.A. has. a 220 tId solvent extraction village level in this country. According to Bu­ plant now processing soybeans and other oil­ chanan (1976), seeds. They al'e getting an extruder from the It is estimated there are 50,000 severely mal­ United States and will start making textured nourished children in Chile, mostly in localized soy protein within a year. areas where a test pilot project could be tried. The Predicasts, has reported on pel' capita protein Chilean government plans to Use a food stamp prow consumption and natural meat consumption. gram to try to l"each these cases. Education is Soy flour use in Colombia as human food is badly needed. Apparently the Allende admi;'istra­ tion ellC{)uraged the movement of thousands of poor considered to be small, and'the highest priority and not so poor from the rural sector-s, where they will be for domestic soybean use to go to feed could, and did, subsist on their small farm plots, to rather than human' food (see Bolivia section urban areas, through his promised giveaway food pars. 1, 2, and 3) to bolster output for already program which failed to materialize-thus aggra­ established meat and poultry export programs. vating an already diffic.ult situation of unemploy­ ment and welfare dependenc.e. A soy milklike beverage powder has been de­ veloped." This yellow-white powder contains According to Predicasts, 45 percent protein and 25 percent fat and can Natural meat consumption will continue to in­ be dispersed in water to yield a drink with crease at about the historical rate, 3 percent per miIklike flavor: year because of programs in Ecuador, Chile, and Uruguay to stimUlate meat production more eco­ 13 Communication with D. D. Delgado and N. Y. nomically on massive corporate ranches. Total meat Lopez, chemisto, Instituto de Investigaciones Techno­ and substitute consumption will increase over 4 logicas, Colombia, South America, March-April 1975. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 33

Native Colombia foods that might be formu­ (see Bolivia sec., pars. 1, Z, and 3) to bolster lated with soy proteins are empinada (puffed output for already established meat and poul­ pastry), ajiaco (potato soup), arepas (baked, try export programs. small round breads with cornmeal), noodle soups, puehel's (soup with pork, beef, or saus­ Guyana age and vegetables such as plantain, casava, Soybeans are not grown or used as foods at and corn), cullada (atole), and cereal gruels the home or village level in this country. With made with oatmeal, wheat, 01' corn. a population of only 750,000, the government EI Instituto de Investigaciones Tecnologicas has a highly restrictive import policy against is responsible for most of the product develop­ many food products .. The main exports are ment activities of the national government sugar, bauxite, and rice, with an average pel' agencies and appears to be the focal point of capita income of $300/yr (Mustakas 1975). food product development for the malnourished Some 60 A of soybeans have been grown experi­ in Colombia. mentally, and plans are underway for the gov" ernment to build a soybean and rice bran crush­ Ecuador ing plant. In 1974, Ecuador had a soybean production Paraguay of 1,000 t (FAO Production Yearbook 1975). Soybean production is being increased and new In 1974, Paraguay had a soybean production programs for food products from soy are under­ of 170,000 t (FAO Production Yearbook 1975), way. Quoting Buchanan, but no reported use of soybeans, as human food at the home or village level. According to :J3u­ In Qujto, one institute has a program on the de~ chanan (1976), velopment of flours for making hread1 pasta prod­ ucts, and crackers. There is an intensive effort in Paraguay is the only Latin American country in the fortification of wheat with soy, potato, and rice which we found a migration trend from urban to flours. They have been successful in replacing from rural areas. It is estimated that an additional mil­ 30 to 50 percent of the wheat flour with other lion acres of land have been converted to produc­ flours. A process is being developed to make soy 'tive agricultural property in the past five years. milk. Another for full-fat soy flour. It is hoped the Paraguay is a beef exporting country but the increased availability of soy products will help re­ European market has deteriorated as a result of lieve protein malnutrition conditions in Ecuador. the EEC policies, so that now they are seeKing­ other outlets. As a result, also, beef prices in the According to information obtained from market place are very low, good, lean beef being Meals for Millions workers who were doing the equivalent of less than a dollar per pound. field fork in Ecuador, H a group of Ecuadoreans Pasta products are now being made with 20 per­ living in the Sierras have adopted home-grown cent of soy flour and 80 percent wheat flour to con­ serve the limited wheat production. Malnutrition is soybeans as a daily food prepared in their not a severe problem in Paraguay but there are home. The food product called Matchaka con­ pockets of goiter in the Northwest rural areas and sists of whole soybeans that are toasted then some vitamin A and calorie/protein malnutrition ground in hand coffee mills. Coarse sugar is in some of the rural and suburban sectors. added and the mixture eaten as a dry snack. Quoting Pl'edicasts, Previously, corn was used to prepare this prod­ All other Latin American countries except £01' uct. Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay had pro­ Predicasts, has reported on per capita pro­ tein deficient diets during 1961-1972, derived from tein consumption and natural meat consump­ low-quality grains. Per capita protein consumption tion. Soy flour use in Ecuador as human food did not appreciably rise between 1961 and 1972 due to inordinately high population growth (about 3 is small. Highest priority will be for domestic percent) which outpaced supply of many high-pro­ soybean use for feed rather than human food tein foods. Natural meat consumption will continue to increase at about the historical rate, 3 percent :14 Personal communication from M. M. Sterner, execu~ per year. Use {)f soy flour bakers additives and sub­ tive director, Meals for Millions, Santa Monica, Calif. stitutes will not be as widespread in most of these 1976. . countries (including Paraguay) as will be evident ;

34 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

in Brazil and Mexico, because of less familiarity be about 13 percent of meat consumption hy 1985. with soy products and their tastes. This is slightly lower than the projected peneti'a­ tion in Mexico and Brazil because of the inclusion Pern of Uruguay where dietary tradition is centered around a wide variety of natural meats and oth~r In 1974, Peru 'had a soybean production of relatively plentiful high-protein foods. 1,000 t (FAO Produetion Yearbook 1975) but did not use soybeans as food at the home Ol' Venezuela village level. According to A. I. Nelson, Univer­ With a population of 12 million people, soy­ sity of Illinois, there is an AID-INTSOY pro­ beans were still not being produced by 1975 gram in Peru relating to soybeans and soy food even though about 55,000 t of soybeans and production. In discussing this program at 83,000 t of soybean meal were imported in 1974 NRRC, Nelson related to us the specific and (Mustakas 1975). Soybeans are not used as high interest at the Food Institute at La Molina foods at the home or village level in this coun­ (Lima, Peru) on soy food-related research, at try. NRRC, particularly the extrusion cooking pro­ Venezuela has a few small oilseed proceSSOl'S cess for producing full-fat soy flours. crushing imported soybeans into oil and meal. Predicasts reported on per capita protein and One company (Proteinal S.A.) makes edible natural meat consumption. Use of soy flour in soy flours. Peru as human food is small, and highest pri­ Native foods include pabellon plate (stringy ority is for domestic soybeans to be fed to ani­ beef, rice, sauce, potatoes, and vegetables) and mals to bolster output for already established al'epas (little round corn breads fl'ied and meat and poulb'y export progmms. (See Bo­ stuffed with ground meat and highly seasoned livia sec., pars. 1, 2, and 3.) onions, chili sauce, peppers, and garlic). Ta­ males (hiralloca) m'e cooked in banana leaves Urnguay and stuffed with ground meat and cornmeal. In 1974, Uruguay had a soybean production. During Mustakas' trip in March-April 1975, of 6,000 t (FAO Production Yearbook 197'5), fried arepas were prepared as a food demon­ but soybeans are not used as foods at the home stration with textured soybeans and local green or village in this country. chili and tomato sauces. Acceptance was excel­ According to Predicasts, Uruguay had no lent as noted from the meeting attendance, protein deficiencies in the diets of its ,people which included representatives of government, during 1961-72. According-to Buchanan (1976), industry, and academic institutions (M~lstakas It is quite·obvious Uruguay 'is progressing well 1975). in the utilization of applicable technology 'not only from the developed countries ,but also from the Mexico ·other more developed Latin American countries, Mexico has a population of over 55 million particularly Brazil. We were told malnutrition is and 37 percent of the pel' capita income of $700 not a severe burden, but they do want to improve nutrition among preschool children and pregnant is spent on food. Government programs have and lactating women, therefore, they 'Were much been underway since 1970 to introduce soybeans interested in our program and want to help in any; in the diets of both the urban and l"Ural popu­ way possible. The Ministry of Commerce and In­ lation. Numerous nutritional studies in Mexico dustry working with the University is beginning to have shown that 31 percent of children in rural make progress in adapting and transferring appli­ eable teehnology to industry. areas and 16 percent in urban areas are in a Natural meat consumption will continue to in­ state of second and third degree malnutrition crease at about the historical rate, 3 percent per and requil'e medical attention (American SOy­ year because of programs in Ecuador, Chile, and bean Association 1975a). In Mexico, every year Uruguay to stimulate meat production l110re eco­ about 2 million children are born, of which nomically on massive corporate ranches. Total meat and substitute consumption will increase over 4 300,000 die before they reach the age of 5 be­ percent annually due to penetration of soy-derived cause of problems related to the malnutrition­ ~ubstitute textured lll"oducts which are expected to illness cycle (Anonymous 1975b). According to SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 35

Predicasts, penetratiun by soy flour (3.5 percent in 1985, or over 140,000 [metric) tons of flour) of all Latin Mexican protein consumption has been highly de­ American countries. As in the case of synthetic ficient. Not only has it been below the minimum re­ meats~ Mexico's proximity to large American soy­ quired level in quantity, but quality of the protein bean and soy flour production centers (in Texas mix has been poor due to insufficient balance be­ and throughout the Southern states) will stimulate twee~ low grade corn-derived proteins (47-54 per­ availability in Mexican markets and aid in pushing cent of consumption) and meat-derived proteins. total per capita protein consumption to the, average Per capita meat consumption has been among the minimum requirement ~f 0.070 kilograms per day lowest in Latin America due to insufficient local by 1985. production, much of' which was exported at higher prices than consumer incomes could afford. Toml New yjllage process meat consumption increased only 1.3 percent an­ nually between 1961 and 1972. Even at their low cost, most of the soy prod­ Before 1969, soybeans were planted only in ucts on the Mexican market were not avail­ the states of Sonora and Sinaloa -along the east­ able to poor people. During 1974-75, 30 sets 'of village process ern coast of the Gulf of California. Soybeans equipment were delivered Mexico through are now grown in most of the states across the to the auspices of UNICEF. One unit was de­ north of the country and in Jalisco, a west­ livered to the National University of Mexico central state. Pl'oduction has been increasing where workers there studied the process and its over 6 percent a year with 1975's production application toward traditional end-food prod­ amounting to 500,000 t. Varieties that can be ucts in Mexico. As a result, workers Berra and gl'own in the more h'opical states are also avail­ Pontecorvo-Valhuerdi (1975) published a slight able, making possible gl'eater increase Wonte­ modification to the original NRRC process as a corvo 1976). means of guiding the process more ilil'ectly In the early seventies, when the President of toward such traditional food products as milk, Mexico was starting his new term of office, he atole, and pasta. Figure 1 is a flowchart show­ created a Council of National Science and Tech­ ing modifications in the USDA village process nology (CONACYT) at the cabinet minister (Mustakas and others 1967). level. As pal·t of this program, he announced According to the authors, the heavy liquid publicly that he considered soybeans as a nat­ obtained after boiling could be used as atole ural part of the diet 'for the Mexican people or a soup containing such vegetables as pota­ and he expected through the new program to toes, carrots, and onions indigenous to the re­ promote soy proteins in the national food diets. gion. A beverage was an alternate product and Since, both representatives of the Mexican could be made even more acceptable to the peo­ government and industry have cooperated in ple by boiling it with aromatic products such as the national program. Market development ac­ cinnamon, vanilla, and cacao. Another alternate tivities shared by the American Soybean Asso­ product referred to as a pasta could be used as ciation, Mexican Government (Harrison 1972) human or animal food. Rumans could eat it as and private firms have helped raise the produc~ cereal combined with the fruits of the region. tion and demand for soy protein products from It also could be dried in the traditional ovens 2 t daily in 1971 to over 40 t daily in 1975 (Tello. to make cookies or ground again to make a 1975), According to Predicasts, powder to be combined_ with corn or wheat. In Soy flour will comprise an even larger percent... this way, it could be preserved a long time. age of Mexican protein consumption in 1980 and 1985 than soy-derived meats, 3.5 percent of the total protein mix in 1985 compared with 2.6 per­ cent for meat substitutes. This will be a result of the composition of the traditional diet which is cen­ tered around grain flour and bean mixtures as sta­ ples, a custom that will facilitate easy acceptance of soy flout' (especially as .a ~'bidden additive" to popular low-protein corn flours). Hence; Mexico

will have, in all likelihood7 the highest protein mix FIGUIlE I.-Flowchart of USDA Village process. '. ' ..

36 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The yield and protein analysis (percentage) The proj ected increase in consumption of these of the basic products from 1 kg soybeans, ad­ basic products is 100 tid for ·the current year ding about 9 L water in the boiling process, (Pontecorvo 1976). are as follows: Another TSP product, PROTOLEG, is the oldest product on the market. Its producer, In­ Product Yield Protein dustrial de Alimentos, is now the largest manu­ Milk ... 6-7L 4 facturer of soy protein products in Mexico. Atol•... 2-3 L 8 This company also produces and markets a soy Pasta .. 2-3 kg 18 beverage powder called SOYACYT. The prod­ uct is a direct application of a beverage process Commereial developments developed at NRRC by G. C. Mustakas and as­ Commercial use of soy foods is not the pri­ sociates and introduced to the company in 1971. mary object of this publication. However, in Mexico a unique effort is being made by both The Mexico City regional office of the ASA, government and industry to introduce soy through Gilford Hanison, director, has become products into the Mexican diet. A brief descrip­ the center of great interest in soy protein tion follows of the products being promoted products for human consumption. Through thl'ough retail outlets. their development activities, the demand for In 1973, the Mexican Government inaugu­ soy protein products in Mexico has incl'eased rated a group of soy supplemented meat prod­ during the past few years. ucts under the name of PROTEIDA. Meat-soy The Im'gest volume of sales is in soy flour for products were made with approximately 25 per­ baking. The tortilla industry consumes some cent texturized soy protein (TSP) and 75 per­ 60 percent of the total. The remaining 40 per­ cent ground meat. For example, one product, a cent is about evenly divided between TSP and precooked patty called milanesa, required no beverage or products similar to milk. The larg­ l'efrigeration. It was developed by the National est bakery in Mexico, BIMBO, plans to stal't Nutrition Institute. The products used TSP producing a soy-based milk substitute contain­ from defatted soy flour purchased by the gov­ ing sweet whey powder. ernment from pI'ivate Mexican firms, were formulated and packaged in a government According to the ASA Nutrition Director packinghouse, and then distributed by the gov­ for Latin America, considerable promotion of ernment.» soy protein foods is taking place through coop­ Since 1973, other textured soy products have eration with several sponsoring government been independently manufactured and dis­ agencies.'· For example, soybeans are mixed tributed in Mexico. For example, Miles/Worth­ in a 1: 1 ratio with other local beans, soaked, ington, Elkhart, Ind., has produced a beef­ and 'cooked. The director claims that cooking flavored TSP called ALBORADA, which has soybeans in a mixture of other beans reduces received good acceptance by the public and is cooking time and gives a softer texture. In addi­ being sold in leading supermarkets as well as tion'. the mixed beans take on the flavor and to restaurants, hospitals, and meat-packaging color of the other beans. About 45 min cooking plants, and by canned food producers. is required in a pressure cooker and about 2112 At present, soy consumed as human food to 3 h in an atmospheric cooker, depending on amounts to only about 30 t/d: the elevation. Salt, garlic, onion, and bicarbo­ Full-fat soy flour ...... 18 t nate of soda are some of the additives used in Soy milk and similar the cooking process. Soy flours are promoted as products ...... 6 t cereal gruels and in atole foods. Texturized soy protein ... 6 t

10 Personal communication with R. S. Orellana, nu­ ltl Personal communication with J. L. Camacho, N a­ trition director, (Latin America) American Soybean tiona1 Nutrition Institute, Mexico City, Mex. 1976. Association, Hudson, Iowa. 1976. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 37

The Mexican Government is sponsoring a so­ Costa Rica cial security program, Seguras Social, to de­ Soybeans are not produced or consumed as a velop better nutrition among the poor. The soy­ food, although experimentation is being carried bean is one of eight nutritional food groups out at the University of Costa Rica and also that is being promoted in the nationwide effort with CARE. Costa Rica has a GNP of some of 600,000 families. $1.2 billion and a population of 2.1 million with a pel' capita income of $590, of which about 30 Honduras percent is spent on food. The government is Commercial production of soybeans does not starting a family assistance program to employ exist in Honduras, but since 1973, soybean 500 nutritionists financed by a 2-percent tax on production has been studied by several govern­ payrolls (Mustakas 1975). ment, institutional, and private groups: the The Ministry of Agriculture and IMAS, a Ministry of Natural Resources, the Pan Ameri­ Costa Rican national counterpart of CARE, are can School of Agriculture in Zamorano, and by planting about 100 ha of soybeans with farmers the fruit companies, United Brands and Castle, in Guanacaste. In conj unction, the Costa Rican Cooke, and Co., in La Lima and La Ceiba, re­ Food Research Center, CARE, negotiated a spe­ spectively. At present, no governmental policy cial grant with AID to use a Brady Soybean or laws regulate the cultivation of soybeans in Extruder to process the beans from the crop Honduras, but the government is becoming in­ (at least 95,000 kg).'" creasingly interested in large-scale "production According to Helen Hennessy'· reporting on because of the success of the growing experi­ the CARE program in Costa Rica, housewives ments." are using soybeans in their tortillas. Also the The Honduras Government is embarking on progmm is teaching children and their mothers a 5-year production program mainly for oil ex­ how to substitute soybeans for black beans, traction and animal feed for domestic use. which are more expensive and contain only half Through an AID nutrition loan, a 3-yeal' Soya the protein. Project began in 1977. The project has three stages: production, consumption, and feasibility Panama studies for commercializing soya. The p~·oduc­ Panama grows no soybeans and does not use tion stage involves cultivation at the small­ soybeans in foods. They use fairly large quanti­ farmer level through cooperatives f9r home ties of soybean meal (39,000 t imported in 1973) consumption pUl·poses. The consumption stage for animal feeding, and some firms are inter­ is the horne consumption involving the same ested in using defatted soy flours and TSP for groups who produced the soya. The feasibility foods (Mustakas 1975). studies will focus on commercially introducing soybeans through soy flour, soy milk, fortify­ Dominican Republic ing flour products and tortillas, and finding Soybeans are not grown 01' used as food in methods to incorporate the soya into the local diet. . . this country. About 6,250 ha were planted in 1974 on an experimental basis. During a visit CARE/Honduras is beginning. small agricul­ there, Mustakas (1975) talked with oilseed tural projects with housewives clubs in rural processors (Industria Mancera, Industria Lava­ areas to introduce a means of providing foods dol') who are now crushing peanut and copra, to take the place of CARE foods now supplied but soybean and cottonseed oils are imported. to the school and preschool feeding programs. Industria Lavador's oilseed plant plans to in­ They are planting soybeans on a small scale and crease production to 300 tid and, with the ex- are experimenting with them in feeding cen­ ters by testing recipes and acceptability. ]8 Personal communication with K. Bachman, Costa Rican Food Research Center, CARE, Costa Rica. 1976. 17 Personal communication with G. E. Storms, nutri~ 10 Personal communications with H. Hennessy J CAREl tionist, CARE/Honduras. 1976. Costa Rica. 38 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

pansion, hopes to produce soy food products in Germany and Trinidad and Tobago (Mustakas some form. 1975). Trinidad' has considerable interest in soybeans but no processing plants. A chain of Jamaica Hi-Lo supermarkets sells a soy-protein beef­ Sqybeans are not grown in Jamaica and are burger that contains 25 percent textured soy not used for food in the home or village. How­ flour. ever, in an ASA-FAS sponsored visit (Mus­ Much interesting information was received takaS" 1975), considerable interest was shown recently from a home economist with the John for using soybeans in school lunch programs. Donaldson Technical Institute:" The government food plant is manufacturing Originally, it was contemplated that Soya would and distributing milk and vegetable-meat pie be cultivated here in Trinidad and Tobago to al· products for a school lunch program in the leviate the edible oil problem, since coconuts, which Kingston area. They hoped to expand the pro­ traditionally provided all the edible oil in the coun­ gram to 52,000 children per day with an even­ try, were plagued with a multitude of field and economie problems. As a byproduct of oil extrac­ tual target of reaching the whole island of tion, soya meal would be used as livestock feed, Jamaica, which has 700,000 children. Milk is thereby redUCing, to some extent, the dependence of made from nonfat dried milk and deodorized livestock farmers on foreign 20ya supplies. An ex­ soy oil. A highly accepted meat pie is pro­ ploratory extraction exercise conducted by Lever Brothers, an industrial concern in this country in duced with meat and vegetables. The crllSt is December 1975, yielded recovery of both oil and made with wheat flour containing 6 percent soy meal of over 95% from a 15,000 lb [7,000 kg] lot of flour and hydrogenated soy oil. Beef patties soya beans processed. were also produced and distributed. They were However, the stimulation of consumers' aware­ most interested in TSP for meat replacement ness to the need for a cheap sonrce of high pro­ tein food; the inconsistency in the logic of con­ and soy beverages for milk extenders.2• sUlning soya protein via livestock, and the Versa­ Jamaica Nutrition Holdings, Ltd., the central tility of the bean itself as a multi-purpose food government buying agency, is interested in soy have given rise to complete review of the original food products for government feeding pro­ objectives of Soya cultivation here and e:ntirely grams. 1. S. Joseph, a U.S. firm 36 km from new dimensions have been assumed in the exercise. Crop production personnel in the Chaguaramas Kingston built a 300 tid soybean plant that is Agricultural Development Project (CADP) and 60 percent government owned. Home Economists at the John Donaldson Technical Institute have been collaborating to refine, demon­ Haiti strate, and promote the production and utilization of locally grown soya. To this end, the agronomists Soybeans are not grown or used as food in have pUblished a booklet on the growing of Soya the home or village in this country. The people while the Home Economists have produced several of Haiti, the poorest country in the Caribbean booklets and pamphlets with information on pre­ with a GNP of only $600 million and a popula­ paring dishes from soybeans. A booklet is about to be published. tion of 5.3 million, have serious caloric and It might be of interest to you to note that protein deficiencies in their diets. Food staples Guyana, St. Kitts, and Trinidad and Tobago have com;ist of beans, rice, bananas, yucca (cas­ embarked upon a program of Corn/Soya produc­ sava), coconut, and bread. tion in the hinterland of Guyana as part of the Caribbean Food Plan. It is envisaged that soon a programme will be Trinidad formulated with the Extension Division in the Min­ Soybeans are not grown or used as food in istry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries to ex­ the home or village in this country. Local ex­ hibit soya growing at vantage points in rural Trinidad and Tobago with accompanying demon­ periments are being conducted under a project strations by Home Economists in :food preparation. agreement between the governments of West I am currently working in conjunction with the

20 Personal communication with B~ Lewis, general 21 Personal communication with U. Lashley, home manager, Nutrition Produc:ts, Ltd., Ministry of Edu­ economist, John Donaldson Technical Institute, Ministry cation, Kingston, Jamaica. 1975. of Education, Port of Spain, Trinidad. October, 1976. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 39

Government Broadcasting and Film Unit to pro­ F AO Production Yea~book. 1975. Food and Agricul· duce a documentary on 'Soya for Food.' I a.m deal­ tUl'e Organization of the United Nations, vol. 28-1, ing with basic steps Cleaning, Soaking, and Blanch­ 1974. FAO, Rome. ing: I also hope to deal with the preparation of: Harrison, G. 1972. Soya in Mexico. Soybean Digest (1) Soy Milk, Soy/Choe Milk 32: 8. (2) Soy Fudge. Soy/Choe Fudge-A candy Mustakas, G. C. 1971. T~ip report to cities of Mexico (3) Soy/Almond Paste-Marzipan City, Pueblo, and Guadalajara, Mex. (November­ (4) Soynut Butter December). Northern Regional Research Cente., (5) Soy Nuts U.S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Ill. (6) Curried Soybeans --- 1987. Trip report to cities of Rio -de Janeiro, (7) Phulouri (An East Indian Dish Using Dhal) Campinas, MacDea, and Recife; Brazil, S. A. (June­ July). Northern Regional Research Center, U.S. References-Soybean Food Uses in Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Ill. --- 1975. Trip report to Jamaica, Haiti, Domini­ Latin America can Republic, Trinidad, Guyana, Venezuela, Colom­ American Soybean Association. 1975a. American bia, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica, EI Salvador, Soybean Association promotes soy for nutrition. Guatemala, and Mexico (March·April). Northern Soybean Digest 35: 8. Regional Research Center, U.S. Department of Agri· Anonymous. 1975a. Marketing basic consumer goods culture, Peoria, Ilt in Mexico: The Conasupo system. Mexico Protein --- Albrecht, W. J., Bookwalter, G. N., and Griffin, Advisory Group Bulletin, vol. V, No.4. Jr., E. L. 1967. Full·fat soy flour by a simple Berra, R., and Va1huerdi, A.· P. 1975. New ways of process for villagers. U.S. Department of Agricul· utilizing soy in human diets in Latin America. Jour­ ture, ARS 71·34. nal of the American Oil Chemists Society 52: 280A. Pontecorvo, A. J. 1976. Soybean foods for rural Buchanan, B. F. 1976. Report on initial tour of Latin Mexico, League' for International Food Education American countries, U.S. Department of State, The (LIFE) Newsletter, May 1976. Agency for International Development grant No. Tello, F. 1975. Manufacturing and marketing of soy AID 1 ta·G·1238. products for human consumption in Mexico. ·Journal Crowley, P., and Edozien, J. C. 1976. AID trip re· of the American Oil Chemists Society 52: 242A. port. U.S. Department of State, The Agency for In· World Agricultural' Production and Trade Statistical ternational Development, October-November. Report, FAS, January 1974.

Soybean Food Uses in North America

United States the amount is so small it does not warrant Soybeans are not a traditional food in the mentions in any official statistics. About 1 per­ United States, but gl'eat changes in the uses of cent of the U.S. population is Oriental (U.S. soybean crops have occurred in recent years. Bureau of the Census 1975); even after living During the early part of soybean history in in the UQited States for generations, Orientals the United States, two·thirds of the acreage have kept their food habits. Oriental foods, was used for forage; the remaining third was either imported or made locally, often are avail­ harvested for beans, which perhaps were also able in a Chinatown or specialty shops. Soybean used for animal feeds. Today, the United States curd is the most popular soybean food and is is the largest soybean producer in the world. always made locally by the traditional method. More than 50 percent of the soybeans pI·oduced Such processed tofu products as tou fu kan are used for oil, 30 percent for exports, and the and deep·fried tofu are frequently available. In remaining for seed and feed (table 12). The California and Hawaii, which have high orien­ defatted meal is one of the basic pro.tein sources tal populations, traditional soybean foods are for livestock production. In the food-processing . often sold in the supermarkets. In the past few industry, soybean flour is a valuable ingredient years, because of increasing interest in vege­ for bakery products. Other food products from tarian diets, tofu and soybean milk have be­ processing soybeans are soybean grits, textured come regular items in natural health food pl·otein, soybean oil, soybean meal, and lecithin. stores. A small amount of whole soybeans, however, Many veg·etarian communes have also used is consumed as food in the United States. But whole soybeans as their main protein food 40 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 12.-Supply and disposition of soybeans in the United States, 1967-76' Year beginning September Item 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 I.OOO,OOO bushels"l Supply: Stocks 90.1 166.3 326.8 229.8 98.8 72.0 59.6 170.9 185 Production .. 976.4 1,107.0 1,133.1 1,127.1 1,176.0 1,270.6 1,547.2 1,214.8 1,521 Total ...... 1,066.5 1,273.3 1,459.9 1,356.9 1,274.8 1,342.6 1,606.8 1,385.7 1,706 Disposition: Crushing .... 576.4 605.9 737.3 760.1 720.5 721.8 821.3 '701.3 865 Exports .... . 266.6 286.8 432.6 433.8 416.8 479.4 539.1 420.7 565 Seed ...... 48.6 47.3 48.5 48.1 51.0 60.8 56.1 57.2 Feed ...... 9 .9 .9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.0 76 Residual ,- .. 7.7 5.6 10.8 15.0 13.4 19.9 18.2 20.5 Total ..... 900.2 946.5 1,230.1 1,258.1 1,202.8 1,283.0 1,453.9 1,200.7 1,506

:t Metric tons = number bushels X 60 2,204.6 , U.S. Department of Agriculture. August 1976. Fats and Oils Situation. Economic Research Service. source. Some communes even plant their own Excellent recipes with soybeans were developed soybeans. The most popular foods made are soy­ with the claim that they are so good, so versa­ bean milk, tempeh, tofu, soybean ice cream, and tile, and so satisfying that one can easily eat soybean yogurt. Generally, commune cooks fol­ them once a week. Other publications on soy­ low the traditional oriental methods f01' making bean cooking for this country include the fol­ soybean milk, tofu, and tempeh; then they de­ lowing: velop their own recipes to suit their taste. liThe Fal"lll Vegetarian Cookbook," L. Dotzler. The The Farm commune in Tennessee, which has Book Publishing Company, The Farm, Summertown, over 1,000 people, makes about 4,560 L of soy­ Tenn. 1975. bean milk, 135 kg of tofu, 950 L of soy yogurt, "Cooking with Soybeans/' D. C. Mueller-, B. P. Klein~ and 270 kg of tempeh weekly. Commune mem­ and F. O. Van Duyne. Cireular 1092, Cooperative bers also eat whole-cooked soybeans, plain or in Extension Service~ University of Illinois, Urnana­ Champaigo. 1974. a sauce. They roast soybeans into soynuts and "Soybeans in Family Meals," P. Sinclair, R. S. Vettel, make soyburgers, soy loaf, and soy sausage. and C. A. Davis. U.S. Department of Agriculture From soybean oil, they make mayonnaise, salad Home and Garden Bulletin No. 208. 1974. dressing, whipped cream, and dessert frostings. "The Joy of Soybean Cooking," B. B. Smith. In In winter, the beans are sprouted to be used as Woman's Day, June 1973, p. 200. a vegetable. On the average, they eat soybeans HThe Protein for Pennies Cookbook," J. Wood. Peter in some form at least once a day, but often W. Wyden Publishers, 750 3rd Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. 1975. more. In 1975, the commune members har­ vested and consumed 162 t of soybeans and 27 t In these publications, instructions are usually each of pinto, kidney, and black beans. given on how to boil soybeans. They are basi­ As a nation, the extent of using simply pro­ cally the same: soak the beans overnight, cook cessed soybeans, however, is insignificant. One with the addition of salt or chopped onion, bay of the factors that affects the use of whole soy­ leaf, and pepper for more flavor, and simmer beans for food is the lack of knowledge of how for 1 to 3 h. Some suggest reserving the soak­ green soybeans and dry soybeans can be prop­ ing-water for COOking. However, laboratory. re­ erly prepared for consumption. In "The Joy of sults and the oriental experience have shown Soybean Cooking," Smith found that dry soy­ that soaking processes remove some undesir­ beans can be used in casseroles, soup, salad­ able factors. Therefore, the soaking-water anywhere one would use navy or kidney beans. should be discarded. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCE;SSED AND SIMPLY· PROCESSED 41

Canada TABLE 13.-Soybean supply and distribution Canada, 1964-74' Canadians consume a fair amount of peas and beans, 5.1 .kg per capita yearly (FAO ,...9...... ~ a ;§l Processed 1971); however, they do not use soybeans in I>i '£C g Pl"oduction ImpCJorts Supplies Exports for oil their diet. Canada, like the United States, has .8

Soybean Food Uses in Australia Soybean production in Australia averaged,800 the New South Wales area. In 1970 Australia t from 1962 to 1966 but increased to 56,538 tin 'imported 70 t of soybeans, used mainly for oil 1974. 21 Unfavorable weather limits the expan­ and feeds. Contacts from Austmlia are scanty, sion of soybean planting. Most of the current and no infol'mation on use of soybean as food production: is in Queensland, with the Test in has been obtained.

"'Summary o~ Soybean 'Food Uses .Traditional Soybean Foods them are deeply imbedded in oriental culture . These traditional soybean foods are summar­ Traditional soybean foods have been limited ized as follows. to the Orient, where soybean foods have been eaten by eve1'yone-young and old, rich and Soybean milk poor. Prefel'ances for soybean foods, ways to Soybean milk is the water extract of wet prepare them, and the manners of consuming ground soybeans. It looks like dairy milk and

21 American Soybean Association, Soybean Blue Book. can be used as dairy milk, but it has. its own Hudson, Iowa. 1975. cha1'acteristic odor and taste. Although soy- )

42 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

bean milk is the' starting material for many tainers, and then incubated at about 30°C for other soybean foods, the direct consumption of 20 to 24 h. At that time, the beans are bound I soybean, milk is popular only among the Chi­ together by mycelia, resulting in a cakelike I nese. product. When sliced and fried in oil, tempeh has a pleasant flavor, aroma, and texture that Soybean curd and processed would be acceptable to people of different cul­ soybean curd prodncts tures around the world. A product similar to Tou fu, tofu, tubu, tahoo, touhu, tau foo, and tempeh has also been made from the I'esidue of dan fu are some of the phonetic renditions for making soybean milk and soybean curd. In In­ soybean curd from different countries. Soybean donesia, the product is known as tempe gembus. curd is, perhaps, the most important and popu­ lar soybean food in the Orient. The curd, a cot­ Green soybeans tage cheese-like product formed into a cake, is Immature soybeans, mao tou, Ol' edamame precipitated from soybean milk by calcium sul­ are consumed in the Orient as a seasonal vege­ fate, vinegar, or other coagulating agents and table. The most popular way to prepal'e the then transferred to a molding box to form a beans is to boil them in the pods for 10 to 15 soft cake. Soybean curd has a bland taste so min in salt water. Often the pods are removed that it cali be flavored easily with seasonings before eating. or blended with other foods. Products processed from soybean curd are made by dehydration, Boiled soybeans freezing, and frying. These processed products have less moisture content and a more chewy Dry soybeans are soaked and boiled in water texture than that of soybean curd itself. with seasonings, such as soy sauce, and served as snacks. Sometimes they are cooked with seasonings and meat to serve with regular Protein-lipid film meals. Tou fu pi, fu chok, and yuba are the tradi­ tional names for this popula~' food p;roduct. It Roasted soybeans is the film formed over the surface of soybean Soaked or unsoaked soybeans are often milk when the milk is heated nearly to boiling. roasted above an open fire or fried in oil to use' Then the cream-yellow film is air dried and as snacks. made in the form of sheets, sticks, 01' flakes. Soybean flour Soybean sprouts Roasted soybeans are ground into flour that Huang tou ya (Chinese), or daizu no moyashi is then used in pastry. Soybean flour as pro­ (Japanese), is produced by germinating soaked cessed in this country is not traditionally used and drained soybeans in the dark for 1 to 2 wk in the Odent. until the SPI'OUts reach full growth, (about 3 to Soy sauce 4 em). Soybean sprouts are often used in soups, steamed, or sauteed for hot vegetable dishes. Soy sauce (known as chiang yu in China, After cooking they can also be. used in salads. shoyu in Japan, kecap in Indonesia, and toyO in the Philippines) is a dal'k brown liquid with a salty taste (16 to 18 percent salt) and a Tempe (Tempeh) pleasant aromatic odor suggestive of meat ex­ Tempeh is an Indonesian fermented soybean tracts. It is made by fermentation from a com­ product. The fermentation process is short aud bination of soybeans, wheat, and salt with a simple. Soaked and dehulled soybeans are mixture of molds, yeast, and bacteria. Soy boiled, ,drained, surface-dried, mixed with sauce is the prominent all-purpose seasoning tempeh starter (Rhizopus oligosporous spores), agent used in the preparation of oriental foods, wrapped in banana'leaves or perforated con- as wen as a table condiment. I SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 43 f: Fermented soybean paste Whole soybeans Fermented soybean paste (miso in Japanese Soybeans are soaked, drained, boiled in water and chiang in China) is also a common flavor­ with salt, !;laking powder, or sodium bicarbo­ ing agent in the Orient. It has an aroma and nate, and then simmered for 1 to 3 h. The salty taste similar to that of soy sauce and is cooked beans' are used in salads, SOups, stews, a brown paste resembling peanut butter. Fer­ and casseroles-anywhere one would use any mented soybean paste is made from soybeans kind of bean. and salt with or without a cereal by a process Soybean paste comparable to that used in soy sauce. For cen­ turies, the product has been produced and con­ The paste is made by first soaking the beans sumed in many oriental countries. In some and then grinding to a creamy paste. It is usu­ countries, a variety of bean pastes may be made ally mixed with cereals. The paste may be made by varying the ratio of bean to cereal, salt from boiled soybeans and used in the recipes content, fermentation time, or addition .of other for spread 01' pie filling. ingredients such as hot pepper. Soy flour Fermented whole soybeans Soybean flours, full-fat or defatted, have been Tau shih, or hamanatto,.is made by ferment­ incorporated into many native diets and are ing whole soybeans with a strain of a mold, frequently combined with cereals in preparing Aspergillus. The fermented beans can be used familial' foods. Soy flour seems to be the most as a condiment with bland foods such as l'ice versatile soy product for use in the diets of porridge, or they can be cooked with vegeta­ people outside the Orient. bles, meats, and seafoods as a flavoring agent. Soy beverage Natto Traditional oriental soybean milk and soy Natto, a fermented soybean food in Japan beverage made from whole soybeans have been and Korea, is made from whole soybeans by introduced into many countries. fermentation with a bacterium, Bacillus subtili•. The process is simple and quick, similar to that Production and Consumption of tempeh fermentation except that a different World soybean production (Table 14) is con­ microorganism is used. Natto is well known in centrated in three countries: the United States, Japan, but it is considered unpalatable by many Brazil, and China; however, soybeans are grown because of the characteristic strong odor, fla­ in small areas throughout the world. Although vor, and slimy appearance. U.S. soybean production in 1976 was down nearly 18 percent from the 1975 output, Brazil­ Fermented soybean curd ian production was up about 15 percent. The Fermented soybean curd, known as Chinese production in the People's Republic of China cheese, or sufu, is made from cubes of soybean remains the same. Among other producers, Ar­ curd by the action of a mold, Mucor or Actino­ gentina' and Indonesia produce significant mucor. The molded curd cubes are then aged in amounts of soybeans, but only Argentina shows a salt solution, resulting in a soft 'cheese-type a great interest in expanding soybean planting. food. Sufu is made and consumed primarily by The FAO food balance sheets, 1964-66 (1971) Chinese. has been the chief source for consumption data, although more recent information was received Experimental Soybean Foods from a few individual countries. In general, In recent years, various approaches have food patterns of each nation have remained un­ been taken to incorporate soybeans into native changed. For comparative purposes, soybean diets of count!'ies that do not traditionally use use data for soybean-consuming countries soybeans as foods. The following soybean prod­ (FAO report), are summarized in table 15. ucts have been in use. In the Far East, significant amounts of soy- TABLE 14.-Soybeans: area and production tn specified countries and the world, annual 1970-76' Area 2 Production Continent and country 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1915:'1 19164 1970 19'2'1 1972 1973 1974 1915::1 19761 1,000 hectares 1,000 me/ric tons North AmerIca: Cannda ...... 135 149 164 190 180 158 146 283 280 375 397 280 367 291 ltfexlco ...... 140 155 249 396 265 356 169 240 260 375 619 420 626 256 8 ••••••••••••••••• United States 17,098 17,281 1$,494 2:2,580 21,11)3 21,694 19t ()'!)2 30,675 32,006 34,581 42,108 33,062 41,406 M,012 South Amerlcn: Argentina ., ...... 26 38 68 160 338 368 442 27 59 78 272 496 485 695 Brnzll ...... 1,319 1,716 2,840 3,615 5,143 D,824 6,227 1,1509 2,077 3,700 5,011 7,8'16 !),89-2 11,344 BoUvln ....•..•. , •••... , ••.•... 1 1 1 2 6 6 6 1 1 1 3 8 10 10 Chile ...... (.) 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 Colombia ...... 58 68 68 54 57 88 69 95 106 122 114 114 169 136 paraguuy' ...... ~ ... 40 54 7. 92 120 150 180 52 75 97 122 185 218 230 Peru ...... (0) 1 1 1 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 5 8 7 Ecuador ...•....•..•....•..••.. (0) 1 1 1 2 8 12 1 1 1 2 3 10 14 Eurolle: France ....••...... 0 0 0 a 2 2 4 9 9 0 9 4 5 10 Spnin ...... 2 2 2 13 18 20 22 3 2 8 18 89 16 85 Bulgaria ...... 9 18 14 19 25 31 58 8 15 13 15 18 62 100 Hungary ...... '" ...... 9 0 0 ·9 15 25 40 0 0 9 9 14 41 65 ltomnnla ..•....•..•.•.••...... 79 146 109 183 239 122 200 91 165 186 244 208 195 250 yugoslavia ...... 4 5 4 9 8 15 32 5 4 6 13 14 25 60 USSR ...... "'" ...... 8GO 8G8 905 838 880 811 850 603 53. 268 424 857 789 500 Africa: Ethiopia ., ...... 19 10 10 19 10 19 10 G 6 6 6 5 6 5 Nlgerla8 ••••..••••••.•••••••••• 11 1 4 1 1 1 1 Sout.h Afxlen19 •••••••••••••• ~. 14 9 12 9 13 13 12 4 2 3 5 21 20 19 T.nnzun[ata ...... 5 5 5 5 5 5 G 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Uganda ...... 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Zaire ...... '" ...... 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 Asia: Burma ...... 20 20 23 21 21 21 22 13 13 14 IS 15 14 14 Chinn, People's If.cpublic ...... 8,000 8,100 8,400 8,600 B,BO{) 9.200 9,200 6,900 6,100 6,500 8,000 9,:500 1O,oaO 10,000 Clilna, Uepublie of 'l'aiwlln ... 49 40 36 36 45 45 45 55 51 59 61 67 52 6. Indln ...... 24 30 32 35 40 40 40 11 18 29 26 39 35 a5 Indonesia ...... 694 566 606 750 763 768 763 498 475 618 507 550 575 575 Iran ...... S 8 7 14 30 54 64 6 7 10 22 36 70 79 J'upnn1' ...... 96 100 89 88 93 87 87 126 122 127 118 133 126 120 Kilmer Republic ...... 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Korea, NQJ:'tb .... , ...... 395 409 405• 495• 405 405 405 228• 239 235 235 235 235 235 Koren, Republic ().f1 •••••••••• 298 277 28. 312 286 275 28. 232 222 224 246 a19 311 311 PhUlp'pines ...... 2 2 1 2 3 8 12 1 1 1 2 2 6 10 l.'11uBnndr ...... 83 76 81 96 102 116 126 70 67 80 199 115 140 155 Turkey ...... 11 7 5 6 4 4 4 12 11 13 7 9 9 9 VJetnamll ...... 34 36 36 36 36 36 36 15 17 19 18 18 18 18 Oceania; A ustralinll ••••••••••••••••••••. 5 7 18 28 41 46 28 5 9 34 '38 63 74 31 Estimated world totnl ...... 29,560 30,338 33,170 38,466 39,173 40,856 39,605 41,811 43,556 47,085 58,671 54,326 66,030 50,700 1 Years shown refer to yenrs of harvest. Southern HetnisphC:l::c crops which arc hurvested in the early part; of the yenr combined With tllOSC of the Northern Iremls,tlhere hUl'· vested the latter pn:t't ot the same year. ~ Figures refer to harvested arens itS fnr as possible. 3 Prellminnry. ~ Forecnat. ~ H-cctarnge Imrvested for benns. Q JJcss tban 1.000 llcc- tares. ' :Planted area. 8 Quantities purchased by the Nigerhm Mnrltctmg Bl'ep~l'e<1 or csthnated 011 tJlO b-a.sla of .off!cial statistIc-a 01 .foreign govermneuts, othel' foreign sour-c~ Jnateri· nls, report.s ot U.S. Agriculture Attaches nnd F-orelgn Service Off1.cers, results of office reMnl'cll and re!nted informnticm. li'oreign Agrlculture Circular FOIl 1'1·76., No,\temher 1970.. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 45

TABLE 16.-Amounts oj cereal-soy blends distributed under Title II, Public Law 480 in fiscal year 1974' Commodity (1.000 Ib)!!: Commodity (1,000 IbP Country Country CS1IP WSB' Africa: 49,660 34,004 26,344 Latin America-continued Botswana ...... 8,864 2,185 Bolivia ...... 1,592 2,997 Burundi ...... 120 35 Brazil ...... 18,753 5,656 2,442 Cameroon ...... 200 355 205 Bl"itish Honduras .. . 149 43 Central African Chile ...... 421 5,386 Republics ...... 180 Colombia ...... 11,346 2,444 10,931 Chad ...... •... 688 Costa Rica ...... 526 1,'714 228 Congo ..•...... 788 Dominica ...... 100 Dahomey ..... '...... ·46 116 Dominican Republic. 1,442 6,987 7,520 Ethiopia ...... 4,458 36 Ecuador ...... 5,791 498 2,905 Gabon .... , ...... , 66 El Salvador ...... 2,880 896 1,725 Gambia ...... 213 100 Guatemala ...... 381 2,506 773 Ghana ...... 2,244 1,137 1,368 Guyana ...... 256 70 Ivory Coast ...... 365 867 Haiti ...... 780 2,392 2,655 Kenya ...... 155 1,819 Honduras ...... 376 1,142 3,429 Lesotho ...... 2,458 227 610 Jamaica ...... 813 17 39 Liberia ...... 388 572 323 Nicaragua ...... 2,856 2,891 443 Malagasy ...... 188 182 Panama ...... 579 1,755 796 Mali ...... 840 66 Paraguay...... 2 Ma.uritania ...... 80 5,799 Peru...... 3,155 1,607 2,170 Morocco ...... 509 r..558 10,596 St. Kitts ...... 60 Niger ...... 33 45 St. Lucia...... 83 25 Nigeria ...... 200 6,821 329 St. Vincent ...... 29 50 Rwanda ...... 100 200 1,458 Others: Senegal ...... 1,318 Europe ...... 14 Seychelles ...... 129 Malta ...... 14 Sierra Leone ...... 556 1,356 149 Near East-South Asia 45,191 82,826 40,186 Somali Republic ... . 2 Bangladesh ...... 10,888 2,581 Sudan ...... 2,454 British Solomon Swaziland ...... 105 Islands ...... 115 80 Tanzania ...... 2,299 5,419 Egypt ...... 1,394 2,229 Togo ...... 340 2,923 Gaza ...... 159 640 3,481 Tunisia ...... 3,366 6,544 2,883 India ...... 30,965 27,626 17,092 Upper Volta ...... , . 197 515 Jordan, E ...... 156 170 310 Zaire ...... 199 Jordan, West Bank .. 525 119 247 Zambia ...... 22 133 Nepal ...... 989 1,542 193 Sahel-Regional .... . 19,810 Pakistan ...... 685 East Asia: 6,362 24,015 12,435 Sri Lanka ...... 6,994 Cambodia ...... 70 30 Turkey ...... 7,959 Indonesia ...... 110 9,167 Yemen ...... 126 Korea ...... 317 521 Laos ...... 857 165 1,449 Grand total ...... 153,002 124,530 120,525 Malaysia ...... 22 192 Philippines ...... 4,933 22,660 382 'Food for Peace Program 1974 Annual Report, U.S. Singapore ~~ ...... 10 330 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976. Vietnam ...... 43 639 915 , 1,000 pounds = 450 kg. Latin America: 51,789 34,171 41,560 , J)efinitions: CSM (corn soybean mix); CSB (corn Antigua' ...... 18 soybean blend); WSB (wheat soybean' blend). beans produced are used directly. as food; how­ Japan, the percentage used as food is low. Only ever, the world food consumption of soybeans 15 percent of 889,000 t of soybeans used in the is low. Most of the soybeans produced are used Republic of China in 1975 were for food; in for oil and feeds. Even in the two major coun­ Japan, only 22 percent of more than 3,000,000 t tries that do consume soybeans, China and used yearly are for food. Table 16 is on next page 46 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 15.-Use of soybeans by soybean-consuming TABLE H.-U.S. exports of full-fat soy flour'! countries {1964-66}' Destination 1915 Per capita Domestic use consump- Canada ...... 146,974 111,409 Production Import tion Mexico ...... 72,679 Fo()d Feed 011 as food 10,201 per year Salvador ...... _...... _ . 1,099 2,681 Dominican Republic ...... 2,222 3,295 1,000 metric ton KllogToms Asia: West Gennany ...... 8,716 ,76 Switzerland ...... China, 406 1,408 People's Portugal ...... 4;566 66 Yugoslavia ...... Republic 11,040 5,123 662 3,312 6.7 3,442 Greece ...... China, 6,654 3,234 Syria ...... Republic 18,637 Saudi Arabia ...... 3,941 of ...... 62 169 88 143 1.1 South Vietnam ...... 2,310 Indonesia. 367 294 29 22 2.8 Hong Kong ...... 300 Japan 223 1,931 497 1,594 5.1 2,413 ... 16 Australia ...... Korea(s) . 166 3 142 6 5.0 3,757 2 Egypt ...... Malaysia. 17 16 2.6 26,479 11,034 Philippines 1 18 _ 6 13 .2 'U.S. Foreign Agricultural Trade Statistical Report, Singapore 16 8 4.3 1975, Economic Research Service, U.S. Depal"trnent of Thailand 41 17 14 .6 Agriculture, Washington, D,C., May 1976. Vietnam 13 13 .3 to.4 '1,000 pounds = 450 kg. Africa: Nigel'ia .. 16 4 .1 , Tansania . 3 2 .2 In recent years, the United States has dis­ Uganda .. 1 1 .1 tributed cereal-soy blends to many countries. Latin America: These mixtures may have been consumed .as Brazil ... 474 95 263 1.2 food in the recipient countries. The amounts of Mexico .. 58 3 12 49 .3 cereal-soy blends distributed and the recipient 'Food and Agriculture Organization of the United countries are summarized in table 16. Table 17 Nations, 1971, Food Bal.nce Sheets. 1964-66 Average. indicates the amounts of full-fat soy flour the United States exported during 1974 and 1975. This, too, was expected to be used as food.

Simple Village Process for Processing Whole Soybeans During the 1960's NRRC developed a simple Equipment hand process for converting, soybeans to a nu­ Table 18 lists the hand machinery for the tritious full-fat soy flour. The .process was de­ process, capacities, and source. Capacities signed expressly for villages in foreign lands shown in the table are based on the use of hand where skilled labor, electric power, and steam power. Mechanical ppwer can increase these were not available. capacities. For example, a %-hp motor could Early studies showed that initial moisture double the capaCity of the hand grinder, was a highly significant factor in cooking rate. Beans soaked overnight, which reached mois­ Process tur~ contents of 62 to 68 percent, cooked rap­ The basic steps in processing whole soybeans idly. Cracking the beans was not 'necessary for are outlined in figure 2, and details for produc­ rapid cooking. Of the methods tried, water im­ ing 136 kg of soy floUl' per day in figul'e 3. mersion was the best for rapid cooking and sim­ Whole soybeans are soaked in water of drink­ ple control. This method yielded a nutritive ing quality for several hours, drained, cooked product and could be' adapted to hand operation in boiling water to cover, drained, air-dried, by untrained people. . cracked, dehulled, and finally ground to flou;\'. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 47 I TABLE lB.-Equipment and cost information on making soy flour by hand process (capacity 136 kilogram soy flour per 8-hour day) Capacity of equipment Process step Equipment needed basis: soybeans SQurce Kilograms Time 1. Soaking the beans ...... Four 208·L galvanized drums, plus 24 heavy porous cot­ ton bags (about 46 by 115 em) 172 nay 2. Immersion cooking ...... Heavy gage galvanized steel Generally available tank, 200-L capacity 90 HOUl.' 3. Air-drying ...... Cloth, paper, or fiat trays 4. Hand cracking ...... Corn crusher, type S Hour 5. Winnowing (dehulling) .. Hand-grain winnower, type CeCoCo Chuo Boeki A-I 45 Hour { Kaisha Central 6. Hand grinding ...... • Flour grind mill, type n Commercial Co., (2 mills) 9 Hour per mill \ Osaka-Fu, Japan

Of the original bean solids, 7 to 9, percent is to 100 kg of soak water. Baking soda, however, lost in soaking and cooking. does not have to be added. The six steps follow and are illustrated in After 4 to 6 h· of soaking, the beans will swell figure 4, A to F. to about twice their size and will contain more than 40 percent water. This soaking is. needed Step l.-Soaking the beans for uniform cooking. Lift the beans out of the If possible, start soaking the beans before soak water, drain briefly, and put them into the sunrise. This allows as much daylight time as cooking pot (fig. 4, A). possible for the drying step. Fill a cloth bag, Step 2.-Immersion cooking 01' a perforated basket, one-fourth to one-third full with soybeans and lower it into fresh water Cook the beans, still in the bag, in water at in a container, such as a 208-L drum. The water full boil for 10 miu. Cooking can be done in an temperature should be 240'C, or less, to mini­ open pot over an open fire. In high altitudes, mize growth o{ micro-organisms. up to 3,000 m, cook at full boil about 15 min. To improve the flavor of the beans slightly, This cooking is necessary to make the beans add 1 kg of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) safe for eating but does not l'emove or destroy protein. Lift the bag of beans out of the boiling water and allow to drain for a few minutes. t Cooking water can be reused about six times. Whole The soybean hulls removed later in the process can be used as fuel. . 'r Step 3.-Air drying After the beans are cooked, spread them Ol,lt to air-dry (fig. ( B): The area required .for Ilulls Particler Sile drying soybeans in a single layer is !J.bout 0.5 lIedutllDn mO/kg of dry soybeans or a total area of 86 m' for 1 d production. . Full-Fat Drying conditions required for preventing 1 Soy Flour mold 01' bacteria growth are discussed under FIGURE 2.-Basic steps in processing whole soybeans. Sanitation Requh·ements. 48 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Raw Who I. So,b".s ~ 112 Ig.

~-:,j S"k,d S"k.d S"k,d Beans Beans Beans

, i .i ,L+t·.. J· t. t, i, i,

Immersion Cookini

Air DrYing

C"cllng------~

Winnowine: •• _1_2_1.::2_. _bu_lI...;s''-I_DO--'kg;..._d...;'y'-b'_'_RS___ __

.' 14 KIlograms = 31 p.unds !avoir.] 43 KII.grams = 95 po"ds 136 KIlograms = 300 pounds 172 KIlograms = 380 pounds 136 lIters 36 g,II.n, !U.S.] 200 LIter, = 53 g,II'ns 208 LIters = 55 g.II,"s -ApproJlmate figures. 136 Ig.~ full·Fat so,no.,

FIGURE B.-Details for producing soy Hour. A PN-6302 B PN-6303

c PN-6304 Kand-Operat,d Winnower Cnckd Muts r.d t

Nulls ,,00 Hud-Drlnn --- Air ataw.,

o 0 o o \ •\ o a o 0 / fine "uls \.Curse L Muls S, •• Hulls D PN-6305 E

FIGURE 4.-Processing whole soybeans: A, cooking; s, air-

The water content at the end of drying should Do not reuse water to soak a second batch of be low enough to permit good separation of beans. Examine the beans for insect or rodent hulls in the cracking step (about 9 percent or contamina tion and wash the beans before soak­ less). A simple impact test may be used as a ing. Clean all equipment before using. Cover guide to determine when the beans are dry the soak pots dUl'ing soaking. Wash all bags, enough for cracking. In this test, place a few soak pots, ropes, and utensils thoroughly with beans on a flat hard surface and hit sharply clean water after each use. Tum the bags in­ with a small mallet or a flat stone. The beans side out and expose to the sun to dry. should break easily with clean separation of the hull. Cool..'ing Ideally, soy flour should be produced during Clean all cooking pots, utensils, and other the driest season. If poor drying conditions equipment before using. exist because of wet weather, high humidity, or lack of sun, make changes by drying with Drying heated air. After cooking, spread the beans out in thin layers on clean paper, cloth, or trays in an area Step 4.-Hand cracking with good air circulation. Complete drying Crack the air-dried whole beans by using within 30 to 36 h with as much exposure to di­ hand-operated equipment (fig. 4, C) . Cracking rect sunlight as possible, If air-drying cannot frees the hulls (seedcoat) from the seed. Re­ be finished within 36 h, use heated ail'. When move the hulls. drying conditions are bad, the flour made fl'om the beans will not be good, For example, with Step 5.-Winnowing slow dl'ying, high bacteria counts and putrefac­ Place soybeans in the winnowing (dehulJing) tion can develop in 2 d; flour from such bilans machine and hand crank the blower (fig. 4, might be contaminated with molds that could o and E). The moving air lifts the light hulls produce toxic products. When mold can be seen, and calTies them to one side. The heavier meats throw the beans away, Keep the drying area (free of hulls) fall dil'ectly below. Put the rest as free as possible from dust 01' any kind of through the machine again. dirt. Protect the drying beans fl'om rain and dew. Step 6.-Hond grinding Hand grind the dehulled soybean meats (fig. Milling 4, F) to make the flour. Clean the winnower, cracking mill, and flour mill at the beginning and at the end of each Sanitation Requirements day. In all food processing operations, sanitary Flour storage conditions are necessary to ensure wholesome food products. Food contamination can be pre­ Stol'e the flour in clean containers off the vented by strict observance of the following ground. Protect the containers and storage conditions. area against moisture, rodent, insect, and other possible contamination. Village workers All workers must understand the need for Quality of Product maintaining clean, sanitary conditions. They Analytical data for typical full-fat soy flour must be in good health and keep their hands produced by this process are shown in table 19. clean at all times. Protein efficiency ratios" of 2:0 and available Soaking • Determined by A. N. Booth, Western Regional Re· Use clean, pure water for soaking the beans. search Center. Science and Education Administration, If the water is contaminated, boil before using. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Albany, Calif. 94706. SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 51

TABLE 19.-Analy$is of fun·fat soy flour mined. Formulas for soy flours included bever­ Constituent Range ages and soups, main dishes, breads, cereal Protein ...... Percent...... • .. 41.0 to 42.0 products, and desserts. All products were evalu­ Crude fat ...... ,. do ...... 20.0 to 23.0 ated for appearance, texture, flavor, and ac­ Ash ...... do...... 5.0 to 7.0 ceptability by a panel at the Nub'Won Institute Moisture .•.....•.... do...... 6.0 to 8.0 and at Howard University, Washington, D.C. Crude fiber ...... •. do ...... , . ... 2.5 to 3.0 The panel at the Institute rated the palata­ Urease activitYI pH change ...... 0 to .1 bility of most of the food products prepared Nitrogen solubility index •...... 15.0 to 20.0 Available lysine, percent of protein. 6.0 to 6.5 with soy flours from fail'ly good to very good. Protein efficiency ratio average .•.. 2.0 (Casein, 2.5) The soy pl'oducts rated very good were bean cake, creole eggplant, biscuits, cornbread with egg, cornmeal squares, seasoned l'ice, rice-spin­ lysine values in the range of 6 to 6.S indicate ach, and puff-puff doughnut holes!' good nutritional value. The flour has been tested in many basic food NRRC Village Process formulas and food combinations in cooperation The village process has had a considerable with SEA's Nutrition Institute, Agricultural impact in the field as indicated by its introduc­ Research Center, Beltsville, Md. It has good tion overseas and the large number of requests flavor acceptability and stability. Types of food for information. UNICEF purchased and that were prepared include breads (with wheat shipped equipment to countries in Latin Amer­ and corn flour), cooked vegetable and stew ica, Asia, and Africa. dishes, cereal products (noodles, porridge), In July 1967, ·the Government of Brazil re­ cooked desserts, and beverages for babies and quested that USDA l'epresentative visit their young children (table 20). In infants' bever­ country and demonstrate the village process to ages, a flour-water dispersion of improved their Children's Bureau, Department of Health. smoothness will be obtained if the flour is finer NRRC sent an engineer for 3 weeks to meet ground 01' if the mixture is homogenized. with Brazilian officials, present technical de­ tails, and develop interest in the process. Since Evaluation of Product in Formulas and then, UNICEF has distributed six sets of vil­ Procedures for Family and lage process machinery to several locations in Institutional Use in Developing Countries Brazil to evaluate, principally, to child nuhition and education centers. In a l'Ural extension ser­ Full-fat soy flours processed by the village vice project approved by the UNICEF board at method at NRRC were supplied to the Nutri­ Santiago, over 100 sets were sent to Brazil. Pro­ tion Institute to evaluate. Basic formulas, food curement, however, was withheld until a com­ combinations, and preparation procedures suit­ plete evaluation was made of the previous sets able for use by families and community groups provided to BraziL Since that time, UNICEF were developed for flours made fl'om soybeans. has been supplying sets of machines for the The maximum amount of soy protein flour village process to various countl·ies. to provide a palatable food product was deter- In 1969, Y. H. Yang, FAO nutrition officer, stopped at NRRC and reported a successful 2- year field service program in KOl·ea. In 1968, TABLE ZO.-Yield and protein analy­ UNICEF supplied two sets of village equipment sis of basic products' there. His report indicated a successful village Pl'oduct 'Yield Protein operation at the pilot village of Kang Wondo, Percent Milk ...... 6-7 L ...... 4 "Schlosser, G. C. and E. H. Dawson. Cottonseed Atole ...... 2-3 L ...... 8 Flour, Peanut Flour, and Soy Flour: Formulas and Pasta ...... 2-3 kg ...... • .. 18 Procedures for Family and Institutional Use in Devel­ , From 1 kg soybean, adding about 9 L oping Countries, U.S. Department of Agriculture, ARS wate1' in the boiling process. 61-7, July 1969. 52 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

where the process was taught and carl'ied out. temala, and Mexico. In· Tanzania, five sets were Full-fat soy flours of good quality and accept- pl:ovided to the Ministry of Agriculture Train­ i; : .. 'ability were produced. The flours were used to ing Institute, Morogors, implemented by a food make instant dry powder formulations that would be reconstituted with water as porridge, scientist and a food technologist to direct the soups, or enriched noodles. training pl'ogram in three African villages. In addition, UNICEF has furnished village More recently, 30 sets of village equipment equipment to India, Tanzania, Philippines, Gua- were delivered to northwestern· Mexico.

Industrial Production and Selling Prices of Edible Soybean Protein Products

Table 21 gives estimates of U.S. production and, consequently, have not developed a large of soy flours, concentra~es, isolates plus tex­ market yet. tured flours and concentrates for 1976. Soy Faced with the question of whether to start flours are the predominant form produced, and producing and mal'keting edible soy protein, they sell at the lowest price of the five protein several soybean processing cooperatives turned types. Concentrates and isolates are manufac­ to USJ;>A's Farmer Cooperative Service (now a tured at about one-eighth the scale for the part of the Economics, Statistics, and Coopera­ tives Service) for help. Because the requests flours but they sell at more than two to five were similar, the facts were published in "Edi­ times the price paid for flours. Flours are the ble Soy Protein-Operational Aspects of Pro­ major form used for preparing textul'ed items. ducing and Marketing," FCS Research Report Textured concentrates were introduced in 1975 33, January 1976.

Barriers To Accepting and Using Soybeans in Food Introducing a new food in any country is dif­ or local production; local pJ:oduction is p!'efer­ ficult, and hurdles must be overcome if such a able. Ideally, soybeans should be available at a venture is to succeed. Some of the major fac­ cost below that of other legumes for which soy­ tors likely to have influence on soybeans in the beans may be substituted. diet of a developing country are discussed be­ low. Cultural and Social Factors Availability Soybeans consumed directly in family meals Soybeans must be available through imports have been the subject of a number of books and manuals presenting ,simple-to-follow cook­ ing recipes. However, the main and critical de­ TABLE 21.-U.8. production estimates for soy pro­ terrent to using soybeans as food is cultural teins, 1976' background. Except for the Far Eastern coun­ Se1llng Annual tries, food use of soybeans is new to the cul­ Protein Protein prleeper production form cont€ut kilogram (estimated) tures of most peoples of the world. Social ta­ Percent MJllion k,iogrdms boos can be a maj 01' hindrance to the food con­ Flours ...... 50 ~0.31 281 sumption of soybeans. For example, soybeans Concentrates .... 70 0.70-0.77 36 have sometimes been called a poor man's food Isolates ...... 90 1.58-1.65 34 Textul'ed flours .50 0.48 54-59 or animal feed. When this occurs, promoting Textured soybean foods to the poor undernourished popu­ concentrates .. 70 0.73-0.77 1.8-2.3 lations, where the need is greatest, becomes

1 Personal communjeation with N. R. Lockmiller, A. extremely difficult. In countries such as Mexico, E. Stanley Mfg. Co., Decatur, III. 1976. soybeans have been promoted as a food for the SOYBEANS AS HUMAN FOOD-UNPROCESSED AND SIMPLY PROCESSED 53 affluent class before introducing soybeans as high-nutritional properties as milk, meat, or food for the poor. The cultural situation eggs. Developing new processes, whether for must be assessed .carefully in selecting pos­ the village level or for larger scale commercial sible methods for integrating the soybean into application, will require careful study to ascer­ the traditional or indigenous foods of a given tain that maximum nutritional properties of country. soy protein are developed and maintained dur­ ing each of the process steps. Texture Food safety also must be maintained in the The whole soybean is the simplest form for processing. Otherwise, this becomes a serious introducing directly into the diet, but like other barrier to soybean use. Particular attention legumes, soybeans must be cooked before eat­ must be paid to the quality of the soybeans ing. Unlike legumes such as peas and beans, used as a raw material as l'elated to storage soybeans al'e more difficult to coo.k, and tex­ problems and development of bacteria and mold ture of cooked soybeans differs from that of toxins. Soybeans in storage must be protected other legumes. Difficulties in cooking to a de­ from insects and rodents. Soybeans must be sirable texture 1S a complaint cited by many handled to minimize breakage because broken who have attempted to develop simple processes beans are more subject to mold and bacterial for food use of soybeans in various countries attack and nonuniformity in cooking. During (Final Report on Contract AID/CMjta-c-73-19, processing, especially if high moisture and tem­ University of Illinois). If soybeans are con­ peratures prevail over lengthy pel'iodi;, bacteria verted into flours and added to foods, texture can be a big problem with soy proteins and may may also be influenced adversely. For example, lead to contaminated products unfit for human replacement of wheat flour in bread with soy food. flour results in undesirable textural changes that can be overcome only by adding special Technology D.evelopment emulsifiers. As summarized in this publication, a variety Flavor of simple methods are available for introducing soybeans into the diet. Nonetheless, many of Soybeans in their raw state have character­ these pl'ocesses may be unsuited to some coun­ istic beany and bitter flavors that make them tries for a number of reasons. For example, unpalatable. These flavors are decreased signi­ fuel may be scarce, so that the usual, long ficantly by coolung and other processing, but cooking times required for soybeans would be residual flavors are often still objectionable. In unacceptable. Therefore, a continuing need ex­ many of the oriental soybean food products, the ists for alternate technologies to incorporate flavor problem has been overcome by fermenta­ soybeans into the diet in different countries. tion to develop new flavors and destroy objec­ This can consist of new processes and modifica­ tionable ones. Although acceptable to -many of tion of available technologies to suit a local the Eastern populations, such flavors al'e for­ situation. eign to many others and may be unacceptable. Nutrition and Food Safety Technology Transfer In any program introducing soybean as a Even with a variety of technologies for using food, nutritional quality plays an important soybean:;; in foods, many problems are encoun­ role. Much has been published about the de­ tered in attempting to transfer them to a for­ struction of antinutritional factors during heat eign country. Developing the technology is only treatment or processing of soybeans. Antinutri­ a first step. Successful promotion of a method tional and physiological factors in raw and im­ requires immediate fo!1owup by setting up a properly processed soybean products have been field program to train local groups to produce a barrier to soybean product use particularly soybean food products and then to use them where soy has replaced a food of such proved, in the native diets. Feedback from the local 54 UTILIZATION RESEARCH REPORT 5, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE groups to the original process developers is of would be aided by communication between all utmost importance so that process modification parties involved. Lack of information exchange can be made to better fit the field situations if in the pa,st has resulted in little or no progress necessary. In addition, promotional efforts and in duplicated efforts by different groups.

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"u.s. GOv-EkNMElI'l' I>RINnNG OFFICE: 1979 0-2S0--931/SEA-32 .