Oz

Volume 13 Article 3

1-1-1991

Triskaidekaphobia and Colonial American Land Development

Diane Wilk Shirvani

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Recommended Citation Shirvani, Diane Wilk (1991) "Triskaidekaphobia and Colonial American Land Development," Oz: Vol. 13. https://doi.org/10.4148/2378-5853.1215

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by New Prairie Press. It has been accepted for inclusion in Oz by an authorized administrator of New Prairie Press. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Triskaidekaphobia1 and Colonial American Land Development

Diane Wilk Shirvani

Introduction negative connotations. So much so that beanaly:udas 10 + 3, then: ten in decimal the cycle ofman's life, composed oftwo The number 13 sparks pangs of fear, even there is even a phobia named after it. systems .symbolizes] a return to unity and parts which are ascending (infancy­ in today' s supposedly rational, non-su­ There are buildings where the numbering [three], spiritual .synthesis, and solution of adolescence, youth-maturity) and the perstitious age. What powers does this of the floors goes from 12 immediately to conflict posed by dualism It also forms a third and last which is descending {old number posses? Why is it feared? What is 14.2 Some even claim that rent on the half-circle comprising: birth, zenith and age-death).9 the basis for the superstition? In honor of 13th floor of office towers is typically descent among other things.6 the 13th issue of Oz, this paper focuses on cheaper and that you may have to sit in Apparently, the crux of problem, again, triskaidekaphobia (fear of the number 13) the 13th row of an airplane if you don't Looking "at the normal interpretation of with the number 13 (10+3) has to do and suggests that this and the related get your set assignments early enough. numbers from the psychologist's point of with the issue of death. 10+ 3 is, however, trepidations of the Pilgrims had implica­ view as they appear in the obsessions and more than tempered by the number 10, tions for land settlement patterns in Co­ The Dictionary offers no clues as to this dreams of average people," we learn that or unification number, which represents lonial America. hidden meaning. Webster's New Colle­ "three stands for biological synthesis, rebirth after death, a positive aspect. giate Dictionary defines thirteen as "See childbirth and the solution of a conflict; What, if anything, does the superstition Number Table."2 The number table de­ [and] ten in its graphic form as 10, is In addition, the 13th Tarot card used in have to do with Colonial American land fines thirteen as "13" or "XIII."3 The New sometimes used to express marriage." 7 By the telling of fortunes is Death. The card settlement? This paper proposes that Lexicon Webster's Dictionary of the En­ extrapolation, 10 + 3, means: marriage, represents the mystery of Death, not nec­ triskaidekaphobia and related superstitions glish Language-Deluxe Encyclopedic synthesis, childbirth and solution of con­ essarily death itself, 10 and as such, 13 is were a factor in the layout of villages in Edition is slightly more elaborate. Thir­ flict (in that order).8 interpreted to mean "domination and Colonial New England. The first part of teen is defined as: "1. adj. Being one more strength, rebirth, creation and destruc­ the paper will investigate the nature and than 12 (*NUMBER TABLE) 2. n. ten Reading on in Cirlot's entry on numbers tion."11 Runes are also used for the telling foundations of the superstitions. The re­ plus three II the cardinal number repre­ under the category of General Character­ of fortunes. It is interesting to note that mainder of the paper will show that the senting this (13, XIII)."4 Note there is no istics, thirteen again was not listed but the 13th rune is Jera which means "har­ Pilgrims did indeed harbor these supersti­ mention of superstition or eviJ.5 there was an entire discourse on the num­ vest, fertile season or one year ...A span of tions and that the superstitions very likely ber 3 which apparently holds the key to time always is involved; hence the key played a role in their conceptions of In J. E. Cirlot' s, Dictionary ofSymbols , 13 what may or may not be evil with 13: words "one year," symbolizing a full cycle dwelling. A comparative analysis will be isn't even a separate entry, although the of time before the reaping, the harvest or made between theocratic New England, numbers 1 and 12 were. Thirteen, how­ The dynamism and the .symbolic rich­ deliverance."12 In many ways, the inter­ where religious beliefS were strong, and ever, is listed under the entry, "Numbers" ness of the number three is so excep­ pretation of the thirteenth rune corre­ the less fervent Southern colonies in an and reads as follows: tional that it cannot be over-empha­ sponds to the interpretation of the num­ attempt to show the effect of supersti­ sized The reconciling fonction ofthe ber 13. Harvest, implying death, is also a tions on settlement patterns. As this is a Thirteen. Symbolic ofdeath and birth, third element ofthe ternary, may ap­ season of plenty with the cyclical expecta­ preliminary investigation, the paper does ofbeginning aftesh ... Hence it has un­ pear in either a favorable or an adverse tion of a new harvest the next year. Death not attempt to answer all of the questions favorable implications. [Furthermore}, light ... when in myths and is only implied by harvest and again tem­ surrounding superstition and colonial the first ten numbers in the Greek .sys­ legends ... the third element represents pered and modified by the cyclical notion American land settlement, it is more an tem [of .symbolism} {or twelve in the the magic or miraculous solution de­ of rebirth. effort to raise questions and suggest the oriental tradition) pertain to the spirit: sired and sought after; but this third possible link between them. they are entities, archetypes and .sym­ element may .. . also be negative. .. .In Over and over, it appears that this cyclical bols. The rest are the product ofcombi­ almost all those myths and tales the death and rebirth is repeated. Nothing, Meanings of the Number 13 nations ofthese basic numbers. [If, as third element corresponds to death, be­ however, indicates the source of the su­ As mentioned, the number 13 carnes suggested by Webster's Lexicon, 13 can cause of the asymmetrical division of perstition involved in these notions. To 9 understand that aspect, one has to exam­ Old versus New Religions in Medieval garding superstitions. 18 It should be re­ for monetary and material reasons. As a ine the meaning of death and rebirth fur­ Europe membered that this was a time when there consequence most Southerners greatly ther. If we now understand the differences be­ were violent disagreements among Chris­ contrasted with the pious Puritans of the tween matriarchal and patriarchal religions tians, as well as continued struggles be­ North who saw the New World as the Religious Basis of Superstition (Old versus New) and we accept that tween Christians and believers of the Old promised land. Additionally, many of the Pagan religions fostered the idea of recur­ many of the Old Religions of Europe Religions. The Reformation only added latter group were the unlanded sons of rent cycles where death was a part of the were based on a matriarchal religion, we to religious insecurity. One almost, by Englishmen cut off &om their inheritance natural cycle of growth and decline. But can begin to understand some of the basis default, had to take a zealous stand to of land by primogeniture. 20 These zealots in some religions, the dead were said to be for superstition. Europe during the Middle defend one's beliefS. in the North where much more affected reborn or reincarnated into a new living Ages went through enormous transitions. by religion and the superstitions and fear being. Many areas in the countryside were still Remember also that the New World was that accompanied their beliefS. Religion pagan and worshiped pagan goddesses and settled by the English in the 1600's, still a and superstitions played a much smaller The older matriarchal religions were role in the lives of the Southern colonists more realistic in their acceptance of who came in pursuit ofworldly {not spiri­ death, making it the sages duty to real­ tual) enrichment. ize the ugliness, corruption, and decay in nature as folly as he might realize its Simple observation of the physical layout beauty: to accord death the same value of colonial settlements reveals very clear as birth. The two were ofequal impor­ differences. In very simple terms, New tance, as two passages through the same England can be described as being a series Door: one coming out, the other going of individual and tightly knit towns and in ... Avalon justly remarked that in villages. In the South, settlement patterns the west, 'the terrible beauty of such were completely dispersed with towns and forms is not understood'; missionaries villages almost nonexistent at first. Why could only describe the Death-goddess the large disparity? The answer lies in part as a she-devil 13 with the conceptions that each group of settlers brought to the concept of settle­ In such religions, death is a rerum to ment. mother earth, darkness and unconscious­ ness. Death is a return to a world in which New England Land Settlement Patterns unconsciousness rules. Matriarchal reli­ Figure 1: Medieval Boston. To the pilgrim New Englanders, gions are based on the belief in a Great Earth or Mother Goddess who gives birth Away from the world ofpious Chris­ to all life and takes all life back in a cyclical gods. Sometimes despite conversion to medieval period in England. The people tians lay the wilderness that hid the fashion, hence Religions that are based on Christianity, they incorporated much of brought with them some renaissance ide­ shadowy power ofSatan and the older Death-Rebirth, or Death/Fertility rites the old religion into their new beliefS. The als and some Medieval sensibilities. We gods from the penetrating scrutiny of and worship. In religions where the empha­ only way to combat the Old, was to present see this vety clearly in colonial land settle­ the Christian clerics. To Angh-Saxons sis is based on the attainment and preserva­ it as evil and to associate it with the Devil. ments that are Medieval and not Renais­ the words "wlyderness" identified the tion of consciousness, a return to uncon­ Christianity was considered the enlightened sance in nature. For example, Boston, nest or lair of a wild beast, not the sciousness and darkness is hence evil or andamoreconsciousway. The Old was the founded in 1630, and although conceived chaotic mountains or forest or rolling bad and something to fear at all costs. unconscious and hence, for reasons previ­ of as a major city, is laid out as a Medieval waste denoted by the early modern ously discussed, evil and the domain of village 19 [See Figure 1]. wilderness ... Wilderness identified those Jungian depth-psychology as interpreted Satan. spaces beyond human control the spaces by Neumann, suggests that in the devel­ Differences in the English Colonists of ofbewilderment, the spaces ofheathen. 21 opment of consciousness there is a ongo­ These superstitions came with settlers to New England and the South ing struggle with unconsciousness and a New England. Many of them were Puri­ The English settled the Eastern Seaboard The forest and the area outside of the necessary suppression of it. It furthermore tans or Separatists who came from Eu­ of the New World in New England, and boundaries of their villages were "the lair elaborates on the way unconsciousness is rope to escape Religious persecution.15 For in Virginia and South Carolina to the of wild beasts and wilder men, where associated with matriarchal religions and example, in England in 1593, non-con­ South. Although both groups were En­ order and shaping are not, where hapless feminine power and consciousness with forming Separatists were forced to either glish in origin, their reasons for coming to peasants are first be-wildered, then se­ patriarchal religions in which the female "stand trial for their lives or leave the the New World were vety different. Those duced into all manner of sin ... Medieval or unconscious must be suppressed in country."16 Among these Puritans were who settled in New England were reli­ peasants understood the wilderness in half­ order to survive. 14 numerous Calvinists17 who according to gious outcasts &om Europe who came for pagan, half Christian terms. "22 10 Stilgoe, held particularly strong views re- religious freedom; those in the South came the external boundaries of the village. 29 In all contributed to this dissolution of the fact in the early years of settlement, roads original village senlement patterns. 40 It was essentially ended at the furesrs edge; towns also around this time, when New En­ were connected by narrow paths along which glanders began venturing out into the only occasional travelers passed. 30 wilderness that the systematic extermina­ tion of the Indians began.41 Could it be The early ideal village was a group of that in New Englanders' minds, the Indi­ nucleated houses surrounded by outlying ans were merely savage pagans, the fields for planting, a pattern eagerly cop­ equivalent of wild beasts or animals and ied from familiar English surroundings.31 hence treated as such. The meeting house, the spiritual and po­ litical center of the town was, of course, at Southern Land Development Patterns the center of the town as was the Com­ mon or Green. In fact, in the beginning, The town was jamestown, the year "no one was permitted to live more than 1615. There could be no better illus­ half a mile from the meeting house; lest in tration of the general rule that the the rigors of the New England winter, he prime object ofsettlers in a new land is should evade his social obligations as a to reproduce the living conditiom of member of the Church."32 This Common their old, to build themselves homes was used for military training exercises, away .from home, than that the first hangings, outdoor religious ceremonies and permanent British settlement in livestock assembly. The term Common is America should have row houses. . . The probably more apropos than Green in the type had been developed in medieval early years because the area received so towm where space was restricted-that much use that is was more muddy and is, for conditiom that could only be trampled than grassy.33 Once the village produced artificially on the edge ofthe grew to its allotted size, a new village would vast American continent. . . Reverend be founded nearby so as not to lose social Hugh jones ... noted: "The habits, life, order and control over the inhabitants.34 customs, computatiom, etc. ofthe Vir­ giniam are much the same as about Figure 2: Plan for New Haven An interesting example of an idealized London, which they esteem their home. "12 New England town is that of New Ha­ Stilgoe points out that the dangers, the ness, the Indian. To them, 'Wilderness ...was ven, Connecticut [1638] which "was to This notion that Jamestown was a re­ demons and the ghouls the occasional viewed primarily as a threat, a place to be be an earthly representation of the city of building of a piece of England is funher visitor saw in the forests were most likely, reclaimed and redeemed from the preda­ God."35 The plan was conceived of as a reinforced by "John Donne wrote [who] criminals who for some unspeakable crime tions of Indians and demons."26 So fright­ nine-square grid at the center of which to the founders of Jamestown in 1622, were thrown out of the safety of the vil­ ening was the wilderness and this New was a common area [See figure 2] . At the [that Jamestown is] to be "but the suburb lages condemned to wander in the wil­ World that " ... for a century after Co­ center of the common was the Church/ of the Old World."43 Although the first derness since there were no prisons.23 Or lumbus' discovery of America, the ordi­ Meeting house, itself a perfect square. 36 It senlers to Virginia may have brought with perhaps worshipers of the Old Religion nary son of European had to be bribed, has been suggested that the plan is "a them notions of dwelling in close prox­ whose ceremonies included "fertility rites, drugged or beaten to go out to this 'land literal interpretation of the description of imity to one another, they soon dispersed drunkenness, licentious procreation, gen­ of promise . .. '27 Even the pilgrims who the New Jerusalem in Revelations:"37 "And out into the land, causing a great deal of eral surrender to sexuality, and a variety willingly came to the New World, described the city lieth foursquare, and length as concern by the officials. There were at­ of other "rogueries" ;24 and wild folk whose what they first saw, as did William BranfOrd breadth." 38 [See figure 3] Even after New tempts at first to control the dispersal of "descriptions recorded by clerics and other of Cape Cod, as "hideous and desolate wil­ Haven developed outward, the streets kept senlement but the geography of the area examiners suggest now that many ...were derness." His wife was even more aghast at sacred names such as: "Church, Chapel, and economic gains to be had were far to mentally retarded castoffi fOrced to subsist by what she saw. She jumped off the ship College, Temple, Coun, Crown, and much of a pull. Even the pleadings of the hunting and robbing."25 Snow White, Hansel commining suicide rather than face the Elm."39 clergy who lamented on the lack of towns, and Gretel, Lttle Red Riding Hood are all terrors of the New World.28 schools and churches and warned of the folk tales describing the horror of what By the mid-1650's, however, much of evil that would befall the colonists, could lurked in the woods. The Pilgrims who The Pilgrims' absolute terror of the wil­ the tight-knit quality of the senlements not hold these senlers in towns.44 Obvi­ carne to the new world brought those derness helped to form the patterns of had disappeared. The relaxation of reli­ ously, these colonists did not fear the memories with them and yet would have land senlement. Typically, houses were gious authority and lures of economic wilderness. In contrast to their pious New to face another new creature of the wilder- clustered close together and away from profits by funher development of land, England counterparts, neither religion nor 11 -z,.."""""'QUf •.u unl"' superstition appears to have been a major and partly because of the psychological need ~,..a.f#UK~""':alf concern; having the good life Was.45 They to live in a dosed protected society away from saw much abundance in the nature that all of the bewilderment and evil of the un­ surrounded them and used (and abused) known. They were certain by leaving that it to their advantage. As Stilgoe reiterates: comfOrt they would confront the Devil and loose everlasting life in Christ. Virginia, by all seventeenth-century accounts and by most early eighteentlr In the South where religion and supersti­ century reports too, struck observers as a tion did not exist to the same intensity, vast garden. Its breezes whispered one the society was on the one hand living in message over and over, seducing every nature but at the same time exploitative of wonderingnewcomer: "Dwell here, live nature. There must have been an implicit 6 plentifolly, and be rich. ' >/ faith: If God (nature) made the land fer­ tile, man could waste it; God (nature) The way land was distributed in the South would take care of making it fertile again. also contributed to a different land devel­ The killing of the land was not considered opment pattern than that of the North. important, there was obviously an endless The VIrginia Company granted large acreage amount more. The colonists here were to each settler in early V uginia in order to sufficiently removed from the fear of the encourage settlement. 47 When tobacco was Old Religion so as not to fear the dangers discovered to be such a profitable endeavor, of the wilderness (also enforced by profit­ and the cultivation of tobacco requiring able experience). Thus they did not hesi­ ever more virgin land, the planters simply tate to venture out into the unknown. moved on when the land was exhausted Was it that their version of Christianity and developed more and more land. As had given them enough confidence in landholdings grew, slavery, which had been their own will that they felt that they useless to small farmers now became an could overcome nature? Another interest­ advantage for the cultivation oflarge tracts ing question that has not been researched of land. From around 1700 to 1730 the in this paper is, what subtle effect, if any, negro slave population grew from six to did the Old Religion of the slaves have on thirty thousand.48 In addition, the geog­ their ways of life in the New World and Figure 3: raphy of the land with its plentiful harbors on their masters beliefS and actions? made it so simple for the planter to not fear did indeed affect settlement patterns tion too dispersedY only grow his own crops from his planta­ Conclusion in the New World. A comparison was tion, but to trade directly with England The first part of this paper dealt with made between the English settlers of the There are still many questions left unan­ by shipping and receiving goods straight triskaidekaphobia and related supersti­ northern and southern Atlantic seaboard; swered by this study. While a case can be from his own wharf without ever having tions. It was fOund that the number 13 the Northerners coming to the New made for the affect ofsuperstitions on the to go to through a regional seaport.49 This represented notions of cyclical death and re­ World for religious reasons and the layout of villages, did superstition affect self-sufficiency of the plantation owners birth, a fundamental idea of matriarchal Southerners for monetary and material the architecture itself? How did supersti­ brought about the situation where the religions. During the middle ages, there gain. The difference found in the settle­ tion affect daily life? Were there any af­ population of the South, although boast­ was a struggle between those old pagan ment patterns in both, the New England­ fects ofsuperstition in the south? Did religion ing a population in 1770 nearly as large as ways and Christianity, and the old ways ers having tightly-knit villages and the ofthe slaves fOrm Africa have an effi:ct on the all the other colonies combined, could boast were seen as evil and associated with the Southerners unable to even to form vil­ attitudes of the English in the South? And no major towns or cities such as those fOund Devil. It should come as no surprise then lages suggest that fear and superstition in most importantly, are these superstitions still in New England.50 This Southern land that Christian religious zealots, such as fact did play a role in the layout of the an operative today? This paper simply in­ development pattern was a peculiar man­ those who came to the New World, would villages. It appears that the lure of profit troduces the possibility of a relationship made environment and hard to explain to harbour strong fears and superstitions re­ and success proved to great for the South­ between superstition and settlement pat­ outsiders, but it suited the Southerners garding the old ways and that in their erners to resist and that neither supersti­ terns. Answers to these and other ques­ who exploited the land-and their slaves. desire to protect themselves, even the way tion, religion nor the laws of the govern­ tions are yet to be discovered. Differences in Attitudes Toward the in which they laid out their villages was ment seemed to thwart their desires. Land: North and South affected. Needless to say, within a few generations, Very briefly, New Englanders had kept their this same lure overcame the New En­ land and constantly renewed it partly because The second part of the paper deals specifi­ glanders and with the loosening of the 12 climate was severe and fertile land was scarce, cally with attempting to show that this restrictions of the theocracy, her popula- Notes

I. T riskaidekaphobia, also spelled tridecaphobia and Renaissance) city design ofRome for Pope Sixrus America, p. 44. tredecaphobia, meaning fi:ar of the nwnber 13 V which dates from 1585-90. See Sigfried 41. Bernard Grun, The Timetables ofHistory, p. 295, or fi:ar of having 13 people at a table. Doctor, Giedion, Space, Time andArrhitecture, p. 75, fifth Simon and Schuster, New York, 1982. RonaldM. and Ada P. Kahn (1989). Encyclopedia edition, Harvard University Press, MA, 1971. 42. MarcusWhiffenandFrederickKoeper,American ofPhobias and Anxieties New York: Facts on File. 20. Leland M. Roth, A Concise History ofAmerican Arrhitecture, Volume 1: 1607-1860, p. 3, second p. 407. Arrhitecture, p. 19. paperback edition, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2. An interesting example ofthis, and probably just 21 . John Stilgoe, The Common Lmdscape ofAmerica, 1984. one ofmany, is the now defunct Catholic hospital p. 10. 43. RobenAM.Stem. PrideofP/ace. p.IO,SeeJohn Queen ofAngeles in Los Angeles. The 13th floor 22. Ibid., p. 8. Donne, "Annual Sermon of the Reverend John simply did not exist. Just in case people caught 23. The Pilgrims, in fuct, continued the practice of Donne, Chaplin of the London Company, to on to the nwnbering game, no patients actually banishing those who did not live up to the the Members of that Company, 1622," ever had to stay for any length of time on the re­ communal expectations to the wilderness. Only Jamestown Festival Park, Vuginia, plague. nwnbered 14 because, although most of the in the New World, many of the banished were 44. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscap~ of other floors had patient beds, the "14th" floor not criminals, they were religious dissenters who America, p.69. was the X-Ray department. banded together and founded their own villages 45. Before the plantations were owned, workers in 3. Websters New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 884, G. by squatting. Providence and Newpon, Rhode company-owned fidds who cenainly did not & C. Merriam Co., Springfield, MA, 1961. Island were both founded by such groups of have the Pilgrim work ethic nor the incentive for 4. Ibid., p. 576. dissenters and Rhode Island would eventually personal profit, became lazy, "learning over on 5. New Lexicon Websters Dictionary ofthe English become a place in which religious diversity was their spades and hoes and ...wandering about in Language Deluxe Encyclnpedic Edition, p. I 028, cherished. See Meinig, The Shaping ofAmerica, p. search of the hallucinogenic plant they ca!Ied Lexicon Publications, Inc., New York, 1987. 93. Jamestown, or "Jirnson' weed. Company-directed 6. J. E. Cirlot, A Dictionary ofSymbols, translated 24. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of agriculture failed completely by !616." SeeStilgoe, from the Spanish by Jack Sage, pp. 230-237, America, p. 18. p.60. second edition, Philosophical Library, Inc., New 25. Ibid., p. 20. 46. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of York, 1983 26. Yi-FuTuan, Topophilia:AStudyofEnvirrmmental America, p. 58 7. Ibid. , p. 235-6. Perreptions, Attitudes, and Values, p. 63, Prentice­ 47. David Handlin, AmericanArrhitecture, p.l5. 8. These are things that women are told that they Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffi, NJ, 1974 . 48. Wayne Andrews, Arrhitecture, Ambition, and should celebrate, for marriage and childbirth are 27. D. W. Meining, TheShapingofAmerica. p. 33. Americans: A Social History of American considered the two most important things in a 28. Roben A M. Stern, Pride ofPlace: Building the Arrhitecture. p. 5, revised edition, The Free women's life. Where is the "evil" in that? Perhaps American Dream, pp. 9-10, Houghton Miffiin Press, A division of Macmillan Publishing Co., , only from a male perspective. Common opinion Co., Boston, 1986. Inc., New York, 1978. says that men hate marriage and run from it. 29. It is interesting to note that four-fifths of the 49. Leland M. Roth, A Concise History ofAmerican Since 13 is associated here with marriage, it again accused witches ofSalern lived beyond the bounds Arrhitecture. p. 24. becomes a "bad" nwnber. of the Village. This fact alone made them suspect, 50. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of 9. J. E. Cirlot,ADictionaryofSymbols, p. 236-7. but coupled with the fact that they were America, p. 83. 10. Ibid., p. 329. See also entry under ''Tarot" in economica!Iy more successful than their Village­ 51. Ibid., p. 54. Barbara G. Walker, The WomansEncyclopediaof bound counterpans, they were prime targets for Myths and Secrets, pp. 976-85, Harper and Row, suspicion and persecution. See Stilgoe, The New York, 1983. Common Landscape ofAmerica, p. 52-3. II. Ibid., p. 330. 30. JohnStilgoe, TheCommonLandscapeofAmerica, 12. Ralph Blwn, The Book ofRunes, A Handbook for p.52 the Use ofan Ancient Oracle: The Viking Runes, p. 31. Ibid., p. 48. See also David Handlin, American 86, St. Martin's Press, 1982. Arrhitecture, p. 15, Thames and Hudson, London, 13. Barbara G. Walker, The WomensEncyclopediaof 1985, and Leland M. Roth, A Concise History of Myths and Secrets, p. 216. See also Arthur Avalon, AmericanArrhitecture, p. 13. Shakti and Shakta, p. 171, Dover publications, 32. Lewis Mwnford, The City in History, p. 331 , Inc., New York, 1978. Harroun, Brace and World, Inc., New York, 14. Erich Newnann, The Origins and History of 1961. Consciousness, Bollingen Series, Princeton, 1970. 33. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of PHOTO CREDITS 15. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A America, p. 48. Geographical Perspective on 500 Yean ofHistory , 34. Lewis Mwnford, The City in History, pp. 331-2. Figure 1: "The Town of Boston in New England," Volume 1, Atlantic America, 1492-1800, p. 91, 35. Stem, RobenA M. Stem, PrideofP/ace, p. 298. by John Bonner, 1722. Counesy of the the Map Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1986. 36. Vincent Scully, American Architecture and Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, !6. Ibid., p. 33. Urbanism, p. 30, new revised edition, Henry Lenox and TBilden Foundations. 17. Ibid., p. 91. Holt and Co., 1988. Figure 2: Plan of the town of New Haven, 18. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of 37. RobenA M. Stem, PrideofP/ace, p. 298. Connecticut with all the buildings in 1748 by America. p. 19, Yale University Press, New Haven, 38. Stem, RobenA M. Stern, PrideofP/ace: Building William Lyon, published by T. Kensett, 1806. CT, 1982. the American Dream, p. 298. See Bible, King Courtesy of the New-York Historical Society, 19. Leland M. Roth, A Concise History ofAmerican James, Authorized version, Rev. 21 :16. N.Y. C. Arrhitecture, p. 21 , Harper and Row, New York, 39. Vincent Scully, American Architecture and Figure 3: The Heavenly Jerusalem from the 1979. Wren's plan for London dates 80 years Urbanism, p. 30. Morgan Beatus. Counesy of the Pierpont Morgan afi:er the first Baroque (post-Medieval, post- 40. John R Stilgoe, The Common Landscape of Library, New York. M.644, f.222v. 13