Volume 4, Issue 4(3), April 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-21-4,Saraswathi Nivas,Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Cairo University, Egypt Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Indonesia Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Prof. Roger Wiemers Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Professor of Education Austria Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Prof. Alexander Chumakov Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Chair of Philosophy Department of Mechanical Engineering Russian Philosophical Society GITAM University –Visakhapatnam Moscow, Russia
N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Andhra University Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Visakhapatnam University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Prof. Chanakya Kumar Coordinator Department of Computer Science A.P State Resource Center University of Pune,Pune Visakhapatnam Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Dr.S.Kannan Department for Production Engineering Department of History University of Novi Sad, Serbia Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Prof.Shobha V Huilgol Department of Pharmacology Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Sundargarh, Odisha Department of English GITAM University Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Hyderabad Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Prof.Francesco Massoni Department of Public Health Sciences Dr.K.Chaitanya University of Sapienza, Rome Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Technology Al-Mustansiriyah University People’s Republic of China College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V University of Calcutta, Calcutta Librarian Kalasalingam University Dr. K. John Babu Krishnankovil Tamilnadu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
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IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
C O N T E N T S Volume 4 Issue 4(3) April 2015 S. Page
No No 1. New Record of Podocopan Ostracod Semicytherura 1 Ikeyai (Yamada and Tsukagoshi, 2010) from Indian Coast Jaya P, Padmasree S and Annapurna C
2. Physiological Characteristics of Long-Term Bikram 7 Yoga Practitioners C. Kiran Chakravarthi
3. Importance of Coins in Tracing Economic History 16 Aditi Sharma
4. Impact of Motivation on Sports Performance of Hockey 23 Players M.S.Pasodi and S.Mustaq Ahmed
5. Employee Empowerment : A Means of Efficiency and 32 Productivity Vasaka Sridevikiran
6. Case Study on Human Resource Management of S.S. 42 Medical College, Rewa Sadaf Khan
7. Analysis on the Financial Position and Operating 52 Results of the Insurance Sector in Ethiopia, 2000-2014 P. Viswanadham and Asnake Minwyelet Abebe
8. Knowledge, Perception and Behaviour with Regard to 64 Climate Change among the High School Students of Pokhara, Ward No 8 Ankush Mala Chalise
9. Determinants of Social Responsible Investment (SRI) 73 Decision; A Case of Private Investors in Mekelle City Tigist Haile Robele 10. Comparative Study on Personality and Self Confidence 91 among Teenage & Adult Sports Players Ambresh.Biradar and M.S.Pasodi
11. Reconceptualizing and Maximizing the Teaching and 99 Learning of Language Archana Singh
12. Impact of Mgnrega on Health/Education among the 104 Wageseekars- A Household Study in Ananrapur District of A.P Shaik Mahaboob Sharief
13. Urban Planning as an Approach to Regularization and 115 Legalization in Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation, Andhra Pradesh: A Case Study Mohammednur Ahmed and V.Hari Babu
14. Determinants of Financing Constraints in Micro and 130 Small Scale Enterprises: Evidence from Mekelle City Redae Kahsay Adhena
15. Impact of Socio-Economic Status on Sports Performance 152 of Inter Collegiate Hockey Players M.S.Pasodi and S.Mustaq Ahmed 16. Historical Development of Commercial Banks in India 158 Sandeep Kaur
17. Influence of Land Use Systems on Selected Soil Physical 173 and Chemical Parameters’: Case Study Dabena Watershed, Illubabor Zone, and Oromia Region Leta Deressa Tolesa,Ljalem Abrha,Busha Feyisa and Wondimagegn Tagesse
18. Madhyakalin Yug Me Bharat Ki Sthiti 193 Shri Mohit Jain
19. Geeth Govind Bhakthirasaha 198 G.Ravi Kishore
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :2.972(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fourth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharita Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor – in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in
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NEW RECORD OF PODOCOPAN OSTRACOD SEMICYTHERURA IKEYAI (YAMADA AND TSUKAGOSHI, 2010) FROM INDIAN COAST
Jaya P Padmasree S Department of Zoology Department of Zoology Andhra University Andhra University Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam
Annapurna C Department of Zoology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Introduction:
In this paper, Semicytherura ikeyai Yamada and Tsukagoshi 2010 is described and reported for the first time form the Indian sub continent. Altogether 12 specimens of Semicytherura ikeyai , juveniles inclusive , were collected from sea weed of Caulerpa fastigiata from the rocky strip of Palm Beach , near Visakhaptnam (17º 40’30 and 17º45’ N and the longitudes 83º16’25’ and 83º21’30’E),east coast of India.Distinguishing characters relating to the carapace and soft parts of Semicytherura ikeyai inhabiting the seaweed are also described.
Results (Figs A, B, 1-7)
Systematic description Family: Cytheruridae G.W. Müller, 1894 Subfamily: Cytherurinae G.W. Müller, 1894 Genus: Semicytherura Wagner, 1957 Semicytherura ikeyai Yamada and Tsukagoshi 2010 Diagnosis: Carapace with small plate bearing 4 small unclear spines along antero ventral margin, and with 5 spines along inner side of postero ventral margin. Short caudal process at mid-height of carapace.
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Carapace surface covered with distinct reticulation. Anterior ridge starting in antero central area, ascending in posterior direction. Inside the valve, lamella of prismatic layer well developed in anterior and posterior areas.
Description: Carapace sub-rectangular in lateral outline. Anterior margin with small plate bearing poorly developed spines, arched in lower half. Posterior margin concave at bottom. Caudal process located at mid-height on both valves. Dorsal margin straight, sloping in posterior direction, distinctly arched in both valves. Ventral margin almost straight.
Carapace ornamentation: Two very thick, prominent ridges cross at almost right angles in anterior portion. Another ridge runs along ventral margin. Marked reticulation and numerous fine pits scattered over carapace.
Hingement: Hinge line straight, descending in posterior direction. Median element with bar and groove its anterior and posterior ends slightly crenulated in both valves. In right valve, anterior element consists of only one smooth tooth; posterior element consists of one weakly crenulated tooth. In left valve, each anterior and posterior element consists of a small socket. Muscle scars. Vertical row of 4 adductor scars in ventromedian area.
Appendages:
Antennule – Six articulated podomeres. Costae especially well developed on 2nd to 5th podomeres. Second podomere with 1 long setulous seta in middle of posterior margin. Third podomere with 1 setulous seta at anterior distal end. Fourth podomere with 1 median and 1 short setulous seta at anterior distal end, 1 stout seta at posterior distal end. Fifth podomere with 2 setulous setae at anterior distal end and 1 setulous seta at posterior distal end. Numerous setulae on
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anterior margins of 2nd to 5th podomeres. Sixth podomere with 3 stout and 1 spatulate setae at distal end.
Antenna: Five articulated podomeres. Costae well developed, especially broad along anterior margin of 2nd to 5th podomeres. First podomere with 1 long, stout 2- segmented exopodite at anterior distal end. Second podomere with 1 median setulous seta and 1 short stout seta at posterior distal end. Third podomere with 1 setulous seta at posterior distal end. Fourth podomere with 1 thin simple seta in middle of anterior margin, 1 median setulous seta near proximal end of posterior margin, and 1 short setulous seta at posterior distal end. Fifth podomere with 1 short claw-like seta on ledge of posterior margin and 1 stout claw-like seta with serrations at distal end.
Mandibule: Consists of 6 podomeres. Basal podomere with 4–6 teeth on distal end, anterior terminal tooth especially well developed, and 1 short simple seta at about 1/3 distance from anterior distal end. Second podomere of protopodite (basis) with exopodite reduced to1 very long, stout seta and 1 median simple seta at ventral distal end. Third podomere with 1 setulous seta at both ventral and dorsal distal ends.
Fourth podomere (2nd endopodite) with 2 setulous setae at ventral proximal end and 1 short setulous setae at dorsal distal end. Fifth podomere (3rd endopodite) with 2 long setulous setae at dorsal proximal end. Sixth podomere with 3 setulous setae at ventral proximal end and 3 setulous setae at distal end.
Maxilla: Extremely thin branchial plate with 15 plumose setae. Basal podomere bearing 1 palp and 3 masticatory processes. Palp consists of 2 articulated podomeres; 1st podomere with 2 setae at dorsodistal end, 1 seta at ventrodistal end; 2nd podomere with 3 setae at distal end. Lowermost masticatory process with 4 rather small setae at distal end. Each of the other two masticatory processes with 5 setae at distal end.
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First thoracic leg: Four articulated podomeres. Costae well developed, especially on 2nd to 4th podomeres. First podomere with 2 long setulous setae near ventral proximal end and 1 long setulous seta in middle of anterior margin, 2 short setulous setae at anterior distal end. Second podomere with 1 short setulous seta at anterior distal end and setulae along anterior margin. Third podomere with setulae along anterior margin. Fourth podomere with setulae along anterior distal margin and 1 stout claw-like seta bearing serrations at distal end.
Second thoracic leg: Four articulated podomeres. Costae well developed, especially on 2nd to 4th podomeres. First podomere with 2 long setulous setae on anterior margin, 1 long setulous seta near ventral proximal end, and 1 short setulous seta at distal end. Second podomere with 1 setulous seta at distal end. Fourth podomere with 1 stout claw-like seta with serrations at distal end. Setulae on anterior distal margins of 2nd to 4th podomeres.
Third thoracic leg: Four articulated podomeres. Costae well developed especially on 2nd to 4th podomeres. First podomere with 1 short setulous seta at anterior distal end. Second podomere with 1 setulous seta at distal end. One stout claw-like seta with serrations at distal end of 4th podomere. Setulae on anterior distal margins of 2nd to 4th podomeres.
Remarks:
Specimens are in full agreement with the description of Semicytherura ikeyai Yamada and Tsukagoshi 2010. The specimens inhabited the surface of the weed and are specially adapted for firm adherence to the substratum by the well developed setae and curved claws as against the simple and plain setae and claws of sand dwelling ostracods.
Distribution: Akkeshi Bay, North eastern Japan.
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Occurrence: Palm beach (rocky coast), Visakhaptnam , east coast of India
References:
1. Müller, G.W. (1894) Die Ostracoden Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden Meeresabschnitte. Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel und der Angrenzenden Meeres-Abschnitte. Her Zool Stat Neapel 21: 1–404.
2. Yamada, S. and Tsukagoshi, A (2010) Two new species of Semicytherura (Podocopa: Ostracoda) from Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido ,Japan with comments on their speciation and related species. Zool. Sci. 27:292-302.
3. Wagner, C.W (1957) Sur les Ostracodes du Quaternaire Recent des Pays- Base leur Utilisation dars l’Etude Géologique des Dépôts Holocènes. Mouton, Amsterdam
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List of Figures:
A: Internal view of female Left valve
B: Internal view of female Right valve
1. Antennule 2. Antenna 3. Mandibule 4. Maxilla 5. First thoracic leg 6. Second thoracic leg 7. Third thoracic leg
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PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LONG-TERM BIKRAM YOGA PRACTITIONERS
Dr. C. Kiran Chakravarthi Teaching Assistant Dept. of Physical Education & Sports Sciences Sri Krishnadevaraya University Anantapuramu, A.P.
Introduction:
Bikram Choudhury, founder of the Bikram Yoga (also referred as hot yoga) system, is also the founder of the Yoga College of India. Born in Calcutta in 1946, Choudhury began practicing yoga at age four. He practiced yoga 4–6 hours every day. At the age of thirteen, he won the National India Yoga Championship. He was undefeated for the following three years and retired as the undisputed All-India National Yoga Champion. Choudhury later devised the 26 postures sequence and founded Bikram’s Yoga College of India. He has also written books and sings. Bikram Yoga classes run for 90 minutes and consist of the same series of 26 postures, including two breathing exercises. Bikram Yoga is ideally practiced in a room heated to 40 °C (104 °F) with a humidity of 40%
An abundance of research has consistently shown that regular yoga training improves pulmonary function. Though the magnitude of change varies considerably, research has demonstrated that yoga training improves maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV), an index of ventilatory capacity. Yoga training studies have also reported increases in forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV), peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), and vital capacity (VC). These positive findings have been attributed, in part, to pranayama (i.e., breathing exercises).
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Since yoga is a slow-paced movement exercise separated by periods of static stretching, it is not considered an aerobic activity. Thus, it is unlikely that yoga is beneficial to the cardiovascular system. Nevertheless, the effects of yoga on measures of cardiovascular health, such as maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), resting blood pressures (BP), and resting heart rate (HR), have been investigated and demonstrate mixed results. For example, yoga training has been reported to result in slight increases in VO2 max), modest reductions in exercise HR, and varying reductions in both resting BP and resting HR.
It appears that yoga provides some cardiovascular and pulmonary health benefits and, therefore, should be included in a regular fitness program. Research is lacking, however, on the effects of different styles of yoga on cardiovascular and pulmonary function. The primary purpose of this study was to describe the resting hemo- dynamic, lung function, and cardio-respiratory fitness characteristics of Bikram yoga practitioners. A secondary purpose was to examine the relationship between previous Bikram yoga experience and these physiological measures.
Methodology:
Subjects:
The study population consisted of 31 Bikram yoga subjects with varying levels of training experience. Informed consent was obtained prior to enrollment. The study was approved by the local institutional review board. Participation in the study was restricted to apparently healthy adults. They were at least 18 yrs of age with no signs or symptoms suggestive of heart, pulmonary or metabolic disease. Each subject completed a health history questionnaire. Then, they were divided into 2 groups according to Bikram yoga training experience: <3 months (n =17) and ≥1 yr (n =14).
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Procedure:
Prior to testing, the subjects were asked to: (a) drink plenty of fluids over the 24-hr period preceding the test; (b) avoid food, tobacco, nicotine, alcohol, and caffeine for at least 3 hrs prior to the test; (c) avoid strenuous physical activity the day of the test; and (d) get at least 6 hrs of sleep the night before the test. Each subject was measured for height and weight in light clothing without shoes using a calibrated physician’s scale (Detecto Scale Co.). After 10 min of seated rest (while in the seated position), resting BP (Baumanometer, Standby Model) and resting HR (Polar Heart Rate Monitor, Model FT4).
Pulmonary flow rates and capacities were measured with a hand-held pneumotach and custom spirometry software (TrueOne, Parvomedics). The pneumotach was calibrated prior to each test according to the manufacturer’s specifications. The primary variables measured included forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expired volume in one second (FEV1), FVC/FEV1, peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV). All testing was conducted in accordance with the American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society (ATS/ERS) guidelines. The prediction equations provided by Crapo, Morris, and Gardener were used for analysis.
Oxygen consumption (VO2) and associated gas exchange variables were determined during a graded exercise test (GXT) on a stationary cycle (Monark Ergomedic, Model 894E). After a 3- to 5-min warm-up, the GXT began at 60 W and the subjects were asked to maintain a 60 rpm pace. Every 2 min, the resistance was increased by 30 W for males and 15 W for females. Expired air was analyzed on a breath-by-breath basis with an automated metabolic measurement cart (TrueOne, ParvoMedics). Calibration of the cart was performed prior to each subject’s test in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Gas exchange variables were calculated from 60-sec
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averages. At the end of each stage, HR was recorded (Polar, Model FT4).
Statistical Analysis:
Standard demographic data were collected for each group. Unpaired t-tests were used to determine differences between the 2 groups in cardiovascular, metabolic, and pulmonary responses. Bivariate correlations for the relationships between these variables and both previous Bikram yoga experience and average number of days per week that the subjects were engaged in Bikram yoga were calculated. The level of significance was set at P<0.05. All values are reported as mean±SD.
Results:
Descriptive data for the 2 groups and all subjects combined are provided in:
Table 1. There were no differences (P>0.05) between the groups for age, height or weight. The pulmonary function results of the Bikram yoga practitioners are summarized in
Table 2. No differences were observed between the groups for any of the pulmonary function variables. Significant but weak correlations were found between previous Bikram yoga experience and % predicted forced vital capacity (r = 0.38, P<0.05) and between
Bikram yoga experience and FEV1 (r = 0.37, P<0.05). Average Bikram attendance per week was unrelated to any of the measured variables. Cardiovascular and metabolic variables are presented in Table 3. No differences (P>0.05) were found between groups for resting BP and HR, peak VO2, minute ventilation (VE), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and stidal volume (VT).
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Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Subjects Grouped by Experience (MeanSD). Variables Low high Combined
Age 43.8811.54 38.299.31 40.5011.39
Weight (kg) 70.4212.95 66.9513.3 68.7312.85
Height (cm) 165.828.04 166.377.08 166.557.37 Previous Bikram 0.07 0.06 4.16 2.80 1.84 2.65 experience (yrs)
Average days per week 5.24 1.98 3.96 1.168 4.68 1.55 attending Bikram
Table 2. Pulmonary Function Variables Grouped by Experience (MeanSD).
Variables Low High Combined Forced vital 4.43 0.96 4.85 1.19 4.60 1.02 capacity (FVC) % predicted FVC 11414.58 122.7916.73 118.2415.45 Forced expiratory 3.34 0.77 3.84 1.00 3.57 0.86 volume in the 1st
sec (FEV1.0) % predicted 110.2514.65 116.5019.92 113.4416.39 FEV1.0 FEV /FVC 80.15 5.70 79.19 5.78 79.94 5.45 1.0 Peak expiratory 7.42 1.82 7.44 2.55 7.48 2.09 flow rate (PEFR) Maximum voluntary 135.82 34.15 132.84 30.19 132.68 31.78 ventilation (MVV) % predicted 115.31 15.28 113.71 18.55 114.29 17.31 MVV
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Discussion:
This study describes the resting hemodynamic, pulmonary function, and cardiorespiratory fitness characteristics of Bikram yoga practitioners presenting with various levels of training experience. Major findings of the study suggest that there are no significant differences in these physiological parameters between 2 groups of subjects with and without long-term Bikram yoga training.
Resting Heart Rate and Blood Pressure Measures
To our knowledge, only one study has reported the effects of Bikram yoga on resting hemodynamics. Our cross-sectional data are consistent with the findings of Tracy and Hart (21) who showed no changes in cardiovascular measures. However, when compared to national data sets, our study shows that those who practice Bikram yoga regularly have lower mean blood pressures and resting heart rates than the general population. These positive changes may be due to a reduction in sympathetic activity and/or an increase in vagal activity resulting from the relaxation and breathing techniques, which have been purported to affect autonomic balance.
Pulmonary Function
From a health-related fitness perspective, regular yoga training is widely recognized as beneficial to the pulmonary system. These positive findings have been attributed to the deep breathing exercises associated with many types of yoga training. Interestingly, greater improvements are seen when more time is devoted to deep breathing exercises during a yoga training session. Results from our study suggest that Bikram yoga training had no effect on the major variables of pulmonary function. This could be explained by the fact that this style of yoga does
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not include as great an amount of deep breathing exercises as many forms of regular yoga.
A weak correlation was found between years of experience with Bikram yoga training and some parameters of pulmonary function (FEV1, r = 0.37 and % pred FVC, r = 0.38). Although these finding appear to suggest that Bikram yoga training may influence pulmonary function over an extended period of time, it is important to understand the correlations in light of the coefficient of determination (r 2). It is useful because it gives the proportion of the variance of one variable that is predictable from the other variable. Hence, for an r = 0.37, then r 2 = 0.137, which means that 14% of the total variation in y can be explained by the linear relationship between x and y (as described by the regression equation). The other 86% of the total variation in y remains unexplained.
Maximal Aerobic Capacity
. - Average VO2 max among our Bikram yoga practitioners was 35 ml kg 1. -1 . -1. - min . When organized by gender, average VO2 max was 40 ml kg min 1 for the men and 33 ml.kg-1.min-1 for the women, placing both groups at a “good” classification according to ACSM guidelines. Interestingly, these values are far lower than the averages reported in a large national data set of healthy women and men. Similar to most other variables measured in this study, VO2 max did not vary with Bikram yoga experience or days per week practiced.
Our findings are again in agreement with Tracy and Hart. They found no significant improvement in VO2 max following a period of Bikram yoga training. This finding indicates that Bikram Yoga is not performed at an aerobic intensity high enough to stimulate adaptations necessary to improve aerobic fitness. In agreement, Clay and colleagues reported that the metabolic cost of Hatha yoga performed in an unheated environment resulted in only 15% of the VO2 reserve used during a yoga www.ijmer.in 13 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
training session. It is possible that the additional metabolic cost of performing Bikram yoga in a hot environment may increase these percentages. However, based on our findings, it does not appear that the threshold required for an aerobic training effect is met with regular Bikram yoga practice.
CONCLUSIONS
This is the first study that describes the cardiorespiratory responses of Bikram yoga practitioners with and without long-term training. It appears that regular Bikram yoga practice, regardless of experience and the number of times per week practiced, may lower resting HR and BP when compared to national averages. But, more research is needed to verify this point. Meantime, it is clear from this study that Bikram yoga training has no effect on pulmonary function or maximal aerobic capacity. Additional studies are needed and should be designed to determine the metabolic cost of Bikram yoga to better understand the energy requirement and the intensity at which it is performed. Furthermore, it is important that the future studies are longitudinal with a larger sample size and include multiple comparison groups.
References
1. American College of Sports Medicine. Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 8th Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2010. 2. Aspenes ST, Nilsen TI, Skaug EA, Bertheussen GF, Ellingsen Ø, Vatten L, Wilsoff U. Peak oxygen uptake and cardiovascular risk factors in 4631 healthy women and men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011; 43(8):1465-1473. 3. Bowman AJ, Clayton RH, Murray A, Reed JW, Subhan MMF, Ford GA. (1997). Effects of aerobic exercise training and yoga on the baroreflex in healthy elderly persons. Eur J Clin Invest. 27, 443- 449. 4. Crapo RO, Morris AH, Gardner RM. Reference spirometric values using techniques and equipment that meet ATS recommendations. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1981;123:659-664.
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5. Choudhury B. Bikram Yoga: The Guru Behind Hot Yoga Shows the Way to Radiant Health and Personal Fulfillment. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2007. 6. Clay CC, Lloyd LK, Walker JL, Sharp KR, Pankey RB. The metabolic cost of Hatha yoga. J Strength Cond Res. 2005;19(3):604- 610. 7. Harinath K, Malhotra AS, Pal K, Prasad R, Kumar R, Kain TC, Rai L, Sawhney RC. Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med. 2004;10(2):261-268. 8. Joshi LN, Joshi VD, Gokhale LV. Effect of short term ‘pranayam’ practice on breathing rate and ventilatory functions of lung. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1992;36(2):105-108. 9. Madanmohan, Thombre DP, Balakumar B, Nambinarayanan TK, Thakur S, Krishnamurthy N, Chandrabose A. Effect of yoga training on reaction time, respiratory endurance and muscle strength. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1992;36(4):229-233. 10. Makwana K, Khirwadkar N, Gupta HC. Effect of short term yoga practice on ventilatory function tests. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1987;32(3):202-208. 11. Mandanmohan, Jatiya L, Udupa K, Bhavanani AB. Effect of yoga training on handgrip, respiratory pressures and pulmonary function. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2003;47(4):387-392. 12. Miller MR, Hankinson J, Brusasco V, Burgos F, Casaburi R, Coates A, et al. Standardization of Spirometry. Eur Respir J. 2005;26:319– 338. doi: 10.1183/09031936.05.00034805 13. Murugesan R, Govindarajulu N, Bera TK. Effect of selected yogic practices on the management of hypertension. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2000;44(2);207-210. 14. Oshtega Y, Porter KS, Hughes J, Dillon CF, Nwankwo T. Resting pulse rate reference data for children, adolescents, and adults: United States, 1999-2008. Natl Health Stat Report. 2011;41:1-17. 15. Prasad KVV, Ramana YV, Raju PS, Reddy MV, Murthy KJR. Energy cost and physiological efficiency in male yoga practitioners. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2001;4(3):38-44. 16. Raju PS, Kumar KA, Reddy SS, Madhavi S, Gnanakumari K, Bhaskaracharyulu C, et al. Effect of yoga on exercise tolerance in normal healthy volunteers. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1985;30:121-132.
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IMPORTANCE OF COINS IN TRACING ECONOMIC HISTORY
Aditi Sharma M.A. in History, Delhi University M.A. in Museology National Museum Institute, New Delhi
At first glance, coins may appear to carry historical information but they provide clues to several important historical aspects and processes. By a gradual process coin came into vogue as the most acceptable, convenient and stable medium of exchange of imperishable nature. They are linked to monetary history. An analysis of production and circulation of coinage could be made through them. If we start from Palaeolithic period then we don’t find any coins as “they were primarily the hunting-pastors and their relationships with other tribes were mainly hostile. Thus they required no means to exchange for their daily life.”1 But with due course of time political and economic relationship among different groups developed and then barter system started to exchange goods.
A large no of Seals have been found from various sites of Indus Valley Civilization. During Indus valley civilization trade flourished which mark the beginning of Seals, which must have used for economic transactions. As Prof. Francis A Walker points out “the need of money comes from the trade. Trade in the beginning assumes the form of direct exchange. Commodity for commodity, what we call Trade or barter. But trade cannot proceed for without serious obstacle to direct exchange.”2
In Vedic Period the Aryans followed a mixed pastoral and agricultural economy in which cattle played an important role. “Cattle assumed the nature of currency and values were reckoned sometimes in terms of
1Maity,S.K. “Early Indian Coins and Currency System”,New Delhi:MunshiramManoharlal Publishers,1970. 2Francis A. Walker,” Money”,US: Cornell University Library,1878. www.ijmer.in 16 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
Cattles.”3 Barter, the oldest means of exchange was perhaps the usual method of trade, but gold, silver or copper coins were also in use. “The use of Niskas (gold necklace) as means of exchange could be found in other Vedas.”4
The first documented coinage is deemed to start with 'Punch Marked' coins issued between the 7th-6th century BC and 1st century AD. Regular or circular flat pieces cut from a hammered sheet of metal and clipped to the proper weight were used as coins. One or more devices or symbols were marked on them by punches and they were called punch marked coins.
The coins represented a trade currency belonging to a period of intensive trade activity and urban development which were issued initially by merchant Guilds and later by States They are broadly classified into two periods : the first period (attributed to the Janapadas or small local states) and the second period (attributed to the Imperial Mauryan period). The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the sun, various animal motifs, trees, hills etc. and some were geometrical symbols.
Coins as a Source of History
Indian coins and coinage is the one of the best source of history of India. Coins help us to build up the history of the country in many ways. They give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In many cases, the coins are the only information we have for knowing the existence of certain kings. Without those coins, the very existence of those kings would have remained unknown. The coins of ancient times are made of copper,
3A.L, Basham, “The Wonder That was India”, London: Picador,2004. 4Maity,S.K. “Early Indian Coins and Currency System”,New Delhi:MunshiramManoharlal Publishers,1970.
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silver, gold and lead speak of the economic situation of that place in the period. Coins are essential that provide chronological information. Dates, royal portraits and names of kings were usually engraved on the coins which help in understanding the era of different rulers and illuminate the hidden corners of Indian history.
Also the location of coins helps to determine the extent of the territory of a king. The discovery of a large number of Roman coins in India confirms the fact that there was a brisk trade between India and the Roman Empire. Date and intrinsic value of coins narrate the evolution of country’s economy. Religion and cultural condition of different era can be deciphered by the type and shape of coins.
Coins as source of Economic History
Coins are an inadequate and poor source, in view of the objectives of the economic history the coins do mark progress from the barter to monetary economy but they provide little information regarding further economics developments and institutions marking stages in the economic growth. Writers on economic conditions of ancient India have included coins among the sources, but have neither indicated the manner of their reconstruction of India’s economic past. More and more information could be collected from epigraphs, literature, and foreign accounts.
A close thinking however, reveals that the different elements, characteristics and attributes of the coins give adequate information, though varying in quantity and validity. “The existence and emergence of coinage marks a definite stage and economic growth of a country. It facilitates thinking about economic matters and enlarges man’s freedom; the increasing use of money accelerates changes in the
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methods of producing and distributing goods, and changes in the character of products.”5
“Some coins were issued by the guilds and merchants and goldsmiths with the permission of the rulers. This shows that craft and commerce had become important.”6
“Non-availability of coins of a particular ruler, dynasty or period need not be taken as indicative of economic collapse or deterioration.”7 This may simply show that a particular ruler did not feel the need of minting coins.
Importance of Metal
Important facts could be traced down through the metal used for the minting of coins. The use of gold currency should not be regarded as golden age of a nation “till involvement of the rulers issuing the coins in the economic matters is more precisely ascertained. Purchasing power of a nation is not inherent in the purchasing power of its medium of exchange.”8 The gold coins may be taken to comply with the demand for coins of a higher value. The choice of metal was dictated by economic need and opportunities.9 The decreasing use of gold in coinage may be better understood against the political background. It has been noted that gold coinage is usually started by a ruler who is credited with definite conquests and thereby amassing vast treasures. For example, the beginning and maintenance of the gold coinage by the Guptas can be properly understood against Samudragupta’s uprooting of the Aryavarta rulers and capture of their treasury, invasion of the south and receipt of tributes. The standard of currency is maintained
5Mitchell, W.C., “The Role of Money in Economic History”in Enterprise and Secular Change,p.200,JEH, Vol IV, 1944. 6http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/. 7Gopal,L. “The Economic Life of Northern India”, New Delhi:Discovery Publishing House,1965 8Bratter, Herbert M., under ‘Silver’ in “Encyclopdeia of Social Sciences”, Vol XIV, New York, 1963. 9Palyi,M.,under ‘Coinage’ in “Encyclopdeia of Social Sciences”, Vol III, New York, 1963. www.ijmer.in 19 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
till the administration is efficient maintaining a balance between expenditure and income. When the administration weakens due to internal or external reasons revenues record a decline and adversely affect the royal treasury.”10
The technique of manufacturing is an important point regarding the coin as source material. It may give some idea of the mint output, which is significant for economic studies, and expenditure involved on minting. “Varying weights of the punch marked coins and the differences in their alloying are partly understandable with reference to the undeveloped technique of their manufacture.”11Successive changes in the technique of coinage carried within two centuries after the Great Mauryan testify to the progressive economy of the country rather than any foreign influences.
Weight and motifs- The standard weight of a coinage is also important as sometimes it is modified with a view to adjusting it with other leading coinages of the economic world. Therefore this may be reflecting a country’s economic relations with others.
The Lakshmi motif has been constantly seen on the North Indian coins which indicated that the coin was being almost identified with this goddess, it had become the main item of wealth or the wealth was reckoned at coins.
Condition of the coins- The condition of the coin in which it is found also matters for understanding economic history. “The mutilation of or the gashes on the Romangold coinshavebeen taken to indicate their cancellation as currency and thereby Kushana economic policy particularly in regard to the Roman gold coins.”12 The worn condition of a coin reflects the amount of its circulation, rather the velocity of its circulation which in its turn gives deeper insight into the density and
10Maity, S.K., “Metrological Study of the Gold Coins of Early India”,JNSI, Vol.XXII,pp.266-68. 11Gardener,P.,”A History of Ancient Coinage”,U.K: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1918. 12Wheeler,SirM.,”Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers”,London: Penguin Books,1955. www.ijmer.in 20 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
momentum of economic activities in different localities in a particular period.
Find Spots- The find spot is of recognised importance. It need not always be of political significance and may represent an economic factor as in the case of Roman gold and silver coins found in India. “The evidence of Roman coins from the district of Coimbatore and its borders has been taken to establish the use of thePalghat or Coimbatore gap by the ancient traders as by the modern railways.”13
Hoard- “The evidence of coin-hoards has been utilised for ascertaining relative chronology and period of circulation of the constituent coins. But it may also be helpful in having a peep into the habit of the people, economic insecurity etc. the hoarding ordinarily implies reversing of the situations which give impetus to circulation of coins.”14 It may also give some idea of the growth of the capital and income. The seeds of banking may also be seen in them.
References
1. A.L, Basham, “The Wonder That was India”, London: Picador,2004.
2. Bratter, Herbert M., under ‘Silver’ in “Encyclopdeia of Social Sciences”, Vol XIV, New York, 1963.
3. Francis A. Walker,” Money”,US:Cornell University Library,1878.
4. Gardener,P., “A History of Ancient Coinage”,U.K: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1918.
5. Gopal,L. “The Economic Life of Northern India”, New Delhi:Discovery Publishing House,1965
6. Maity,S.K. “Early Indian Coins and Currency System”,New Delhi:MunshiramManoharlal Publishers,1970.
13Ebid 14Gardener,P., “A History of Ancient Coinage”,U.K: Oxford Clarendon Press, 1918. www.ijmer.in 21 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
7. Maity, S.K., “Metrological Study of the Gold Coins of Early India”,JNSI, Vol.XXII,pp.266-68.
8. Mitchell, W.C., “The Role of Money in Economic History”in Enterprise and Secular Change,p.200,JEH, Vol IV, 1944.
9. Palyi,M.,under ‘Coinage’ in “Encyclopdeia of Social Sciences”, Vol III, New York, 1963.
10. Wheeler,Sir M., “Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers”,London: Penguin Books,1955.
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IMPACT OF MOTIVATION ON SPORTS PERFORMANCE OF HOCKEY PLAYERS
Dr.M.S.Pasodi Mr. S.Mustaq Ahmed Principal Ph.D. Research Scholar (P.T) Department of Physical Education Dept. of Physical Education Gulbarga University Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi Kalaburagi
I. INTRODUCTION
Many researchers have focused on explaining the basic causes of human behavior. Human behavior is always motivated, goal-directed and integrated. Thus the changes in the behavior of individuals are attributed to certain internal or external forces, which drive the individual towards activity or performance. It is believed that an optimal level of motivation is required for better performance. High level of motivation leads to involvement in the activity. The influence of motivation on the performance of sportsman has a rich research tradition that provides insights. Application of sports competition is the most common achievement situation in sport, but achievement also occurs in non-competitive situations when individuals compare their performance to personal standards. The motivation, as an aspect of human psychology, determines a person’s effort, persistence and success in his field. Not only do motives of sports activity activate a person to work hard but also attribute a personal meaning to his pursuit. Athletes while load with the same intensity are controlled differently. This is because the differences in the motivation make them dissimilar in perceiving the significance of their work. Motivation means organic state, which prompts a man to an action. Motivation plays a major role in the all round development of a sports person. Sports activities have a higher degree of motivation. Through sports we
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can motivate people for better understanding of different aspects of life. Motive is an internal factor that interferes with man’s behavior
II. CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION
A) Motivation Motivation is a core element of human behavior which occupies a central position in the analysis of the dynamics of human society. It is a guiding framework of each and every activity of the organism in the given environment. The actions of every organism have their base for the manifestation. This makes one to assume that the behavior of any individual is either motivated or goal-directed or both. Thus the human behavior has certain fundamental driving forces which are generally called motives. The meaning of motivation has been a topic of key interest to psychologists. Motivation is a mental event which determines the course of action. Motivation is used to consider any inner condition of the organism that initiates or directs it’s behavior towards a goal. The motivation may be characterized as the tendency to maintain and increase individual proficiency in all areas in which a standard or quality is taken as binding.
B) Motivational Techniques:
1) Reward (RD): 2) Recognition (RE): 3) Presence of Others (PO): 4) Goal Setting (GS): 5) Punishment C) Performance The sports performance is defined as, “unity of execution and result of sports action or a complex sequence of sports actins measured or evaluated according to agreed and socially determined names” (schnable, 1987). www.ijmer.in 24 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
The concept of sports performance and its various aspects have been developed by schnable (1987). The sports performance is the result of the interpreted action of various control and regulatory process, taking place at various levels of the central nervous system and consciousness. These processes determine the level of motor co- ordination and find expression n the movement structure and in various qualities and characteristics of sports movement.
III. METHODOLOGY a) Statement of the problem: To study the impact of motivation techniques on the sports performance of Hockey players.
b) Objectives: The following are the main objectives of the study.
To study the influence of motivation technique on the performance of Hockey players.
To study the effect of different motivational drives on the motor ability performance of Hockey players.
c) Hypothesis: The following are the hypothesis of the present study.
There would be significant effect of motivation technique on the sports performance of Hockey players.
There would be significant influence of motivational techniques on the motor ability performance of Hockey players.
d) The sample: The sample of the study consists of 100 Hockey players selected from S.V. University, Thirupathi To identify the influence of motivational techniques on the performance Hockey players pretest
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and post tests were carried out. First, without applying the motivational techniques the pretest was conducted and later test was again measured after introducing motivational techniques like reward, recognition, goal setting, punishment and presence of others. Thus the study design is pre and post conditions.
e) Tools: The following tools are used:
1. Motivational techniques like reward, recognition, goal setting, punishment and presence of others were used.
2. The motor ability tests had conducted as a performance of Hockey players. The test description is as under,
3. AAHPER (Youth fitness tests) For the measurement of sports performance, the motor ability test developed by AAHPER was used. The test measures performance of players in five different areas. These are mentioned as under;
Sl. Motor ability Test Unit of No. Measurement 1 Speed 50 yard dash Time 2 Endurance 12min. Run and walk Distance 3 Flexibility Sit and reach test Inches 4 Agility Shuttle run 10X4 Time yard 5 Strength Pull ups Score
3) Statistical Analysis: Following statistical techniques were used in the present study,
1. Mean,
2. SD
3. t-tests
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IV. ANYLYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The major objective of the present study was to assess the influence of motivation on the performance of Hockey players. For the purpose, five motivational techniques like reward (RD), Goal setting (GS), Recognition (RE) presence of others (PO) and Punishment (PUN) are used to assess their influence on the performance of Hockey players in the five motor abilities-speed, endurance flexibility, agility and strength.
Table-1 Mean, SD and t-Values of Speed Test in two Conditions (N=100) Motivation Techniques Condition Presenc Goal Punishmen Recognitio s Reward e of setting t n others M 8.031 8.031 8.031 8.031 8.031 Pre- S test 1,44 1,44 1,44 1,44 1,44 D M 5.60 5.91 6.30 6.26 7.06 Post- S test 1.04 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.33 D 16.485* 13.626* t-values 11.113** 12.462** 5.140** * * **Significant at 0.01 level. Table-1 presents mean, SD and t-values of speed test of the Hockey players in two conditions pre-test and post-test. It can be seen that mean score of the sample in pre-test is 11.38 and when reward was give, the mean is 9.32. This shows that subjects took less time in speed test when motivation was applied. The improvement in performance is due to the motivational technique-reward. The t-value 11.44 which is significant at 0.01 level clearly speaks this.
Similarly, the performance of the sample is increased when the other motivational techniques like goal setting (9.40), punishment (9.51), recognition (9.38) and presence of others (9.50) were
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increased. The mean scores are all significantly lower than the pretest scores which speak the fast that time taken by the sample in post test is significantly lower. The t-values for all the techniques are significant. Thus all the motivational techniques have influenced the sports performance.
Table-2 Mean, SD and t-Values of Endurance Test in two Conditions (N=100) Conditions Motivation Techniques Reward Goal Punishment Recognition Presence setting of others Pre- M 1847 1847 1847 1847 1847 test SD 96.92 96.92 96.92 96.92 96.92 Post- M 2123.5 2155 1997.58 1980.46 2003.6 test SD 262.31 222.34 211.49 220.51 213.66 t-values 7.10** 8.661** 4.568** 3.945** 4.667** **Significant at 0.01 level. Table-2 gives the scores of endurance test of the sample the mean score in pretest is 2370.4 and mean scores for post-test i.e., reward 2478.3, goal setting 2461.2, punishment 2459.1, recognition 2461.0 and for presence of others 2410.3. This shows that performance of Hockey players has increased when the motivational techniques were introduced. The t-values for all motivational techniques are significant at 0.01 level. All the methods proved effective in enhancing endurance in the players.
Table-3 Mean, SD and t-Values of flexibility Test in two Conditions (N=100) Conditions Motivation Techniques Reward Goal Punishment Recognition Presence setting of others Pre- M 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 1.76 test SD 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59 Post- M 3.46 3.32 3.54 3.58 3.16 test SD 1.01 1.26 1.21 1.17 1.17 t-values 11.84** 8.72** 10.34** 10.97** 8.40** **Significant at 0.01 level. www.ijmer.in 28 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
Table-3 assess that the result of Hockey players in flexibility. The mean scored of pretest is 3.56 while means of post conditions are reward 4.41, goal setting 4.49, punishment 4.52, recognition 4.41 and presence of others 4.62. On all these motivational techniques the mean scores are significantly higher.
This shows that flexibility of Hockey players has increased after introduction of motivation. The t-values are significant. Which indicate that flexibility of players is greatly influence by reward, goal setting, punishment, recognition and presence of others. Therefore it proves that the performance is greatly influenced by the motivational devices.
Table-4 Mean, SD and t-Values of Agility Test in two Conditions (N=100) Conditions Motivation Techniques Reward Goal Punishment Recognition Presence setting of others Pre- M 13.75 13.75 13.75 13.75 13.75 test SD 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 1.48 Post- M 11.88 11.80 11.99 11.79 11.99 test SD 1.50 1.42 1.56 1.45 1.49 t-values 8.77** 9.64** 7.89** 9.53** 8.31** **Significant at 0.01 level.
Table-4 gives the score of agility of Hockey players in both the conditions. The mean score in pretest is 11.50 and after introduction of motivational techniques the mean scores are reward-10.24, goal setting- 10.41, punishment-10.67, recognition-10.51 and presence of others- 10.59. The t-values of these factors are significant at 0.01 level. The result clearly tells that there is significant influence of motivational techniques on the performance of Hockey players.
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Table-5 Mean, SD and t-Values of Strength Test in two Conditions (N=100)
Conditions Motivation Techniques Reward Goal Punishment Recognition Presence setting of others Pre- M 7.22 7.22 7.22 7.22 7.22 test SD 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 Post- M 10.01 10.36 10.26 9.20 9.32 test SD 1.26 1.30 1.24 1.01 ,99 t-values 12.54** 11.71** 12.54** 9.95** 10.58** **Significant at 0.01 level.
Table-5 presents the scores of Hockey players player in strength test in both conditions. The mean score of pretest condition is 8.14. After every motivational technique the mean scores are reward-10.72, goal setting-10.31, punishment-10.10, recognition-10.12 and presence of others-10.52. All the t-values are significant. This indicates that strength of Hockey players increased significantly when motivational techniques are presented to the players. Thus there is a significant influence of motivational techniques on strength performance of the players.
V. CONCLUSIONS:
Hence the overall picture that emerges is that all the motivational techniques have categorically influenced the performance of Hockey players in all the motor ability tests and have proved to be prominent in affecting sports performance and large. This in fact is the major finding and substantiates the premise that motivation is the most influencing factor in increasing the sports performance. The results of the study are discussed and the following conclusions are drawn,
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1. There is a significant difference in the performance of sportsmen between pretest and post test conditions: Post test performance is greater than pre test.
2. The sports’ performance was increased in speed test when the motivational techniques like Reward, Goal setting, Recognition, Presence of others and punishment were employed.
3. The performance in Endurance component was increased in all motivated sessions.
4. The performance of sportsmen in flexibility test was found to be significantly higher in motivated conditions than non-motivated.
5. The ability of sports students is significantly high in Agility component when motivation was used.
6. The strength task was profoundly high when motivational devices were used. References
1. Barrow, H.M. (1954). Tests of Motor Ability for College Men. Research Quarterly, 25 No. 3:253-260. 2. Barrow, H.M. (1957) Motor Ability Testing for College Men. Burgess publishing Co., Minneapolis, U.S.A. 3. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960). Skills Test Manual-Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 4. Atikinson, J.W. (1964): An Introduction to Motivation. Van Nostr. and Reinhold Company, New York. 5. Barry Johnson L. (1966): “The effect of applying different motivation technique during training and in testing upon strength performance”, completed Research Health Physical Education and Recreation, 63. 6. Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 7. Caplan, G. (1974). Support Systems and Community Mental Health, New York, Behavioral Publications. 8. Brook and Whiting (1975): “H.T.A. Human movement A field of study”. Henry Kimption Publishers, London. 9. Butt, D. Susan (1976) Psychology of Sports, New York: Von Nostrand Reinhold Co.
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EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT: A MEANS OF EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTIVITY
Dr.Vasaka Sridevikiran Associate Professor Department of Management Studies K.G.R.L Degree & P G. College Bhimavaram Introduction
The theme of employee empowerment received the attention of the managers in recent years and efforts are made to implement it. The relationship between managers and the employees whom they manage is undergoing a qualitative change. The managers who believed in classical approach emphasized on direction, control, centralised authority and decision-making at higher levels. Employees at the lower level were regarded as nonentity and their views were never taken into account. Much water has flown under the bridge. Sea saw changes have taken place in sharing of authority and responsibility between the superiors and subordinates.
The style of leadership and the tenor of relations between the leader and the followers have changed a good deal. A manager today does not exercise as much control and authority as his counterpart few decades ago. He is regarded more as an advisor, coach and a sponsor. There is a paradigm shift from 'direction' and 'control' to 'support' and `facilitation'. Manager is expected to understand his subordinates, show consideration for their problems and help them to help themselves in solving work-related problems.
The employees are regarded as associates where the difference between their role and that of their manager is very narrow. Decision making is relegated to the operating level where the workers are given freedom to decide about schedules, procedures and solve work-related problems. In the 1980's managers were encouraged to either consult or seek
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participation of their subordinates. Now managers have travelled a long way and go beyond participation. They even allow complete freedom to their subordinates to have control on their work. Self-managed teams where workers operate largely without boss is an innovative development of the 1990's.
Most organizations have employees who believe that they are dependent on others and their effort has little impact on performance. They also believe that they have no control in the organization of their work. This feeling of powerlessness saps their efficiency and generates a feeling that they cannot successfully perform their job and make meaningful contribution. This situation can be remedied by empowering employees. Empowerment is a process that provides greater autonomy to employees through the sharing of relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job performance. Empowerment helps to remove the feeling of powerlessness and at the same time enhance employee feelings of self confidence in job performance. Empowerment enables employees to have control over problems related to their jobs.
Many firms have reduced employee dependence on superiors and placed more emphasis on individual control over the work as well as responsibility for doing the same. This process is called empowerment because it replaces direction from an external source (generally the immediate supervisor) by an internal source (the individual's own desire to perform well). In a sense the process of empowerment implies providing workers with the skills and authority to take decisions which were earlier made by the managers. The aim of empowerment is to create an organization consisting of enthusiastic, committed people who perform their work efficiently. This situation is in contrast to an organization that makes people work in the spirit of compliance to avoid punishment.
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Empowerment is intended to encourage employees to be creative and to take risks. These are key components that will provide a firm competitive edge in a fast-changing environment. Empowering employees is “The hardest thing to do because it means giving up control” says Lee Fielder, a past president of Kelly Springfield Tyre Co., a subsidiary of Good Year. According to him, managers who try to tell employees what and how to do every bit of a job end up with only mediocre people, because the talented ones would not submit to control. To encourage risks taking, General Electric C.E.0. Jackwelch urges his managers and employees to 'Shake it, Shake it, Break it'.
Job Enrichment
In recent years a new technique based on the psychological needs of man has emerged which is totally different from other conventional methods and it is called job enrichment. This concept helps in employee empowerment because it tends to give more discretion and autonomy as well as increases responsibility. It focuses on the content of the job through vertical job loading and integration. It makes the work more meaningful. Direct changes are proposed in the work itself to provide for satisfying the employee's psychological needs. Researchers have pointed out that psychological needs such as growth, achievement, autonomy, self-actualisation and self fulfillment are relatively of higher importance in an employee's motivational profile. Empowerment entails that job or tasks should be challenging, meaningful, interesting and the work intrinsically more rewarding and satisfying. Another concept which needs a mention in the context of empowerment is job enlargement. It refers to expansion of jobs horizontally. It increases job scope i.e. the number of different operations required in a job and the frequency with which the job cycle is repeated. Job enlargement curbs the problem of lack of diversity in over specialized jobs.
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Management by Objectives (MBO)
MBO is an important concept in the corporate parlance; Peter Drucker was the first to discuss about MBO in 1954 in his book The Practice of Management.' It provides a systematic rational approach to management, and helps to prevent management by crisis. MBO is based on the assumption that people perform better when goals are set for them with their involvement.
MBO is based on three important aspects:
a. People should know what is expected of them.
b. Allow employees to set goals.MBO emphasizes that both the superior and the subordinate jointly decide the objectives and indicates that both can play a dynamic role in achieving the objectives.
c . Both superior and subordinate make periodical reviews of the progress made in achieving the goals and identify the problems which impede the progress. The worker concerned is helped to grow and develop by training, counseling, coaching and advice.
Many organizations practice the method of MBO in achieving the organizational goals. For them it is a way of managing the organization itself with involvement of people and empowering them in sharing information and having control over their job performance.
Participative Management
This is another concept which occupies a vital role in this context of empowerment. Participation is the mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that encourages them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them. There are three important ideas involving in the approach:
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1. First and probably the most important is the involvement - mental and emotional rather than mere physical activity. A person's entire self is involved not just his skill. This involvement is psychological rather than physical.
2. The second idea involved in participation is that it motivates people to contribute. They are empowered to release their own potential, initiative and creativity toward the objectives of the organization.
3. Finally participation encourages people to accept responsibility in their group's activity. It is a social process by which people become involved in an organization and want to see that the organization works successfully. When they refer to their organization, they begin to say ' we', and not 'they'. When they find a job related problem, they say in terms of 'ours', and not 'theirs. ‘Participation helps them to become good members and citizens of the organization instead of continuing as non responsible people performing duties in a routine manner.
Managers have recognized various benefits of participation. But these benefits were proved experimentally in classic studies in industry by Roethlisberger (1953), Coch and French (1948).
In India many types of participative schemes were evolved and implemented. Starting from works committees (on statutory basis) to joint management councils (on voluntary basis), and works councils and joint councils have been created in Indian organizations. But the functioning of these schemes has not been very encouraging in spite of the government support for these schemes. The problems impeding the progress of the schemes have to be identified more thoroughly, and effective measures need to be undertaken to infuse fresh life and make them work effectively. In fact workers participation is a corner stone of labour policy of the Government of India.
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Self Managed Work Teams
Self managed work teams represent the highest degree of employee empowerment. Development of self managed teams is the rage of 90's. A work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs. Now-a-days managements are concerned with the growth of work teams that will help their organiza- tions to improve performance. The use of self managed teams generates the potential for an organization to achieve greater outputs without increasing inputs.
Self managed teams generally comprise of ten to fifteen members who take upon themselves the responsibilities of their supervisors. Team work typically includes coordinated action for collective control over the speed of work, allocations of work assignments, arrangement of breaks and introduction of collective inspection procedures. The teams that manage themselves fully even select their own members and have a system of evaluating each other's performance. As a result the need for supervisory positions decreases and they may even be made redundant.
In Western countries the idea of entrusting the responsibilities for everything to the groups has become a significant aspect of work reorganization. At GE's locomotive engine plant in Grove City, Pennsylvania about 100 teams make most of the plant decisions. They look after the maintenance, schedule the work and take decisions on .equipment purchases. At the L-S Electro Galvanizing Co., in Cleveland, the entire plant is run by self managed teams. They attend to their own scheduling, rotate jobs on their own, decide production targets, decide pay scales which are linked to skills, lay off co-workers and even hire the workers. 'I never meet a new employee until his first day on the job' says the plant's general manager.
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Xerox, General Motors, Coors Brewing, Pepsi Co., Hewlett-Packard, Honey Well, M and M/Mars and Aetna Life are just a few examples which have implemented the concept of self managed work teams. Approximately one out of five United States Companies now use self managed work teams and on an average forty to fifty percent of all U. S. workers are managing themselves through self managed work teams.
Texas Instruments' Defence Group won the prestigious Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. The credit for winning the coveted award goes to self managed teams in the plant. These teams manage to achieve the same level of sales with 25 percent fewer employees.
Aid Association for Lutherans, one of the largest Insurance and Financial Service Companies in the United States claims that self managed teams were primarily responsible for increase in employee satisfaction and for company's increase in business volume by 50 percent over a four year period while reducing the work force by 15 percent. The Edy's Grand Ice Cream Plant in Fort Vayne, Indiana introduced self managed teams in 1990 and these teams are credited with the plants' 39 percent reduction in costs and 57 percent in productivity. Whole Foods Market, a health food chain, claims that self managed teams are responsible for doubling sales between 1989 and 1992 and it is able to achieve a 3.7 per cent operating margin compared to the average super market chain's 2.6 percent.
Conclusion
The managers are always concerned with increasing efficiency and productivity of workers. They have adopted various styles and methods to achieve this objective. In the initial stages they believe total control and direction of the employees at work. All the decision making powers were exercised by them. With the growth of social sciences more and more knowledge and concepts came to the rescue of the managers to
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understand human behaviour and to motivate them for higher productivity. The work organization and designing of jobs received their attention when it was found that jobs involving routine type of activities without variety result in monotony and alienation of work. They took care to see that job design ensures that workers are allowed skill variety, autonomy and feedback. The concepts of job enrichment and MBO were also implemented with a view to empowering employees and affording them more freedom in performing their tasks. Various schemes of workers participation in management were also devised and these schemes are intended to either consult or involve workers in decision making and to delegate powers in relation to their jobs.
The managers who were initially reluctant to delegate powers to their subordinates have gradually realized that if teams are developed with complete autonomy making them responsible for accomplishing the targets, the performance of workers can be improved. Thus the concept of self managed teams has emerged and a number of organizations in the Western countries as well as in developing countries including India are adopting self managed teams. The shift from working alone to working in teams requires. Employees to cooperate with others, share information, and sublimate personal interests for the greater good of the team. The team members possess technical, problem solving, decision making and interpersonal skills and they are prepared to assume different roles. The teams have a commitment to a common goal, establish specific targets, and develop appropriate structure and leadership style to provide direction. The teams are also accountable for the results both at the individual and the team level by having periodical evaluation, feedback and reward system. One striking feature of high performing teams is a greater degree of mutual trust among the members.
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The team approach involves that managers have to learn to delegate powers to the subordinates and confine themselves to coordination and allocation of resources. Similarly the members of the self managed teams have to accept responsibility, making themselves accountable to accomplish the goals.
To sum up broadly there are six approaches to empowerment of employees.
Designing jobs in such a way that they encompass some aspects I. like skill variety, task identity, autonomy, feedback etc. This will make the jobless routine and more interesting for the job holder.
Helping employees to achieve mastery over the job by providing II. proper training, coaching and counseling.
Allowing more control by giving employees discretion in III. performing the job and making them accountable for results.
Providing successful role models by allowing employees to IV. observe their peers who have already performed successfully on the job.
Using social reinforcement and persuasion by giving praise, V. encouragement and feedback meant to raise self-confidence.
Giving emotional support by reducing stress and anxiety VI. through clear role definition, task assistance and showing care.
References
1. Robert C Ford and Myron D Fottler, (1995), "Empowerment: A matter of Degree," Academy of Management Executive, pp. 21- 31.
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2. Hymowitz, C. (2000, January 4)"How can a manager encourage employees to take bold risks?" Wall Street Journal, B- 1.
3. Ibid.
4. John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, (1992), Organizational Behaviour : Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi.
5. Emery, F. E. and Trist, E. (1960) "Socio Technical Systems." Management Science Models and Techniques, Vol. 2, London.
6. Roethlisberger, F. J. and Dickson, W. J. (1939) Management and the Worker, Harward University Press, Cambridge.
7. Lester Coch and J.R.P. French, Jr. (1948,)"Overcoming Resistence to Change," Human Relations, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.512- 532.
8. Verespej, M. A. (1994, May 16) "Worker-Managers", Industry Week, p. 30.
9. Lubin, J. S. (1992, February 13)"Trying to improve worker productivity, More Employers alter management style", Wall Street Journal, p. B1.
10. Hillkrik, J. (1993, December 20) "Self-Directed work teams", U.S.A. To Day, p. 8B.
11. Kirker, T. B. (1993, October 18) "Edy's Grand Ice Cream," Industry Week, pp. 29-32.
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CASE STUDY ON HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OF S.S. MEDICAL COLLEGE REWA
Sadaf Khan MBA (H R) H. No.-33/239, Behind Raj Health Club,Ghoghar, Rewa ,M.P
Introduction:-
Shyam Shah Medical College is an institution of Madhya Pradesh State Government. It is one of the oldest medical colleges of the country with glorious and rich heritage.
It is located in Rewa – the land of white tigers. This college was initially established in 1963 with 60 students in the first batch. It has reached its present intake of 100 undergraduate (MBBS) and 50 post- graduate (MD/MS/Diploma). Admissions are through Pre Medical and Pre. P.G. Examinations respectively.
The College is affiliated to A.P.S. University, Rewa and approved by Medical Council of India, New Delhi. It is one of premier institution of the Madhya Pradesh. The College provides all the basic facilities for the Medical courses to its students.
Additionally, there is a well equipped School of Nursing. We have a 1100 bedded, 5 storied fully equipped Sanjay Gandhi Hospital affiliated to the college which is providing 24 x 7 services.
The teaching faculty consists experienced and devoted teachers, resident doctors, serving the ailing humanity without fail and without break. We have also a model blood bank equipped with ultra modern facilities and equipments. We are committed to provide quality education to our under-graduates, post-graduates and paramedical students, to set trends in medical research and ultimately to provide patients’ care services of unmatched quality. www.ijmer.in 42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
The College has Urban & Rural Health Centres attached to it. Besides these academic activities, our outreach programmes hold medical camps in the rural areas serving the poor and weaker sections of the society.
Our campus is self-sufficient in many ways and well maintained. A number of well developed gardens are in the campus and apart from it a bank, hostels having sports and recreation facilities are available. Our institute is situated in the heart of the city, therefore, all kinds of facilities of shopping and amenities are available within five minutes walking distance.
There are a number of different committees for the full fledged development of administration and education of the institution viz. Disciplinary Committee, Anti Ragging Committee, Cultural Committee, Research Review Committee, Scientific Committee, Medical Education Committee etc. A large number of research papers are published by residents and faculty members every year in journals of national and international repute.
Progress is an ongoing process. There are always new goals to achieve for which we have expert services, higher academic activities and atmosphere and a team of dedicated senior and junior faculty, paramedical staff and nursing personnel who are playing a pivotal role in imparting teaching and training to students and better services to the patients and are also committed for the same. There are still miles to go, there is no time for rest and we are striving hard to better the facilities and services that can be provided to the poor and needy patients.
In this Research, Researcher will try to study deeply about the condition of Human Resource (Employees) of Shyam Shah Medical College Rewa (M.P).
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There are many kinds of Employees- Doctors, Nurses, Compounders, Technicians, Lab Assistants, Ward Attainders, Peons, Sweepers, Office Workers, etc. There are several types of problems, in which they are providing their duties. These problems are not same for all employees. Researcher will study separately their problems, the causes of the problems, and how can they remove it. Researcher will try to suggest and it is hope that the suggestion given by the researcher will able to remove the problem of the employees and will able to make their better life style. Will help to make their self confidence and motivate them to provide their services in better methods and the benefit to their services will give the better and healthy services to the society.
Objectives of The Study:-
To suggest the improvement of Human Resource Management of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P).
To suggest the improve working system of Human Resource Management.
To fill efficiency in Human Resource of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P).
To change life pattern of employees of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P).
Research Methodology:-
Research Methodology is very essential to complete the research work. How the research work will do and how the data will present to determine the result.
To conduct the research work Primary Data & Secondary Data will be collected. Primary Data will be collected by self interview with the employees & other persons related to the hospital. Patients will also the
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subject of interview. Questionnaires & Schedules will also be helpful to know the answer of questions related to research.
Secondary Data will be collected from the other sources like Literature available in the society & book stalls, different- different reports & information received from hospital establishment section, information which is available in internet will be used.
Tabulation & classification will also be performed to present the data properly, and then the result will be found out. If it will not match with the reality, then the all information of research work will be repeated and will try to find out the real result.
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Analysis:-
Table No.-01
STATEMENT OF DOCTORS WORKING IN S.S. MEDICAL COLLEGE REWA (M.P.)
Sr. Name of Profess Associate Assistant Demons Senior Junior Others No Department or Professor Professor trator Residence Residence . s 1. Anatomy 01 02 02 04 - - - 2. Physiology 01 03 02+ 05 - - - 01(Biophysics) 3. Biochemistry - - 02 02 - - - 4. Pathology - 04 03+01 (Blood 08 - - - Bank) 5. Microbiology - - 02 03 - - - 6. Pharmacology - 02 02+ 06 - - - 01(Pharmaceuti cal Chemistry) 7. Forensic 01 01 - 03 - - - Medicine
8. Community 01 02 08 05 - - - Medicine 9. General 01 03 05+ - - - - Medicine 01(Cardiology) 10. Dermatology - 01 01 - - - -
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11. Psychiatry 01 - 02 - - 01 - 12. T.B. Chest 01 ------Desises 13. Paediatrics - 03 04+ - - - - 01(Post- mortem) 14. Surgery 01 04 06+ - 02 - - 01(Neurosurger y) 15. Orthopaedics 01 01 02 - 01 01 16. E.N.T. 01 01 01 - 01 - - 17. Eye - 02 05 - - - - 18. Gynaecology - 01 04 - 01 - - 19. Radio - - 02 - - - - diagnosis 20. Radiotherapy - - 01 - - - - 21. Anaesthesia 01 03 05 - - - - 22. Dental - 01 - - - - - Source: Office of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P)
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As per above table some departments of S.S. Medical College Rewa are very poor like T.B. Chest, Radiotherapy, & Dental, where only one Associate Professor is working. Several post are vacant in some departments. After retirement of Doctors Government does not appoint new staff.
Paediatrics department is very important department but post of Professor is Vacant in this department. In the Dermatology department has only one Assistant & Associate Professor.
Gynaecology department is also vacant with Professor. Radio Diagnosis department has only two Assistant & Professor.
Most of Senior & Junior Residence posts are vacant. While this S.S. Medical College Rewa is Divisional Medical College including Rewa &Shahdol Davison. This Divisions are ruler & less aware about medical knowledge.So most of medical facilities should be available in this Medical College. Due to new pattern many Doctors & Senior & Junior Residence post is vacant and going to be ruined (damaged). In spite of this Medical College is not able to provide residence to his Doctors.
Table No.-02
STATEMENT OF DOCTORS WORKING IN S.S. MEDICAL COLLEGE REWA (M.P.)
Sr. Technicians Nurses Clerk Word Sweepers No. Boy/Ward Aaya 01 40 172 16 100 32 Vacant Vacant Post Vacant Post – Post - - 210 32 500 Contract Based Sweepers- 70 Source: Office of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P)
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According to above table there are 40 Technicians & 16 Clerks (Back Office Staff). The post of Sanctioned Nurses is 672, but only 172 nurses are appointed and 500 posts are vacant.
The services of nurses are very important then Doctors because they are chain between Doctor & Patient. All activities of patient are observed and noted by nurse and inform to the Doctor about the actual condition of patient.
There are only 100 Word Boy/Ward Aaya are posted in the Hospital and 210 posts are vacant. And Sweepers so only 32 permanent sweepers are working and 32 posts are vacant. The service of sweepers is also very important, so 70 contract based Sweepers are engaged for sweeping.
Problems :-
There is no sufficient Doctors Staff in several Departments. Even some Department has only one Doctor. It means Hospital is suffering from shortage of Doctors.
The behaviour of Doctors & other staff is not satisfactory therefore the patient hesitate in hospital.
There is no proper system to provide medical training because due to lack of teaching staff.
There are no sufficient facilities to admit the patients for proper treatment.
The absentees of medical staff obelised to left hospital & forced to get treatment in private hospital, which are very expensive & not in approach for poor patients.
Some times miss treatment is done by Doctors.
Free Medicine & investigation for poor patients are not available in a proper way, due to shortage of technician & tools.
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There are no rules for patients relatives who come any time to meet the patient in the Hospital.
There is no proper arrangement for patient attainders.
Investigations are not done timely. Suggestion:-
Doctor is like God. Therefore they should be very mercifully &sympatric. Doctor should keep patience & control his emotions. He should know that he is only a Guardian of patients & the life of patients is totally depending on Doctors. So his duty is very sensitive for patients. He should render his service very carefully & peacefully. If this suggestion accepted by the Doctors so this Medical College may be become a top medical college of the Country.
Serious desises may also be cured & the patients who mostly come out from poor families & backward societies may get proper treatment. The whole society will get benefits of medical facilities. Here healthy condition is very essential will developed.
Conclusion:-
Through there are too many problems & hardship in the hospital service some is created by Doctors, some from other staff, some from patients and some from patients families also. In spite of these most of public go to government hospital for treatment. His faith of government Doctors is high from other private doctors. Cheap & immediate services provided by government hospitals, so that faith of public is remained on the government hospital treatment.
References:
1. Aswathappa K., Human Resource and Personnel Management, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education, 2005, 4th Edition, Page No.- 5 to 11
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2. Aswathappa K., Organizational Behaviour- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
3. Goel, S.L. & Kumar, R.- Hospital Administration & Management- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
4. Goel, S.L.- Health Care Management & Administration- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
5. Goel, S.L.- Health Care Policies & Programmes- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
6. Goel, S.L. & Kumar, R.- Hospital Care Services- Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
7. Goel, S.L. & Kumar, R.- Management of Hospital - Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
8. Kothari C.R., Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques, New age international publisher, 2014, 3rd Edition, Page No.- 1 to 9, 23,25,33 to 35, 52 to 55, 76, 89 to 108, 114.
9. Report of S.S. Medical College Rewa (M.P) 2014-2015
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ANALYSIS ON THE FINANCIAL POSITION AND OPERATING RESULTS OF THE INSURANCE SECTOR IN ETHIOPIA, 2000-2014
Prof. P. Viswanadham Asnake Minwyelet Abebe Dept. of Commerce & Management Studies Ph.D Scholar Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dept. of Commerce & Management Andhra Pradesh, India Studies Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India
1. Introduction
In its historical development, the Ethiopian insurance sector has experienced three distinct phases depending on the economic system that the country followed(BelaiGiday, 1987; Haile Michael, 1992). The first phase is the emergence, early development and the rise of domestic insurance companies in the country up to the end of the period 1975/76. Expatriates, foreign insurance companies and the private sector played vital roles in the introduction, early development and growth of insurance business in the country. Especially, the emergence and further development of modern insurance business in Ethiopia was linked to expatriates who had been active participants in the sector until the enactment of the first insurance proclamation in 1970 (Schaefer, 1992; HailuZeleke, 2007). According to HailuZeleke, 2007, the expatriates had been operating insurance business; they participated in the establishment of the first domestic insurance company in Ethiopia; and they were serving as board members and company officers of insurance companies. During the first phase, the private sector contributed a lot for expanding the insurance business in the country by establishing domestic insurance companies.
The second phase in the historical development of the insurance sector in Ethiopia is the period during the command economy and transition to a market-led economy (1976-1994). The insurance sector in the country during the second phase was characterized by monopoly of the sector by the government, lack of dynamism and innovation, and reliance on a limited number of classes of insurance businesses. The state owned, Ethiopian Insurance Corporation (EIC), is the outcome of nationalization of private insurance companies. The nationalization of the private insurance companies, the restriction imposed on private www.ijmer.in 52
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business ventures, and management of the insurance sector along the Marxist ideology had significant adverse impact on the growth and development of the Ethiopian insurance sector. During this period, the insurance sector did not exhibit significant growth in terms of gross written premiums and expansion of branches.
After the collapse of the command economy and transition to market economic system in Ethiopia, 1994 onwards, when the country follows a market led economy, can be labeled as the third phase in the historical development of modern insurance business in Ethiopia. During this period, the private sector re-emerged and there is a persistent increment in the gross written premiums and expansion of branches. The system stimulated the private sector to engage in insurance business and the private sector has revived the insurance sector in the country.
Hereunder, the financial position and operating results (profits and return on assets) of the insurance sector in Ethiopia are analyzed and discussed. For this, a fifteen years (2000 to 2014) data was collected from the audited financial statements and reports of the insurance companies in the country. Trend and descriptive analysis was employed in the study.The specific variablesaddressed in this study are the assets, capital and financial leverage, capital, profits and return on assets (ROA) for the period 2000-2014.Finally, concluding remarks are made.
2. Financial Position - Assets, Capital and Financial Leverages of the Ethiopian Insurance Sector, 2000-2014
As of June, 2014, the total number of insurance companies in Ethiopia was sixteen (one public and fifteen private insurance companies). Compared to other African countries, the number of insurance companies is small(Asnake, 2013). A larger proportion of the total number of branches in the country is concentrated in Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. The state owned insurance company, Ethiopian Insurance Corporation (EIC) has the largest branch expansion in the country’s insurance sector. According to the data obtained from the NBE, the Ethiopian insurance sector exhibited gross written premiums of about Birr4,961,528,000(both non-life insurance and life insurance) in 2014 fiscal year. The average cession rate of the sector during the period 2000-2014 was 30%. This is an www.ijmer.in 53
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indication that the sector transfers huge amount of risk underwritten and fund in hard currency to reinsurers abroad. The amount of claims incurred by the insurance sector in the country, in the fiscal year 2014 was Birr 2,157,003,000. During the period 2000-2014, the average loss ratios were 65% and 46% for the non-life and life insurance respectively.
The financial position of an organization or any entity including industries is commonly presented in terms of the amounts of its assets, liabilities and capital/owners’ equity on a specific date, generally on the last day of the fiscal period. In the Ethiopian context the insurance companies have June 30 of each year as end of their fiscal year.
The book value of the total assets and total capital of the Ethiopian insurance industry at June, 2000 was Birr 1,068,419,000 and 331,149,000 respectively. Total assets of the industry increased to Birr 8,147,585,000 and the capital increased to Birr 2,034,110,000 at June, 30, 2014. Over 15 years (2000 to 2014), the total assets of the Ethiopian insurance sector has increase more than seven times while the capital of the industry has increased more than six times over the same period of time. Table 1 below presents the amounts of the total assetsand total capital of the insurance sector in Ethiopia for the period 2000 – 2014 as end of the fiscal year, June 30, for the life insurance, non-life insurance and the total insurance sector in the country. Figure 1 shows the trends in the total assets and total capital of the insurance sector in Ethiopia for the period 2000 – 2014 as end of the fiscal year, June 30, for the life insurance, non-life insurance and the total insurance sector in Ethiopia.
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Year Total Total Total Total Total Total Capital Assets Assets Assets Capital Capital Non-Life and Non- Life Non-Life Non- Life Life Life Insurance and Life Life Insurance Insurance Insurance 2000 931508 136911 1068419 311149 20000 331149 2001 1010591 146867 1157458 332418 20000 352418 2002 1127397 163983 1291380 355674 20000 375674 2003 1186577 177615 1364192 385668 20000 405668 2004 1189064 183709 1372773 388865 20000 408865 2005 1296388 201006 1497394 455536 20000 475536 2006 1563302 237410 1800712 544027 24000 568027 2007 1694245 273701 1967946 545270 24000 569270 2008 1967480 339761 2307241 590873 34000 624873 2009 2270400 420978 2691378 682616 37270 719886 2010 2784004 491949 3275953 844701 37676 882377 2011 3449646 560744 4010390 875442 39502 914944 2012 4862173 743421 5605594 1140281 43351 1183632 2013 5866223 935934 6802157 1502347 54364 1556711 2014 7009822 1137763 8147585 1944010 90100 2034110 Table 1. Financial Position of the Ethiopian Insurance Industry, 2000-2014 (in ‘000 Birr)
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Figure 1.Trends in the Financial Position of the Ethiopian Insurance Industry, 2000-2014 (in ‘000 Birr).
Both the total assets and the total capital of the insurance sector in Ethiopia have been increasing consistently during the period under consideration. As can be seen from table 1 and figure 1 above, during the period 2000-2014, the total assets of the insurance sector in the country has grown at an average annual growth rate of 50.8% while the total capital of the industry has grown at an average annual growth rate of 41%. The percentage distribution of the assets and capital between life insurance and non-life insurance clearly indicates that much of the assets and capital is found in the non-life class of insurance business. During the period under consideration, the minimum proportion of the non-life insurance business in the total assets of the insurance sector in the country was 84% (in 2009 & 2010) while the maximum was 87% in the years in 2000, 2001 and 2002. The average share of the non-life class of insurance business in the total assets of the Ethiopian insurance industry is found to be 85.84% for www.ijmer.in 56
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the period 2000-2014. This indicates that the average proportion of the life insurance assets were limited to 14.13% during the same period of time.
Regarding the capital of the insurance sector in the country, the pattern of the shares of the non-life insurance capital and the life insurance capital in the total capital of the industry is almost similar to the case in the assets of the two major classes insurance businesses, except a slight magnification that exists in the relative proportion of capital in the non-life insurance class of business, where the minimum and maximum proportion of the non-life insurance were 93% in 2000 and 96% in 2012 and 2013. In terms of financing the total assets of the insurance sector in Ethiopia, a higher amount was generated from debt financing. On average it is only 27% of the total assets that are financed from equity finance during the period 2000-2014. In this aspect, the minimum was 22% in 2012 and maximum was 32% in 2006 that equity source of finance was used in the insurance sector of the country during the period under consideration. This is an indication that in the Ethiopian insurance sector, debt finance has been adopted by the insurance companies as basic financing strategy.
Figure 2 below presents the trends in the financial leverage of the Ethiopian insurance industry during the period 2000-2014. The ratios fall within the range of 68% and 78%. The average leverage ratio for the industry over the period under consideration was 72%. This confirms that there has been higher reliance on debt in financing the insurance companies in the Ethiopian insurance sector.
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Figure 2. Financial Leverage Ratio, 2000-2014 (%)
3. Operating Results - Profit After Tax and Return on Assets of the Ethiopian Insurance Sector, 2000-2014
Profits after tax and return on assets (ROA) were used assess the operating results of the Ethiopian insurance sector over the period 2000-2014. Profits of the Ethiopian insurance industry have shown significant improvement since the introduction of the market economy. The industry, for instance, has managed to exhibit after- tax profit of Birr 2,034,110,000 in 2014. The sector wise analysis indicates that profits have shown a persistent increase during the period under consideration. As regards return on assets, it is limited in the range of minimum of 4% in 2004 and maximum of 9% in 2014, averaging 5.4% over the period under consideration. The overall analysis indicates that there has been a low performance in returns on assets of the insurance sector in Ethiopia. This low performance has to be explained by the higher costs and expenses relative to the huge amounts of investment in assets that the sector www.ijmer.in 58
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exhibited during the period under consideration. Another potential explanation is restrictions on insurance sector to invest in alternative investments available in the country. The following table 2 shows the amounts of profits after tax and the return on assets of the insurance sector in the country during the period 2000-2014.
Year Profit After Tax ROA in (Total) (in Birr ‘000) (%)
2000 67625 6 2001 67904 5 2002 76004 5
2003 73742 5 2004 37656 2 2005 69532 4 2006 93917 5 2007 99525 5 2008 115236 4 2009 134074 4 2010 239754 7 2011 250155 6 2012 386458 6 2013 576943 8 2014 739339 9
Table 2. Profit After Tax and Return on Assets –Overall, 2000- 2014
The following figure 2 and figure 3 present the trends in profits after tax and return on assets respectively for the whole insurance sector in Ethiopia for the period 2000-2014
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Figure 3. Trends in the Profits after tax – Overall, 2000-2014 (in Birr ‘000)
Figure 4. Trends in the Return on assets (ROA) – Overall, 2000-2014 (%)
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4. Major Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
In this study, analysis on the financial position and operating results of the Ethiopian insurance sector during the period 2000-2014 is made and presented. This section concludes by highlighting the main findings, concluding remarks and finally, in order to strengthen the financial performance of the Ethiopian insurance sector, by way of recommendations, some areas of improvements needed to be made are identified and indicated.
In summary, the Ethiopian insurance sector is considered as one of the least developed in the world and in Africa(UNCTAD, 2007). The major developments, among others, in the Ethiopian insurance sector over fifteen years (2000 to 2014):
Dominance of the non-life insurance business in terms of assets and capitalization Total assets the sector increased to Birr 8,147,585,000in2014 at an average annual growth rate of 50.8% from the amount in 2000. Capital increased of the sector to Birr2,034,110,000 in 2014at an average annual growth rate of 41% from the amount in 2000. Profits of the sector reached Birr 739,339,000in 2014. The sector has been primarily relying on debt in financing its operations. The profit of has shownconsistent improvements while return on assets was low and volatile during the period 2000-2014. From the financial position and operating results perspective, the major challenges of the Ethiopian insurance sector, among others, include:
Low performance of the returns on assets High dependence on debt financing Low emphasis on life assurance High claims/loss ratio and management expenses
However the insurance sector in Ethiopia has still to go a long way in the mobilization of fund by penetrating the market further, diversification of product by developing niche products to the low
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income citizens, exploiting the life insurance and considering establishment of local reinsurance company in the country.
In order to improve the financial position and operating results of the insurance sector in Ethiopia the following recommendations are suggested.
It is believed that, the major factors for the growth of the Ethiopian insurance sector are the shift from the command economy to a market oriented economy and the active participation of the private sector in the insurance business. In this respect, the dominance of the state owned insurance company needs to be limited. Establishing domestic reinsurance company would to some extent reduce risks reinsured and transferred to reinsurers abroad. For this the EIC can be used as a potential candidate. Opening up diversified investment opportunities to the insurance companies would improve the profitability and return on assets. Creating better awareness of the public about insurance, especially in controlling risks which can enable to reduce and manage claims and losses. Managing the claims and management expenses to improve returns and profitability of the sector. Increasing the capital base of the insurance companies Exploiting the life assurance business sector
References
1. Annual Audited Financial Statements and Reports of the Ethiopian Insurance Companies, June 30, 2000-2014. 2. AsnakeMinwyelet (2013), “Setting Up Local Reinsurance Company in Ethiopia” – Analytical Review, IJRCM, Vol. 3, No. 01(January), ISSN 2231-4245. 3. Belay Giday (1987), Currency & Banking - Ethiopia 4. Haile Michael Kumsa (1992), “Development of Insurance in Ethiopia” FAIR Review, No. 85. 5. HailuZeleke (2007), Insurance In Ethiopia, Historical Development, Present Status and Future Challenges, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Master Printing Press P.L.C. www.ijmer.in 62
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6. Schaefer Charles (1992), “The Politics of Banking: The Bank of Abyssinia, 1905-1931”, the International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 25, No. 2. 1992. 7. UNCTAD (2007), Trade and Development Aspects of Insurance Services and Regulatory Frameworks, New York and Geneva: UNCTAD (UNCTAD/DITC/TNCD/2007/4).
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KNOWLEDGE, PERCEPTION AND BEHAVIOUR WITH REGARD TO CLIMATE CHANGE AMONG THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS OF POKHARA, WARD NO- 8
Ankush Mala Chalise Dept of Journalism & Mass Communication Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh, India Introduction
Climate change is a much bigger threat in the context of Nepal as the warming is on average at 0.6 centigrade per decade which is higher than the global average (ICIMOD, 2008). Nepal is also said to be the fourth most climate-vulnerable country in the world which is exposed to numerous hazards like flash floods, glacial lake outbursts, landslides, drought and many other consequences which is directly or indirectly affecting the livelihood of people. The rapidly retreating glaciers (average retreat of more than 30 m/year), rapid rise in temperature (>0.06OC), erratic rainfalls and increase in frequency of extreme events such as floods and drought like situation are some of the effects Nepal is facing during the last few years (Karki, Mool, Shrestha, 2009).
Practical Action’s (2008) report concluded the profound impact climate change make on the farming communities of Nepal more than anywhere else. “The impact will force profound lifestyle changes and destroy livelihoods if communities are not made aware of climate change and supported in finding ways to adjust and respond”. Moreover, in terms of national income and employment, people rely heavily on agriculture, that is directly affected by climate change (Yohe and Tol 2002). Various studies have concluded that climate change has directly eroded the natural resources like forest, livestock, agriculture upon which more than 80% population are dependent directly. This in turn has resulted in the increased number of poverty stricken
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population and made it more challenging for them to escape this quagmire.
While it has been discussed that the rural people are the ones to be impacted more by the adverse climatic changes, the fact cannot be ignored that its effect is widespread and even urban people cannot escape its negative outcomes. Increasing temperature, exposure to new borne diseases, environmental degradation, food insecurity, erratic rainfall pattern, weather changes are some of the many impacts of climate change faced by people everywhere. With these changes becoming more pronounced in the present time, the issue of climate change requires urgent attention and action from people of all generation, as it is evident that human action significantly has exacerbated the problem.
To minimize the risk imposed by climate change, government, NGO, INGO and other environmental organizations have been implementing and incorporating several policies and actions to enhance adaptation and disaster management. However, these approaches can be more sustainable with the appropriate understanding of people’s perception and attitude towards climate change. As understanding the beliefs, attitudes, and of the public on climate change can be very instrumental in the climate adaptation and mitigation process (Shome and Marx, 2009), efforts need to vested to achieve this objective. Very little is known about international public opinion or behaviour regarding climate change in large part because only a few multi-national surveys have included even a single question on the issue (Leiserowitz, Kates, & Parris, 2005). Knowing public opinion is very critical, however, as it is a key component of the socio-political context within which policy makers operate. It can also fundamentally compel or constrain political, economic and social attention to particular risks (Leiserowitz, 2007).
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In the context of Nepal, though several researches has been done to understand people’s perception on climate change, study that seeks to understand the perception of the younger and educated sections of the society is still as sparsely investigated area. This research thus, seeks to understand the knowledge level of climate change among the high school students in Pokhara (city in Western Nepal, 200km away from the capital Kathmandu), their perception of the issue and the behavioural implications.
Methodology
A cross sectional study using a structured questionnaire was conducted among 200 randomly selected respondents in ward number eight of Pokhara sub-metropolitan city of Kaski District between January and February 2015. The respondents were the high school students of class nine, ten, eleven and twelve belonging to the age group of 15-20. This ward was selected due to the high number of schools, colleges and flow of students in the area. For the purpose of data collection, respondents were selected with simple random sampling who were the students attending schools in the vicinity of Pokhara, Ward no 8.
For developing the questionnaires, researches conducted previously on the knowledge and perception categories were referred and the final questionnaire was prepared which could give the result on the general knowledge, perception and behaviour of the high school students with regard to climate change. However, assistance of Prof. DVR Murthy of Andhra University, India was also sought in this regard who finally approved and validated the questionnaire as well as provided formal consideration for the conduction of research. The questionnaire was two page long divided into three sections; socio-demographic factors, climate change knowledge and perception. Participants were asked to mention their gender, age, education and family type. The questionnaire was pretested among 20 students before conducting the
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actual survey. Derived data were analyzed using simple descriptive analytics statistics like percentage with the help of SPSS software.
Results
Out of 200 samples, while 89% respondents were aware and had basic knowledge about climate change, 11% mentioned that they have not heard about climate change and were thus unable to complete the entire questionnaire. Hence the total number of respondents who could complete the entire questionnaire was 178. Among the respondents, 52% were male and 48 % were female while 83.1% belonged to the nuclear family and 16.9% lived in the extended family. The respondents belonged to the age group of 15 (11.2%), 16 (19.7%), 17 (17.4%), 18 (16.3%), 19 (23.0%), 20 (12.4%) and were the high school students attending in class 9, 10, 11 and 12.
After the socio-demographic section in part one, the next section was the knowledge, perception and behaviour questions with regard to climate change. In the knowledge question where the respondents were asked how much knowledge do they have about climate change, out of 178 samples 46.1% chose the option “Satisfactory”, 39.9% said “Little”, 12.9% said “A Lot” and 1.1% chose the option “Can’t Say”. Similarly, natural and human activity was considered the biggest cause for climate change by the majority of respondents (47.8%) with human activity accounting for the second major cause (46.1%). Natural and other reasons were regarded the causes behind climate change by 5.6% and 0.5% respectively.
Climate change was a very important issue for the majority of the respondents (56.7%) and quite important for 33.7%, while the lowest of 9.6% mentioned their indifference towards the issue. Similarly, 61.2% responded that climate change is affecting or going to affect them who were also asked to give subjective response on the perceived impact. 34.3% of the respondent on the other hand were not aware about how
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the climate change is or might affect them, hence, chose the option “Don’t Know” and 4.5% held the opinion that climate change is not affecting them in anyways. Among the respondents who have had or could have the impact of climate change, majority mentioned “Diseases and Illness” (67.5%) followed by increasing temperature (23%), flood and drought (15%), decreased cultivation (9%) and unusual rainfall (7%). 9% mentioned rise in temperature and illness together and another 6.5% mentioned rise in temperature and natural calamities together. Similarly, 6% of the respondents mentioned unusual rainfall and decreased cultivation together.
Interestingly, higher portion of the respondents hold the collective view that an individual should bear the major responsibility at 45% to tackle climate change. Fig 1 depicts the respondents view when asked who they think should have the main responsibility for tackling climate change. After individuals, national government was considered the most responsible by 30% respondents, followed by Business & Industry, Environmental Organizations, International Organization and Local Government at 11%, 9%, 3% and 2% respectively.
Fig 1: Respondents opinion on who should be major responsible to tackle climate change
Responsibilty to tackle Climate Change
3% 2% Individuals
National Government 9% Business & Industry
11% 45% Environmental Organizations
International Organization 30% Local Government
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In stark contrast to the above statement where 45% of the sample respondents opined that an individual should be more responsible, only 20.8% mentioned that they have taken any action out of concern for climate change. Instead, 48.3% said they haven’t taken any action which can be beneficial for the environment and 30.9% chose the option “Don’t Know”. Likewise, only 27% felt that they need to change their behaviour while majority of the respondents (46.6%) were not sure about it, followed by 26.4% who said that they do not need to change any of their behaviour. On the contrary, majority of the respondents believed that making changes in their lifestyle can contribute to control climate change. Among 178 respondents, 65.7% were convinced that their behaviour change can make a significant difference. Fig 2 illustrates the respondents view on the context related to behaviour to reduce the effects of climate change.
Fig 2: Respondent’s opinion on the questions related to climate friendly behaviour
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00% Yes 30.00% Percentage No 20.00% Don’t Know
10.00%
0.00% Have you ever taken, or Do you think you need to Do you think making do you regularly take any change any of your change in your lifestyle action out of concern for behaviour to control will help to control climate change? climate change? climate change? www.ijmer.in 69 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015
Similarly, in the final part of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to response about the media communication of climate change. While the majority of 61.2% said that they follow news and informations related to climate change from mass medium sometimes only, 21.9%mentioned frequent following of the same, with 11.8% rarely going through the climate change content and 5.1% not following at all. Moreover, majority of the respondents (47.2%) stated that they are getting only ‘satisfactory’ knowledge and information from the mass medium, 34.8% mentioned that this knowledge and information was ‘not adequate’. Likewise, the knowledge and information provided by the mass media was ‘adequate’ for 12.4% but it was ‘not at all adequate’ for 5.6% of the respondents. Among the respondents who thought that the information provided from mass medium was not adequate, majority of 27% said that ‘less priority on environmental affairs by mass media’ was the prime cause for this inadequacy. Fig 3 shows respondents percentage on different reason why they thought the information and knowledge they get from mass medium did not suffice.
Fig 3: Respondent’s reason for lack of adequate knowledge and information from the mass medium
Less priority on environmental content 25% 27% by mass medium Information oriented rather than knowledge 8% 22% Language diffculty 18%
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Limitations of the study
Since this study assesses the knowledge, perception and behaviour related to climate change among only 200 high school students of class 9, 10, 11 and 12 studying in the schools and colleges located at Simalchaur, Pokhara, Ward number 8, the findings of this research cannot be generalized to the overall population belonging to this sample group. This study thus, only attempts to provide brief insight to understand how the students of these groups perceive climate change and how is their behaviour related to the same.
Summary and Conclusion
Several conclusions can be summed up after the completion of this research study which was done to acquire the basic understanding of how the high school students perceive climate change and how is their climate friendly behaviour on the basis of their knowledge level. From the above findings, it can be concluded that majority of the high school students irrespective of gender are not only aware about the term ‘climate change’, but also perceive it as an issue highly important for them. It is also evident from the findings that the impact of climate change is felt by most of them, be it severe or minor. While some of the respondents were affected by the natural calamities like floods, many felt the impact in the form of diseases and illness, temperature increase, and decreased cultivation.
However, the high school students were also aware that inconsiderate human activity is the major factor which triggers climate change and its impact, hence, most of them believed that every individual should observe their traits and change behaviour to minimize its effect. Though high majority of the respondents agreed with the view that modification in their lifestyle could reduce climate change, many of them did not follow the climate friendly behaviour and many were not convinced if they need to change their behaviour at the same time. This
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finding can be quite significant as it depicts the knowledge-perception- behaviour gap in the younger citizens who are the future leaders. Finally, most of the respondents felt that the knowledge and information they are getting from the mass medium is not sufficient.
References
1. Interview of Andreas Schild, Director General of ICIMOD, page 30, Mountain Forum 2008 Natural Resources: Women, Conflicts and Management Mountain Forum Bulletin 8.
2. Karki, Madhav, Pradip Mool, and Arun Shrestha. "Climate change and its increasing impacts in Nepal." The Initiation 3 (2009): 30-37.
3. Action, Practical. "Promoting adaptation to climate change in Nepal." Policy Briefing, Nepal (2008).
4. Yohe, Gary, and Richard SJ Tol, "Indicators for social and economic coping capacity—moving toward a working definition of adaptive capacity." Global Environmental Change 12.1 (2002)
5. Shome, D., & Marx, S. (2009). The Psychology of Climate Change Communication: A Guide for Scientists, Journalists, Educators, Political Aids and the Interested Public. New York, USA: Center for Research on Environmental Decisions.
6. Leiserowitz, A. A., Kates, R. W., & Parris, T. M. (2005). Do global attitudes and behaviors support sustainable development?. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47(9), 22-38.
7. Leiserowitz, A. (2007). International public opinion, perception, and understanding of global climate change. Human development report, 2008, 1e40.
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DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBLE INVESTMENT (SRI) DECISION; A CASE OF PRIVATE INVESTORS IN MEKELLE CITY
Tigist Haile Robele Lecturer Arbaminch University, Ethiopia 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is researched in different fields from economic, social, and political aspects, by emphasizing on its bold interdisciplinary character (Hernaus, 2011). Because, both in developed and developing countries climate change and other environmental concerns, such as water scarcity, biodiversity and unethical activity get highest emphasis. Consequently, interest for social responsible investment (SRI) decision is also raising as an issue on a daily basis among different stakeholders, including public, society, media, government, corporations and financial community to meet this goal.
Social responsible investment (SRI) decision is a means of attaining sustainable development by considering legal, ethical, environmental and philanthropic responsibility in addition to traditional financial motive during investment decision in general. However, many scholars define SRI independently in different ways.
With so many reservations about the concept of SRI, it may be difficult to explain why and how people consider corporate social responsibility principles when making investment decision (Owen & Qian, 2008) because factors that affecting socially responsible investment decision may differ among persons and places.
Jansson and Biel (2006) studied that different motives and concerns guide private investors depending on organizational context and their different roles as owners of assets or as professional managers of capital. They asserts that institutional investors, investment institution and private investors affected by expectation of long- term return. Expected financial risk influences institutional investors than others. Additionally, private and institutional investors guided by self-transcendent values (environmental and social values), this was not the case among fund managers working in investment institutions.
Some studies identified demographic and psychological factors as the determinants of social responsible investment decision. For instance, Williams (2005) studied that SRI decision increase as age and educational status of www.ijmer.in 73
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investors increase but no variation of decision among men and women. Similarly, Owen and Qian (2008); Schueth (2003); Tippet (1999) and Tippet and Leung (2001) found education as determinant factor that increases SRI decision. In contrast, there are difference among findings about sex and age of investors. Owen and Qian (2008) and Schueth (2003), described women as social responsible investors than men, Hayes (2001) and Rosen, Sandler and Shani (1991), found that social responsible investors are younger than conventional investors. Thus, there is inconsistency among findings on demographic factors that affect SRI decision.
Owen and Qian (2008) also identified good thinking for next generation, religious influence, environmental friendly purchase and consumer environmental concern, concern for public good as psychological factors that enhance SRI decision. Schueth(2003) and Wesley (1872) found similar result on religious influence, unlikely, Williams (2005) concluded concerns for ethical issues does not linked to any religious aspects and impressive growth of SRI is consumer driven phenomena (Glac, 2009;Schueth, 2003). Mainly, the researchers found demographic and psychological factors as determinants of SRI decision, but they did not consider the financial factor that affect SRI decision.
However, Russo and Fouts (1998) found financial considerations as more prominent than social considerations for social responsible investors as compared to conventional one. Cox, Brammer and Millington (2004) suggested that long term investor screen out companies with poor social responsibility performance from their portfolios because of their increased exposures to risk which lead to poor financial performance in long run. Similarly, Cumming and Johan (2007) indicated that socially responsible investments are more common among those investors expecting greater risk-adjusted long-term return. Social responsible investors believe that SRI brings less return in the short run than conventional investments and bring higher return in the long run, than conventional investments (Jansson& Biel, 2006). So, social responsible investment decision is affected by financial motives in addition to demographic and psychological factors identified above.
In addition to the research conducted in developed countries, there were some related studies done in developing countries, like Southern America, Asia and Africa which shows development and importance of SRI. Maheran, Johari, and Mustafa (2005) concluded that development of social responsible accounting system enables investors to identify the social responsible companies from conventional. Herringer, Firer &Viviers (2009) revealed factors, which directly affect the growth and development of the SRI in different economic sectors. Moreover, Giamporcaro, Pretorius and www.ijmer.in 74
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Visser(2010) suggested that responsible investment is a vehicle for environmentally sustainable economic growth. But, there was little or no attention given to determinants of socially responsible investors in developing countries. Moreover, there is no consistency about determinant factor that initiate or impede investors to make socially responsible investment decision. Thus, this study investigated the determinants of socially responsible investment decision of private investors in Mekelle City by combining independent study variables such as investors’ demographic, psychological and financial factors.
2.0 RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An Overview of Social Responsible Investment Decision
The modern socially responsible investment movement evolved with the political climate of the 1960s. From that onwards different scholars on different forums have defined SRI differently as responsible investment, ethical investment, sustainable investment, green investment, investment that avoids sins,(Eurosif, 2010; Harding, n.d.).
Sustainable Investment Forum (SIF) (1999) defined SRI as investment decisions integrating personal values with societal concerns. Eurosif (2010), Owen and Qian (2008), and Paris(2009), revealed SRI as investment decision that combines investors' financial objectives with their concern about social, environmental, ethical and corporate governance issues. Socially responsible investors consider both utilitarian returns and expressing social responsibility during their investment decision.
Beltratti(2003) described SRI as an asset allocation style according to which securities are selected not only based on their probability distribution and risk aversion of the investor but also taking into account characteristics of the companies by avoiding companies that engaged on abortion, euthanasia, not respects employees right; discriminate; produce nuclear weapons, alcohols, tobacco and pollute the environments. Besides, Eurosif (2003) stated that an investment process considers social and environmental concerns within the context of rigorous financial analysis.
Thus, SRI is an investment process that considers social, legal, ethical, environmental, and corporate governance issues in addition to traditional financial analysis through positive and negative screening. It includes the process of identifying and investing in companies that meet certain standards of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). www.ijmer.in 75
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CSR is about how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society (Baker, 2004). It covers a wide range of actions taken by firms with respect to business conduct, corporate governance and environmental protection to issues of social inclusion, human rights and national economic development, which goes beyond what legally required from a firm (Barnea & Rubin, 2006; WBI, 2003).
So, socially responsible investor analyzes the positive and negative impact of business or companies it owns on environment, market, work place, and local communities at large to make a decision to invest or not to invest. Because, the negative and positive influences of one organization on environment, market place, work place, and local communities have directly and/or indirectly affect the neighbor organization and community (Baker, 2004). Consequently, shareholders, customers, employees unions, government, NGOs, and communities are directly and/or indirectly affect companies’ management and performances.
Decision making is a complex activity, which is defined as the process of choosing a particular alternative from a number of alternatives (Kannadhasan, 2005). It can never make in a vacuum by relying on the personal resources and complex models, which do not take into consideration the situation. It encompasses not only the specific problem faced by the individual but also extends to the environment with the goals in the competitive business environment.
Two main cognitive mechanisms are part of decision making tasks. The first step in the decision process is the activation of a decision frame or schema for understanding the decision situation and the second step is the integration of the various outcomes associated with a decision and the decision maker's preferences (Glac, 2008). These two stages structure the development of the decision model behind SRI choices.
To sum up, SRI decision is not charity rather an activity that follows proper evaluation of all available investment avenues using different techniques of investment analysis to construct portfolio. Even though social irresponsible investment decision affects society and environment in term of pollution, natural resource destruction, dangerous wastes, unsafe products and limitation of workers’ right. However, the Neoclassic economist’s perspective argued that manager’s main objective is making decisions that maximizing shareholders value, and let the government and other parties to take care of community (Friedman, 1970),it oppose SRI by supporting narrow focus of companies. In addition, modern portfolio theory opposes SRI decisions by describing it as investment decision that decreases portfolio diversification and wealth of www.ijmer.in 76
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investors (Laurel, 2011). In contrast, behavioral finance theory and stakeholder’s theory support SRI by suggesting firm’s management of internal and external relationships would have significant positive or negative effects on future profitability (Curtis, 2004; Kim &Statman, 2009; Stanley & Herb, 2007; Statman, 2011). These theoretical controversies may lead social responsible investment decision practices different around the globe.
2.2. Factors Considered by Social Responsible Investors
Taylor (2007) stated factors considered by social responsible investors as legal responsibility and economic responsibility, whereas Oxford Business Knowledge (2007) classified them as social factors, ethical factors and environmental factors. Thus, responsibilities that are considered by social responsible investors during investment decision may be summarized as follows:
Social and ethical responsibility: Includes human capital (training and education, working conditions, and health), community development, and labor rights (such as the right to unionization). In addition, social and ethical responsibility protect the violations of human rights, use of child labor, manufacture or distribution of weapons, inhumane testing of products on animals, slavery, forced prostitution, as well as the traditional ethical concerns around pornography, alcohol, and gambling.
Environmental responsibility: Environmental factor contains protection of urban and industrial pollution, global warming, depletion of some natural resources (such as oil) and restricted access to others (such as clean water), the reduction of the world’s flora and fauna populations etc.
Legal responsibility: Legal responsibility is to follow the law that legislatures and other divisions of the government use to protect employees, stakeholders, customers, suppliers and other regulatory laws such as regular registration, fair and timely paying tax that indirectly protect the community.
Economic responsibility: Economic responsibility comprises a corporation's duty to produce goods and services and the process to provide jobs with good wages while still earning a sustainable profit for its stakeholders.
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3.0 METHODOLOGY AND MODEL SPECIFICATION
The purpose of this study was to investigate how investors make socially responsible investment decision and to answer why SRI decision alters among different investors. Accordingly, primary data was collected through survey method by using questionnaire at a point of time from 91 investors selected through judgmental sampling method out of 1369 investors who are registered in Tigrai Regional State Investment Bureau as investors of on companies’ shares and/or their own projects in different sectors of the economy except Endowment Fund for Rehabilitation of Tigrai (EFFORT) due to its complexity to get the defined persons registered as owners.
Both econometric and statistical tools were employed to analyze the data and to test the hypotheses. The study was controlled over variables that determined SRI decision through Ex-post design, i.e., by comparing the result with previous researches. This research used more of quantitative analysis to generalize the result for the existing investors in Mekelle city.
3.1.Data Analysis Technique
Spearman’s rank correlation test was employed to test the hypothesis that state relationship between, dependent and independent variables because some of the variables have ordinal nature (Greener, 2008).
In addition, ordered probit model was used to estimate the relationship between dependent and independent variables as adopted from (Owen & Qian, 2008; Williams, 2005). It is appropriate to study the determinants of SRI decision as dependent variable, i.e., SRI decision measured in terms of ordinal values and qualitative difference occur among each category. The correlation of dependent variable, Social responsible investment decision and the independent variables were analyzed by ordered probit model as framed below:
Assuming a latent variable, Y* exists, can be defined Y* = xβ + ε
Where, Y*= level of social responsible investment decision and x represents all independent variables.
Y* be divided by some cut points (thresholds): (very less α1 responsible), ( less responsible), ( moderately responsible), ( α2 α3 α4 highly responsible) and (very highly responsible), and α5 α1<α2<α3<α4< α5 www.ijmer.in 78
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The observed investors’ social responsible investment decision level is the ordinal outcome, y, ranging from 1 to 5 which can be defined as:
1 if y* 1
2 if y* 1 2 3 if 2 y* 3 y 4 if 3 y* 4
To compute probability of an investor’s social responsible investment decision in each cut off point the following formula were used:
P(y=1) = P (y* ≤α1) = P(xβ + ε ≤ α1) = F (α1- xβ);
P(y=2) = P (α1 P(y=3) = P (α3 P(y=4) = P (y* >α4) = F (α4- xβ)- F (α3- xβ); P(y=5) = P(y* >α5) = 1- F (α4- xβ) To compute the cumulative probabilities using the form: P (Y≤ j) = F (αj - xβ) the model was therefore, constructed as: P(SRI) = α + βAI+βSI+βIDUI+βGTGEN+βRELG+βRELGINF+βSOCETHIC+βTOINV+ βLONGTR+ βSHORTTR+ βSMRISK+ βENVFRIEN+ βLCKSEC+βLCKCON+ e Where: SRI Social responsible investment decision AI Age of investor SI Sex of investor www.ijmer.in 79 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 IDUI Education level of investor RELGN Religion of investor RELGNINF Religion influence of investor GTGEN Good thinking towards next generation ENVFRD Environmental friendly purchase SOCETHIC Socio-ethical influence LONGTR Expectation of long term return SHORTTR Expectation of short-term return SMRISK Expectation of risk LCKINF Lack of information LEGINFO Legal enforcement and incentives LCKSCMKT Lack of secondary market TOINV Term of investment LCKCONSLT Lack of consultant 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Hypothesis Testing Spearman’s rank correlation test was used in the study to test literature driven hypotheses about the relationship between SRI decision and its determinant factors such as demographic, psychological, and financial factors. Hypothesis one: SRI decision and demographic factors are independent Table 4.1: The Spearman’s rank correlation test result of demographic factors and SRI decision Null hypothesis Spearman's Table Result of test rho value value of t Ho: SRI decision and age are 0.1560 0.1398 Null hypothesis is independent rejected Ho: SRI decision and sex are -0.0171 0.8725 Null hypothesis is independent accepted Ho: SRI decision and 0.0604 0.5693 Null hypothesis is educational level of investors accepted are independent Ho: SRI decision and religion 0.0217 0.8384 Null hypothesis is are independent accepted Source: Own survey, 2012 www.ijmer.in 80 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 SRI decision does not vary as demographic factors such as sex, educational level, and religion of investors do change, except for the age of investors, in which SRI decision is depend on age. Hypothesis two: SRI decision and psychological factors are independent. Table 4.2: Spearman’s rank correlation test result of psychological factors and SRI decision Null hypothesis Spearman's Table Result of test rho value value of t Ho: SRI decision and religious 0.2799 0.0072 Null hypothesis is influence are independent rejected Ho: SRI decision and environmental friendly 0.4235 0.0000 Null hypothesis is purchase of investors are rejected independent Ho: SRI decision and good 0.3259 Null hypothesis is think for next generation are 0.0016 rejected independent Ho: SRI decision and socio- 0.3966 0.0001 Null hypothesis is ethical influence are rejected independent Source: own survey, 2012 From the table above the null hypothesis that states, “SRI decision and psychological factors are independent” was rejected and the entire alternative hypothesis was accepted at 5% significance level. Hypothesis three: SRI decision and financial factors are independent. Table 4.3: Spearman’s Rank Correlation Result of Financial Factors and SRI Decision Null hypothesis Spearman's Table Result of test rho value Value of t Ho: SRI decision and -0.0157 0.8835 The null hypothesis income are independent is accepted Ho: SRI decision and term 0.4034 0.0001 The null hypothesis www.ijmer.in 81 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 of investment are is rejected independent Ho: SRI decision and 0.1649 0.1184 The null hypothesis expectation of long-term is rejected return are independent Ho: SRI decision and The null hypothesis expectation of short-term -0.0491 0.6437 is accepted return are independent Ho: SRI and expected risk -0.1752 0.0966 The null hypothesis on SRI are independent is rejected Source: Own survey, 2012 As indicated on Table 4.3 above term of investment, expected risk on SRI decision, expectation of long-term and SRI decision are not independent. Short-term return and income of investor is independent with SRI decision at 5% significance level. 4.2. Determinants of SRI Decision An ordered probit regression model was used to show the detail parametric relationships and find out what factors would influence SRI decision. Before analyzing the determinants of SRI decision, Fitness of model was tested by link test which shows the p-value of “hat” is significant, this means, the model predictor is correctly specified. P-value “hatsq” is also insignificant, this indicates, there is no correlation among independent variables included in the model. Thus, there is no model specification bias. Fitness of good of ordered probit model was tested by likelihood ratio chi2 (LR chi2) and the data was fit for the model and the validity of the assumptions imposed on the model was tested for multicollinarity problems by VIF test as shown on and the data is normally distributed as tested by Shapiro-Wilk W test. In addition, Breusch-Pagan / Cook- Weisberg test was used to check problem of heteroskedasticity. As a result the data was free of any econometric problems and all the assumptions were confirmed Hence, ordered probit model was employed to estimate the significant relationship and the direction of relationship between dependent variable (SRI decision) and independent variables. Moreover, the marginal effects of the determinants of SRI decision were also discussed after regressing ordered probit model. The result of ordered probit model is presented in the Table 4.4 below. www.ijmer.in 82 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The following analysis and discussion depends on the results depicted on Table 4.4 below. Table 4.4: The ordered probit estimates for determinants of SRI decision Variables Coefficien Std. z P> t Err. |z| Age of -.0461388 .172257 - 0.789 Demographic investors 8 0.2 variables 7 Sex of .0771983 .398533 0.1 0.846 investors 3 9 Education .0741916 .122359 0.6 0.544 status 8 1 Religion .018625 .324168 0.0 0.954 2 6 Religion .1480507 .073382 2.0 0.044** influence 7 2 Psychologica Environmenta .2060091 .072889 2.8 0.005* l l friend 7 3 variables purchase Good thinking .0959405 .073250 1.3 0.190 for next 1 1 generation Socio-ethical .0693184 .072412 0.9 0.338 concern 3 6 Term of .3825305 .203800 1.8 0.061** investment 2 8 * Financial Expectation of .0610773 .069542 0.8 0.380 variables long term 4 8 return Expectation of .1354074 .169696 0.8 0.425 short term 2 0 return Expectation of -.3074579 .121633 - 0.011** risk 4 2.5 3 Income of -.1134764 .098144 - 0.248 investors 9 1.1 6 Stakeholder Incentives to .1964607 .071629 2.7 0.006* SRI 5 4 www.ijmer.in 83 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Influence Legal -.114876 .084808 - 0.176 variables enforcement 8 1.3 5 Customer .0190737 .095424 0.2 0.842 need to ethical 2 0 product Lack of -.0281931 .064916 - 0.664 information 1 0.4 about SRI 3 Other Lack of social -.1373008 .088623 - 0.121 variables responsible 7 1.5 company 5 Window -.0698724 .085610 0.8 0.414 dressing 3 2 information about social responsible company Lack of -.3189022 .184570 - 0.084** secondary 1 1.7 * market in 3 local environment Lack of -.1112407 .065423 - 0.089** investment 4 1.7 * consultant 0 /cut1 .7201468 .855724 9 /cut2 1.844488 .863434 5 /cut3 2.471418 .873415 4 /cut4 3.370765 .899522 1 Number of obs=90 Prob> chi2 =0.0000 LR chi2(21) =63.80 Pseudo R2 =0.2217 Log likelihood= -111.98266 Note:* indicate significant at 1%,** significant at 5% and *** significant at 10% Source: Own survey, 2012 Table 4.4 above shows demographic variables that were identified as determinant factors for SRI decision. The study revealed that the www.ijmer.in 84 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 demographic factors do not determine SRI decision. This result was different from prior studies because these studies were conducted in developed countries that did not have socio-cultural similarity with the investors in Mekelle City, in developing economic environment. On the other hand, this may happen as sample respondents of the Mekelle city investors have almost similar demographic characteristics. As the probability of investors’ participation in religious activities and purchasing of environmental friendly products increase, the SRI decision also increases. This result is consistent with prior research findings that generalized as religious investors who embrace peace and non-violence have avoided investing in enterprise that profit from a products designed to kill or enslave human beings. In addition, individuals who purchase environmental friendly products were already demonstrating economic behavior that has driven by a concern for the public good and they gain utility from considering non-financial returns. According to Table 4.4, the probability of increasing terms of investment(in years) increase SRI decision and the probability of increasing in expected risks of SRI decreases SRI decision. Furthermore, expected short-term and long-term returns of SRI have insignificant effect on SRI decision. These results were match with the studies conducted in different countries at different periods. The prior researchers were concluded that the elements financial effects as determinant factor of SRI decision by stating that social responsible investors want to see their results in long term with the objective of inheriting good investment to the next generations. In addition to this, as investors become sensitive to expected risk on SRI, SRI decision decreases. However, other study showed social responsible investors get the utility more than financial return and they are confident on sustainability of their investment. So, expected long term return has not effect on SRI decision. Moreover, social responsible investors do not expect short term return on their investment, as a result short term return have not any significant effect on SRI decision. These research results are in line with the study undertaken that shows by expected risks influenced more than long term and short term return on SRI decision. Other determinant factor of SRI decision was incentives from different stakeholders. As probability of providing incentives from different stakeholders increase, SRI decision also increase. The attitude and knowledge of investors towards SRI decision improved as more incentives are provided. Therefore, an incentive from different stakeholders was the main determinant factor of SRI decision. www.ijmer.in 85 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Besides, lack of secondary market and investment consultant were also determinants of SRI decision. The justifications behind these determinants were; as secondary market is available in local environment, investors get the chance to access information about where they should invest before investing. Investment consultant in local environment is another determinant of SRI, because the consultant guides investors during investment decision by collecting available financial and non-financial data on investment opportunity to make reasonable investment decision. Other variables such as consumer need for ethical product, legal enforcement, lack of information and window dressing information about SRI decision have insignificant effect on SRI decision. 4.3. Marginal Effects of Determinants of SRI Decision The coefficients in ordered probit regression does not show any degree of effect of the independent variables on dependent variable rather they show direction of effect only, i.e., either positive or negative signs. However, Marginal effect in an ordered probit shows the degree on how independent variables affect the dependent variable in each category. In the ordered probit model, the marginal effects of the various covariates on the probabilities are different from the coefficients because of rule of marginal effect that states the sign of marginal effect is opposite of coefficient at lower threshold and have identical sign on higher cutoff point. So, the directions of the marginal effects of the covariates are not necessarily the same as the respective coefficients. According to these rule, Figure 4.4 below shows the marginal effect of significant variables that are identified by ordered probit regression. Environmental friend purchase has the highest marginal effect of all the determinants. It followed by incentives from different stakeholders, religious influence, expected risk on SRI, and term of investment, respectively. www.ijmer.in 86 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Figure 4.4: Marginal Effect of Ordered Probit Result 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 marginal effect -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 Very less Less Moderate Highly Very highly responsible responsible responsible responsible responsible Lack of consultant 0.0157171 0.0264935 8.03E-05 -0.0209426 -0.0213483 Lack of secondary market 0.0450575 0.075951 0.0002302 -0.0600378 -0.0612009 incentives -0.0277578 -0.0467899 -0.0001418 0.0369865 0.037703 expected risk 0.0434405 0.0732254 0.0002219 -0.0578833 -0.0590046 Environmental friend -0.0291069 -0.049064 -0.0001487 0.0387841 0.0395354 purchase Religion influence -0.020918 -0.0352603 -0.0001069 0.0278726 0.0284126 Term of investment -0.0540475 -0.091105 -0.0002761 0.0720167 0.0734118 Source: Own survey, 2012 5.1. CONCLUSION Based on the ordered probit model regression results, environmental friendly purchase and religious influence as psychological factors, term of investment and expected risk on SRI as financial factors and incentives from different stakeholders, lack of secondary market and investment consultancy as other factors were significantly affect SRI decision. The first important determinant of SRI decision was environmental friendly purchase, following by incentives obtained from different stakeholders. According to the finding as more incentives provided by the stakeholders SRI decision increase at different marginal effects among each level of SRI practitioners. On the other side, lack of investment consultant and secondary market was the first and second least significant determinants among the main determinants of SRI. www.ijmer.in 87 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 References 1. Baker, M. (2004). Corporate social responsibility: What does it mean? First publication. 2. Barnea, A., & Rubin, A. (2006).Corporate social responsibility as a conflict between shareholders. CIBC Centre for Corporate Governance and Risk Management Working Paper Series-2. Retrieved on September 27, 2011, from http://www.fubusiness.ca/cibc-centre. 3. Barnett, M. L., & Salomon, R. M. (2006). The curvilinear relationship between social responsibility and financial performance(Figure). Strategic Management Journal, 27, 1101-1122. doi:10.1002/smj.557. 4. Beltratti, A. (2003). Socially responsible investment in general equilibrium. 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Journal of Investment Analysts 69, 3–16. 19. Jansson, M., & Biel, A. (2006). Psychological influences on investors intention to be socially responsible investors: A comparison what influences SRI intentions among different types of investors. University of Gothenburg, Sweden. 20. Kannadhasan, M. (2005). Role of behavioral finance in investment decisions. Retrieved on May, 25, 2012, from http://www.bi m.edu/src1 /suppor tfiles/52.pdf. 21. Kim, Y., & Statman, M. (2009). Do corporations invest enough in environment al responsibility? Journal of Business Ethics, 105(5). doi: 10.1007/s10551-011- 0954-2. 22. Laurel, D. (2011). Socially responsible investments in Europe: The effects of screening on risk and the clusters in the fund space. Working Paper Series. Retrieved from http://www. google.com. modern + portfolio+the ory+and+ social+responsible. 23. Maheran, N. M, Johari, R. J., & Mustafa, M. (2005). Social responsibility accounting (SRA) in Malaysia: Challenge and opportunity. Kelantan Campus, 18500 Machang. Retrieved on May 25, 2012, from http://www.nikmaheran.com/v1 /attachments/029_social%20 responsibi lity% 20accounting.pdf. 24. Owen, L., & Qian, Y. (2008). Determinants of socially responsible investment decisions. Empirical Economics Letters, 8(4), ISSN 1681- 8997, Hamilton College. 25. Oxford Business Knowledge. (2007). Recent trends and regulatory implications in socially responsible investment for pension funds. Organization for economic and social development. Retrieved on May, 25, 2012, from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/3/0/38 550550. pdf. 26. Paris, R. (2009). Principle for social responsible investment. UNPRI, 13. Retrieved on December 10, 2011, from www.unpri.org. 27. Rosen, B., Sandler, D., & Shani, D. (1991). Social issues and socially responsible investment behavior: Preliminary empirical investigation. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 25(2). www.ijmer.in 89 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 28. Russo,V., & Fouts, A. (1998). A resource-based perspective on corporate environmental performance and profitability. Academy of Management Journal, 40(3), 534-559. 29. Schueth, S. (2003). Socially responsible in the United States. Journal of Business Ethics, 43, 189-194, Netherland, Kluwer academic publisher. 30. Sustainable investment forum (1999). 1999 report on socially responsible investing trend in the United States. Retrieved on September, 27, 2011, from http:// www.socialinvest. Org/area/research/ trend/1999-trend.htm. 31. Sustainable investment forum. (2006). Social responsible study. Retrieved from http://ussif. org/resources /sriguide/ srifacts. 32. Sustainable investment forum. (2010). Sustainable and responsible investing facts. Retrieved from http://ussif.org/resources/ sriguide /srif acts.cfm. 33. Taylor, S. (2007). Corporate responsibility and social responsibility. Retrieved on February 27, 2012, from http://voices.yahoo.com/corporate-responsibility-social- responsibility-175408. html?cat=3. 34. Tippet, J. (1999). Performance of Australia’s ethical funds. Journal of Australian Economic Review, 34(2),170-178. 35. Tippet, J., & Leung, P. (2001). Defining ethical investment and its demography in Australia. Journal Australian Accounting Review,11(3), 44- 55. 36. World Bank Institute (2003). Public policy for corporate social responsibility. Retrieved on November 28, 2011, from http://vx.worldbank.org/cgi- bin/lyris.pl?visit=public-policy-csr. 37. Wesley, J. (1872). The use of money: The sermons of John Wesley (in public domain).sermon 50. Retrieved on May 25, 2012, from http://gbgm- umc.org/umw/wesley/serm-050.stm. 38. Williams, G.A. (2005). Some determinants of the socially responsible investment decision: A cross country study. Journal of Behavioral Finance, 8(1), 43-57. www.ijmer.in 90 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 COMPARATIVE STUDY ON PERSONALITY AND SELF CONFIDENCE AMONG TEENAGE & ADULT SPORTS PLAYERS Mr.Ambresh.Biradar Dr.M.S.Pasodi Ph.D. Research Scholar Principal Dept of Physical Education Dept of Physical Education Gulbarga University Gulbarga University Jnana Ganga, Kalnoor Jnana Ganga, Kalnoor Kalaburagi, Karnataka Kalaburagi, Karnataka Introduction PERSONALITY may be described as the most characteristic integration of an individual’s structure, modes of behavior, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes. Most theorists agree that personality is an internal, mental, and emotional pattern of response to the environment – a pattern of thought, felling and behavior that affects every aspect of a person’s life. Personality can also be defined in terms of characteristics (traits) of the individual which are directly observable in the behavior. It is quality that makes a person stand out from others; it is what ever makes a person unique. SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR TEST In a rapidly developing psychological field, different psychologists on diverse fields, e.g. clinical, experimental, educational, interpersonal, occupational and vocational many other have made different, temporary and semi popular factor analytical experiments for misusing personality of person. Technically accurate and widely repeated experiments of this kind are necessary to demonstrate that the separate traits or dimensions of personality which test scales measure correspond too uniquely, functionally unitary and psychologically significant course traits. One of them is the 16 P.F which is not a questionnaire compared of as fitrary scales, but consists www.ijmer.in 91 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 of scales carefully oriented and groomed to basic concepts in human personality structure research, Its publication was under taken to meet the demand of research psychologists for a personality – measuring instrument duly validated with respect to the primary personality factors, and rooted in basic concepts in general psychology. The 16 PF test is a multidimensional set of sixteen questionnaire scales, arranged in omnibus form. It is designed to make available, in a practicable testing time, information about an individual’s standing on the majority of primary Personality factors twenty three of them, if we count the 16 P.F supplement out of, perhaps. Thirty or so covered by existing research on the total human personality rheum, as defined by cattell’s operational concept (1964 a, 1964 b). As regards the 16 P.F it self, one should note that it covers, in addition to the sixteen primaries, some eight derivatives there from as second – stratum, higher- over, broader reconditions. Basavanna (1971) studied self-confidence as an attribute of self- concept. An inventory developed for the purpose of measuring self- confidence was standardized by using traditional psychometric procedures on a group of 300 college students. The self-confidence inventory was later administered to 800 male students studying in various classes and courses in the constituent colleges of Sri Venkateswara University from whom three samples of twenty-five each were randomly drawn from various levels of score distribution to represent high, moderate and low levels of self-confidence respectively. All the seventy five subjects belonging to the three samples were individually tested to obtain a measure of their risk-taking behavior, a measure of their intellectual level, a measure of their level of aspiration, and a measure of their speed of conflict resolution. Further, they were given a Q-sort test individually under four instructional sets to obtain a self-sort, an ideal self-sort, and other person sort and an ideal other person sort. Major findings of the study: 1.Persons, who www.ijmer.in 92 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 perceived themselves as having high self-confidence, had higher general mental ability than those who perceived themselves as lacking in self- confidence. 36 2. Persons with high self confidence were capable of taking fairly higher risk in predicting the outcome of their performance in an intellectual activity than those who lacked self-confidence. 3. Persons with high self-confidence had higher self regard than those who lacked self-confidence. 4. There were no significant differences between the persons with high and low self-confidence in their level of aspiration behavior. 5. The groups with high and low confidence did not differ significantly with regard to their speed of conflict resolution. 6. The people with high and low confidence did not differ significantly with respect to their regard for others. Dipika, Shah and Manivannan (2003) made a study of the self-confidence of visually impaired children in integrated and special schools in Tamil Nadu. A sample of 320 visually impaired children was selected as the sample through stratified random sampling procedure. The tools used ‗students‘ self-confidence scale (SCS) based on the Likert scale of summated ratings. Major findings of the study were: 1. there was no significant difference between the scores of visually impaired children in self-confidence on the basis of the gender. 2. There was no significant interaction between independent variables gender and nature of impairment as far as the scores of visually impaired children in ‗self-confidence‘ are concerned is tenable. 3. There was no significant interaction between independent variables gender and nature of schools as far as the scores of visually impaired children in self-confidence are concerned. 4. There was no significant interaction between independent variables such as gender; nature of impairment and nature of schools as far as the scores of visually impaired children in self- confidence are concerned. www.ijmer.in 93 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Statement of Problem Of The Study The problem formulated for the present study was to find out the differences of personality traits and self confidence among teenage sportspersons and adult sportsperson. Hypothesis 1) There is a significant deference in personality traits among teenage sportsperson and adult sportspersons 2) There is a significant deference in self confidence level among teenage sportspersons and adult sportspersons. Sample The sample of the study consist of total100 male sportspersons drawn randomly made two age groups one teenage group and adult group equally in Kalaburagi District. There was an equal numbers of samples. The respondents were administered 16 personality Factors scale and self confidence scale to determine the extent of personality and self confidence levels between the teenage group and adult group of sportspersons.. Tools Following standardized questionnaires were used in the present study to measure personality traits, 1) Chattel’s 16 PF Questionnaire consist of 105 items. 2) Self confidence scale www.ijmer.in 94 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Data Analysis Table -1 Personality factors of teenage and Adults of Gulbarga District Factors Teenage Adult t- value M SD M SD A 6.26 1.44 3.95 1.47 8.31** B 6.03 1.5 3.71 1.91 7.4** C 6.53 1.79 3.88 1.32 8.68** E 6.25 1.36 3.98 1.28 9.01** F 6.45 1.75 3.9 1.61 7.83** G 5.68 1.17 4.1 1.8 5.79** H 5.26 1.02 4.9 2.42 1.04* I 4.5 1.09 5.73 1.2 5.68** L 4.33 1.09 5.66 1.14 6.1** M 4.35 1.2 5.43 1.14 6.02** N 3.93 1 4.5 1.09 3.12** O 4.06 1.24 4.98 1.61 3.31** Q1 5.58 1.69 4.15 1.92 5.54** Q2 6.16 1.04 4.5 1.12 7.2** Q3 6 1.85 5.03 1.65 3.59** Q4 4.48 1.15 5.1 1.55 2.46** Significant level 0.01* www.ijmer.in 95 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 7 6 5 4 teenage 3 2 Adult 1 0 A B C E F G H I L M N O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 The table No-1 and Graph= indicates that Teenage sportspersons have relatively high score than the adult sportspersons significant at 0.01 level. This says that teenage sportspersons are out going, worm, easygoing, are kind, participative and likes people, abstract tinkers, trusty, balance minded, relaxed, practical, hard to fool, dominative, good leadership than Adult sportspersons. Table No-2 ,self confidence levels sports persons. Groups Mean N Std. t-value Deviation Teenage 32.40 50 4.54456 8.97** Adult 39.30 50 2.33212 Significant level 0.01* www.ijmer.in 96 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Mean 39.3 40 32.4 30 20 10 Mean 0 Teenage Adult The table No-2 & Graph shows that the teenage sports persons are score low and the adult sportspersons are score higher than teenage players but low score indicates high level of self confidence and high score indicates low self confidence, so the teenage sportspersons are more confident then the adult sportspersons. Conclusions The following conclusions: 1. There is significant difference in the personality traits among teenage and adult sportspersons of Kalaburagi District. 2. There is significant deference in self confidence level among teenage adult sportspersons. References 1. Allport (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York, Holt, Renihart and Winston. www.ijmer.in 97 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 2. Eysenck (1959) Headache,Personality and the stress. The British journal of Psychiatric,111,1193-1197. 3. Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 4. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960): Skills Test Manual-Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. www.ijmer.in 98 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 RECONCEPTUALIZING AND MAXIMIZING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF LANGUAGE Dr.Archana Singh Assistant Professor Amity School of Liberal Arts Amity University, Haryana Learning a different language is now a days has become very important to survive in this career oriented and competitive global village. Technology has almost spread its wing all over the world with a terrific speed. Career oriented students are now focussing on to learn different language to have a better growth. In view of these requirements and to evoke interest among the learners, there is a need in shift of traditional classroom teaching to the content based teaching.The basic skills required in the 21 st century to make the classrooms student centred instead of teacher centred are creativity and innovation, critical thinking, collaboration and formative assessment.Learning is “a bitter medicine that needsthe sugar-coating of entertainment to become palatable”(Resnick, 2004)To ensure that the learners are improving their language and also taking interest in learning process, the facilitator should include some games and activities which give ample of chances to the learners to freely express their views rather than focussing on learning the rules of language.These activities create interest among the students, especially for those who are disinterested in traditional teaching and learning process.Actvities in form of games “add a variety to dry, serious process of learning instructions”( Bransford, Brown& Cocking,2000). The Fig.1 explainshow to maximize teaching- learning process in a classroom. www.ijmer.in 99 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 •Engaging •Promote Learners in horizontal focused conversation discussions (Active learner involvement) Maximising Teaching Learning Process •Well-planned group activity • Alternatives in assessment Fig. 1 Engage Learners in focused discussions (Active learner involvement) A Learner should be provided a conducive atmosphere where he could freely express his opinions with his peers. Some teachers coerced learners to produce answers which are taught to them in class and hinders the actual learning of the learners and may develop threat in learner’s mind. This unnecessary force/ pressure on the students should be avoided in classroom teaching rather students should be engaged in focussed discussion. Participation is the key ingredient in the learning process.Sometimes the discussion in the class turns into a debate in order to get the teacher attention. In this kind of conversation the weak students cannot get the right track and often get lost in the process without learning anything. To avoid this kind of www.ijmer.in 100 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 conversations, there should be focussed and structured conversation in the class in which students learn while conversing with their peers. This kind of atmosphere fosters respect and perspective sharing among the learners. In order to make sure that the learners participate in class discussions, teachers should provide some material which gives the background of the topic to the learners. Before going into the actual discussion there should be pre-discussions on the topic to make sure that the learner is aware of the topic and can fruitfully participate in a discussion. It is observed in traditional classroom teaching that the teachers recognize the student on the basis of his ability to answer the questions asked by her. Promote Horizontal Conversation A facilitator in order to encourage a healthy and a keen learning environment should follow horizontal flow of communication. There should not be use of coercion by facilitator on students that might interfere in their learning process. The coercion is not only the physical, it can be withdrawal of love and affection from a child. There should be a horizontal conversationin which teacher is a part of the discussion and not an evaluator and he/she should avoid oversimplification of content. The oversimplification of the content provides cooked foodto the learners and does not promote students to use their learning resources. Project work and well planned group activity maximizes the language learning Group and pair work increases the learning potential of the learners. Caruso and Woolley have stated that, “Group projects can help students develop a host of skills that are increasingly important in the professional world.”During the group activity, the class might identify individual participants who can help out with students struggling to express their ideas.The projects help the group in knowing diverse www.ijmer.in 101 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 perspective of their peers which in turn develops new approaches to view the problem. Apart from having the diverse perspective, a sense of responsibility is developed among the learners which is a key factor in planning and execution of the task given to the group. The focus should not be simply on the inculcation of specific linguistic skills only, but on the development of the learner’s cognitive ability. Project work not only develops a sense of respect among the learners, but alsosensitize them to honor diverse perspective of their peers. Alternative assessment criteria Assessment in academics isa student’s achievement in a specific course. For languagelearners, there is a need of an alternative assessment which can assess the learner's progress and helps the teacher in improving the learner at that very stage in which he is finding difficult.There should be practical measurements of students’ abilities, progress, and achievement instead of traditional written test. There would be activities throughout the course like roleplay, interviews, project work, conference, group discussions which help the teacher in actually analyzing the progress of alearner. Brown and Hudson point out that “performance assessments are relatively difficult toproduce and relatively time-consuming toadminister…. Reliability may be problematicbecause of rater inconsistencies, limited numberof observations, [and] subjectivity in the scoringprocess” (1998: 662). Though facilitator has to be very alert during the sessions, but it is a real evaluation of the learners. The shortcoming and flaws in learning a language can easily be checked at every stage of the process and improved so that the learners comes to know about their own progress. www.ijmer.in 102 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Atlast I would like to say that language learning is not very difficult if it is taught keeping in mind the actual learning instead of centring on grades.Focussed discussion , horizontal conversations, well planned group activity respects learners perception and help students in gaining fluency and confidence in the language.Unlike traditional method declaring the result of the student on the basis the numbers they score in exam,Huerta-Macias has very finely described alternative assessmentas “a story for everystudent—and what is the ultimate goal ofevaluation but to give us the knowledge to beable to reflect upon, discuss, and assist a student’s journey through the learning process”(10). Facilitator should not oversimplify the assignment in the class room teaching rather he should help students in exploring the new concept which lubricates their mind and helps in better learning. When students answer or try to explain, teachers can see the extent of theirunderstanding. References 1. Banks, J. A. 2008. Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. Educational Researcher 37 (3): 129–39. 2. Bransford,J.D,A.L. Brown, and R.R. Cocking.(2000). How People learn: Brain,mind,experience and school. Washington, D.C.: National Acaademy Press. 3. Brown, J. D. and T. Hudson. 1998. The alterna-tives in language assessment. TESOL Quarterly,32,4, pp. 653–675. 4. Caruso, H.M., &Wooley, A.W. 2008. Harnessing the power of emergent interdependence to promote diverse team collaboration.Diversity and Groups. 11, 245-266 5. Huerta-Macias, A. 1995. Alternative assessment:Responses to commonly asked questions.TESOL Journal, 5,1, pp. 8–11. 6. Resnick,M. (2004). Edutainment? No thanks. I Prefer Playful Learning. N.P.,N.D. www.ijmer.in 103 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 IMPCAT OF MGNREGA ON HEALTH/EDUCATION AMONG THE WAGESEEKARS- A HOUSEHOLD STUDY IN ANANRAPUR DISTRICT OF A.P Dr. Shaik Mahaboob Sharief Academic Consultant Dept. of Social Work Dravidian University, Kuppam INTRODUCTION: One of the major problems confronting the Indian Republic is the widespread of poverty among its citizens. According to 2011 census 69% of total Indian population still continue to live in nearly 6.38 lakhs villages. More than 70% of total population of rural India depends on agriculture and allied activities for livelihood. U.N secretary General Kofi Annan said in his address (2001) to the world health assembly, “the biggest enemy of health in the developing world in poverty” Globally there is a stark relation between poverty and health. Still nearly 300 million people live in extreme poverty in India and face deprivation in terms of access to basic services, including education, health, water, sanitation and electricity (India and the Million Development Goal report 2015) In order to reduce chronic poverty in rural area MGNREGA has been rolled out by Ministry of Rural Development. NREGA has come after almost 56 years of experience with other rural employment programmes, which include both Centrally Sponsored Schemes and those launched by State Governments. These comprise the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) 1980-89; Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) 1983-89; Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) 1989-1990; Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)1993-99; Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) 1999-2002; Sampoorna Grameen Rojgar Yojana (SGRY) from 2001; National Food For Work Programme (NFFWP) from 2004, which are national rural www.ijmer.in 104 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 employment schemes. Among these, the SGRY and NFFWP have been merged with NREGA in 2005. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was notified on 7 September, 2005, NREGA, is one of the flagship schemes of the Government of India that touches lives of the poor and promotes inclusive growth. The Act aims at enhancing livelihood security of households in rural areas of the country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The act came in to force on 2 February 2006 in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh and was implemented in a phased manner. In phase-one, it was introduced in 200 most backward districts of the country. In was implemented in an additional 130 districts in phase-two during 2007-2008. As per initial target, NREGA was to be expanded countrywide in five years. However, in order to bring the whole nation under its safety net, and keeping in view the demand, the scheme was extended to the remaining 247 rural districts of India from 1 April 2008 in phase III. Table: 1 Phase-wise Extension of the Scheme in India PHASE DISTRICTS I 200 II 130 III 247 Source: Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. www.ijmer.in 105 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) is the first ever Act in the world that guarantees wage employment on an unprecedented scale. The primary objective is strengthening natural resource management through works that address the causes of chronic poverty such as drought, deforestation and soil erosion and thereby encouraging sustainable development. Outcomes of the process include strengthening grassroots processes of democracy and infusing transparency and accountability in governance. On 2 October 2009, the scheme was named as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGS). The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act came into effect in September 2005. The then Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh, launched the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme on 02.02.2006 in Bandlapalli village of Anantapur District. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:- 1. To analyse the social, economic and demographic profile of MGNREGS’s workers in the selected study area. 2. To study the impact of MGNREGA on type of school education/impact on drop-out rate among the childrens of MGNREGA beneficiary households. 3. To assess impact of MGNREGA on accessibility of health practice among beneficiary households. HYPOTHESIS:- 1. There is no significant relationship between participation in Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme/Act and reduction of school drop-out rate and type of schooling among the sample respondent’s childrens. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:- www.ijmer.in 106 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Multi-Stage simple Random Sampling method has been adopted. The study has been carried out in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh.. The researcher has selected this region because it is a severely drought prone area and, therefore, migration is very high during lean season. In the first stage, based on the development parameters, two mandals were selected. In the second stage, three villages were selected. From each selected village, 50 sample beneficiaries were selected by a simple random technique. Finally, the study covered a sample of 150 beneficiaries from 3 villages, 2 mandals of Anantapur districts. TABLE: II SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS S.N VARIABLE FREQUENCY Percentage O 1. 20-30 9 6.% AGE 31-40 57 38.% 41-50 56 37.30% 51-60 21 14. % 60 Above 7 4.70% 2 CASTE SC 46 30.70% ST 10 6.70% OBC 66 44.00% OC 20 13.30% Minority 8 5.30% 3. OCUPATION Wage Labour 29 19.33% Agriculture labour 37 24.66% Live stock 30 20% Self employed 4 2.66% 4 Size of the 1-3 (small) 12 8.00% Family 4-6 (medium) 123 82.00% Above -7 (large) 15 10.00% 5 Type of Dwelling Thatched Hut 12 8% Kuccha House 1 0.7% Pucca House 137 91.30% 6 House Ownership OWN 139 93% www.ijmer.in 107 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 RENT 11 7% 7 Cooking Fire Wood 82 54.7% Amenities Kerosene 41 27.30% Gas 27 18% 8 Electronic Items Radio 5 3.3% T.V 124 82.7% DVD 24 16% Mobile Phone 140 93.3% 103 Dish Connection 68.7% 9 Number of family 1-2 Members 92 61.4% members enrolled 3-4 Members 57 38% in Job Card 5-6 Members 1 0.6% 10 Land Ownership Yes 30 20% No 120 80% 11 Migration Yes 50 33.3% No 100 66.7% The study shows majority (38 per cent) of the respondents are from 31 to 40 years age group, while 21.8 per cent of the others belong to 29 to 39 years age group. Further, 20 of the respondents are from 18 to 28 years age group and 13.9 per cent respondents are from 51 to 60 years age group. The study reveals that most of them (44 per cent) belong to Backward Classes. The study reveals that majority (52.7 per cent) respondent daily wage labour and 24.7 per cent agriculture labour fallowed by 20 per cent live stock is the main occupation. Further the study analyzes the size of the family. The majority of the respondent (82 per cent) are medium family among other 10 per cent have large family size and 8 per cent have small size. The study reveals that Whereas (93 per cent) are have own house, 7 per cent rented houses (91.3 per cent) are residing in pucca houses and 8 per cent in thatched hut. It is noticed from the study that (61.4 per cent) of the respondents are 2 member enrolled in job card, www.ijmer.in 108 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 and 38per cent have 3 to 4 members in job card. The remaining 0.6 per cent of the respondent are from 5 to 6 members enrolled in job card. It can be noticed from the study that majority (80 per cent) doesn’t have land only 20 per cent respondent have land and also observe that for employment (33 per cent ) households are migrating remaining 66.7 per cent are getting employment in their own villages. It is interesting to note from study that (93.3 per cent) households are possessing mobile phone, 82.7 per cent households are having T.V, in that 68.7 per cent accessing dish connection for T.Vs, it is surprised to note that only 3.3 per cent households are having Radios. The study explore that majority (54.7 per cent) are using fire wood for cooking, while 18 per cent households are using gas for cooking. TABLE:III Educational Level of the Children of the Respondents and the type of Schools they Attended Before and After MGNREGS Before MGNREGA After MGNREGA Anantapur Anantapur Respondent N 28 28 Families Not sending Children to % (18.70) (18.70) schools Respondent N 110 98 Families sending Children to Government % (73.30) (65.30) Schools Respondent N 12 24 Families sending Children to Private % (8.00) (16.00) Schools N 150 150 % (100.00) (100.00) www.ijmer.in 109 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The above table shows the educational status of children of the respondent families before and after the latter’s joining the MGNREGS. In Anantapur district, before joining MGNREGS, children of (18.70 per cent) respondent families were not going to school. Even after joining MGNREGS, there was no change in these (18.70 per cent) families. Therefore, it may be concluded that, in Anantapur district in general, MGNREGS has not changed the number of children attending schools. After the implementation MGNREGS, the number of children out of school neither decreased nor increased: it remained constant at (18.70 per cent). The study explores that before implementation of MGNREGS, children of (73.30 per cent) respondent families were attending Government schools. After MGNREGS’s implementation, the number has come down to (65.3 per cent). The study explore that , children of (8.0 per cent) respondent families were attending Private schools before the implementation of MGNREGS. After implementation, the number increased to(16.0 per cent), registering a two fold increase. Thus, it may be concluded that MGNREGS’s implementation has increased the number of families putting their children in private schools. TABLE: IV Medical Care of Respondents Before and After MGNREGS Before After MGNREGA MGNREGA Anantapur Anantapur Self N 18 12 Medication % (12.00) (8) N 20 73 RMP % (13.33) (48.7) Government N 97 54 Hospitals % (64.7) (36.00) Private N 15 11 Hospitals % (10) (7.3) N 150 150 % (100.00) (100.00) www.ijmer.in 110 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The study ravels that inn Anantapur district, while only families (12.0 per cent) were involved in self-treatment at home before implementation of MGNREGS, their number come down to (8.0 per cent) after the implementation of MGNREGS. (13.33 per cent) families were approaching the registered medical practitioners (RMPs) for treatment before the implementation of MGNREGS. After its implementation, their number increased to (48.7 per cent) before the implementation of MGNREGS, (64.7 per cent) families were receiving medical treatment from Government hospitals. After the Scheme’s implementation, the number of families visiting Government hospitals for medical treatment has come down to (36 per cent) before implementation of MGNREGS, the number of families that were visiting private hospitals for medical services was (10 per cent): after MGNREGS’s implementation, the number has come down to (7.3 per cent). Major Findings of the Study Age-wise distribution of respondents shows that a majority of (38.70 per cent) are in the age group of 41-50 years. Caste based classification of respondents revealed that backward classes/castes predominate with the highest number of (44 per cent). (82 per cent) of the respondents are in the group of medium families (4 to 6 members).Occupational status of the respondents revealed that majority of them (24 per cent) are engaged in agriculture wage labour. Findings regarding the type of residence of the respondents revealed that majority of them are residing in pucca houses (91.30 per cent) An analysis of the respondents in terms of ownership of homes revealed that (93 percent) of them own houses. Our analysis has revealed that, out of the 150 respondent families, only (80 per cent) possess irrigated/arable land. Number of respondent families with 1 to 2 members being enrolled in job cards is found to be (61.4 per cent). Out of the 150 respondent families, (33.3 per cent) are migrating to far off www.ijmer.in 111 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 places for earning a livelihood. In terms of the material used for cooking, it is found that a majority of families (54.7 per cent) are using the primitive method of cooking with fire wood, while families (18 per cent) are using LPG, and families (27.3 per cent) are using kerosene stoves. Further, it is observed that a majority of (82.7 per cent) families have Television sets. (93.3 per cent) families are using mobile phones among; (16 per cent) families have DVDs and (3.3 per cent) families have Radios. School Dropout Rate: MGNREGS has not positively affected the school dropout rates among the children of the respondents in the study area. Before the implementation of the Scheme, children of families (18.70 per cent) were dropping out of schools. The number has come to remain the same even after the implementation of the Scheme. This means to say that MGNREGS has helped neither in increasing nor in decreasing the dropout rate of the children of respondents. Therefore, it can be concluded that the MGNREGS has not positively impacted in decreasing the school dropout rates of children in the study area. Type of Schools Children of the Respondents Attended and Attending: The study explore that, before the implementation of MGNREGS, children of (73.3 per cent) respondent families were attending Government schools. After the implementation of MGNREGS, the number has come down to (65.30 per cent). While children of (8 per cent) families were attending private schools before the implementation of MGNREGS, the number has impressively gone up to (16 per cent) after the Scheme’s implementation. The above data demonstrates that the number of children studying in government schools has decreased and, at the same time, the number of children attending private schools has increased. Children’s schooling switching www.ijmer.in 112 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 from government to private is due to increased income levels of their parents/families because of the implementation of MGNREGS in rural areas. Medical Care and the Medium of Treatment: In the studied region, while (12 per cent) families were involved in self medication at home before the implementation of the Scheme, the number has decreased to (8 per cent) families after the implementation of MGNREGS. Before the implementation of the Scheme, while (13.33 per cent) families approached the RMPs for treatment, the number has increased to (48.7 per cent) after the implementation of MGNREGS. It amply clear that MGNREGS has positively affected the medical care attitude and access of the respondent families in the study area. Reference: 1. Bagchi, K.K. (Ed.) (2011) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Assessment of Impact and Effectiveness, Delhi: Abhijeet Publications. 2. Bhatia, Kartika (2009) ‘NREGA: A Guarantee against Migration’, Mimeographed, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad. 3. Dey, N., Dreze, J. and Khera, Reetika. (2006) Employment Guarantee Act: A Primer. New Delhi: National Book Trust. 4. Jain, S.C. (1986) ‘Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India: Some Issues of Micro Policy’, Indian Journal of Agriculture Economics, Vol. XLI, No. 3 (July-September). 5. Khera, Reetika. (Ed.) (2011) The Battle for Employment Guarantee. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 6. Mohanan, S. (1997) ‘Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India: New Challenges’, Kurukshetra, Vol. 21, No. 3. www.ijmer.in 113 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 7. Shah, M., and Ambasta, P. (2008) ‘NREGA: Andhra Pradesh Shows the Way’, The Hindu, 8 September. 8. Sharma, Anitha. (1994) Rural Employment Programmes in India. New Delhi: Mohit Publications. www.ijmer.in 114 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 URBAN PLANNING AS AN APPROACH TO REGULARIZATION AND LEGALIZATION IN GREATER VISAKHAPATNAM MUNICIPAL CORPORATION, ANDHRA PRADESH: A CASE STUDY Dr.Mohammednur Ahmed Dr.V.Hari Babu Dean Assistant Professor College of Business and Economics Dept. of Political Science & Public Haramaya University Administration Ethiopia Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Planning refers literally to the process of deciding what and how to do things with the available resources. It facilitates communication the existing resources with future needs by balancing various interest and expectations. So that, as an important components planning played a greater role in urban areas. Urban (city, or town) planning is a technical and political process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of the urban environment, including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities. The function additionally involves in integrating engineering, architectural, environmental and social dimensions. The need for sustainable development in urban areas also requires planed actions. Hence, City planning became one of most important functions of the corporation conferred by the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act 1955. To execute city planning functions, the corporation has established a department headed by Chief City Planner. The city planning unit is responsible primarily to strike a balanced use of lands under the limits of the corporation between residential, commercial, recreational and institutional needs. Besides, the city planner office has the responsibility to collect and analyze different data related with the city progress that enables the policy and decision maker to arrive at strategically important and appropriate decisions. In an effort to consolidate city planning, the state government clearly specified the responsibility of city planners under the Andhra Pradesh Town Planning Act 1920. The act prescribed the following mandatory elements under a General City-Planning Scheme to secure a settled policy and plan for the improvement and development of the towns and cities generally and control both municipal and private activities connected therewith: www.ijmer.in 115 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The construction, diversion, extension, alteration, improvement or closure of streets, roads and communications, to the extent required for the needs of the public generally; The reservations of land for streets, roads, open spaces, recreation grounds and sites for public buildings; The determination of what shall be residential, commercial, industrial and hutting areas; The preservation of objects and buildings of archaeological or historic interest or of natural beauty or which are actually used for religious purposes or regarded by the public with special religious veneration; The prescription of building lines and street alignments; The imposition of house density restrictions in different parts of the area included in the general town-planning scheme; The allocation of land for housing and infrastructure such as transport facilities, water supply, drainage inclusive of sewerage and surface drainage and sewage disposal, the inclusion of which may be considered desirable; The allotment or reservation of land for streets, roads, square houses, buildings for religious and charitable purposes, open spaces, gardens, recreation grounds, schools, markets, shops, factories, hospitals, dispensaries, government and municipal buildings, and public purposes of all kinds Regulations for achieving the scheme objectives. In an effort to execute the above planning functions, the corporation has organized the city planning office with branches at zonal level. The zones were headed by the Assistant City Planners with direct accountability to the Chief City Planner with the responsibility of city planning activities. The responsibly of the department becomes complicated with the ever increasing size of the population. In addition to the natural population growth, the city is experiencing inflow of people from rural areas. This needs proper planning and enforcement of plans to minimize the congestion and lack of essential amenities. For this reason, the City Planning Department has the following responsibilities to discharge to achieve the objectives stated in state Town Planning Act: Grant building & house permissions. Give layout plan approvals. Issue occupancy certificates. Issue certified copies of approved plans. Issue licenses to technical persons. Check unauthorized encroachments on roads and footpaths Issuance of advertisement licenses www.ijmer.in 116 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Removal of unauthorized buildings and encroachments Acquiring land for city development purposes Conducting necessary surveys to be used as an input for planning and decision making Other short-term activities such as regularization of illegal buildings and street vending Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) Visakhapatnam city is one of the fastest growing cities in Andhra Pradesh located in the East Coast of India in the offshore of Bay of Bengal. Geographically the city is located in 17o42' North latitude and 82o02' East on the cost of the Indian Ocean as a result the city experiences high humidity. The nearness to the ocean made the city more attractive port city for business and industrial uses. Thus from time to time the city is becoming a center for major big industries. Oil Refinery, Hindustan Zinc Smelter, fertilizer factory and Visakhapatnam Steel Plant are among the big industrial establishments in the city jurisdiction. The industrial development in the city over the years was creating job opportunities in the city. As result the economic, social and demographic pattern of the city is changing rapidly. Besides, today tourism and information technology are adding to the economic growth of the city. Demographically the city is experiencing a very rapid increase in the population size. The population of Visakhapatnam urban agglomeration increased from 1.05 million in 1991 to 1.32 million in 2001. The growth of population was more than 80% during 1971-81 and 37.11% during 1991-2001. According to the provisional figure of census 2011, the population size of the city is 1.7 million. On the top of this, the city has a strategic importance since the western naval fleet of the Indian Navy is located in the city. The Vizag Port also adds another importance to the city by making a transitional area for ships sailing to different countries of the world. The need for more services has become visible and has created pressure on the city administration. For the first time in 1858, the Voluntary Municipal Association of Visakhapatnam was established to formally mange urban affairs of the city during the Madras Presidency. Similarly in 1866 the Visakhapatnam Association became a Municipality. In 1920, the Municipality changed into a Municipal Council. In 1979 Municipal Council of Visakhapatnam was upgraded into Municipal Corporation. The Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation was merged with surrounding Gajuwaka municipality and other 32 Gram Panchayats to form Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) on November 21, 2005, with an objective to providing better municipal services and to increase developmental activities in those areas. The merger has benefited the Municipal Corporation by bringing major industrial www.ijmer.in 117 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 units like Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, Bharat Heavy Plates & Vessels Ltd. and Hindustan Zinc Ltd. within its limits, which were earlier covered under Gajuwaka Municipality. The merger has also brought a wide area under the ambit of GVMC which can be used for developmental purpose. GVMC is now divided into 72 wards for administrative convenience and covers an area of 540 sq. km. Building Approval and Permission Building regulations in urban areas are statuary instruments to ensure the implementation rules and regulations formulated by the state or local government authorities. In India, therefore, building approval is required for new buildings and modification of existing building. Consistently the state government has issued new Hyderabad Revised Building Rules in 2006. In line with these legal and social requirements, City planning department of the corporation has the responsibility to control and supervise quality and standard of construction of residential and commercial buildings as the buildings regulation rules. The approval process takes in to account environmental, engineering and architectural sustainability of buildings. In addition to this, the department assesses new building and building expansions compatibility with city Master Plan and City Development Plan requirements. The building approval and permission job of the corporation has been executed in two levels; at department and zonal levels. The department approves commercial and complex buildings covering 300 sq. meters and less than since 2004. The zonal offices approve and issue permits on residential buildings. The city planning department has received a tola of 14990 applications for approval in 2007 to 2010. Out of these 74.8 percent of requests were approved and the necessary permits were issued for building developers. The number of new building requests has shown an increasing pattern from time to time. Requests for new buildings are expected to increase in the future with the expansion of the city and the need for residential and commercial buildings. The overall performance also indicted that 18 to 40 percent of the applications were rejected for various reasons such as substandard plans and environmental and master plan incompatibility. Table: Number of Building Application Received Approved and Rejected city level No. Year Application Application Application Percentage Received Approved Rejected of Approved 1. 2007 3166 2597 669 82.0 2. 2008 2913 2339 574 80.3 www.ijmer.in 118 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 3. 2009 4239 2560 1679 60.4 4. 2010 4672 3712 960 79.5 5. Total 22839 17319 5620 75.8 Source: Chief City Planner, GVMC For administrative purpose the city is divided in six zones. In line with this the city planning department has its structure in six zones which each headed by Assistant City Planners. This enables to decentralize building construction approval to zone level. The zone city planning office makes the decision of approving or rejecting applications submitted for approval. A total of 21838 applications were received by the six zones from 2004 to 2010. The highest and lowest number of applications was submitted to Zone II and Zone I respectively. Zone II covers 32.1 percent (7003 applications) whereas Zone I covers 6.6 percent (1442 applications) of the total applications submitted for approval. Among the total applications submitted to the city planner office in different zones 14438(66.1 percent) was reviewed and only 11880(54.4 percent) was approved. Zonal comparison shows that Zone I has reviewed 93.5 percent and Zone III 52.2 percent which is the highest and the lowest figures respectively. Table: Number of Buildings Approved and Rejected in Six Zones 2004 to 2010 Zone No. of BPS No. of BPS Applications Disposed No. of BPS Applications Approved Returned/ Total (%) Applications Received Rejected Pending I 1442 784 564 1348(93) 94 II 7003 4109 281 4390(63) 2613 III 2824 1266 207 1473(52) 1351 IV 5090 2980 289 3269(64) 1821 V 2747 1551 767 2318(84) 429 VI 2732 1190 450 1640(60) 609 Total 21838 11880 2558 14438(66) 6917 Source: Chief City Planner, GVMC Another indicator that permits us measure the performance is the approval rate of zone as compared to the application submitted. The approval rate in Zone I, II, IV and V shows a similar patter which is 50 to 59 percent of the application was approved. The lowest performance was registered in Zone VI where only 43.6 percent the application approved. However, the pending cases are showing a disappointing figure that out of the total applications submitted to the zones almost 31.7 percent of the cases were pended files. This shows that it needs an attention from the corporation policy and decision makers. www.ijmer.in 119 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Since this has an impact on the satisfaction level of the residents required to build a house or commercial centers. The number of application applications pended is very high in Zone II, III and IV which is 35.8(1821 out of 5090) percent in Zone IV to 47.8 percent in Zone III. This needs a serious attention especially in the zone with the lowest level of approval. Otherwise, if not reversed the level of performance will sustain and become a customary practice that deprive the right of the citizen to get appropriate level of building approval service. Removal of Unauthorized Building It is an exaggeration to conclude that developers are buildings or erecting structures in accordance to approved plan and permission granted. There are instances where developers used to violate building rules and regulations. Some developers violate the approved plan, land policy or extend new structures without obtaining permission from the city planning department. Therefore, the department has the responsibility to take actions against any form of illegal and unauthorized in the entire city jurisdictions. If actions are not taken on time the problem of unauthorized buildings and structures would become a normal practice. Practically the department is lacking the institutional capacity to cover the entire city to enforce and demolish unauthorized buildings and structures erected. One of indicators of at the department level is the absence of data about the illegal buildings and structure in the city. Sometimes, unauthorized buildings are mixed with encroachments even if the two are different. Moreover, the problem of enforcement was complicated with the interference of courts that make the process to take longer time. The department took actions on authorized buildings haphazardly and spontaneous. This is associated with the lack of proper data bases about the unauthorized buildings in the city. As a result the corporation failed to take proactive measures to reverse the problem. For instance the corporation took action in 2007 and the next action was taken in 2010. In 2007 the department took actions against unauthorized buildings on 109 sites with the order from the Andhra Pradesh High Court. But the tendency remained to increase even after the actions. A case in point in 2010 the department demolished 46 cellar and 160 unauthorized buildings and extensions. This is an indicator how the campaign based action were counterproductive. Another sign for the persistency of the problem was observed on the time of regularizing opportunity was given to some developers. The number of applicants was very large and indicates how the problem was very severe in the city. To tackle the problem the corporation made mandatory for developers to have approved permissions to get access to civic service such as electricity, water, and www.ijmer.in 120 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 drainage. Besides severe penalties were attempted to be sanctioned for those who violate the rules and regulations as well as plans approve by the department. The exercise did not result in the intended outcome. Mover, to minimize number of unauthorized and illegal buildings on private lands the state government has provide one time opportunity for developers. Building Regularization Scheme (BPS) Andhra Pradesh government has noticed that large number of unauthorized layouts and buildings are cropping up in all urban areas. Government with a view to regulate the unauthorized constructions came up with a Penalization of unauthorized constructions and constructions in deviations of the sanctioned plan. This was done allegedly to help bring unauthorized constructions into planning fold and also to remove the threat or fear of demolition. According to government, it is a one-time opportunity to get unauthorized constructions regulated for those structures constructed between 1985 and December 2007. The scheme was only applicable only for unauthorized buildings on private properties and lands. Some of the Objectives of the Scheme include: To penalize each and every building constructed unauthorized or in deviation of the sanctioned plan so as to create deterrence against any such practice. To bring all the unauthorized constructions into planning fold and to regulate the development in urban areas. To provide an opportunity to the owners of the buildings to regulate their unauthorized constructions and deviations made to the sanctioned plan. To provide relief to several persons who have purchased buildings without any knowledge about the building regulations. The regularization scheme provided a relief for both the corporation and developers of unauthorized buildings. The corporation started to implement the regularization process in 2010 by receiving 22.285 applications. The number indicates the practice was significantly common in the city and the inability of the department in taking necessary actions on time. Out of the total applications the corporation approved the claims of 1512 1. The scheme imposes additional cost on the developers in a form of penalty. Therefore, the applicant was required to pay building permit fees, development charges, betterment charges and other miscellaneous payments. This program or scheme has two advantages. First, the government was able to collect a huge sum of funds from penalties and betterment charges sanctioned on the applicants for regularizations. The program permits applicants to pay 50 percent immediately and the remaining through installments in six months www.ijmer.in 121 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 without causing a lot of burden. Besides, the regularization was done through the consultation of different stakeholder that fosters confidence building among the public. Second, the applicants’ property remains protected from demolishing which might incur a huge cost. But, the remaining unapproved buildings are burdens of the corporation to take necessary actions in the future. Land Acquisitions In recent times, the Visakhapatnam city has achieved remarkable progress in economic growth, social advancement, and political and administrative reforms. These achievements are largely attributed to the macro and micro commitment of the Indian and city governments to improve the conditions of urban areas through adherence to a free market economy. The economic growth of the city is stimulating rapid and fundamental transformation, especially in the inner part of the city, where infrastructure projects, urban renewal, housing development and reform of state-owned enterprises are taking place at an unprecedented pace and scale. With this the demand for land has increased and placed greater pressure on the city administration in making land available for the economic and infrastructural development. Besides, the number of vehicles in the city is growing in surprising rate that created unprecedented pressure on the existing highly congested transportation system. Likewise, the need for land to expand the existing and constructing new roads has increased. Therefore, the land acquisition became the primary task of the City Planner Department in realization of vision of the city. The recent experience of land acquisition by the corporation was mainly for road development and widening programs. For instance in 2010, the city planning department acquired land from 25 private developer through issuing Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) certificate at Pendurthi Transport Corridor for the construction and widening of seven kilometer road under the BRTS program. The corporation also commenced construction of road at Simhachalam Transport Corridor. Therefore, negotiation with Andhra University carried out to acquire land for the road winding program of Ramatalkies road starting from Maddilapalem Junction. Additionally, one of the free trade and industrial zones in the state is established in the Visakhapatnam district. The land acquisition process in the city was an effort to foster economic and infrastructural development. However, the effort produced a greater challenge to the corporation and land owners from two perspectives. First, the compensation paid to private developers or owners was minimal which did not reflect true market value. The corporation has received complaints; even some have filed cases in the court. This constituted to delay www.ijmer.in 122 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 implementation of some of the projects of the corporation. Second, the acquisition of farm lands for industrial and other purposes and low compensation paid to the farmers has also negative consequence mainly people living on subsistence agriculture. This calls for appropriate measure to reduce harmful social and economic impacts on those whose land is transferred to the corporation. Removal of Encroachment One of the scarcest resources for development in urban areas is the availability of land. Therefore, it needs proper management and protections. However, experiences from different part of India showed those politicians are loathe evicting encroachers since the areas are considered as vote banks. The corporation provided protection and appropriate attention especially for two kinds of land according to the Andhra Pradesh Land Encroachment Act 1905. First, land under protection was the unassessed and land used for communal purposes. Public lands which are intended to be used for public purpose in the future are easy to be encroached by residents. At this time with the reformation of the corporation limits in 2005, public land encroachment tendency was observed in the affixed areas. Second, roads, parks, markets and paths in the city were as well susceptible for encroachment mainly in commercial areas. These kinds of places are highly congested with traffic. From legal point of view these actions are considered to fall under criminal acts which might award imprisonment. Meanwhile the corporation does not opt to proceed with this because of procedural and economic inefficiency. Going to court incurs huge cost as well as need longer time to enforce. With this understanding the corporation works on demolishing of any building on encroached land whether it is carried out by industrial or private developer. As it can be learned from development report issued by the human resource development office of the corporation land encroachment is a serious problem. Even if it not documents properly by the city planner office the previous performance of the corporation related with land, the experts estimated that the corporation identifies 500 to 600 land encroachments every years. For instance the data obtained from the development report (i.e. not yet published) of 2010; the corporation identified and took action on 513 encroachments. On the same year the 239 of the encroachments were associated with the violation of road side margins in Dawarka Nagar main road(81), Sreekanya Theater road(54), Sankaramatam road(55), Dabagardens main road (42) and Megalaya road(7). Additionally in collaboration with law enforcement units of the city, the corporation has taken action on 65 Gedda encroachments in Yerragedda (Ward 31), KRM colony Gedda and Purushotta Puram (Ward 71); and removed 160 sites on drains. The figures are self explanatory as to how the problem of www.ijmer.in 123 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 land encroachment aggravated in the city. In every step to take action against encroachments the city planner office first identify the site through its zonal supervisor and public information sources. Immediately the corporation sent experts to supervise the condition. Based on this information the necessary zonal office verifies the information legal and procedural perspective. If the condition is a sort of encroachment that needs action a three day notice will be issued to the encroacher to remove and move properties. When the developer do not take any action to remove the property on the illegally occupied land the corporation through the zonal city planner office take immediate actions in collaboration with respective enforcement units of the city. However, with the emergence of slums illegal public land grabbing by the poor is inevitable. A land policy and administration of encroached land that focuses merely only on demolition without noticing the condition of the poor becomes futile exercise. In the city the deficiency of affordable housing makes the economically underprivileged section of the population to move to the outskirt of the city. Certain section of migratory need to reside in the city center and this may result in the conversion of lands in to illegal settlements. This has created large areas of slums in the city though time. Therefore, the corporation with all its efforts and initiatives to take in to consideration in the long-run problems related with population pressure resulted from rural-urban and urban-urban migration. Regulating Advertisement Facilities The city is experiencing an economic and population growth that leads to the emergence of new markets, industries and business. This becomes a source attraction to many investors to come to city and new business companies started to flourishing. As a result the demand for advertisement facilities in the city is increasing. One of the most important components of the advertisement facilities is the outdoor advertisement. Outdoor advertisement Then, the outdoor advertisement structures are becoming the most important feature of streets of the city. It is highly visible in commercial areas and main roads. In addition to the provision of business and market information, the facilities have their own contribution in adding beauty to the city scene which has influence on passer-bys. Since the outdoor facilities are mean for the general public and in order to maintain standard and beauty of the city, the Corporation city planning department regulates the advertisement practice through issuing licenses and permissions and collects taxes from promoters or companies. The department identifies advertisement areas by itself or through recommendation of applicants or business companies. Some of the convenient places for outdoor advertisement services as identified by the City Planning Department are: Unipoles, Hoardings- ground level and roof top, On www.ijmer.in 124 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 central median, electric poles, kiosks, On buses, taxis, bus shelters, Glow sign boards, On floating balloons, and On tree guards Providing information to the general public has legal, ethical, cultural and economic implications. Due to this controlling, supervising and regulating advertisement practice becomes an essential task for the corporation. Particularly, outdoor practices need careful evaluation and screening advertisement tools, messages, and structures. The department, therefore, evaluates advertisement from the perspectives of design, size, material, types and position of building and other related important factors. Moreover, the sector provides lucrative income for the corporation if administered properly. Taking in to consideration public interest and economic benefits for the corporation, licensees are issued to promoters and companies to erect advertisement structure in the city. Therefore, all advertisement boards and wall paints necessitate licenses and permission from the department to put on public domains. The department issues forty to fifty new advertisement boards every year. In 2010 there were 33 licensed private advertisement agencies or promoters in the city to use 752 boards, 15 arches and 319 bus shelters. Most of the permission was issued to private advertisement agencies based on competitive bid on contractual bases for three years with obligation of annual renewal. In addition to issuance of licenses, the corporation has the responsibility of implementing prohibition set out by the state government. The prohibitions were mainly on intoxicating liquors, tobacco, drugs and other products harming the community at large. Those who are caught violating these prohibitions are penalized for committing criminal acts. Thereof, the city planning department has the responsibility to take appropriate measure on those who violate the prohibitions on the advertising thins on the public areas. Street Vendors Regularization Informal economy is an integral part of any economy which provides employment for people coming from low level of living. Due to this informal economy happened to be one of the basic characteristics of urban. In India millions of street vendors, that constitutes major part of the informal economy, are working on the streets of small to metropolitan cities. The contribution of street venders is not fully accounted though millions are dependent on it for sustenance or services. On the other hand, some considered street vendors as problems without appreciating their economic and social contribution by simply focusing on legality. Practically the street venders are susceptible to forced evictions by laws enforcement units. This may amount sometimes to the violation human right of least privileged and protected part of the community. Taking legal actions was not simple task because it does not produce the www.ijmer.in 125 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 intended outcome. With this in mind, the Government of Indian, National Commission on Enterprise in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS), with the view of recognizing the contribution of street vendors and reversing negative connotation attached with the sector has formulated a policy in 2004.the policy was intended to provide legal status and address the problem in more consultative and participative way. Instead of alienating the vendors making them part of the solution was given higher priority. Then the commission came in 2009 with a revised policy on street vending having following objectives. 1. To give Street Vendors legal status by formulating appropriate laws and providing legitimate hawking zones in urban development/ zoning plans and ensuring their implementation; 2. To provide facilities for appropriate use of identified space including the creation of hawking zones in the urban development/ zoning plans. 3. To eschew imposing numerical limits on access to public spaces by discretionary licenses and instead moving to nominal fee-based regulation of access, where previous occupancy of the space by the Street Vendor for vending purposes, determines the allocation of space. 4. To make Street Vendors a special component of the urban development /zoning plans by treating them as an integral and legitimate part of the urban distribution system; 5. To promote self-regulation in matters relating to hygiene, including disposal of waste amongst Street Vendors both in the individually allotted areas as well as in areas occupied by the Street Vendors as a whole. 6. To promote, if necessary, organizations of Street Vendors e.g. Unions / Co-operatives/ Associations and other forms of organization to facilitate their empowerment; 7. To set up participatory mechanisms with representation by urban Vendors’ organizations, (Unions / Co-operatives/ Associations), Voluntary organizations, Municipal Authorities, the police, Residents Welfare Association (RWAs) and others for orderly conduct of urban vending activities; 8. To prevent vending by children and seek their rehabilitation where ever such practice exists, in conformity with the Child Labor (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986; 9. To provide protective Social Security to take care of contingencies such as sickness, maternity and old age; 10. To promote access to such services as credit, housing and up-gradation of skills. For such promotion, the services of Self Help Groups www.ijmer.in 126 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 (SHGs)/co-operatives/ Federations/ Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs), etc., should be encouraged. To achieve these objectives, the policy framework made it mandatory to constitute Town Vending Committee (TVC) and if possible at ward level. The TVC has members from various stakeholders, to make it participatory, representing different interest such as local authority, community based organization, police, planning authority, professionals, non-governmental organizations and other organizations or individuals deemed to be contributing to the success of the task. The main responsibility of the committee was mainly to conduct survey and registrar street vendors, monitoring facilities to be provided, identifying vending zones and enduring the quality of service as per the public health norms. For this purpose, the state government issues an order to determine the list of members and implementation of street vending policy in urban areas. The order specified Elected Representatives, Representative of Commissioner / Superintendent, Hawkers / Vendors Associations, Resident Welfare Associations, Self-Help Groups, Representatives of Trade and Commerce, NGOs and Municipal Commissioner as chairperson to members of the committee1. Yet the corporation did not constitute a committee. But in 2009 special officers under the Additional commissioner (General) were assigned to coordinate activities to implement street vending policy. The special officers were from public health, city planning, revenue and community development departments. The task force has carried out survey of street vendors and identifies zones for street vending. Table Status of Street Vendor in GVMC 2010 No. Service / Business Numbers Percentage 1. Fruits 1320 10.6 2. Vegetables 1850 14.8 3. Food Items 2245 18.0 4. Flower 322 2.6 5. Meat, Chicken, And Fish 1420 11.4 6. Milk 1665 13.3 7. Handcrafts 250 2.0 8. Pot Maker 152 1.2 9. Fruit Juice / Ice Creams 1336 10.7 10. Festival Items 455 3.6 11. Others 1485 11.9 12. Total 12500 100 Source: Additional Commissioner (General) Office www.ijmer.in 127 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 According to the survey conducted by the corporation there were around 12500 street vendors operating in the city. The figure might not be the exact because of the mobility nature of the vendors. The number is expected to increase. Majority of the operators, i.e. 11321(90.7 percent), have engaged in the production and delivery of service related with edible products such as fruits, vegetables, milks, teas, food items, meat, fish, and chicken. This poses a greater public health concern for the corporation and city residents. Only nine percent work in different areas of business. Most of the operators also have conducted business on highly populated and congested areas which makes it suitable reach users easily. To address the problem related with sanitary and location problems the city planning and public health were entrusted to take necessary measures. The city planning department identified and divided the vending areas in 2010 as green (areas where street vending is allowed without restrictions), amber (area where vending is permitted or specific days and or time and or by trade) and red (area where no street vending is permitted) zones. Likewise, the Public Health Department has institutionalized controlling and monitoring mechanism in collaboration with police. Based on the survey made in 2009 the street vendors were identified and the corporation issued identification card to facilitate harmonious management of street vending. In addition to this the UCD Department was entrusted to organize the street vendor in self help groups in order to facilitate banking linkage and provision of capacity building trainings. Even if the efforts exerted by the corporation were encouraging in the implementation of the policy, the attention given to non-governmental organizations was minimal. This needs an attention from the commissioner to exploit the existing potentials of non- governmental and community based organization to make the efforts more participative. Besides, the continuous evaluations and supervision of street vendors was nonexistent in the corporation due to lack of institutional framework than enables to conduct continuous assessment. The responsibility related with street vending is scattered in different departments with lack coordination and sustainability. The last but not least, the constitution of TVCs needs to take immediate measure by the respective officials to fulfill legal requirements and to solicit ideas and resources from different stakeholders in the city. The committee would enable also to make continuous supervision and monitoring on street vendors indentifying problems and taking corrective actions. Conclusion and Policy Implication The most important component of urban planning is the implementation of master plans and building rules and regulation. In this regard the corporation has managed to improve the condition of the city through the approval of buildings, taking actions against encroachment, regularization of unauthorized building, and regularization of street vendors. However, the actions taking to www.ijmer.in 128 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 remove encroachments on haphazard manner and more on campaign base that become counterproductive to sustainably address the problem. Besides, the regularization process of the street need appropriate attention from the policy makers and local government machineries in a bid to empower the weaker and vulnerable section of the society. On the other hand, as the city is becoming the center of economic development the need for more land in the centre pressurized the city administration. Particularly, the redevelopment f the inner requires more fund in the form of compensation. References: 1. Appa Rao, T. Municipal Corporation in Southern India, Visakhapatnam, 1974 2. Appa Rao, T. Municipal Government in Visakhapatnam, Arsha Printing Industrial School and Press, Visakhapatnam, 1974 3. Appa Rao, T. “Municipal Administration” in M.A. Aleem and Shamic Aleen (eds.) State Administration in Andhra Pradesh, Allied Publishers Private Ltd., Hyderabad, 1985 4. G.O.Ms.No.398, M.A. Municipal Administration And Urban Department (F2) Department Date: 25.9.04 (Municipal Corporation And Municipalities - Policy On Simplification Of Regulation Of Street Vending/Hawking In Urban Areas Through Earmarking Specific Areas And Time Etc–Orders–Issued.) 5. G.O.Ms.No.901 Municipal Administration & Urban Development (M1) Department Dated: 31.12.2007 (The Andhra Pradesh Regulation And Penalization Of Unauthorizedly Constructed Buildings And Buildings Constructed In Deviation Of The Sanctioned Plan Rules 2007- Notification - Orders – Issued.) 6. GVMC, Development Activities of 2010-2011, HRD (Not Published), 2010 7. Municipal Administration & Urban Development Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hand Book of Guidelines for Compulsory Disclosure Schemes Relating To: (1)Penalization and Regulation of Unauthorizedly constructed buildings and buildings constructed in deviation to the sanctioned plan (2) Regulation of unapproved and illegal layouts, January, 2008 8. Purendra, Prasad N., A Study of New Governance Mechanisms in Two Non-metropolitan Cities in Andhra Pradesh in The Globalizing State, Public Services and the New Governance of Urban Local Communities in India: A Colloquium VIKALPA, Volume 35, No. 1, January - March 2010 9. Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act 1955 10. Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation Act 1979 11. http://www.ananthapuri.com/article.asp?title=Urban-Health-Care-in- India&id=44 12. http://www.ghmc.gov.in/approvedplans/new%20ghmc%20handbook_part %20i%20-%20BPS.pdf www.ijmer.in 129 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 DETERMINANTS OF FINANCING CONSTRAINTS IN MICRO AND SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISES: EVIDENCE FROM MEKELLE CITY Redae Kahsay Adhena Ph.D Research Scholar Andhra University Visakhapatnam, India Introduction Currently, Micro and small enterprises(MSEs) play a critical role in providing job opportunities, enhancing the quality of human resources, nurturing a culture of entrepreneurship, fostering creativity and opening up new business opportunities (Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC), 2003). The contribution of MSEs becomes essential to all countries in the world especially for least developed countries (LDCs). Sustainable economic growth can only be assured by promoting MSEs in these countries. Hence, different international and national organizations (World Bank, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), USAID and others) work on this sector. However, MSEs faced numerous obstacles that retard them back from a sustainable growth. The most important being; lack of access to affordable and reliable finance, lack of management, technical and accounting skills, lack of business and market information, non- conducive regulatory and legal environment (UNDP, 2003). Majority of empirical literatures pointed out lack of access to finance as the most significant impediment for MSEs’ growth and development in various countries even in the developed countries (PECC, 2003; Ishengoma & Kappel, 2008; Ganbold, & Endalkachew, 2008). More than ever, the problem of financing constraint for MSEs is highly aggravated in LDCs like Ethiopia where financial systems are in an underdeveloped juncture. For instance, In Thailand only 3-18% of the MSEs have access to formal sector finance especially, for start-up companies, the rate of funding from the formal bank sector is even lower (Rudjito, 2003). The study by Isern, Agbakoba, Flaming, Mantilla, Pellegrini, and Tarazi(2009) in Nigeria revealed that only 5 percent of MSEs www.ijmer.in 130 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 have access to loan, and 59 percent report difficulties of accessing financial services. As studied by Wolday and Gebrehiwot (2003) finance was most serious challenge of MSEs in Ethiopia. Haftu et al., (2009) concluded that MSEs face a number of constraints, among which lack of finance for investment and working capital is the prominent one. Different reasons were suggested by different researchers why such enterprises faced tremendous financing problems. Problems related to financial records, demonstration of repayment capacity and securities, lack of data, regulations and infrastructure for collateral and insufficient credit formation, lack of collateral, lack of bankable business plan, lack of experience, poor financials, lack of track records of the firm or owner, bad credit record, and lack of information on MSEs, banks’ interest rates, fees and charges were considered to be more problematic with micro and small enterprises than with larger ones (Heidelberg, 2008), Boermans and Willebrands (2011) , Isern, et al., (2009), Mandeep, Goyal, Jai Kumar, Thiruvengdam(2008) and Sharma and Gounder (2011). Generally, various studies showed that financing constraint for MSEs becomes apparently realized moreover, these different research outputs justify the reasons behind these constraints shed in various dimensions in different countries. As a matter of fact, whether financing constraint was influenced by certain factors in a specific situation with financing arrangements needs an empirical investigation. Therefore, it was worthwhile to conduct a research on the determinants of financing constraints of these enterprises. This would contribute to the literature of MSEs financing constraints in the Ethiopian context through the provision of adequate information to micro and small scale investors, government agencies, financial institutions as well as researchers for that MSEs were the eminent economic units in the country. Review of Related Literature 2.1. Determinants of MSEs’ Financing Constraint www.ijmer.in 131 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 MSEs in least developed countries virtually face different obstacles in their operation. Some of the dominant constraints were financing constraint, lack of access to market, lack of technology, lack of business development services, lack of prudential legal framework, high tax and lack of business management skills (Eshetu & Zeleke, 2008;Ishengoma & Kappel,2008; IFC, 2010). Financing MSEs becomes challenging even for the developed countries. In most of developing countries, the majority of MSEs lack access to formal financial services. For instance, Brown, Earle and Lup (2004) asserted that 78% of firms considered lack of capital as a very constraining factor, and the percentage was higher in slow-growing firms and those in the smaller size categories in Romania. According to MSE project reports presented in Thailand: only 3-18% of MSEs have access to formal financial sectors (banks, capital markets, venture capitalists etc) more than ever start-up companies are highly constrained beyond this rate of funding (Mandeep, Goyal , Jai Kumar, & Thiruvengdam, 2008). Remarkable number of studies proved that the main sources of capital for such business (both for startup and for working capital) have been their retained earnings, families and friends, informal savings and loan associations (like Iqub, and Edir in Ethiopian case), trade credits and money lenders which are not very secure and have little scope for risk sharing because of their regional or sectoral focus. Studies in this area evidenced that the financial institutions particularly banks denied to extend loans to such firms due to their default risks involved on them resulted in due to the existence of principal–agent problems and information asymmetry as well as high transaction costs. Moreover, most of the MSEs fail to fulfill the requirements designed by banks to extend loans (Gebrehiwot & Wolday, 2006; Haftu et al., 2009; Fatoki & smit, 2011). Theoretically, financial institutions usually assume to provide loans to firms by setting aside certain assets to secure the payment of principals and interest at maturity. Debts backed by property as collateral are expected to safeguard the lenders from default risks. As evidenced by various empirical studies, both private and public banks endorsed policies that rigorously require fixed assets as collateral. However, this mandatory pledging of assets to secure loans impedes the MSEs from accessing finance. Majority of small businesses in Ethiopia raise finance from iqqub schemes as it is too www.ijmer.in 132 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 difficult for them to meet the demand for collateral as well as the high interest rates of the banks (Eshetu & Zeleke, 2008). Moreover, these sectors are supposed to operate by entrepreneurs who have knowledge, skills and innovative aspirations but lacks finance. A lot of empirical researches profoundly investigated and reached into conclusion that collateral significantly discourages accessing loans from financial institutions particularly bank loans. A research conducted in Romania by Brown et al. (2004) on determinants of firm growth from a sample of firms that had received at least one loan from three international microcredit agencies found that lack of collateral was taken as a serious obstruction to accessing credit by 42 percent of MSEs similarly, Sharma and Gounder (2011) referred that collateral is the main concerns related to bank’s loan provision to MSEs. Moreover, Fatoki and Asah (2011) also ascertained collateral as an important determinant of credit access which implies that any MSE which cannot fulfill the collateral requirement cannot obtain debt finance from financial institutions especially from commercial banks. Plenty of empirical literatures PECC, (2003); Mandeep et al., (2008); OECD, (2006); Pissarides, Singer and Svejnar (2000); Brown et al., (2004) and Fatoki and Smit, (2011) demonstrated that lack of collateral is a serious impediment to get financial access for MSEs. On the other hand, Interest rates imposed by micro finance institutions are too high for MSEs with the intention to compensate the expected default risks, but the higher the cost of external financing the higher will be the financing constraint (Sharma & Gounder, 2011). However, in a competitive financial market this might not be a constraint because financial institutions may consider interest rates as their competitive strategy and they may encourage reducing interest rates to attract customers. The other determinant factor of financing constraint on which different studies underlined that most of the MSEs found around the world especially in developing countries experienced inconsistent financial statements, lack of track records and fail to adopt standardized accounting systems which enable the lenders to evaluate their financial and operational performances, particularly their credit worthiness. www.ijmer.in 133 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Ganbold(2008) suggested in his research done in Mongolia that lack of transparency in business operation makes it difficult for potential lenders to assess borrowers’ creditworthiness as a result MSEs face financing constraints. This leads for relatively high cost of processing small loans which will be infeasible for banks (Fatoki& Asah, 2011). Similarly, Mandeep et al (2008) suggested that MSEs loan requests are usually rejected by banks due to the prevailing high credit assessment costs. On top of that, OECD (2006) cited as lack of information on availability of finance and unreliable accounts of MSEs results information asymmetry. According to IFC (2010) Strong accounting and auditing standards improve MSEs access to finance by reducing informational cloudiness and encouraging lending based on financial statements. Studies conducted by Boermansand Willebrands(2011) in Tanzania about firm performance under financial constraints and risks specifically on micro finance clients showed the amount of savings as a proxy for financial constraints. Even though many entrepreneurs do not have any official savings because of holding informal savings is very common in developing countries. Lack of initial saving is another impediment in accessing finance for MSEs. Further, lack of skills to present bankable projects (sellable business plans) is also important obstacle in financing MSEs in Kenya (www.esabmonetwork.org). As revealed in various literatures, access to finance is not fairly available for all economic sectors. Government prioritized sectors and potentially profitable sectors may gain advantages on accessing credit. In Scotland all economic sectors hadn’t have the same access to finance. Hotels and restaurants, transport, storage and communication, business activities; agriculture and wholesale/retail have not access to finance whereas construction sector and manufacturing attain better access of debt financing (www.scotland.gov.uk, 2011). Kounouwewa and Chao (2011) found on their study on 16 African countries demonstrated that manufacturing, agriculture and construction firms report larger financing obstacles. Endalkachew(2008) on his study in Ethiopia shown that Micro and small enterprises are entitled to receive the supporting service only if they are preferred to participate in textile www.ijmer.in 134 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 and garment, wood and metal works, food processing, construction and municipal subsectors.. However, Artola and Genre (2010) revealed on their study in Europe area that different sectors of economic activity cannot explain much and all firms seem equally likely to encounter problems in accessing external finance. Schiffer and Weder (2001) indicated in their study that MSEs found accessing financing more difficult than larger firms. They rank all the obstacles firms face in doing business and come across that financing is a top problem for MSEs, whereby the rejection rate is higher than larger firms. On other study by Kounouwewa and Chao (2011) also reported that smaller and domestic firms face higher obstacles. Bishop and Varblane (2004) also concluded small domestic companies are especially constrained in their access to finance. In contrary, Haftu et al. (2009) concluded that micro enterprises have working relationships with formal financial institutions compared to small enterprises partly due to the focus on such enterprises by MFIs. That means micro enterprises have better credit access from formal financial institutions than small enterprises. This credit problem is particularly acute among the small registered enterprises and those that are rural based (Kimuyu & Omiti, 2000). Firm size and age viewed as the key determinants of whether a company experiences problems accessing external finance. There is a high degree of correlation between age, ownership and firm size. Artola & Genre,(2011) stated that Micro & small enterprises, younger and one person or family owned firms more likely become financially constrained. Specifically, their study results show that micro and small enterprises are more significantly face experienced financing constraints. Similarly, the older the firm, the less likely it is to have actually experienced financing problems. Age of the firm remains the key determinant of financing constraint in all four countries (Germany, Spain, France and Italy). Research Methodology 3.1. Research Design This research would have an explanatory purpose that intends to investigate the main determinant factors of the financing constraints of the MSEs in Mekelle city. The time dimension of the data collection www.ijmer.in 135 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 undertaken across geographical space, that was, from respondents located in five sub-cities across a single point of time considering their proportions in terms of economic sector. On top of this, the data was administered through a survey method which was collected using ex- post controlled variables on the study area via actual participations in the field in order to reduce the probability of committing errors during the time of data collection due to negligence of data enumerators. Finally, the research was concentrated on breadth and generalizes investigations. It involved the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion that infers characteristics and relationships of population using statistical tools. 3.2. Data Sources and Collection Instruments Primary data were collected from owners/managers (operators) of the MSEs through questionnaires and an interview was conducted to DECSI credit officers. In order to gather the relevant data which could meet the desired objective of the research, structured questionnaires were prepared and it was delivered to operators (owners/managers) of the MSEs. Both close end and open end questions were presented with exactly the same wording and same order to all the respondents. Moreover, structured interviews also used so as to triangulate and to reduce biases in the research outputs i.e. the interviews were used a set of predetermined questions. 3.3. Sample Design and Sample Size There were about 18,445 micro and small enterprises in the city that comprises 17,695 sole proprietors and 750 cooperatives. According to Tigrai Urban Development, Industry and Trade Bureau census (2010) 50% of the MSEs found in Mekelle city faced financing constraints. In number it would be 9,223. The target population for this study includes micro and small scale enterprises in Mekelle city that face financing constraint (50% of total MSEs in the city). Based on simple random sampling method, a total of 109 micro and small scale enterprises were identified in the study site as a sample size using www.ijmer.in 136 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Yamane’s (1967) formula , , Where, n=number of sample size, N= number of population and e=level of precision = 98.93≈99+10% non respondent ≈109 3.4. Data Analysis Techniques In this research both statistical and econometric data analysis techniques were employed. Ordered probit model was applied to estimate parameters as well as to see the marginal effect of each explanatory variables on the dependent variable. Multicollinearity problems and accuracy of the model specification were tested using VIF and link tests, respectively. On the other hand, normality assumption was tested by using sharipo-wilk normality test. Apart from this, the goodness of fit of the model was tested using probability of likelihood ratio (LR-square). Data analysis was done using a statistical package called STATA version 10. 3.5. Model Specification An ordered probit model is an appropriate model for this study. It is often used to analyze things like Lickert scales on polls or subjective scales (Verbeek, 2004). In this case the dependent variable ‘financing constraint’ was measured by assigning values as minor constraint=1, moderate constraint=2 and major constraint=3. But it is not assumed a constant difference between each category, the permission for the possibility that it took a bigger change in an independent variable to get over the “threshold” into one category than it took to get into the next category. An ordered probit model estimates both the effects of the independent variables (through the systematic component) and the thresholds of the dependent variable (through the stochastic component) at the same time (Fox, 2010). Assuming a latent variable, Y* exists, then it can be defined as Yi* = xiβ +ε Where, Y*= financing constraint, represent dependent variable coded as 1, 2,&3, xi represents all independent variables, β is the vector of estimated parameters and ε refers to error term which is assumed. www.ijmer.in 137 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Y* be divided by some cut points (thresholds): α1( minor constraint) , α2( moderate constraint) & α3( major constraint) , and α1<α2<α3 The observed MSE’s financing constraint level is the ordinal outcome, y, ranging from 1- 3 It can be defined as 1 if y* 1 2 if y* 1 2 3 if 2 y* 3 y Therefore, to estimate the model the following equation was stipulated. FINCON=f (AGE, SEX, EDU, AGEFM, SFIM, OWFIM, ECOSEC, BPLAN, ACCTINFO, INTSAV, CRDTWTH, COLL, INTER, GROFOR, CUMBPROC, FEARDBT, SMLDBT, AWER, ε) To compute probability of an MSE’s financing constraint level P(y=1) = P (y* ≤α1) = P(xβ + ε ≤ α1) = F (α1- xβ); P(y=2) = P (α1 Result and Discussion 4.1. Descriptive Statistics 4.1.1. Firm Characteristics MSEs have their own distinctive characteristics that are mainly manifested in terms of age of the firm, size of firm, ownership style of firm and economic sector of the firm. These characteristics describe the overall features of MSEs. In this study, these features were used as a dummy variable to see whether they affect financing constraint or not given certain circumstances. Therefore, these features are briefly presented in the following sections. As shown in Table 4.1, most of the sampled enterprises that constitute about 71% of MSEs had been in business for about 1-5 www.ijmer.in 138 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 years. In contrast, only 5% of MSEs aged more than 15 years. This implies that majority of the MSEs in the study area were new entrants. Most probably this is due to vocationally graduated youngsters organized more than ever to employ themselves and motivated to sell their skills. Furthermore, Table 4.1 shows ownership forms of MSEs in the study area. The ownership forms of the MSEs are generally categorized in to sole proprietorship, general partnership and cooperatives. Sole proprietor was the most dominant form of business that covers about 80% (87) followed by general partnership accounted for 11% (12) and cooperatives hold the remaining 9% (10) out of the total sample respondents. However, there was a higher tendency of converting cooperatives in to general partnerships to ease the group formation problems and to create business oriented thinking and strengthened competition among MSEs. To establish cooperatives at least ten individuals were required but this was not an easy job to get ten individuals who have the same aim, inspiration to work, and future visions. Table 4.1: Ownership form versus age of firm in years Ownership of the firm Age Sole proprietor General Cooperatives Total of the partnership firm Frequenc % Frequenc % Frequenc % Frequenc % y y y y 1-5 60 68.9 9 75.0 8 80.0 77 70.6 years 7 0 0 4 6-10 17 19.5 1 8.33 1 10.0 19 17.3 Years 4 0 11-15 4 4.60 2 16.6 1 10.0 7 6.42 Years 7 0 Abov 6 6.90 0 0 0 0 6 5.5 e 15 Years Total 87 100 12 100 10 100 109 100 Source: Own Computations Based on the survey Data (2012) www.ijmer.in 139 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 As stipulated in Table4.2, 83(76%) of MSEs were classified as micro that employ less than six employees including their owners and the rest 24(24%) were small enterprises that have a headcount staff members of more than five and less than thirty. This indicates the number of small enterprises were less than micro enterprises. The samples were distributed among five prominent economic sectors while the research was undertaken. The table below revealed that the proportion of micro and small enterprises for each sector. Accordingly, 91% of the merchandising sector, 74% of the service sector, 86% of the urban agriculture, 42% of the manufacturing sector and 67% of the construction sector falls under micro enterprises. In other words, small scale enterprises constitute 9% merchandising, 26% of service, 14% urban agriculture, 57% manufacturing and 33% of construction. It is important to note that the highest number of micro enterprises and the lowest number of small enterprises have involved in merchandising sector. In the contrary, manufacturing sector includes more than half small enterprises which indicate the highest number in the sampled enterprises. This result implies that all sectors are not easy to new entrants. Some of these sectors require skill and knowledge and huge capital like manufacturing and construction sectors. Especially, manufacturing sector is engaged in production whereby require huge start up and working capital. In addition it requires enriched and diversified skills in every stage of production. So that it probably require involving relatively higher number of employees in the enterprises. Table 4.2: Size and economic sector composition of MSEs Size of Measurement Economic sector firm Mercha Service UrbanagricuManufactu Construc Tota ndising renderinglture ring tion l Micro Frequency 32 26 19 6 2 83 Percent 91.43 74 86.36 43 66.67 76 Small Frequency 3 9 3 8 1 24 Percent 8.57 26 13.64 57 33.33 24 Frequency 35 35 22 14 3 109 Total Percent 32.11 33.11 20.18 11.01 2.75 100 Source: Own Computations Based on the survey Data (2012) www.ijmer.in 140 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 4.2. Econometric Analysis Although the descriptive results in the preceding section have revealed issues of financing constraints vis-à-vis size, ownership style and economic sectors of MSEs, it needs to be complemented with rigorous econometrics estimations. In this section, the estimated parameters results ran using the software were presented and interpreted. The literature driven hypotheses were also analyzed. Moreover, based on the results of the regression function, the most relevant indicators of determinants of financing constraints were identified and how the explanatory variables affect the dependent variable were addressed via predicted marginal effects. 4.2.1. Determinants of Financing Constraints As discussed in the methodological part, ordered probit model was used to identify the factors that affect financing constraints, particularly, factors related to owners’ characteristics, firm characteristics and lenders’ requirements. While using an ordered probit model for analyzing the determinants of financing constraints, the emphasis was given to the significance of each variable on determining financing constraints of MSEs. The regression equation as stated in chapter three consist a set of 18 explanatory variables which were stipulated as functions of financing constraints. All the regressed variables in the model were free from multicolliniarioty and the normality assumption also achieved as well as the model was accurately specified. Moreover, six of the explanatory variables used in the regression of financing constraint equation were found significant and the others were insignificant (see Table 4.3). Table4.3: Ordered probit regression results Coef. Std. Err. z P>|z| Variables Demogra Age of owner/ma .0813547 .2302559 0.35 0.724 phic nager variables Educational level .3528265 .1235349 2.86 0.004* Sex of .2424839 .2960257 0.82 0.413 owner/manager Firm Age of the firm .3723649 .1714142 2.17 0.030** www.ijmer.in 141 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 characteri Firm size .539088 .3134358 1.72 0.085*** stics Ownership of the -.0011816 .229237 -0.01 0.996 firm Economic sector -.0119892 .1270776 -0.09 0.925 Lenders’ Business plan -.4173831 .1608803 -2.59 0.009* requirem Accounting -.1290618 .119663 -1.08 0.281 ent Records Initial saving -.1354421 .1122642 -1.21 0.228 Credit worthiness -.1806505 .1043674 -1.73 0.083*** Collateral -.0338233 .1015571 -0.33 0.739 High interest rate .0344588 .0991758 0.35 0.728 Cumbersome .0769393 .1031359 0.75 0.456 procedure Group formation .1485351 .1054934 1.41 0.159 Borrower Fear of debt .3974708 .111014 3.58 0.000* s’ attitude Small debt .1156441 .116386 0.99 0.320 Awareness -.0804841 .1117831 -0.72 0.472 /cut1 2.8532 /cut2 3.924697 Number of obs =109 Prob> chi2 = 0.0132 LR chi2(18) =33.84 Pseudo R2 = 0.1454 Log likelihood= -99.471341 Note:* indicate significant at1%,** significant at 5% and *** significant at 10% Table 4.3, column 6 reports the results of the basic order probit regression financing constraints as the dependent variable. Level of education of owners /managers affects significantly to financing constraints of MSEs. The likelihood to face financing obstacle can be significantly to explained by being illiterate, primary school completed, secondary school completed, diploma holder, first degree holder or being masters and above. The result noticeably shows that there seems to be a linear relationship between financing constraint and education status of owner’s that was as the owner passes from one educational stage to another, the financial constraint directly increased. The reason might be as individuals become more educated they may able to generate new business idea, appreciate entrepreneurial motives and initiate to involve into a business but to implement those motives obtaining finance was challenging. The other demographic factors, age and sex of the operators did not have any influence in financing constraints. www.ijmer.in 142 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Some of the variables related with firm characteristics did not affect financing constraints significantly. Nevertheless, age and size of the enterprise particularly determined financing constraints of the firm significantly. The older the firm, the more likely would be facing financing obstacles. This implied that younger firms had more access to finance than older firms. Access to credit was not a major constraint for start-ups as compared to aged enterprises because the majority of interventions directed at credit facilitation were towards these enterprises. However, financing access to old aged enterprises and for those enterprises that wish to expand their activities was a major constraint. Aged MSEs might be also financially constrained because of their poor creditworthiness. This result was against the findings in Europe mainly in Germany, Spain, France, Italy, and other Euro area countries in (2011) which concluded that accessing finance for younger enterprises were more difficult than for older enterprises. The other significant factor that straightforwardly affects financing constraint was size of the firm. The smaller the firm, the lesser the financing constraint accounted to them. It was also quite different result as compared to the previous researches done in Europe area by Artola and Genre (2011) and in sixteen African countries by Kounouwewa and Chao (2011). On these researches conducted in Europe area and in Africa expounded that accessing credit for micro enterprises were more difficult than small firms. It was also oppose with the findings of Schiffer and Weder (2001) and Bishop and Varblane(2004). On the other corner, other two studies reached into the same conclusion with this study. One of the studies conducted by Kimuyu & Omiti, (2000) about institutional impediments to access to credit by micro and small scale enterprises in Kenya ascertained that credit problem was particularly acute among the small registered enterprises. The other one, the study focused on financial needs of micro and small enterprises’ operators in Ethiopia by Haftu et al., (2009) also suggested that micro enterprises were less financially constrained as compared with the small one due to their strong working relationship with MFIs. However, within the context of the www.ijmer.in 143 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 study area, small enterprises were more constrained than micro enterprises because of mismatch of financial requirements of such business and maximum threshold of loans allowed by MFIs and stiff collateral requirements of banks. The maximum amount of loan provided by MFIs was not more than Birr 20,000 per individual at once. But, the borrowers required up to Birr 50,000. Hence, this amount was insufficient to cover the financial requirements of most of the small enterprises. Besides, these enterprise possess large amount of total assets from Birr ten thousand up to one million. So, to finance these assets requires large amount of loans which could be beyond the MFIs maximum limits. Both form of ownership and economic sector dummies did not indicate any significant challenges or opportunities in accessing external financing. In order to obtain loan from financial institutions, preparation of convincing and feasible business plan was the determinant factor for rejection or for acceptance of loan applications of MSEs. As a result, it revealed as a robustly significant determinant factor of financing constraints which was very similar with the studies undertaken in Kenya that infers sellable business plan as basic requirement for accessing credit (www.esabmonetwork.org n.d). As the business plan became persuasive and sellable to the lenders perhaps it mitigates the level financing constraints but non-feasible business plans would not be accepted by lenders because they might be exposed to inherent default risks. The ability to repay interest and principal at the right time was also significant factor for the determinants of financing constraint. Creditworthy MSEs most likely have greater opportunity to obtain loans. This could be understood from the relationship lending practices of financial institutions. As the result of the study indicated, the more the creditworthiness of the MSEs the better would be the relationship between the enterprises and the financial institutions thus, the lesser the financing constraint would have. In this case creditworthiness affects negatively to financing constraints. The lesser the creditworthiness of the MSEs, the more is the likelihood of facing financing constraints. As a result, www.ijmer.in 144 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 financial institutions prefer to lend to more transparent, less risky borrowers. Defaulter MSEs may not get the chance of borrowing in the subsequent periods after the first failure. But, the reasons for the failure might be bankruptcy due to market fluctuation, negligence after starting operation. The reasons that affect the level of financing constraints were not only caused from the view point of lenders requirements only but also it depends on the psychological attitudes of the borrowers. According to this study results, fear of debt was the significant factor that strongly predicts financing constraints. Due to instable price fluctuations, risk of being bankrupt was increasing and micro and small firms lose their confidence to surmount the prevailing problems. Therefore, they preferred to limit themselves to finance through their own sources only. 4.2.2. Marginal Effect in Financing Constraints Using Ordered Probit Model The marginal effect presents the impact of each explanatory variable on each dependent variable. A positive value indicates an increase in the magnitude of the explanatory variable where as a negative value refers to reducing the effect. In this case, the marginal effect shows how the financing constraint probabilities change with a unit change in the explanatory variables. After the ordered probit regression has been made, the marginal effect allows us to determine the impact of each explanatory variable on the probability of each level of financing constraints (Wooldridge, 2000). www.ijmer.in 145 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Table 4.4: Marginal Effects Variables Marginal Marginal Marginal P> |z| effect of effect effect Of major minor of moderately constraint constraint constraint Age of -.0222646 -.0095274 .031792 0.724 Eduowncaer/tmionan alegevre l -.0965592 -.0413192 .1378784* 0.004* of Sex of -.0663614 -.0283971 .0947584 0.413 Aowgen eofr /tmhea nfairgmer -.1019063 -.0436073 .1455136* 0.030** Firm size -*.147534 * -.0631321 .2106661* 0.085*** Ownership of .0003234 .0001384 -.0004617 0.996 Ethceo nomfirmi c sector .0032811 .001404 -.0046852 0.925 Business plan -.1142266 -.0488794 .163106* 0.009* Accounting .0353208* .0151143 -.0504351 0.281 Iinformatiitial savoinng -.0370669 -.0158615 .0529284 0.228 Credit .0494392 .0211558 -.070595 0.083*** Cwollrtahtineerasl s .0092565 .003961 -.0132176 0.739 High interest -.0094304 -.0040354 .0134659 0.728 Craumbte ersome -.0210562 -.0090103 .0300665 0.456 Gprroupocedu forrmatione -.0406501 -.0173948 .0580449 0.159 Fear of debt -.1087772 -.0465474 .1553246* 0.000* Small debt -*.0316487 -.013543 .0451917 0.320 Awareness .0220264 .0094254 -.0314518 0.472 y = .19264371 yP r(fincon==1)= .38790678 yP r(fincon==2)= .41944951 Pr(fincon==3) Source: Own Computations Based on the survey Data (2012) Note: * Significance at 1% ** Significance at 5% *** Significance at 10% www.ijmer.in 146 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Using ordered probit model, the coefficients show us only the direction of changes either positive or negative but not the real effect of the explanatory variables on the bases of explained variables. To see the real effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables, it was important to see the marginal effects. Table4.4 summarized the marginal effect of each independent variable on the dependent variables on financing constraint. Accordingly, age of firm, size of firm, business plan and fear of debt decreased probability of facing minor financing constraints by the magnitude of 10%,15%, 11% and 11%, respectively. Then, their impact on the probability of moderate financing constraint slightly increased at a decreasing rate by 4.16%, 6%, 5%, and 5%, respectively. But education level of the owners, age of the firm, firm size, business plan and fear of debt appeared as a robust predictor of the likelihood to experience major financing constraint positively and significantly at 14%, 15%, 21%, 16%, and 16%, respectively. 5.1. Conclusion MSEs consist of various characteristics that influence their access to finance such as age of firm, ownership form of firm, size of firm and economic sector of the firm. Based on the findings the firm characteristics were dominated by MSEs which has been in business for not more than five years, sole proprietor form of businesses and micro enterprises in all economic sectors except in manufacturing sector in which small enterprises were more than micro enterprises. MSEs raised more finance from informal financing source than from formal financial institutions due to stiff requirements of such financial institutions. As a result MSEs faced experienced financing constraints. The levels of financing constraints of MSEs were varied among economic sectors. Construction, manufacturing and service rendering sectors reported higher financing obstacles whereas merchandising sector faced moderate constraint. In contrast, urban agriculture sector experienced lower constraints. Similarly, small scale enterprises were more constrained than micro enterprises. www.ijmer.in 147 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 In this study, the determinant factors for financing constraints of MSEs were investigated based on factors related with the owners’ characteristics, firm characteristics and lenders’ requirements. As a result, the econometric analysis revealed that, educational status, age of firm, size of firm, business plan, creditworthiness and fear of debt were significant determinants of the probability of facing financing constraints. Pertaining to direction of influences, except creditworthiness, all significant variables have positive effect on the probability of encountering financing constraints. In contrast, age of owner/manager, sex of owner/manager, ownership of the firm, economic sector, accounting information system, initial saving, collateral, high interest rate, cumbersome procedure, group formation, awareness and small debt had not significant impact on probability of facing financing constraints. The econometric analysis revealed that, educational status, age of firm, size of firm, business plan, creditworthiness and fear of debt were significant determinants of the probability of facing financing constraints. Pertaining to direction of influences, except creditworthiness, all significant variables have positive effect on the probability of encountering financing constraints. In contrast, age of owner/manager, sex of owner/manager, ownership of the firm, economic sector, accounting information system, initial saving, collateral, high interest rate, Cumbersome procedure, group formation, awareness and small debt have not significant impact on probability of facing financing constraints. Reference 1. Access to finance in Kenya.(n.d). Retrieved on December 20, 2011, from http://www.esab monetwork.org. 2. Artola, C., & Genre, V. (2010). Euro area SMEs under financial constraints: belief or reality? http://www.ecb.int/stats/money/surveys/lend/html/index.en.html. 3. Bishop, T.M., &Varblane, U. (2004). Financial constraints in investment: Panel data results from Estonia, 1995-1999. Journal store, 54(4), 425-449. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40729689. www.ijmer.in 148 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 4. Boermans, M. A., & Willebrands, D. (2011). Firm performance under financial constraints and risks: Recent evidence from micro finance clients in Tanzania. 5. Brown, D., Earle, J., & Lup, D. (2004). What makes small firms grow? Finance, human capital, technical assistance, and the business environment in Romania. Journal of Economic Literature, 16(19), 26. 6. Endalkachew, M. (2008). Underlying causes of micro and small business failures in Addis Ketema sub city. (Master thesis, Addis Ababa University). 7. Eshetu, B., & Zeleke, W. (2008). Factors that affect the long- term survival of micro, small and medium enterprises in Ethiopia. South African Journal of Economics, 76(3). 8. Fatoki, O., & Asah, F. (2011). The impact of firm and entrepreneurial characteristics on access to debt finance by SMEs in king Williams’ town, South Africa. International Journal of Business and Management, 6 (8). 9. Fatoki, O.O., & Smit, A.V.(2011). Constraints to credit access by new SMEs in South Africa:a supply-side analysis. African Journal of Business Management 5(4), 1413-1425. 10. Ganbold, B. ( 2008). Improving access to finance for SME, international good experience and lesson for Mongolia. Retrieved on December 26, 2011 from www.ide.go.jp/. 11. Gebrehiwot, A., & Wolday, A.(2006). Micro and small enterprises (MSEs) finance in Ethiopia: empirical evidence. Eastern Africa social science Research Review, 22 (1) 66-86 12. Haftu B., Tseahye T., Teklu K., & Tassew, W.(2009). Financial needs of micro and small enterprise (MSE) operators in Ethiopia. Retrieved on January12, 2012, from http://www.aemfi- ethiopia.org/. 13. Heidelberg (2008). Financing your business: Business Development Service (BDS) forum.Retrieved on January 21, 2012 from www.bds-forum. 14. International Finance Corporation World Bank Group. (2010). Scaling-up SME access to financial services in the developing world. 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Financing constraints determinants in Africa countries.The International Journal of Applied Economics and Finance, Asian Network for Scientific Information 5(1), 30-45. 19. Mandeep, S., Goyal , S.S., Jai Kumar, S ., & Thiruvengdam, S. T. E. (2008). International exposure program in Thailand & Vietnam on financing to SMEs project reports. Retrieved on January 12, 2012, from: http://cab.org.in/. 20. Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. (2006). The SME financing gap: Theory and evidence volume I. Retrieved on December 26, 2011, from http//ec.europa.eu/enterprise/. 21. Pacific Economic Cooperation Council. (2003). Financing small and medium enterprises: Challenges and options. Retrieved on January 12, 2012, from http://www.pecc.net. 22. Pissarides F., Singer M., & Svejnar J. (2000). Objectives and constraints of entrepreneurs: evidence from small and medium- sized enterprises in Russia and Bulgaria. Working paper No. 59. Retrieved on January 12, 2012, from deepblue.omich.edu. 23. Rudjito (2003). Issues and challenges for regional financial cooperation in the Asia- pacific.Retrivied on February 25, 2012 from http://pdirector-2003-hkcpec.org. 24. Schiffer, & Weder (2001). Expanding Access to Finance: Good Practices and Policies for Micro, Small enterprises. Retrieved on February 12, 2012 from http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/236032/ 25. Sharma, P., & Gounder, N. (2011). Obstacles to financing micro and small enterprises:empirical evidence from a small www.ijmer.in 150 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 island developing state. Retrieved on January 12,2012, from http://www.griffith.edu.au. nd 26. Verbeek, M.(2004).A guide to modern econometrics,(2 .ed.).England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Wolday,A., & Gebrehiwot, A. (2003). Business development services (BDS) in Ethiopia:Status, progress and challenges in the micro and small enterprise sector. 27. Wooldridge,J.,M.(2000). Introductory econometrics: A modern nd approach,(2 .ed.). nd 28. Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics, an introductory analysis, ( 2 ed.). New York: Harper and Row www.ijmer.in 151 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS ON SPORTS PERFORMANCE OF INTER COLLEGIATE HOCKEY PLAYERS Dr.M.S.Pasodi S.Mustaq Ahmed Principal Ph.D. Research Scholar Dept. of Physical Education Dept. of Physical Education Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi I.INTRODUCTION Socio-Economic Status (SES): Socio-Economic status (SES) is one of the key factors which has been studied extensively in the behavioral sciences research. It has been observed that SES as an independent variable has a greater impact on dependent variable performance “of an individual. Behavioral component have greater bearing on socio-economic conditions of the individual. It has been conclusively proved that SES is one of the main correlates of behavioral component. Research workers in the field of social sciences are increasingly realizing the importance of the knowledge about the social environment of the individual. Research has shown that the aspirations as well as the achievements of a pupil are related to the group or the class to which he belongs or with whom he identifies himself. Researchers have probed into the relationship of behavior, like adoption of new practices, with factors in the socio-economic environment of the individuals. Most of the indices have been developed in the United States of America for application primarily to the contemporary urban industrial class structure of that country where a good deal of research regarding stratification has been made in the recent decades. As early as 1928, in the United States of America and elsewhere pioneering attempts have been made to develop a quantifying measure of socio-economic data. Of course the components of SES slightly differ www.ijmer.in 152 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 in different social and cultural contexts. In India, socio-economic status includes the components like caste, education, occupation, income as well as urban/ rural domicile of the individual. Undoubtedly the higher of these make individual equipped with better conditions of life. The individual who possesses more number of goods is going to be provided with better facilities in terms of mass media exposure and increased awareness of higher nutrition and other conditions of life. Members of different classes enjoying different conditions of life develop attitudes and values appropriate to their position in society. There is evidence to show that individual performances and motivation of children can be explained by the local class position of his family. It has been noticed that the working class mothers place more emphasis on teaching their children obedience than do mothers of higher-class position (Lynd, 1929). The socio-economic status is recognized as important factor which plays a major role in shaping the performances of an individual sports person and achievement in sports. The social class to which the youngster belongs definitely influences both his sports activity and psychologically speaking his personality development. This influence of the socio-economic background of sports continues to be present throughout one’s life. It has been recognized as a decisive factor in sports participation of the various kinds of sportsmen, because it is this factor that exercises a decisive influence on any individual performance and achievements in sports. The higher the social level of sports person the higher the degree of excellence which he or she achieves in sports. Reason (1978) in an analysis of the system social stratification in Belgium, has noticed that higher class sports such as skying, golf, field hockey, tennis and fencing are all characterized by higher social status. It is evident from his study that the higher game such as rowing, horse riding, climbing, hunting diving are the natural sports of www.ijmer.in 153 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 the upper middle class. The game like basketball, volleyball, ball badminton and table tennis are from the lower middle class sports, while the lower class sports are gymnastics, calisthenics, track and field, boxing, soccer and finishing. Suidontop (1984) stated in his study that the social level influences the acquisition of motor skills. Moreover approval has been found to facilitate the performance of youngsters from the lower status families and that disapproval impairs these performances. More than that, it affects the youngsters from the middle socio-economic status families. It is more than evident that reinforcement of the socio-economic level directly influences the acquisition of motor skills. There is a deep and inalienable connection between the socio-economic background and the performance of sports persons in their respective sports activities. II.METHODOLOGY Significance of the study: to find out the impact of Socio economic status on the performance of Inter collegiate Hockey players of S.V.University. Hypothesis: a)There is a significant influence of socio economic status on the sports performance of inter collegiate Hockey players. b) There is significant difference of High and low Socio economic status on the physical fitness of inter collegiate Hockey player. c) Sample - Hundred Hockey Players those who were participated in inter-collegiate Hockey tournament, took randomly (and selected only 50 players in the sample 25 high SES & 25 low SES) as subjects for the present study. These 100 subjects together represented the sample for the present study. d) Test Administration and Collection of Data www.ijmer.in 154 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 To collect necessary data pertaining to the present study, all the selected subjects were administered to Socio-economic status Test during the intercollegiate Hockey tournament. The data were in the form of answer given by the subjects in response to the various questions of the Socio economic status questionnaire. The subjects completed answering the questionnaire within the stipulated time after which the questionnaires were collected back and the standard scoring manual was used to get the score. After the scoring of the completed questionnaire the subjects were divided into “High” and “Low” groups in both the variables according to the key manual and then the physical fitness tests were conducted for both the groups. e) Tools Used: The following Scale and Motor ability tests were used in the study. 1.Socio Economic Status (SES). The socio Economic Status (SES) scale developed by Bhardwaj Gupta and Chauhan (1984) was used in the present study to measure the social, Educational, Professional and economic perspective of the participants. Scoring was done accordingly to the norms that were given in the manual 2. Motor Ability Tests (AAHPER) Sl. Motor Test Unit of No. Ability Measurement 1. Speed 50 yard dash Time 2. Endurance 12 min. Run & Walk Distance 3. Flexibility Sit & Reach test Inches 4. Agility Shuttle run 10x4 Time yards 5. Strength Pull Ups Score www.ijmer.in 155 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The procedure and scoring of selected physical fitness tests are done as per the norms given in the manual of tests and scales. Statistical Analysis: To meet the objective of the study mean, standard deviation, t-values were used to calculate and analyze the data. III.RESULT AND DISCUSSION Table No,1 Mean,SD, t-Values of High & Low SES groups of Hockey Players. TESTS SES MEAN SD t-Values SPEED HIGH 6.16 1.10 5.40** LOW 7.29 1.13 EDURANCE HIGH 1981.61 58.76 4.69** LOW 1824.68 152.04 AGILITY HIGH 11.99 1.16 10.07** LOW 13.30 1.45 FLEXIBILITY HIGH 3.60 1.25 7.34** LOW 1.84 1.10 STRENGTH HIGH 9.22 2.53 12.16** LOW 5.95 1.94 Table. No. 1 presents the mean scores,SD,t-values of five physical fitness tests performances of Hockey Players in two levels High & Low Socio-economic groups. It can be observed that the mean score in high SES group performed better than the low socio economic group, in the speed, Endurance, agility, flexibility and strength. all five motor fitness tests the high socio-economic group of Hockey players performed greater than the low socio-economic group. This table shown statistically significant differences in sports performance of High and Low socio-economic sports groups of inter collegiate Hockey player. www.ijmer.in 156 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 IV. CONCLUSION. The major objective of the present study was to assess the influence of socio-economic status on the performance of Hockey players of inter collegiate teams. in this study the researcher found that the high socio economic group of sample given better sport performance than the low socio economic status group. Finally the present study revealed that the socio economic status also influence on motor fitness of hockey players, Suggestion: 1) Provide the all modern sports facilities to all sports players. 2) Establish sports hostels in rural areas for the development of rural sports. 3) Financial assistance to all participant players according to their achievements. Reference 1. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation (1960). Skills Test Manual- 2. Volleyball for Boys and Girls. AAHPER Publication, Washington, D.C., U.S.A 3. Alderman, R.B. (1974): Psychological Behavior in Sports. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. 4. Bhardwaj and others, (1984): The Socio-Economic status scale, N.P.C. Agra. 5. Silva,J.M.& Weinberg.R.S.(1984).Psychological foundation of sport. Champaign, IIINOIS : Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc 6. Kaplan, B. H., Cassel, J. C. and Gore, S. (1977). Social Support and Health Medical Care, Vol. 15, No. 5, PP. 47-58. www.ijmer.in 157 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL BANKS IN INDIA Dr. Sandeep Kaur Assistant PROFESSOR Department of Economics Guru Gobind Singh Khalsa College for Women Jhar Sahib, Distt. Ludhiana Introduction A developed banking system holds the key as well as serves as a barometer of economic health. Despite unanimity about the significant role of the banks in the economic development, opinions are divided regarding the exact meaning. In the wake of such differences, it becomes important to get the root of its real meaning and nature after a careful analysis. Therefore, the historical development of ‘banking’ activity may be discussed under the following heads. Section I: GENESIS OF THE WORD ‘BANK’ Literally, a ‘bank’ means an establishment for receiving, keeping, lending, or, sometimes, issuing money and making easier the exchange of funds by cheques, notes, etc. But the word ‘bank’ dates back its origin to antiquities. There is divided opinion in this connection. The Germans were influential in Italy at the time of the founding of the Bank of Venice. The Bank of Venice, established in 1157, is considered to be the most ancient bank in the history of banking. Their word for joint stock fund was ‘banck’, meaning literally a ‘heap’ or ‘mound’. The Italians converted the word into ‘banco’, and used it to denote an accumulation of either stock or money. ‘Banca di Venezia’ was a joint stock venture and meant literally ‘Joint Stock Fund of Venice’. The terms as originally used, therefore, did not imply all of the functions associated with the word ‘bank’ today (Pritchard, 2000). Etymological Meaning of the Word ‘Bank’ Etymologically, the word bank can be traced to the Italian word ‘banco’ and the French word ‘banque’ meaning ‘bench’ and ‘chest’ respectively. The word ‘banco’ suggests a table, a counter or a place transacting business. With reference to a bank, these benches consist of a teller’s window, a loan officer’s desk, a bank manager’s cabin desk and so on. These benches provide the customers a medium to approach the bank for conducting banking transactions. Chest is a place where valuables are kept; it denotes the safe keeping function. A modern www.ijmer.in 158 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 bank’s chest is its portfolio of earning assets. These are the lifeblood of a bank. (Ahmad, 1992). EVOLUTION OF COMMERCIAL BANKING IN INDIA Banking existed as early as 2000 B.C. but not in today’s complex form. It was during this period that Babylonians had emanated a banking system. The temples of Babylon were used as banks. ‘Temple Banking’ continued down through the centuries throughout the Middle East, Greece, Rome, and other Mediterranean areas. Ancient Babylon developed the first essentially commercial civilization. Two thousand years before the birth of Christ they were using deeds, leases of land, wills, accounts, notes, mortgages, receipts for storage, and many other business documents (Pritchard, 2000). During the vedic period, money was accepted on deposit and given in the form of advances. In second century A.D., Manu, the great Hindu scholar, devoted a section of his work to deposits and advances and laid down rules relating to rates of interest to be charged and paid. During the Smriti period, which followed the vedic period and the Epic age, the bankers performed the functions of the modern banks. The banking business was carried on by the members of the Vaish community and Manu speaks of earning through interest as the business of Vaishyas (Vaswani, 1998). During the Budhist period, banking business was decentralised and the Brahmins and Kshatriya also entered the lucrative business of banking. During this period, further refinements were made in the banking business. Money changing came into vogue and the state regulation of business became more systematic. During Mughal period, there was a ‘Seth’ or ‘Shah’ or ‘Sahukar’ in every big and small town who performed a number of banking functions. Dr. Pramath Nath Banerjee quotes from Gautama, Brihaspati and Budhayana verses regarding the regulation of interest. Kautilya’s Arthashastra has also made a reference to the banking transactions. These references testify the existence of banking in olden days. Hundi (derived from Sanskrit word ‘hund’) which is actively used even in today’s banking system dates back to the days of Mahabharata. The transfer of funds from one place to another, at a fair distance, took place with the help of Hundis. Not only had this, during Mughal rule, the issue of various kinds of metallic money in different parts of the country provided the indigenous bankers great opportunities for developing the very profitable business of money changing. Those who www.ijmer.in 159 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 carried out this business were appointed mini officers, revenue collectors, bankers and money changers to the Government in various parts of the empire. A few of these indigenous bankers were quite famous and wielded great influence in the country. They were known as ‘Jagat Seth’ (world bankers) and possessed great power as the private bankers of any western country (Kaushal, 1979). Development of Banking During British Periods The English traders came to India in the 17th century. They could not make much use of the indigenous bankers mainly due to their ignorance of the latter’s language and the latter’s experience of the financing of the trade. The East India Company in 1600 A.D. had started establishing Agency Houses with no capital of their own but depended totally on deposits. Therefore, the English Agency Houses, which were primarily commercial undertakings, began to conduct banking business also, so as to meet the needs of the company, the members of the services, and the European merchants in India. From this time, the business and power of indigenous bankers began to decline. The continuous wars and chaos that resulted from the break up of the Mughal Empire also weakened the system of indigenous banking a great deal. Further, they lost their profitable money- changing business from 1835 when a uniform currency was established throughout the country. The decline of indigenous banking and gradual expansion of English trade and power in India led the establishment of banks on Western lines. Though these banks lost their business in the urban areas, they continued to have a separate existence in the rural areas where these modern banks could not penetrate (Chawla and Uppal, 1988). Not all Agency Houses carried on banking business but a great many of them performed the three functions of receiving deposits, paying drafts and discounting bills, thus paving the way for the establishment of joint stock banks. The first joint stock bank, the Bank of Hindustan was set up by Messers Alexander in 1770. Several other such banks were also established but during the crisis of 1829-32, many of the Agency Houses failed due to “gross-mismanagement, wild speculation and extravagant living” on the part of the big merchant princess managing the Agency Houses. Between 1800-58, more than 40 banks were established, but hardly 12 of them survived (Vaswani, 1998). www.ijmer.in 160 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Presidency Banks It was only during the first- half of the 19th century that East India Company made some sincere efforts to establish three banks formally, viz. : (i) The Bank of Bengal in 1806, (ii) The Bank of Bombay in 1840. (iii) The Bank of Madras in 1843. These banks were known as Presidency Banks and they functioned well. The Imperial Bank of India Act was passed in 1920 and these banks were amalgamated. To each of these three Presidency Banks, the Government had subscribed Rs. 3 lakh. The bulk of share capital had come from private shareholders, mostly Europeans. These banks were given the monopoly of Government banking. After 1823, they were also given the right of note issue which was taken back by the Government in 1862. Imperial Bank of India was established in 1921 to protect these banks against the competition of foreign banks (Kaushal, 1979). Joint Stock Banks The passing of the Act of 1860 marked a landmark in the history of joint stock banking in India, which permitted the starting of joint stock banks on the basis of limited liability. A large number of banks were established, but without any careful plan and objectives. Most of them failed in a short time destroying public confidence in banks. In 1856, the Allahabad Bank was established followed by the Alliance Bank of Simla in 1875, both under British management. The first bank on limited liability management by Indians was the Oudh Commercial Bank, founded in 1881. Subsequently through the efforts of Lala Harkrishan Lal, ‘the Napoleon of Punjab Finance’, the Punjab National Bank was established in 1894 under the Indian management and is one of the nationalised banks at present. Generally speaking, the period 1860-1900 was characterized by a very slow development of banking. The Indian joint stock banks passed through a remarkable phase during the last decade of 19th century. Indian joint stock banks were hardly in existence during the period 1860-80. During the next decade, they gained in size and strength. The Swadeshi Movement which began in 1906 gave great stimulus to banking. During the period of 1900-13 a number of joint stock banks were established. Some of the prosperous banks of today, the Bank of India, the Central Bank of India, the Bank of Baroda, the Canara Bank, and the Bank of Mysore were established during this period (Chakroborty, 2006). Then there came banking crises wiping out many a weak units. The period of 1913-17, 1939-45 and 1948-53 witnessed a lot of bank www.ijmer.in 161 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 failures. The reasons evident were wrong policies followed by their management. Undesirable and wasteful competition amongst themselves for speculative or long-term purposes, indiscriminate lending and advancing against undesirable securities and combining banking functions with trade and industry were yet other prominent reasons responsible for bank failures. The banking crisis of 1948-53 was due to the partition of India. The partition of the country in 1947 gave a further jolt to the banking system of the country. Bank advances declined on account of communal disturbances in several parts of the country. Banks, having their head offices and branches in West Punjab, were hit hard, for they could not transfer their assets of the Indian Union. At such a time, the Reserve Bank came to their rescue by making advances against any security which it thought proper. Thus the establishment of RBI on April 1, 1935, in accordance with the provisions of the RBI Act, 1934, as the Central Bank of the country filled a big gap in India’s banking structure and met one of the necessary conditions for a healthy growth of the banking in the country. The year 1949 marks the beginning of the new era in the history of the Indian banking as comprehensive legislation was passed to control the activities of other commercial banks. Under this legislation, the RBI was given very wide powers of control and supervision (Kaushal, 1979). Section II: Banking in Independent India The phase of banking growth and development started only after India got independence. What could not be achieved in the first fifty years of the twentieth century, was achieved in a span of less than 20 years. Banks grew not only in number and size but the quality of service aspect of banking was also taken into account. Government started many schemes and established different banks to make banking services available in almost all corners of the country. A brief note of these aspects is given below: State Bank of India State Bank of India came into existence by passing SBI Act of 1955. After independence, there was a strong demand for the nationalisation of Imperial Bank of India, which was brought into existence on 27th January, 1921 by the Imperial Bank of India Act of 1920 through the amalgamation of three Presidency Banks of Madras, Bombay and Bengal. However, the Government was not in favour of its nationalisation. The Rural Banking Enquiry Committee (1950) too, www.ijmer.in 162 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 recommended against its nationalisation. But the Rural Credit Survey Committee (1954) recommended the nationalisation of the Imperial Bank of India. In pursuance of the recommendation, the Government of India set up the SBI on July 1, 1955 which took over the business of the Imperial Bank of India. Under the Act of 1955, the State Bank was empowered, with the Government’s sanction, to acquire the business of other banks, including certain state-associated banks, such as Bank of Saurashtra, Bank of Baroda, Bank of Rajasthan, Bank of Patiala, Bank of Bikaner, Bank of Jaipur, Bank of Indore, Bank of Mysore etc., by passing compensation to their shareholders. The Act of 1955 further imposed a statutory obligation on the Bank to open at least 400 branches in the first five years of its existence (Vaswani, 1998). Through the establishment of SBI the setting up of strong state partnered Commercial Banking Institution, with an effective machinery composed of a large network of branches over the whole country was made possible. At present, SBI is considered as the biggest A class commercial bank in terms of branch network, resources and manpower. Section III: Nationalisation of Banks To ensure an increased flow of assistance to the neglected sectors and to extend banking facilities in unbanked and under-banked centers, the Government floated the idea of nationalisation of banks. Other objectives were to foster growth of new, progressive entrepreneurs and to give a professional bent to the bank managements with a view to remove control by a few. Moreover, the step was designed to bring about a radical transformation in the economic conditions of the down-trodden and depressed sections of the society (Nalini and Tripathy, 2005). The decision to nationalise the major Indian banks had its genesis in the Prime Minister’s Note on Economic Policy which was endorsed at the Bangalore session of All India Congress Committee held in July 1969. Thus, on 19 July, 1969 the Government of India took the historical decision of nationalisation of banks in India. By an ordinance issued by the President of India, 14 major commercial banks having aggregate deposits of Rs. 50 crore or more were nationalised. These 14 banks had total deposits of Rs. 2,741.76 crore. At the time of nationalisation, these commercial banks had a total of 4,135 branches. The two main objectives of the nationalisation were rapid branch expansion and the channeling of credit in line with the priorities of the www.ijmer.in 163 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 five-year plans. To achieve these goals, the newly nationalised banks received quantitative targets for the expansion of their branch network and for the percentage of credit they had to extend to certain sectors and groups in the economy, the so-called priority sectors, which initially stood at 33.3 per cent (Arun and Turner, 2002; Bhide, Prasad and Ghosh, 2001; Kumbhakar and Sarkar, 2003; Reddy, 2002). Re-nationalisation of More Banks Six more banks having demand and time liabilities of more than Rs. 200 crore were nationalised on 15 April, 1980, when the government wanted the large banks to fall in line with its goal of obtaining national objectives. The second wave of nationalisations occurred because control over the banking system became increasingly more important as a means to ensure priority sector lending, reach the poor through a widening branch network and to fund rising public deficits. In addition to the nationalisation of banks, the priority sector lending targets were raised to 40 per cent (Arun and Turner, 2002). With the merger of New Bank of India with Punjab National Bank (PNB) in September 1993, the number of nationalised banks came down to 19. The Government paid Rs. 18.5 crore as compensation to the six banking companies in cash or promissory notes or in both (Government of India, 1970). Thus, the phase of social banking had several positive facets. There was a large geographic expansion of baking even to the remotest areas of the country. There was stimulus to banking habits, which increased saving rates as well as the proportion of financial savings in total saving. There was also increase in credit flows towards sectors such as agriculture, small industries etc., which were earlier deprived the access to institutional credit. Section IV: BANKING SECTOR REFORMS IN INDIA Until the early 1990s, the role of the financial system in India was primarily restricted to the function of channeling resources from the surplus to deficit sectors. Whereas the financial system performed this role reasonably well, its operations came to be marked by some serious deficiencies over the years. The banking sector suffered from lack of competition, low capital base, low productivity and high intermediation cost. After the nationalisation of large banks in 1969 and 1980, the Government-owned banks have dominated the banking sector. The role of technology was minimal and the quality of service was not given adequate importance. Banks also did not follow proper risk management systems and the prudential standards were weak. www.ijmer.in 164 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Financial markets were characterized by control over pricing of financial assets, barriers to entry, high transaction costs and restriction on movement of funds/participants between the market segments. This, apart from inhibiting the development of the markets, also affected their efficiency. It was in this backdrop that wide-ranging financial sector reforms in India were introduced as an integral part of the economic reforms initiated in the early 1990s (Ahluwalia, 2002). Financial sector reforms in India were grounded in the belief that competitive efficiency in the real sectors of the economy will not be realized to its full potential unless the financial sector was reformed as well. Thus, the principal objective of financial sector reforms was to improve the allocative efficiency of resources and accelerate the growth process of the real sector by removing structural deficiencies affecting the performance of financial institutions and financial markets. The main objective, therefore, of the financial sector reform process in India initiated in the early 1990s had been to (i) remove financial repression that existed earlier; (ii) create an efficient, productive and profitable financial sector industry; (iii) enable price discovery, particularly, by the market determination of interest rates that then helps in efficient allocation of resources; (iv) provide operational and functional autonomy to institutions; (v) prepare the financial system for increasing international competition; (vi) open the external sector in a calibrated fashion; and (vii) promote the maintenance of financial stability even in the face of domestic and external shocks (RBI, 1991). The major aim of the reforms in the early phase of reforms, known as first generation of reforms, was to create an efficient, productive and profitable financial service industry operating within the environment of operating flexibility and functional autonomy. While these reforms were being implemented, the world economy also witnessed significant changes, coinciding with the movement towards global integration of financial services (Government of India, 1998). The focus of the second phase of financial sector reforms starting from the second-half of the 1990s, therefore, has been the strengthening of the financial system and introduction of structural improvements. Section V: First Generation Reforms The first phase of reforms, which were introduced in 1992 subsequent to the report of the Committee on the Financial System (CFS), 1992 (Chairman : Shri M. Narasimham), brought about reduction in statutory pre-emption levels, dismantled the administered www.ijmer.in 165 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 interest rate structure, laid down capital adequacy requirements and other prudential norms such as income recognition, asset classification, provisioning, exposure norms, etc. These recommendations are a landmark in the evolution of banking system from a highly regulated to more market-oriented system. These reforms introduced since 1992-93 breathed fresh air in the banking sector. The Reserve Bank of India (2004b) grouped the first phase of reform measures into three main areas: Enabling measures, Strengthening measures and Institutional measures. They can also be classified into five different groups (a) liberalization measures, (b) Prudential norms, (c) Competition directed measures, (d) Supportive measures, and (e) Other measures. (A) LIBERALIZATION MEASURES (i) Reduction of Pre-emptions As part of the financial sector reforms, reductions in CRR were effected in April 1992, October 1992 and April 1993. In view of the strong expansionary impact of the increase in the net foreign exchange assets, Reserve Bank of India had increased CRR from 14 per cent to 15 per cent in three phases: 14.5 per cent on June 11, 1994; 14.75 per cent on July 9, 1994; and 15 per cent on August 6, 1994. As a result of increase in the CRR, resources of scheduled commercial banks to the tune of Rs. 3700 crore were impounded during 1994-95 thereby moderating excessive monetary expansion. In 1996-97, as inflation rate decreased to single digit level, the Reserve Bank placed emphasis on the growth objective. Therefore, the CRR was brought down by as much as 4 per cent points. There was further reduction in CRR by 2 percentage points in eight phases of 0.25 percentage point and each phase released about Rs. 1200 crore into banking system. The CRR was further raised to 10 per cent on December 6, 1997 and to 10.5 per cent from January 17, 1998. These increase in CRR impounded resources by about Rs. 5000 crore. In response to the growing pressure on the rupee in the forex exchange market, the Reserve Bank increased CRR to 11.0 per cent on August 29, 1998. After 1998, there was continuous reduction in CRR and it reached its minimum level of 4.75 per cent on November 16, 2002 (RBI, 2004b). There was a surge in inflation following the rise in international oil and metal prices. Therefore, RBI increased the CRR by 50 basis points, in two stages, to 5.0 per cent, thus, brining down the liquidity in the banking system by about Rs. 9,000 crore (Table 1). In line with government’s objective of reducing fiscal deficit to a level consistent with macro-economic stability, the Narsimham www.ijmer.in 166 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Committee recommended that the SLR be brought down in a phased manner to 25 per cent over a period of 5 years. Consistent with the anticipated decline in the center’s borrowing programme, the SLR was reduced to 30 per cent on an incremented basis in April 1992 and a further reduction of 0.75 per cent point in the SLR of 38.50 per cent on the base net demand and time liabilities were announced in October 1992. SLR further reduced from 34.75 per cent to 33.75 per cent in two phases: 34.25 per cent from 20 August, 1994 and 33.75 per cent from 17 September, 1994. The SLR further reduced to 25 percent in October, 1997 (RBI, 2004b) and it remains stable for rest of the period (Table 2). In order to control inflation, which arose because of Gulf crisis, Bank rate was increased from 11 per cent to 12 per cent effective from October 1991. In the context of changes in the various economic parameters since raising of the Bank Rate in October 1991 from 11 per cent to 12 per cent and with a view to make Bank Rate an effective signal rate as well as reference rate, with effect from the close of business on April 15, 1997, the Bank Rate was decreased by 1 per cent point to 11 per cent per annum and further to 9 per cent in October 1997. The Bank Rate was increased by 2 percentage points to 11 per cent with effect from the close of business on January 16, 1998. This measure was designed to address specifically the unusual movements in the foreign exchange market. After 1998, Bank Rate was decreased continuously to 6.0 per cent on April 29, 2003 (RBI, 2004b). This measure was mainly introduced to increase the growth rate of the economy (Table 3). (ii) Deregulation of Interest Rates Prior to the reforms, interest rates were a tool of cross- subsidization between different sectors of the economy. To achieve this objective, the interest rate structure had grown increasingly complex with both lending and deposit rates administered by the RBI. As far as advances are concerned, there were as many as 20 administered rates in 1989-90. In regard to the regulated interest rate structure, the basic thrust of Narasimham Committee was that real rates of interest should be positive and concessional interest rates are a vehicle for subversion. Following reform measures, the various rates of interest are now market determined. Scheduled Commercial Banks have now the freedom to set interest rates on their deposits subject to minimum floor rates and maximum ceiling rates. The four per cent differential interest scheme has been officially withdrawn. Though the Committee www.ijmer.in 167 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 recommended reduction of target for priority sector advances from 40 per cent of total credit to 10 per cent, the Government did not agree to it. (B) PRUDENTIAL NORMS The report of the Narasimham Committee was the basis for the strengthening of prudential norms and the supervisory framework. Starting with the guidelines on income recognition, asset classification, provisioning and capital adequacy the RBI issued in 1992-93, there have been continuous efforts to enhance the transparency and accountability of the banking sector. The improvements of the prudential and supervisory framework were accompanied by a paradigm shift from micro-regulation of the banking sector to a strategy of macro-management (RBI, 2004a). The main objective of prudential norms is the strengthening financial stability of banks. (C) COMPETITION DIRECTED MEASURES The RBI announced guidelines for opening of private sector banks as public limited companies in January 1993. The conditions for opening of new private sector banks were: (a) capital of Rs. 100 crore, (b) moderate technology, and (c) head office at a non-metropolitan centre. In January 2001, paid-up capital of these banks was increased to Rs. 200 crore which has to be raised to Rs. 300 crore within a period of 3 years after the commencement of business. The promoters’ share in a bank shall not be less than 40 per cent. The new generation private sector banks have brought about a paradigm shift in service standards and set new benchmarks in terms of application of technology, speed in delivery of services, channels, and a high order of marketing orientation. These banks have been providing stiff competition to public sector banks and old private sector banks with their updated technology like electronic banking and compelled these banks to fall in line with new private sector banks. Foreign banks have also been permitted to set up subsidiaries, joint ventures or branches. (D) SUPPORTIVE MEASURES In the reform process, the supervisory system has been streamlined and RBI evolved a risk-based supervision methodology with international best practices. In the pre-reform period, the RBI supervisory consisted of only on-site inspection, but after the reforms, both on-site inspection and off-site surveillance are followed. New Board of Financial Supervision has been set up within the RBI to tighten up the supervision of banks. www.ijmer.in 168 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 (E) OTHER MEASURES At the end of the 1980s, operational and allocative inefficiencies caused by the distorted market mechanism led to a deterioration of public sector banks’ profitability. Enhancing the profitability of public sector banks became necessary to ensure the stability of the financial system. The restructuring measures for PSBs were threefold and included recapitalization, debt recovery and partial privatization. Due to directed lending practices and poor risk management skills, India’s banks have accrued a significant level of NPAs. Prior to any privatization, the balance-sheets of PSBs have to be cleaned up through capital injections. In 1993, the SBI Act of 1955 has amended to promote partial private shareholding. The SBI became the first public sector bank to raise equity in the capital markets. After the 1994 amendment of the Banking Regulation Act, public sector banks were allowed to offer up to 49 per cent to their equity to the public (Guha-Khasnobis and Bhaduri, 2000). Section VI: Second Generation Reforms In order to initiate the second generation of financial sector reforms, a committee on Banking Sector Reforms was formed in 1998 under the chairmanship of M. Narasimham. The Narasimham Committee Report-II placed greater focus on structural measures and improvement in standards of disclosure and levels of transparency in order to align Indian standards with international best practices. The second generation reforms could be conveniently looked at in terms of three broad inter-related issues: (a) measures to strengthen the banking system, (b) streamlining procedures for upgrading technology and human resource development, and (c) structural changes in the system. Thus, the period 1992-2003 has witnessed a radical departure from regulated banking towards market-oriented banking. The reform measures laid the basis for sound banking system and considerable progress has been made in implementing the reforms. The response of banks to the reforms has been impressive. The banks have been adjusting very well to the new environment, though gradually. Today, the bank management in India is facing two faceted challenges - to improve their profitability on the one hand and to serve the public in new ways and means with greater efficiency and effectiveness on the other. It has been realised that in the noble task of fulfilling the socio- www.ijmer.in 169 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 economic responsibilities, commercial viability of banking should not be ignored. References 1. Ahluwalia, M. S. (2002). Economic Reforms in India Since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?. Journal of Economic Perspectives.Vol. 16 (3). 2. Ahmad, K.M. (1992). Banking in India. Anmol Publications. New Delhi. 3. Bhide, M.G.,Prasad, A., & Ghosh, S. (2001). Emerging Challenges in Indian Banking. Working Paper. Stanford University. No. 103. 4. Birla Institute of Scientific Research (Economic Research Division) (1982). Banks Since Nationalisation. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd.. New Delhi. 5. Chakroborty, R. (2006). The Financial Sector in India: Emerging Issues. Oxford University Press. New Delhi. st 6. Chawla, A. A., & Uppal, K. K. (1988). Indian Banking Towards 21 Century. Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd.. New Delhi. 7. Government of India (1970). Nationalisation of Banks. A Symposium, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Publication Division. 8. Government of India (1998). Report of the Committee on Banking Sector Reforms, (Chairman: Shri M. Narasimham). Publication Division. New Delhi. 9. Guha-Khasnobis, B.,& Bhaduri, N. (2000). A Hallmark of India’s New Economic Policy: Deregulation and Liberalization of the Financial Sector. Journal of Asian Economics. Vol. 11, No. 3. 333-346. 10. Kaushal, G. (1979). Economic History of India 1757-1966. Kalyani Publications. New Delhi. 11. Kumbhakar, S. C., & Sarkar, S. (2003). Deregulation, Ownership, and Productivity Growth in the Banking Industry: Evidence from India. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. Vol. 35, No. 3. June. 12. Nalini, P., & Tripathy, N.A. (2005). Emerging Scenario of Indian Banking Industry. Mahamaya Publishing House. New Delhi. 13. Pritchard, J. J. (2000). Money and Banking, Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston. 14. RBI (1991). Report of the Committee on the Financial System. (Chairman: Shri M. Narasimham). RBI Publications. Mumbai. 15. Vaswani, T. A. (1998). Indian Banking System: A Critical Study of the Central and Commercial Banking Sector. Lalvani Publishing House. Bombay. www.ijmer.in 170 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Table 1: Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) Effective CRR (%) April, May 1993 14.00 July, August 1994 15.00 November 1995 14.50 December 9, 1995 14.00 April 27, 1996 13.50 May 11, 1996 13.00 July 6, 1996 12.00 October 26, 1996 11.50 November 9, 1996 11.00 January 4, 1997 10.50 January 18, 1997 10.00 October, November 1997 9.50 January 17, 1998 10.50 April 1998 10.00 August 29, 1998 11.00 May 5, 1999 9.00 April 1, 2000 8.00 July 29, 2000 8.50 August 12, 2000 8.00 March 19, 2000 7.50 December 2001 5.50 June 15, 2002 5.00 November 16, 2002 4.75 June 2003 4.50 January 21, 2005 5.00 January 12, 2007 5.50 April 20, 2007 6.25 May 2, 2008 7.75 September 5, 2008 9.00 October 17, 2008 6.50 January 23, 2009 5.00 February 19, 2010 5.50 April 30, 2010 6.00 March 23, 2012 4.75 Current Rate 4.00 Source: RBI Bulletin (Monthly), Various issues, Published by RBI, Mumbai. www.ijmer.in 171 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Table 2 : Statutory Liquidity Ratio Effective SLR (%) April 3, 1992 38.50 January 9, 1993 38.25 February 6, 1993 38.00 March 6, 1993 37.75 August 21, 1993 37.50 September 18, 1993 37.25 October 16, 1993 34.75 August 20, 1994 34.25 September 17, 1994 33.75 October 29, 1994 31.50 End of March, 1995 29.30 October 1997 25.00 April 21, 2009 24.00 October 7, 2009 25.00 February 17, 2012 24.00 February 22, 2013 23.00 June 20, 2014 22.50 August 15, 2014 22.00 Current Rate 21.50 Source: RBI Bulletin (Monthly), Various issues, Published by RBI, Mumbai. Table 3 : Bank Rate Effective Bank Rate (%) July 1991 11.00 October 1991 12.00 April 1997 11.00 June 1997 10.00 October 1997 9.00 January 16, 1998 11.00 March 19, 1998 10.50 April 3, 1998 10.00 April 29, 1998 9.00 April 3, 1999 8.00 January 1, 2000 7.00 October 23, 2001 6.50 October 29, 2002 6.25 April 29, 2003 6.00 March 23, 2012 9.50 October 26, 2012 9.00 February 22, 2013 8.75 May 3, 2013 8.25 July 19, 2013 10.25 October 11, 2013 9.00 November 1, 2013 8.75 Current Rate 8.75 Source:RBI Bulletin (Monthly), Various issues, Published by RBI, Mumbai. www.ijmer.in 172 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 INFLUENCE OF LAND USE SYSTEMS ON SELECTED SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS’: CASE STUDY DABENA WATERSHED, ILLUBABOR ZONE, AND OROMIA REGION Leta Deressa Tolesa Ljalem Abrha Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural & Computational Faculty of Natural & Computational Sciences Sciences Mettu University, Ethiopia Mettu University, Ethiopia Busha Feyisa Wondimagegn Tagesse Department of Chemistry Department of Chemistry Faculty of Natural & Computational Faculty of Natural & Computational Sciences Sciences Mettu University, Ethiopia Mettu University, Ethiopia 1. INTRODUCTION Agriculture is the foundation of the economy of Ethiopia. It forms the main source of livelihood for over 90% of its population, accounts for over 50% of the country's gross domestic product and contributes to over 90% of its foreign exchange earnings [1]. Ethiopia is endowed with potentially rich natural resources, of which land is the principal one. Successful agriculture requires the sustainable use of soil resource, because soils can easily lose its quality and quantity within a short period of time. However, its productivity is continuously declining, due to continuous cultivation without adequate management methods. Rapid increase in the world’s population demands the production of over increasing quantity of food, fiber and fuel from the land. To meet these needs, vast tract of land are being farmed more intensively, and large areas of grasslands are being overgrazed and degraded. Additionally, new and often marginal land is being brought into production. So, land must be carefully managed, if its productivity is to be maintained or increased. If it is not well managed, or used in a way that is beyond its potential, soil degradation will inevitably occur [2]. It is important to establish land use system that allow for the demands of increasing population while conserving the soil fertility in the long term. Soil resources are finite and non-renewable over human time frames and are prone to degradation by misuse and mismanagement [3]. The continuous use of land for cultivation and grazing purpose for centuries has resulted in disastrous loss of soil nutrients, particularly in the highlands www.ijmer.in 173 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 where erosion is more severe [4,5]. As a result, agriculture in the country has gradually expanded from gentle slopping surfaces in the highlands to steeply sloped places of the nearby hills and mountain surfaces [4,6,7]. Highlands 1500 meter above sea level (m.a.s.l.), in Ethiopia are the source of water; crop production; animal feed and are a dwelling place for humans. They hold about 90% of the country’s total population, over 95% of its regularly cropped lands, about two thirds of its livestock population, about 50% of the land area, and over 90% of the country’s economic activities [8]. Environmental degradation is a threat to everyone, but its effects are harshly felt by the rural poor [9]. Land degradation due to soil erosion, degenerated natural vegetation cover including forest, over grazing, over cultivation, were reported to be among the serious challenge in sustainable land use, food security and rural development in many developing countries of the world. If current trends in land degradation continue, farmers who produce on the most vulnerable farmlands will not be able to cope with an ever declining yield and plot sizes and will practically be driven off their land [10]. A long history of agricultural activity combined with a high level of population and exploitative agricultural practice has led to the existing depletion of natural vegetation cover and over utilization of land resources [8]. The restorations of marginal areas, however, are only possible through in-depth understanding of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, internal and external factors that affect those properties and the resilience characteristics of the soils themselves. Successful agriculture requires the sustainable use of soil resource because soils can easily lose its quality and quantity within a short period of time for many reasons. For this reason, agricultural practice requires basic knowledge of sustainable use of the land. A success in soil management to maintain the soil quality depends on an understanding of how the soil responds to agricultural practices over time. Recent interest in evaluation the quality of our soil resource has been therefore simulated by increasing awareness that soil is critically important component of the earth’s biosphere, functioning not only in the production of food and fiber but also in the maintenance of local, regional, and worldwide environmental quality [11]. The development of sustainable agricultural practices depends largely on promoting the long-term fertility and productivity of soils at economically viable levels by lowering fertilizer inputs in exchange for a higher dependence on biologically acquired and recycled nutrients; reducing pesticide use while www.ijmer.in 174 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 recycling more on crop rotations and biocontrol agents; decreasing the frequency and intensity of soil tillage; and increasing the recycling of crop residues and animal wastes [12]. Land management systems and the quality of the land resource need therefore to be evaluated not only in terms of productivity but also in terms of sustainability. One alarming aspect of this necessity is that if we have difficulties in evaluating the productivity of the lands, an assessment of sustainability in the context of land management practices seems even more problematic. Sustainable agriculture would seem to be more slogan than subject for serious research [13]. The Illubabor Zone where by this study is planned to be conducted is one of the areas facing deforestation, overgrazing, inappropriate soil management and accelerated soil erosion. To minimize the ongoing soil degradation besides ensuring land productivity, sustainable use of soil resources is one of the major strategies. Although, sustainable use of soil resources requires basic understanding of the soil physical, chemical and biological properties; little information is available in the study area. Thus, this study is proposed with to investigate the influence of land use systems on selected soil physical and chemical properties along soil depth. 1.1. Objectives 1.1.1. General objective Investigate the influence of land use systems on selected physical and chemical properties of soil along its depth 1.2.2. Specific objectives To determine some physical and chemical properties of soil To see influence of land use on soil physical and chemical properties To assess the significance of differences in soil parameters between land use and soil parameters To indicate soil production and soil production technologies which ensure maximum production and sustained use of the soil 2. Material and method 2.1. Description of the Study Area The study was conducted at the Dabena watershed which is located in Bedelle, Illubabor zone of the Oromia National Regional State (ONRS), southwest part of the country. It is situated about 480 km of Addis Ababa and 120 km east from Mettu town. Geographically it lies at 80 17' to 80 37' N latitude and 360 13' to 36039' E longitude. The altitude of the study area ranges from 2000 to 2600 meters above sea level (masl) having a Woinadega climatic characteristic with the mean annual rainfall 1950 mm. The mean annual temperature is 19 0C with a mean minimum of 12 0C and mean maximum of 26 0C. The study www.ijmer.in 175 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 area comprises of 600 hectare of land of which 370 hectare cultivated, 100 hectare grazing, 60 hectare natural forest and the rest 70 ha is occupied by other land use systems. 2.2. Geology and Soils of the Area According to the Regional Planning for Northwestern Ethiopia (1985), geologically the study area is covered with thick trap series volcanic rocks which were erupted from fissures during the early and middle tertiary and from choke shield volcanic mountain center during the Miocene and Pliocene. Trap volcanic series, which consists mainly of weathered and jointed basalt. The soils of the study area are developed from the parent materials of tertiary basalt. The majority of the soils in Farta district in general and the study area in particular are leptosol, Nitisols and Alfisols. 2.3. Land Use Selection The study was considered natural forest land, grazing land and crop or cultivated land as land use systems. Natural forest land available is selected as one of land use system. Moreover grassland used as communal grazing land is selected as the other land use type. The main crops grown in the study area under rain fed system are maize, teff, and coffee plantation as cash crop and among the woody plants the dominant once are Eucalyptus species. 2.4. Soil Sampling and Sample Preparation For the determination of the physical and chemical properties of the soils, representative soil samples were collected randomly from the three land use systems at the depths of 0-20 and 20-40 cm soil layers in three replications based on similar slopes. Ten sub-samples were taken by auger from each depth in each treatment to make a single composite soil sample. The composite soils samples were air-dried, ground and screened through a 2 mm diameter sieve. 2.5. Laboratory Analysis of Soils Selected physical and chemical properties of the soils were determined in the laboratory, including soil texture, bulk density, particle density, pH, organic carbon, Particle density (Pd), total nitrogen, available phosphorus, CEC, exchangeable acidity, exchangeable Al , exchangeable bases (Ca and Mg). The procedure can be presented as follow. 2.5.1. Moisture content 5g of air dried soil was weighed out in to a clean, dry pre-weighed and recorded moisture-free tin. The moisture tin with sample kept in an oven at 105Oc overnight or with the lid off the tin. Then the tin was removed from oven, close with lid & put in to desiccators to cool off for 30 minutes. At the end the tin was removed from desiccators and weighed once more. The moisture content in percent by weight was obtained as www.ijmer.in 176 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Where, A= weight of air –dry soil + tin weight and B= weight of oven-dry soil in grams + tin weight. The corresponding moisture correction factor (mcf) for analytical results or the multiplication factor for the amount of sample to be weighed for analysis is: 2.5.2. Soil texture 50g of soil was measured and put in to 500 ml beaker. 20 ml of H2O2 and 50 ml of distilled water was added, and covered by glass lid. Then put in a hot plate at 90Oc for 2:30 hours. After cool dawn 20 ml of sodium hexametaphosphate was added and staying overnight. In the next day each sample was well stirred for 2minutes by using stirrer cup. Measure the soil texture by hydrometer for 40seconds, at 20oc. And the measurements were repeated after 2 hours. 2.5.3. Determination of acidity, calcium + magnesium and calcium reagents Potassium chloride solution 1M: was prepared by dissolving 74.6g KCl in water and made to 1L with distilled water. Sodium hydroxide solution 1M: by dissolved 20g of NaOH in distilled water, cool and made to 500 ml in v.f with distilled water. Sodium hydroxide solution 0.02M: diluted 20ml of NaOH 1M with distilled water to 1000 ml in 1 liter v.f and standardize with 0.05N oxalic acid by taken 10ml with 0.02M NaOH titrate. Phenolphthalein indicator solution: 0.1% dissolved 100mg phenolphthalein in 100 ml v.f with 0.1g ethanol 96%. Note: Sodium hydroxide standard solution has a limited life and need to be re- standardized after storage. 2.5.4. Soil pH Standard buffer solutions with pH values of 4.00, 7.00, and 9.00 were prepared. Buffer solution pH 4.00(22.6 0c) was dissolved in 11.806g citric acid (C6H8O7) and 10.9468g of disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4.2H2O) in pure distilled water and diluted to 1 liter. Buffer solution pH 7.00 (22.6oc): was dissolved in 3.3910g of potassium dihydrogenorthphosphate (KH2PO4) and 4.5g of disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4.2H2O) in distilled water and diluted to 1 liter. Buffer solution pH 9.00: 0.7627g of sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7.10H2O) was dissolved in 200ml distilled water. 74.6g of KCl was added in 1 liter volumetric flask and made to volume with distilled water to produce 1M KCl. And 1.11g of CaCl2 was added in 1 liter volumetric flask and make to volume with distilled water to produce 0.01M CaCl2. www.ijmer.in 177 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 2.5.5. Exchangable Acidity Percolation 10g of fine earth (accuracy 0.05g) was transferred to a dray filter paper in a fennel placed in 100 ml volumetric flask and two blanks and a reference sample were Included. 10 portion of 10ml 1M KCl solution with 15-minute intervals was added so that the percolation takes about 2:30 hours. After the portion had percolated, the funnel was removed and 1 M KCl solution was filled to the volumetric flask and homogenized. To determine exchangeable acidity 25ml of percolate was Pipetted in to a 250 ml elementary flask and 5 drops of phenolphthalin solution was added. 0.02M of NaOH was titrated until the color turns just permanently pink (waited for 1 minute) and the number of ml NaOH used was recorded. The solution was saved for the determination of exchangeable Al. For Determination of exchangeable aluminum: few drops of 0.02M HCl was added to make the titrated solution in the Erlenmeyer flask saved above colorless. 10ml of 1M NaF was added to the solution till pink color was appeared. 0.02M standardized HCl titrated with till the pink color was disappeared. 2.5.6. Organic carbon: 0.5g of air dray soil (< 2mm) was weighed and transferred to a 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask. 2g of sample for light colored soils were used and 0.1g for organic soils, 2 blanks solutions were Included. 10ml 1N K2Cr2O7 solution with pipette was added to both samples and blank. 20 ml conc. H2SO4 was carefully added with measuring cylinder in the fume cupboard and the flask was swirled and allowed to standing on asbestos or corking pad for 30 minutes. 200 ml distilled water was added and was allowed to cool. 10ml conc. Ortho-phosphoric acid was added and before titration, 0.5 ml of barium diphenylamine sulphonate indicator was added. Both samples and blanks with 0.5 N ferrous sulfate solutions were titrated until the color changes to purple or blue, then ferrous sulfate solution drop by drop was added until the color flashes to green and continued to light green end point. 2.5.7. Total nitrogen: 1g soil sample (< 0.5mm sieve) was weighed accurately and was transferred into a digestion tube. 0.5g was weighed for soils rich in organic matter (> 10% organic matter), in each batch, a reference sample and two blanks were included. 2g of catalyst mixture and few carborundum boiling stones were added and mixed well and rinsed with a little water just enough to moisten the mixture. A 7ml of con. H2SO4 was added and mixed by swirling. The digestion tube stand was placed with samples besides the block digester and fitted to the exhaust manifold on top of it. The tube with rack and exhaust manifold was placed on the digestion block, preheated in the fume-hood, then digested for 3 hours or until the digest was white or pal yellow on a block digester preheated www.ijmer.in 178 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 to 300oc. Allowed to cool and 50 ml distilled water was added cautiously, and then was cooled again. The acid digest was transferred to the macro-kjeldahl flasks quantitatively and rinsed using distilled water. 20ml boric acid solution was measured from a dispenser into a receiver Erlenmeyer flask corresponding to the number of samples. 2 drops of indicator solution was added to it and placed under the condenser. The condenser was immersed in the boric acid solution to prevent any loss of ammonia. 75ml of 40% NaOH was poured carefully down the neck of the distillation flasks containing the distillation flasks containing the digests and mixed gently. The prepared 250ml kjelhal distillation flasks containing the digest were fitted to the corresponding holder; it was closed as soon as possible and distillation was started by heating the flasks containing the digests. When the distillation was completed, when about 80ml of distillate has been collected, and the receiver flask was removed. The process was continued with the next sample. A stirrer bar was added and the receiver flask solution was titrated to 0.1 N H2SO4 from green to the pink end point. The reading of the burette was recorded. The magnet was transferred to the next flask to be titrated by a means of a magnetic rod. Always the acid was standardized to obtain the exact normality of the titrant. 2.5.8. Available phosphorus: A 0.2g air drayed soil < 2 ml was weighed in a 50 ml flask with stoppers. One standard sample and two blanks were Included with each series. 20 ml of extracting solution bray II was added and shaked exactly for 1 minute by hand and filtered directly after mixing through a whatman No. 42 filter paper. 2 ml of standard series was Pipette to samples and blanks. 8 ml of boric acid 0.5% was added and mixed. 2 ml of mixed reagent was added and mixed. The absorbance with a 10 mm diameter cuvette at 882 nm was measured after 30 minutes, taking the absorbance of the 4 ppm P standard about 1.0. Determination of Ca + Mg 10 ml of ammonium acetate soil extract obtained from the cation exchange capacity was pipette out and exchangeable bases extraction into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 40 ml of distilled water was added to bring the volume up to 50 ml. 2 drops of methyl orange and 0.1 N HCl were added until the color turns orange and then 0.2 ml excess 0.1 N HCl was added. The content was boiled for 3 minutes and the solution was allowed to cool to 60oC. 2 ml of KCN solution and the buffer solution were added to bring up to about pH 10. Then a pinch of Eriochrome blank T and NaCl mixture were added. 0.2 N EDTA disodium salt was titrated to a pure turquoise blue without any trace of red. Determination of Ca: 10 ml of ammonium acetate soil extract was transferred to a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask for the determination of CEC and exchangeable base, and 40 ml distilled water was added to bring the volume to 50 ml. 2 ml of methyl orange and 0.1 N HCl were added until the color turns orange and then 0.2 ml www.ijmer.in 179 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 HCl in excess was added. The contents were boiled for two minutes and then cooled to about 60oc. 10 ml of freshly prepared 1 N NaOH, 2 ml KCN solution and pinch of HHSNN were added. 0.02 N EDTA-Na2 solutions were titrated to a pure turquoise blue without any trace of red. 2.5.9. CEC by ammonium acetate method: 5g of soil was weighed into a 250 ml beaker, 100 ml of 1M ammonium acetate pH 7 solutions were added and stirred instantly with a stirring road and allowed to stand overnight while taking the precaution to cover the beakers with watch glasses. The next day the soaked samples was transferred onto filter funnels placed on 250 ml volumetric flasks and the remaining soil was washed with about 50 ml of 1 M ammonium acetate ph 7 into the funnel while making sure that each filtration was completed before adding the next. Washed two times, each with additional 25 ml aliquots of 1 M ammonium acetate to a volume of ±200 ml, the volumetric flasks was removed and bring up to volume with distilled water. 250 ml plastic bottles were placed under filter funnels and the soil was washed on the filter with 25 ml ethanol. This process was repeated 2 times. Some drops of filtrate were taken into nessler tubes and 3 drops of nesslerˈs reagent was added. Test for precipitation with nessler reagent, the procedure was repeated until no precipitate formed. The soil was saturated with sodium by washing with successive 20 ml of NaCl 10%; the filtrate was collected in 250 ml plastic bottles. a total of 5-20 ml successive washes was done to give a total of 100 ml including a blank. This filtrate was used for CEC determination by distillation. Distillation of ammonium: The leachate (NaCl percolate) in the plastic bottles was transferred from the displacement process, to a 500 ml kjeldahl flask and the plastic bottles was washed with 25 ml of distilled water, with small amounts at a time. Distillate receiver was arranged by pouring 25 ml of 0.20N H2SO4 to a 250 erlenmayer flask and the distillation tip was dipped in the sulfuric acid solution. Added 10ml of 1N NaOH solution to the kjeldahl flask and connect immediately to the distillation apparatus. About 75 ml of the NaCl percolate was distilled over the 15 ml 0.20N H2SO4 in the 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask. Erlenmeyer flask was removed from distiller, condenser tip rinsed and the distillate was titrated with 0.1N NaOH using methyl red indicator until color changes from purple to yellow. Where: a= ml 0.1N NaOH required for titration of sample, b= ml of 0.1N NaOH required for titration of blank, S= normality of the NaOH (0.1N) and mef= moisture correction factor. www.ijmer.in 180 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 2. Results and Discussion Table 1: some selected physical and chemical properties of soil in different land use system at 0 – 20 cm and 20 – 40 cm depth. No. Code Soil parameters pH( E.C Total Available Excha. Excha. Excha. CEC Organic Bulk Soil Excha. H2O N P Acidity Al Ca C (%) density texture Mg (%) 1 C1 5.1 0.019 0.34 1.9 2.21 1.72 1.376 30.51 1.255 0.148 H. clay 1.442 2 C2 5 0.032 0.25 1.98 3.12 1.25 1.453 30.62 1.039 0.352 H. clay 1.597 3 G1 5.2 0.028 0.31 5.11 1.52 0.42 1.884 31.04 1.076 0.194 Clay 1.365 4 G2 5.1 0.015 0.32 2.09 2.67 1.81 1.485 30.71 0.947 0.322 H. clay 1.351 5 F1 5.4 0.043 0.41 4.51 0.57 0 2.748 37.4 1.325 0.285 Clay 2.663 6 F2 5.1 0.019 0.37 1.74 6.58 5.2 0.485 31.52 1.616 0.311 H. clay 2.947 Where: C1- cultivated land 0-20cm, C2 – cultivated land 20-40cm, G1 – grass land 0 – 20cm, G2 – grass land 20-40cm, F1- forest land 0-20cm and F2 – forest land 20-40cm. www.ijmer.in 181 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 pH pH of the forest is more than cultivated land. That was through the process of decomposition, the reaction of CO2 with H2O forms both organic (H2CO3) and inorganic acids (H2SO4, HNO3) which are potential suppliers of hydrogen ions in the soil encouraging the development of acidic cations as the same reason of [14] finding. The pH of grass land is higher than pH of cultivated land, but lower than that of forest land. This tells us soil acidity is high in cultivated land than another type of land use system. Therefore, planting of trees on cultivated land, decrease the acidity of soil. Mokwunye [15] again indicated that continuous cultivation for a long-term coupled with large agricultural export of base forming cations lowered soil pH in Nigeria. Deforestation followed by cultivation of the same land with resulting export of basic cations in agricultural products, and leaching due to adequate rainfall, forms the major cause for the change in pH and acidification process in the tropics. The pH of soil in all types of land use system decrease as its depth increase. A gradual reduction of surface soil pH with increasing time was observed in land units undergone conversion from forest to cultivated land uses in Ethiopia [16]. In such sub-tropical environments, excessive disturbance of the soil at seedbed preparation caused high rate of organic matter turn over and decomposition. Through the process of decomposition, the reaction of CO2 with H2O forms both organic (H2CO3) and inorganic acids (H2SO4, HNO3) which are potential suppliers of hydrogen ions in the soil encouraging the development of acidic cations [14]. Various studies [11,17] in favour of this again noted a slight reduction in soil pH among soils cultivated for more than 25 years in Ethiopia. This decline was largely attributed to the severe soil erosion and leaching processes due to the intensive and adequate rainfall. In general, it was in agreement that there is a general decrease in soil pH with increasing number of years in cultivation while almost all groups of soils tend to be slightly leached and become acidic in reaction which results in declining soil chemical fertility [18]. Electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity of forest land is slightly higher than that of grass land and cultivated land, but the difference is not significant. Electrical conductivity is high at the surface than underlying horizons in all types of land use system. In soils of sub-humid tropics where there is sufficient rainfall to flush out base forming cations from the root zone, EC is found too low, usually, less than 4 dS/m [14]. Accordingly, owing to the high soil acidity levels (slightly acidic to very strongly acidic), the EC values are negligible and there were no apparent www.ijmer.in 182 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 differences in electrical conductivity among the different soil management systems in the soils of Bako area, western Ethiopia [11]. Bulky density From table 1 it is evident that bulky density of cultivated land is the lowest and that of forest land is highest. Similar findings were reported by [19] revealed that bulk density exhibited significant differences among the different land use types; the results which validated again the bulky density Soils under Eucalyptus plantation had a higher bulk density than other land use types and those all differences are attributable to, among others. In fact that bulk density is lowest at the surface due to the higher organic matter content. In all cases of land use type, as depth of the soil increase, the bulky density of the soil also increase. Besides [12] investigated the variation in bulk density due to soil depth which as a result has increased in the 0-10 and 10-20 cm layers relative to the length of time the soils were subjected to cultivation after deforestation. Contradictory to these, [11] demonstrated bulk density was affected by soil depth at Bako which as a result was higher at the surface than the underlying horizons observed in abandoned fields and fallow lands left for twelve years. This finding is not in agreement with the established fact that bulk density is lowest at the surface due to the higher OM content. Texture This study indicates that the soil texture of cultivated land is heavy clay and those of grass land and forest land is clay at the surface and heavy clay at underlying horizons. Whilst soil erosion takes place, fine particles are preferentially moved, resulting in a greater concentration of clay in the sediments than in the original soil [17]. This ultimately caused to change the particle size fraction composition of the original soil. This phenomenon is observed in the Ethiopian highlands where severe soil erosion prevails. As it is observed from soil texture of this study the heavy clay of cultivated land is due erosion. Carbon content Relative to soil organic matter of the forest land and cultivated land soils, soil organic matter of grazing land soils decreased by 19% and 14.3% for 0-20 cm layer and by 41.4% and 8.9% for the 20-40 cm layer. www.ijmer.in 183 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 The highest values for soil organic matter content were found in soils from the forest land. Cultivated land was slightly higher soil organic matter content than soils of fallow land, but significantly lowers than that of woodland. Compared with the cultivated land, the soils from intercropping land were high soil organic matter content, which implies that intercropping system is a better cultivation practice under the existing management practices. The highest values for soil organic matter content of soils from the forest land indicates that soil organic matter level would decrease after land use shifts from the forest land and grassland to cultivated land has been identified. The impact due to land use change on OM content depends on a number of factors such as the old and new land use types, the soil type, management and climate [20]. These changes typically result in differing rates of soil erosion, aggregate formation, biological activity, and drainage all of which have a profound impact on OM accumulation and CO2 evolution. However, forest and pasture lands make up the potential to build up large amounts of OM, whereas conversion of natural ecosystem to croplands which results in high rate of its turnover led to declined level of OM. Woldeamlak and Stroosnijder [17] reported the conversion of forest land into cultivation and grazing led to a drop down of OM to 87% and 85%, respectively at Chemoga watershed, the sub humid tropical agroecosystem. Similarly, Solomon et al. [16] reported a drop down of OM by 55% (32.0 Mg ha-1) at Wushwush and by 63% (40.2 Mg ha-1) at Munessa following conversion of natural forest to cultivated fields after 25 and 30 years of continuous cultivation, respectively. In general, one can confirm that losses of forest- derived OM were not fully compensated by OM input from the cereal crops due to its low OM inputs and removal of residues from cultivated fields. This indicates that land use practices that have detrimental effects on OM level and composition have far-reaching implications because of the multiple roles OM plays in soil quality and link with soil fertility [16]. Total nitrogen Nitrogen content of soil under cultivated land was lower compared to levels in the forest land and grazing land. The highest value of available nitrogen content was measured in soils under the forest land. This may be due to more litters, porosity and high soil moisture to improve microbial activity. Poorer macro aggregates due to periodical tillage and less biomass return on harvested land probably account for the lower available nitrogen level in the cultivated land. Total nitrogen content of soil under cultivated land was lower compared to levels in the forest land. It is also observed that significant differences in www.ijmer.in 184 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 available nitrogen were detected. The highest value of available nitrogen content was measured in soils under the forest land. This may be due to more litters, porosity and high soil moisture to improve microbial activity. Poorer macro aggregates due to periodical tillage and less biomass return on harvested land probably account for the lower available nitrogen level in the cultivated land. In the case of cultivated land and forest land, the total nitrogen is higher at surface than underlying horizon, but no significance difference observed in the case of grass land. The total nitrogen of grass land is higher than total nitrogen of cultivated land but lower than that of forest land. Though cultivation causes decrease in the total nitrogen content of soils in different agroecosystems, the rate of decline is found to be rapid during the first few years of cultivation. Genxu et al. [21] reported after 3-5 years of cultivation, a significant decrease in TN and OM content had occurred in soils brought into cultivation in north-west China. However, after 10 years of cultivation soil total nitrogen content had increased due to fertilization. In the same way, a 30% depletion of TN from agricultural fields cultivated for 40 years in Bako area, western Ethiopia was reported by [11]. Surprisingly, the amount of depleted TN from abandoned land compared with the virgin land is 76%, which was 23% greater than that reported by [16] from south-western Ethiopian soil subject to cultivation for 25 years time. Biswas and Mukherjee [22] reported similar findings that there is a great difference in both organic matter and total nitrogen content of in forest and cultivated land. Their result also showed that the amount of organic matter and total nitrogen was lowest in cultivated lands and highest in forest lands. Phosphorus High amount of phosphorus were found in the grazing rather than the forest and cultivated land as observed in our finding. The reason for this was due to the animals’ manure. But in cultivated land it was low as a result of erosion and management system. Unlike nitrogen, it is not supplied through biochemical fixation but must come from other sources to meet plant requirements [14]. The sources include commercial fertilizer, animal manure, plant residues, human, industrial and domestic wastes and native compounds of P. Total phosphorus of forest land is lower than that grass land, but higher than that of cultivated land. In the case of grass land and forest land Total phosphorus is higher at surface than that of underlying horizons. But in that of cultivated land no significance difference observed. So, from this study it is evident that, land use changes led to a significant decline in available P www.ijmer.in 185 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 content of soils, which is agreed with the study in south-western Ethiopian ecosystems [16]. The respective authors attributed this scenario to the remarkable depletion of phosphorus associated with OM, as deforestation led its decline and loss of associated nutrients. This idea is backed by the concept that OM is the primary source of soil P. Here again P fixation occurred due to leaching of base forming cations and subsequent development of acidity. Contrary to this, considerable increase in available P content was obtained in north-western Ethiopian ecosystems as reported by [17]. The authors bound this finding with the idea that forest trees extract more phosphorus than field crops in which larger proportion of the P pool is retained and immobilized by microbes in the litter layers of forests [11]. Beside this, P from fertilization and application of cattle dung as a soil conditioner in cultivated fields has been substantial in its effect. In general, considerable number of authors agreed that the effect of deforestation and establishment of other types of land use on availability of this vital nutrient was not negative. However, the difference is strongly attributable to differences in OM content and pH level of soils, severity of erosion and leaching, and types of crops grown and intensity of cultivation. CEC CEC of the forest land relative to cultivated land, and grazing land soils decreased by 18.4% and 17% for 0-20 cm layer and by 2.9% and 2.6% for the 20-40 cm layer. In most of the exchangeable cation in the forest land were maximum, this is because of the nutrients are stored in forest biomass. cation exchange capacity is highest in forest land use system than another land use system. For instance, exchangeable Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, H+ is in forest land than the other land use system. Woldeamlak and Stroosnijder [17] also reported a significant difference in CEC of soils due to land uses types with values highest in soils under forest and lowest under cultivation. Adejuwon and Ekanade [23] again reported a 34-36% reduction in CEC and 19-50% losses in exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+ in tropical regions due to deforestation. This is in keeping with the greater deposition of ions in a forest than on an open non-forested site, even in deciduous woodland and the fact that trees and other woodland vegetation, with their deeper rooted systems, have a greater capacity to recycle nutrients than the shallow-rooted vegetation and cereal crops. In general, CEC was found to be determined by organic matter (humus) content far exceeding the role of clay, and variation of CEC parallels that of organic matter [17]. In contrast to these, another study [18] reported that exchangeable cations showed a general increase in amounts over time from semi-arid Nigeria. In www.ijmer.in 186 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 general, the pattern of exchangeable cations obtained from numerous studies supported the conclusion that there is an increasing loss of cations due to removal in crops and to vertical and lateral eluviations of finer materials in the top horizons. The Histograms of distribution of a single scale variable, Data are binned and summarized using a count statistic (figure 1): Figure 1: relation between land types to sellected soil parameters using a count statistic Probability plots (normal Q-Q Plots) are generally shows (figure 2) the distribution of a variable matches a given distribution. The selected variable matches the test distribution, the points cluster around a straight line. Example total Nitrogen plot is shown below: www.ijmer.in 187 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Figure 2: Normal Q-Q plot of total nitrogen the agreement of the expermental results among the different land types 3. Summary and Conclusions The pH of grass land is higher than pH of cultivated land, but lower than that of forest land. This tells us soil acidity is high in cultivated land than another type of land use system. Therefore, planting of trees on cultivated land, decrease the acidity of soil. The pH of soil in all types of land use system decrease as its depth increase. Electrical conductivity of forest land is slightly higher than that of grass land and cultivated land, but the difference is not significant. Electrical conductivity is high at the surface than underlying horizons in all types of land use system. From table 1 it is evident that bulky density of cultivated land is the lowest and that of forest land is highest In all cases of land use type, as depth of the soil increase, the bulky density of the soil also increase. www.ijmer.in 188 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 Total nitrogen content of soil under cultivated land was lower compared to levels in the forest land. It is also observed that significant differences in available nitrogen were detected. The highest value of available nitrogen content was measured in soils under the forest land. This may be due to more litters, porosity and high soil moisture to improve microbial activity. Total phosphorus of forest land is lower than that grass land, but higher than that of cultivated land. In the case of grass land and forest land Total phosphorus is higher at surface than that of underlying horizons. But in that of cultivated land no significance difference observed. Contents of exchangeable bases Ca, Mg and K were significantly reduced due to the shift of land use which can essentially be attributed to the export of nutrients at crop harvests (grains and residues). Moreover, cation exchange capacity of soils show great difference in studied land use system which is disastrous for soil productivity. Soil CEC is crucial in soil fertility because the total quantity of nutrients available to plants as exchangeable cations depends on it, and it influences the degree to which H and Al ions occupy the exchange complex, and thus affects the pH of soils. Hence, it can be concluded that cultivated soils of the study area suffer from low CEC as compared to soils under the two other land uses. Now it has come clear that if current trends continue and are not averted, the great production potential of this landscape will soon be severely degraded, perhaps beyond recovery in some areas. Unless otherwise urgent solutions towards sustainable land management are found, the ability of such ecosystems to support the ever increasing population is felt under dilemma. It needs to address the situation with a mix of technological and policy options. Technological options have to consider the natural and socio-economic circumstances of farmers and should avoid one-size-fits-all supposition. This is why unless farmers can expect an economic return at least equal to their level of investment; there will be little incentive for them to adopt such practices. It is why it cannot be assumed that conservation technologies will be attractive to farmers simply because they protect the resource base. Stable and responsive institutional and policy environments also must be created to ensure productivity enhancement and conservation goals met. Land use and management policies that define the rights and responsibility of users have to be drawn and implemented to ensure sustainability. Concurrently, local institutions should work actively in place to ensure compliance to the laws and regulations for sustainable natural resource management. This entails, there is an urgent need for policy makers to www.ijmer.in 189 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 identify avenues that lead to the improvement and maintenance of productivity of the land in general and soils in particular, and set policies that address this important cause. Beside this, concerted efforts from various bodies through research and development interventions are required to mitigate land degradation and support the increasingly becoming subsistent traditional agriculture. Participatory planning and implementation for developing interventions towards sustainable land use operational at local level are mandatory. Close monitoring and multi-stage evaluation of various activities should be followed and indicators must be set to evaluate the impacts of these interventions at various scales and utilize as a feedback for further planning. More importantly, land use dynamics and responses of ecosystem components such as soil, water, fauna and flora should also be monitored and kept away from deterioration. Last but not least, while this conclusion was arrived at objectively based on analysis of a limited database, it should therefore be concretized with spatially explicit data that can handle spatial heterogeneity in the climate, landscape, socio-economic issues, soil properties and management regimes. References 1. ECACC (Ethiopian Central Agricultural Census Commission). A Report on Preliminary Results of Area, Production and Yield of Temporary Crops (Meher Season Private Peasant Holding) Part II, on Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration, Addis Abeba. 2002. 2. W, Ronggul,, Effect of Land Use on Soil Fertility and Phosphorus Dynamics in Sub Alpine Grassland Soil of Gansu, China. PhD dissertation, University of Saskatchewan, Canada, 2001. 3. R, Lal,, Soil Management in the Developing Countries. Soil Sci, 165:57-72, 2000. 4. Azene Bekele,. A participatory agro-forestry approach for soil-water conservation in Ethiopia. A Ph.D. Dissertation, Wageningen Agr. Uni. The Netherlands. 229, 1997. 5. Betru Nedassa, Soil and water conservation program in Amhara National RegionalState. 109-125, 2003. 6. Demel Teketay, Vegetation type and forest fire management in Ethiopia. 1-35, 2001. 7. Birru Yitaferu, Soil and water conservation technologies, transfer and adoption by the smallholder farmers in the Amhara Region. 155-172, 2003. 8. Gete Zeleke and H. Hurni, Implications of land use and land cover dynamics for mountain resources degradation in the north-western Ethiopian highlands. Mountain Research and Development 21(2): 184-191, 2001. www.ijmer.in 190 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 9. Abbi Mamo. Environment, Population and Agricultural Development in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Agriculture: Problems of Transformation. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on the Ethiopian Economy, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. 65-86, 1995. 10. Muluneh Woldetsadik, Impact of population pressure on land resource as reflected in and use/ land cover change in Ethiopia: Lessons from west Gurageland. Edited by Taye Assefa. 2001. Food Security through Sustainable Land Use. Population, environment and rural development issues for sustainable livelihood in Ethiopia. 43 – 88. December 19-20, 2000. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. 2001. 11. Wakene Negassa and Heluf Gebrekidan, The Impact of Different Land Use Systems on Soil Quality of Western Ethiopian Alfisols .A Paper Presented on an International Research on Food Security, National Resource Management and Rural Poverty Reduction through Research for Development and Transformation on Tropentag. 5-7 October 2004. Berlin, Germany. 2004, 12. Mulugeta Lemenih, Erik Karltun and Mats Olsson, Assessing soil chemical and physical property responses to deforestation and subsequent cultivation in smallholders farming system in Ethiopia. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 105: 373 – 386, 2004. 13. M, Latham., Evaluation of the Soil and Land Resource. IBSRAM, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand, 1994. 14. N.C,Brady., The nature and properties of soils. 9th edition. MacMillan Publishing Co. Inc. New York. 750, 1990. 15. A.U, Mokwunye., The role of inorganic fertilizers in the chemical degradation of Nigerian savannah soils. Samaru conference paper 14. Expert consultations on methodology for assessing soil degradation. FAO, Rome. 16, 1978. 16. D. F, Solomon., M, Fritzsche, J, Tekalign, Lehmann and W. Zech, Soil organic matter dynamics in the subhumid Ethiopian highlands: Evidence from natural 13C abundance and particle-size fractionation. Soil Sci. Soc. Amr. J. 66: 969-978, 2002. 17. Woldeamlak Bewket and L. Stroosnijder, Effects of agro-ecological land use succession on soil properties in the Chemoga watershed, Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. eoderma 111: 85-98, 2003. 18. I.A, Jaiyeoba., Changes in soil properties due to continuous cultivation in Nigerian semiarid Savannah. Soil Tillage and Research 70: 91-98, 2003. 19. B.J, Fu., S.L. Liu, L.D. Chen, Y.H. Lu and J. Qiu, Soil quality regime in relation to land cover and slope position across a highly modified slope landscape. Ecological Research 19: 111-118, 2004. 20. S, Lettens., J.V. Orshoven, B.V. Wesemael, D. Perrin and C. Roelandt, The inventory based approach for prediction of SOC changes following land use www.ijmer.in 191 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 change. J. Biotechnol. Agron. Soc. Environ. 8(2): 141-146, 2004. 21. W,Genxu., M. Haiyan, Q. Ju and C. Juan, Impact of land use changes on soil carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus and water pollution in an arid region of northwest China.Soil Use and Management 20: 32-39, 2004. 22. T.D, Biswas, and S.K. Mukherjee, Text Book of Soil Science. Tata McGraw-hill. Delhi, 1987. 23. J.O, Adejuwon,. and O. Ekanade, Edaphic component of the environment degradation resulting from the replacement of tropical rain forest by field and tree crops in SW Nigeria. Int. Tree Crops J. 4: 269-282, 1987. www.ijmer.in 192 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 193 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 194 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 195 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 196 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 197 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 198 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 199 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 200 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 201 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.972; IC VALUE:5.16 VOLUME 4, ISSUE 4(3), APRIL 2015 www.ijmer.in 202