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COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY ONE
Note: These eight files (Copala Trique Anthropology one - eight) contain data from file slips compiled about 1970 in an attempt to fill in all that I (Barbara Hollenbach) knew about Trique culture, organized by Murdoch numbers (Outline of Cultural Materials). From time to time up until we left Mexico in 1980, I added to the slips, and in 1994 they were entered on the computer by a volunteer. In 2004 I proofed these and discarded the slips.
The data are from various people, mostly unidentified, and the dates are approximate. While this does not conform to standard anthropological practice, it was the best I could do because people are quite reluctant to give you a name, and if you push them, they will give you an alias.
These data were gathered at a time when my understanding of Mesoamerican societies was considerably less comprehensive than it is now, and there is a lot of inconsistency from one file slip to another. In that my contact with Trique society has been very limited since we had to leave Mexico in 1980, virtually nothing has been added since this date, and the material on the slips is a record of my perceptions during our first two decades of work. Much has changed since then in Copala, and I have not tried to update the slips in any way to reflect those changes.
I have used much of the data in these files in various published papers, some of which are easy to access, and others less so. See the following publications.
1969 A note on concepts of political geography International Journal of American Linguistics 35:263-64
1970 Some limitations of the question technique Notes on Translation 36:26-28
1970 Checking illustrations for use in Scripture publications Notes on Translation 38:17-18
1973 La aculturación lingüística entre los triques de Copala, Oaxaca América Indígena 3:65-95 \abs Treats the effect of Spanish contact on Copala Trique; lists loanwords, loan translations, generalizations of original meanings, and lexicalized descriptive phrases, organized by cultural domains. It also treats the ways that Spanish loanwords have been adapted to Trique phonology and phonological changes resulting from loans.
1973 El parentesco entre los triques de Copala, Oaxaca América Indígena 33:167-86 \abs Covers consanguineal, affinal, and ritual kinship terms 1975 \art La mayordomía comerciante de los triques \bok Sociedad Mexicana de antropología, XIII Mesa Redonda, Etnología y Antropología Social \des Oral presentation, and then printed in proceedings \edt None listed \cty México, D.F. \pbl Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología \pag 237-43 \abs Describes the way mayordomos of a fiesta in Copala engage in commercial activity for a year to earn the needed money
1977 \art El origen del Sol y de la Luna cuatro versiones en el trique de Copala \jrn Tlalocan \v:p 7:123-70 \cty México, D.F. \pbl Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Institutos de Investigaciones Históricas e Investigaciones Antropológicas
1977 \art Reversal of Copala Trique temporal metaphors through language contact \jrn International Journal of American Linguistics \v:p 43:150-54
1980 \art El mundo animal en el folklore de los triques de Copala \jrn Tlalocan \v:p 8:437-90 \cty México, D.F.
1980 \art Los nombres personales entre los triques de Copala \jrn S[ummer] I[nstitute of] L[inguistics]Mexico Workpapers \v:p 4:9-14 \cty México, D.F.
1980 \art Topónimos triques: huellas de la prehistoria \bok Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología, XVI Reunión de Mesa Redonda, Saltillo, Coahuila, del 9 al 14 de septiembre de 1979, Rutas de Intercambio en Mesoamérica y el Norte de México, tomo i \des Oral presentation later published in proceedings \edt None listed \cty México, D.F. \pbl Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología \pag 47-52
1981 \art Copala Trique kinship terms \bok Proto Otomanguean kinship \ser International Museum of Cultures 11 \edt William R. Merrifield \cty Dallas \pbl International Museum of Cultures \pag 217-218
1982 \art A Copala Trique deluge story \jrn Latin American Indian Literatures \v:p 6:114-25 \cty Pittsburgh \pbl University of Pittsburgh, Department of Hispanic Languages and Literatures \abs Gives a version of the Copala Trique flood story, with literal and free translations in both English and Spanish. Men who tried to escape from the flood were turned into monkeys. You can see their possessions even now on the top of a mountain near Copala. \not This story was told by Manuel Camilo Ramrez S. \prv No opportunity to proofcontains many errors, which makes me unhappy
1988 \bok Three Trique myths of San Juan Copala \ser Textos Folclóricos en Lenguas Indígenas 1 \edt Margaret H. Daly \cty México, D.F. \pbl Instituto Lingüístico de Verano \pag x+90 pp.
1992 \art A cultural sketch of the Copala Trique \des Unpublished sketch of the culture, given to various missionaries interested in working with Oaxacans in Baja \abs \not this gets updated periodically; revised for internet 8/98, posted there not too long afterwards
1993 \art Cross-cultural communication through pictures: let's check it out \jrn The Pi Font \v:p 2.1:6-9 \cty Dallas \pbl Summer Institute of Linguistics, Printing Arts Department \abs \not Revision of Hollenbach, Barbara 1970c (Checking illustrations . . .)
1995 \art Tres temas dominantes en la cultura triqui \bok Humanismo siglo XX: estudios dedicados al Dr. Juan Adolfo Vázquez \edt Juan Schobinger \cty San Juan, Argentina \pbl Editorial Fundación Universidad Nacional de San Juan \pag 129-34 \abs describes three themes prominent in Copala Trique culture: cultural inferiority, pessimism and fatalism, and capricious supernatural beings, ending with a brief question about how contacts with the modern world might change these patterns
[Hollenbach F., Fernando, y Elena E. de Hollenbach] (compilers) \dat 1988 \bok Rej yaj contá níß d=ß, rej xcaj taßngaß níß dòß, se-xnanj chiháán níß a (Números y medidas en trique de San Juan Copala) \cty México, D.F. \pbl Instituto Lingüístico de Verano \pag vi+86 pp.
It would be good to edit the material in this file, combining all of the slips with the same number into a single description, both to eliminate redundancy, and with PR considerations in mind. It would perhaps also be desirable to translate it into Spanish. The result should then be archived. Some of the material (like information about medicinal plants) can be incorporated into a dictionary appendix, and some of the material might be appropriate for web publication on a private site.
I have been asked by a medical anthropologist for the material in the Social Problems and Sickness sections, and I plan to attempt to systematize these sections this spring as a pilot project. I also plan to write up all my creencias in Spanish for a local publication, part of a town history.
Many other areas are probably not worth my time. For example, I think my information about the mayordomo system and the fiestas is sketchy at best, and it has likely been superseded by other scholars working in this area. Also, there is a lot of redundancy and repetition in these files because some things fit under more than one Murdoch number.
Barbara Hollenbach, April 2004
10 INFORMATION
101 Identification 102 Maps 103 Place names 104 Glossary 105 Resume of the culture
\mn 101
\ct Identification
\da The Triques are also known as triqui, trike, triki, all variants of one name, the meaning of which is uncertain. No other names are used in literature, although the lack of any mention of them before ~1850 means that they were probably confused with the surrounding Mixtecs, a larger group, up until then.
The Trique call themselves "people of our town", town meaning Copala, the center of their universe. 1990 Triqui seems to have won the field, though a few still use Trique.
\dt 1990
\mn 101
\ct Identification
\da Seve and Benito Celestino used triqui in letters when the name wasn't in focus.
Seve and Santiago used trique in letters written to us.
\dt 1990
\mn 101
\ct Identification
\da tucua sun ~nan gente a we write: tucu suun y=anj sinte a.
Written on new Copala town hall in 1990. One man said it was really SAC trique
j omitted. v and vv joined nas double symbolized
\dt 1990
\mn 101
\ct Identification
\da There is some idea that Yutasaní has a different dialect from Sabana.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 101
\ct Identification
\da The Trique are surrounded on all sides by Mixtec speaking peoples, plus pockets of mestizos. The languages and culture are related. Both are part of Mesoamerica. \mn 101
\ct Identification
\da Very little has been written about the Trique in the sources. The present study began in 1962. See bibliography file and folder.
\dt 1962
\mn 102
\ct Maps
\da See 8 1/2 x 11 Anthro folder, map section
\dt c. 1970
\mn 103
\ct Place names
\da See toponymy section in lexical file.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 104
\ct Glossary
\da See entire lexical file.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 105
\ct Resume of the culture
\da In most respects, the Copala Trique are typical of Mesoamerica in general. See chapter 2 of Heritage of Conquest (Tax. ed.)
\dt c. 1970
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
111 Sources analyzed 112 Sources consulted 113 Complementary references 114 Observations 115 Informants 116 Original texts 117 Field notes \mn 111
\ct Sources analyzed
\da See 8 1/2 x 11 material in brown folder on abstracts from Bibliographical material
\dt c. 1970
\mn 112
\ct Sources consulted
\da See Bibliography file (3 x 5)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 113
\ct Complementary references
\da See Bibliography file (3 x 5)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Following is an incomplete list of informants. Trique reluctance to give true names makes it difficult to obtain accurate information without being offensively nosey.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Pedro Celestino; from Yosoyuxi; Born 1945-47.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pedro Celestino
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Faustino Rómulo José (also Margarito L¢pez Flores) from Sabana; born ~1943 \dt c. 1970
\sr Faustino Rómulo José
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da María Julia; widow of Pablo --gino from Sabana; parents: Francisco and María Antonia Born ~1930.
\dt c. 1970
\sr María Julia
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da María Juana; (wife of Feliciano Margarito) from Yosoyuxi; born 1942-1947.
\dt c. 1970
\sr María Juana
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Juan Celestino; (son of "Fat 'n Jolly") from Sabana; born 1955-57
\dt c. 1970
\sr Juan Celestino
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da (Sister of María Julia's father-in-law and mother of Joe's wife's husband. From Sabana; born 1907-17
\dt c. 1970
\mn 115
\ct Informants \da Albino Abraham ~Marcelino Francisco Wife - María Ignacia ~ María Dionicia Born about 1930 Lives in Ladera-Coyuchi
\dt c. 1970
\sr Albino Abraham
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Margarito Alfonso Ramírez Sabana - son of Marcelino Domingo Mother speaks Trique well but is from Yucunicoco Born about 1948
\dt c. 1970
\sr Margarito Alfonso Ramírez
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Refugio Ramírez Santiago Son of Marcelano Domingo - Sabana Born about 1953-54
\dt c. 1970
\sr Refugio Ramírez Santiago
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Pablo Ramírez Flores Born ~ 1947; died about 1986 (murder) Sabana, near El Diamante Wife, Margarita is non-Trique parents are Nicolás Ramírez and Juana Celestina Flores / Valentina Flores brothers: Amado, Antonio (Josefa Morales), Guadalupe sister: Gloria
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pablo Ramírez Flores
\mn 115 \ct Informants
\da Manuel Camilo Ramírez Born ~ 1944 Son Miguel Copala Trique wife, no schooling
\dt c. 1970
\sr Manuel Camilo Ramírez
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da José Albino Monolingual - no schooling - Trique wife San Miguel Copala Born ~ 1950
\dt c. 1970
\sr José Albino
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Juan López Merino (Juan Mariano) son of Juan Clemente Sabana, born ~ 1958
\dt c. 1970
\sr Juan López Merino
\mn 115
\ct Informants
\da Mario Merino López Born ~ 1965 Concepción Carrizal Worked July 1977 Intelligent, has finished primaria.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Mario Merino López
\mn 117 \mn 115 \ct Informants \da Fulgencio sandoval Cruz SAC, teacher in Copala c. 1968
\ct Field notes
\da Since this file is essentially a way of organizing field work (only secondarily are data from other sources included), the whole file is field notes.
\dt c. 1970
12 METHODOLOGY
121 Theoretical orientation 122 Practical preparation 123 Role and characteristics of the observer 124 Interviews 125 Psychological tests, inventories and questionnaires 126 Recording the data 127 Historical investigations 128 Preparation and display of the results
\mn 121
\ct Theoretical orientation
\da Our goals as investigators were linguistic goals--the ethnographical goals were secondary, but necessary to our missionary role. We used a "vacuum- cleaner" technique, but interest was in religious beliefs and practices, ethics, and interpersonal relations, more than on material culture.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 123
\ct Role and characteristics of the observer
\da Since we were not anthropologists first, but rather missionary-linguists, our role in the culture was more enduring, timewise, but more limited, since as agents of change, we couldn't participate in fiestas or ritual relationships. We were always to some degree outsiders, but probably we would have been outsiders no matter how much we tried to participate.
From the Trique point of view, our status was that of storekeeper, since we from the beginning sold medicine (at cost), and later, books.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 124 \ct Interviews
\da Our choice of informants was determined mainly by who was available and willing. We used no interpreters, since we speak Trique. Some informants were paid at a rate slightly better than the local rate for field labor. Others, usually on a more casual basis, were unpaid. Techniques included direct questioning and eliciting, undirected conversations and an oscillation between the two.
We didn't use autobiography or genealogy to a very great extent because of the Trique feeling against using personal names.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 125
\ct Psychological tests, inventories and questionnaires
\da No formal testing was undertaken
\dt c. 1970
\mn 126
\ct Recording the data
\da Notes were taken during interviews and daily or nearly so, the rough notes on language and cultural data were transferred to growing files. Text material was recorded on tape and then carefully transcribed with informant help.
We didn't use diaries, as such, though I kept copies of letters home telling the events (not necessarily of anthropological interest) of the past week or two. These letters are filed chronologically in Tucson.
Photographs, sketches and maps were used occasionally.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 127
\ct Historical investigations
\da See Bibliography. I tried to find everything possible in print about the Triques, and also to read general works on Middle America.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 128
\ct Preparation and display of the results
\da We have made no great use of quantitative or statistical studies. \dt c. 1970
13 GEOGRAPHY
131 Location 132 Climate 133 Topography 134 Soil 135 Mineral resources 136 Fauna 137 Flora
\mn 131
\ct Location
\da Copala is located in the western part of Oaxaca, within the triangle formed by the towns of Tlaxiaco, Juxtlahuaca, and Putla, but projecting a bit westward. 17o ~12 minutes N.lat., 97o ~58 minutes W. long. They are located inland, about 150 km. from the coast.
The Trique area extends no more than 10 mi. across in any direction: one source gives 285 sq. km. for all Triques. Dirt roads pass through the area, making many parts of it accessible by trucks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 132
\ct Climate
\da The Copala area spans a wide altitude range, from cold to hot country, 4000-7000 feet more or less. The high portions have occasional frost. It is a fairly wet climate; rain is possible all year, and even in the dry season (Nov.- Apr.), it is rare to have more than a month pass without some rain. In the rainy season (May-Oct.), it pours nearly every day.
In the fall months (Nov.-Jan.), gale force winds from the NE sweep down the mountain on the NE border of the area.
According to Leopold, it is in the Sierra Madre del Sur physiographic region and in a rainfall zone of 800-1200 mm annually (32-48"). It is in the pine-oak vegetation zone, bordering on the tropical deciduous.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Leopold
\mn 133
\ct Topography \da The Trique area is limestone country, full of caves and deep pits, which have religious significance for the Trique.
The area is mountainous, 4000-7000 feet in Copala territory. There are few crags, though some mountainsides are very steep. Most of the land is sloped, moderately to steep and only a few places are level.
Because a watershed between the Río Balsas and Río Verde is found at the northern part of the area, rivers are small and sometimes seasonal. There are some swamps and ponds, all small. Lots of springs provide water, however.
There are sometimes earthquakes.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 133
\ct Topography
\da The cerro to the N of Copala is 10,500 feet on USAF map. Village of Copala is between 5000 and 6000, according to USAF map, but another source gives 1300 meters (just over 4000 feet). USAF map must be in error, though, because it lists Juxtlahuaca at 5200 and Putla at 5700.
\dt c. 1970
\sr USAF map
\mn 133
\ct Topography
\da From Sabana to the desviación is 8 miles. From desviación to SAC is 14 1/2 miles. La Laguna is 3 miles from SAC.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 134
\ct Soil
\da In the lower part of Copala county, the soil is loamy and good for agriculture. In the higher areas, the soil is heavy and clayey. All areas are used for agriculture; the crops differ with altitude.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 135
\ct Mineral resources
\da Copala territory is said to be rich in minerals, though there exist no mines at present. Stones are burned for lime; otherwise, there is no systematic exploitation of mineral resources.
Grinding stones, pottery, metal tools are all imported from outside the area; though only the pottery is made by Indians (Mixtec, from Cuquila).
Loose stones are used for houses or sharpening stones. Earth is used for house walls.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 136
\ct Fauna
\da See fauna section in dictionary file.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 137
\ct Flora
\da See flora section in dictionary file. Copala is on the border between pine-oak forest and tropical deciduous forest.
\dt c. 1970
14 HUMAN BIOLOGY 141 Anthropometry 142 Descriptive somatology 143 Genetics 144 Race and race relations 145 Ontogeny 146 Nutrition 147 Other physiological data
\mn 141
\ct Anthropometry
\da We have done nothing in physical anthropology as such. People are very short in stature, 5'8" for men and 5'4" for women are the extremes of tallness observed. For shortness, 4'10" for men and 4'4" for women. The average seems to be about 5'2" for men and 4'10" for women.
People are not heavy (probably due to poor nutrition), and vary from wiry to stocky in frame.
They tend to be flat-nosed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 142 \ct Descriptive somatology
\da Skin color is a light brown. Hair is black, sometimes wavy or curly (Negro blood?), more often straight. Eyes are brown.
Facial and body hair is sparse.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 144
\ct Race and race relations
\da The Trique belong to the Mongoloid race, American Indian subtype. They are similar to other groups of Indians in Middle America physically, and there is considerable intermarrying with Mixtecs and Aztecs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 144
\ct Race and race relations
\da There are Nahua semi-nomadic shepherds throughout the entire region, going down toward the coast. There are some living in Zacatepec and near or among the Amuzgos.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 146
\ct Nutrition
\da The staple is corn (for details of foods eaten, see 26). There is a lack of vitamins and of protein, causing pellagra and kwashiorkor of a sort, among a large segment of the population, responsible for many deaths among young children.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 147
\ct Other physiological data
\da People seem to have extraordinary resistance to cold weather. They can wear practically nothing with the temperature between freezing and 50 degrees Fahrenheit and not seem to be much affected by it. Probably, the more sensitive die young and only the tough survive.
\dt c. 1970 15 PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR
151 Sensation and perception 152 Instinctive tendencies and emotional states 153 Formation and modification of conduct 154 Adaptive processes 155 Personality development 156 Social personality 157 Personality traits 158 Personality disorders 159 Autobiographies and study of individuals
\mn 151
\ct Sensation and perception
\da The Trique have no general words for categories of perception, such as color, form, length, width, kind, class. There are, however words for all sorts of specific things. This may indicate a preference for the concrete over the abstract, and a lack of interest in taxonomic hierarchies.
There is also no word for "opposite".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 155
\ct Personality development
\da Social pressure through ridicule is the strongest factor in bringing about conformity.
Child rearing is generally lax. Small children aren't expected to do much. Toilet training is relaxed on the whole. Children are sometimes hit or beaten.
The biggest shock to a young child is the arrival of a younger sibling. The attention he receives is sharply decreased very suddenly.
Older children are often ignored and not expected to obey. Children outside the home are decidedly bratty and irresponsible because of lack of attention and training.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 157
\ct Personality traits
\da The Trique seem on the surface to be out-going, jolly, demanding, lively, and confident. They are not ambitious or especially curious (except about what things cost!). Too much ambition, or outward display of negative emotion is condemned, though envy and antagonisms abound underneath.
Anxiety and depression are rare, though some people show such when their lives have been threatened.
The society is not especially cooperative, though competition isn't expected, either. Maybe individuals keeping out of other's way sums it up best.
People are extroverted--they live too close together for introversion or privacy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 157
\ct Personality traits
\da People are outgoing, friendly, open and cheerful on the whole. Added to this is a certain confidence and assurance, a directness. They are demanding and persistent to the point of rudeness, and they can be very grabby.
They NEVER admit they are wrong or apologize, and if scolded, they get sullen, but they don't hold little grudges. They rarely scold, themselves.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 157
\ct Personality traits
\da It is more of a shame than a guilt society. People cheat and steal if they can get away with it, but it is a shame to be caught.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 157
\ct Personality traits
\da Although the language has many frozen metaphors, coining of live ones is rare. Figurative language is also usually not understood. People are incredibly literal-minded. This makes it very difficult for them to understand translated Scripture portions. Anything written for them has to be (in my opinion) oversimplified to the point of insulting the intelligence of a normal adult.
Their culture avoids the abstract, the figurative, the intellectual. Learning from books is out of focus and is seen as having little practical value. Experience of kids in school with inappropriately designed textbooks reinforces this. What is written must be memorized, not digested, if learned at all. Hearing a story to find out what happened is unknown (much less reading it) because local stories are well-known and told over and over. People get pleasure from the repetition.
\dt c. 1970 need an update 1994 on new believers with education \mn 158
\ct Personality disorders
\da Socially encouraged - almost demanded - alcoholism is a problem common to the area.
Other personality disorders are rare, except for criminal behavior and a syndrome called "crazy".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 158
\ct Personality disorders
\da snúú21 Head back, eyes, up, hands clenched and shaking, arms bent at elbow with hands in front of shoulders.
It may come or go, a month apart. It sometimes includes dumbness, frothing at the mouth, or complaints of animals walking on the back. Affects children and adults. Loss of appetite, but drinks water and can walk.
= Convulsions
\dt c. 1970
\mn 159
\ct Autobiographies and study of individuals
\da "Cinderella" -- a life story
Mother died when she was a baby. Her father remarried and her stepmother was cruel to her, beat her, didn't feed her, and gave her no blanket at night, wanted her to leave.
When she was 8 or 10, her father died and she lived with her older sister who was kind to her and taught her to weave and gave her an old huipil to sleep under. Her sister's husband was unhappy about feeding her, however.
She married and had one surviving son, about 11 in 1969, and her husband died. She went to her uncle's house and worked weaving for his wife to earn her keep. She then remarried and now has a baby.
\dt c. 1970
16 DEMOGRAPHY
161 Population 162 Composition of population 163 Birth rate 164 Sickness 165 Death rate 166 Internal migration 167 Immigration and emigration 168 Political demography
\mn 161
\ct Population
\da Priest in SJC has 9000 Triques registered in 1968.
\dt c. 1970 new data needed--recent census
\mn 164
\ct Sickness
\da Measles, whooping cough, pink eye occur in epidemics and the first two are often fatal, especially to children. Chicken pox, cholera?, are also known.
Parasites, especially amoeba and roundworms are common. See 753.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 167
\ct Immigration and emigration
\da There is said to be a group of Triques living in the barrio de San Gerónimo in the town of Ocotlán, Oax., a Zapotec town near Oaxaca City. César Huerta Ríos, personal communication
\dt c. 1970
\mn 167
\ct Immigration and emigration
\da Practically no one enters the Trique area to live permanently-a few Meztizos-and us-live here on a semi- permanent basis for business reasons. A few Aztec or Mixtec girls have married Trique boys and live in Copala.
Some Triques leave the area, temporarily to work in cane harvest or the like, and sometimes permanently. Reasons for the latter are fear of murder mainly. The few Triques with education of more than one or two grades often go to Mexico City or another large center to get jobs --fear of staying and desire for jobs seem to both be factors. \dt c. 1970
\mn 168
\ct Political demography
\da Trique desire large families and many children--you need children to care for you in old age and bury you properly. Fertility medicine is sought and certain conditions connected with sterility are avoided. For instance, cord is cut with bamboo (metal is thought to prevent conception of another child).
\dt c. 1970
\mn $$ No number visible -- 168 ?
\ct $$
\da In 1966, I was told that San Miguel had 800 people. S.M. is one to one and one-half hours walking from Putla and trucks can get in. There is a government school there, including trade classes. People send kids but won't pay.
\dt 1966
17 HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE
171 Significance of the distribution of elements 172 Archaeology 173 Traditional and legendary history 174 Historical reconstruction 175 Written history 176 Innovation 177 Acculturation 178 Sociocultural tendencies
\mn 171
\ct Significance of the distribution of elements
\da The general pattern of Trique culture shows a typical blend of Spanish with Indian elements.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 172
\ct Archaeology
\da No archaeological data is available, because no ruins are known to be Trique as opposed to Mixtec. See quote from Paddock. p.227 "About the Trique" There is little to be said. Some remains of large ancient centers are close to their present location; conceivably these may once have been Trique towns of importance. This, however, is a still uninvestigated possibility and no more.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Paddock
\mn 172
\ct Archaeology
\da Near Juxtlahuaca is a hill whose surface has been regularized by walls of basalt columns. This is an hour's walk N of Juxtlahuaca.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 172
\ct Archaeology
\da Near Metates is a rock called Peña de Tigre, because it has painting on it. One informant, however, says that the painting was done recently by Mixtecs who travel around and has a picture of a cat and of a fox.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da There is a story that the Aztecs brought in the Triques from somewhere else to help subdue the Mixtecs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da Very little oral history is preserved--Triques live in a sort of eternal present and past and future aren't much in focus. Most of what there is is more properly termed mythology, all thought to take place in the remote past (further back than anyone now alive remembers) See 773.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da People long ago (not Triques) had horses kept on "Horse Mountain". There is now a white spot on the side of it, said to be a horse. \dt c. 1970
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da SAC History A legend says that the jefa of SAC fell for a man from Zacatepec and lured her husband near a pothole behind the school (?) in SAC and pushed him in and married the other guy. A crow found him and fed him and the lightning serpent found him and made smoke and lightning and killed the adulterous pair. He gave the jilted husband feathers and he made his living selling them.
The incident started a feud between SAC and Zacatepec. The naguals of Zacatepec came and put the SAC church on fire but the women took off their skirts and threw them on the roof and put it out. The brujos were thrown in a ditch and died of the cold. When SAC brujos went there, they were also thrown in a ditch, but they survived, being from cold country.
\dt Nov. 1968
\sr Fulgencio Sandoval Cruz
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da SAC History The people of Santo Domingo were Mixtecs. They wandered looking for land and the people of SAC offered them land in exchange for the good church bell they had. They settled down, intermarried and learned Trique.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da History SAC teacher tells that SAC is older and SJC people migrated here from there. The Copala line used to be below Putla, but a criminal from Guinero fled there and people joined him and Putla started (~1800). There is a stone in the church yard there, the old Copala lindero, but the Meztizos keep taking land from the Triques.
Aniceto holds very old documents for both Trique towns, concerning land rights.
\dt c. 1970 \sr Fulgencio Sandoval Cruz
\mn 173
\ct Traditional and legendary history
\da Dominicans arrived in SAC about 25 years after conquest. Details in Jiménez Moreno's article in "Esplandor del México Antiguo".
\dt c. 1970
\sr (Jiménez Moreno), via R E Longacre
\mn 175
\ct Written history
\da Various sources in Biblio. Copala was evangelized by Dominicans, who built a large fine church.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Esquela Misional article
\mn 174
\ct Historical reconstruction
\da See Longacre Proto-Mixtecan, and Longacre and Millón Cult. Voc.
\dt c. 1970
\sr
\mn 176
\ct Innovation
\da In the fall of 1971, women were making bags with braided shoulder straps for outside markets.
\dt 1971
\mn 177
\ct Acculturation
\da As to non-material culture, the Trique also are far from self-sufficient. They depend on Mixtec chanters and Mestizo priests. Their beliefs are an amalgamation of Indian and Spanish. The language accepts noun loans readily. The present equilibrium, however, is not too receptive to non-material acquisitions from outside.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 177
\ct Acculturation
\da The Trique are a peasant or folk society, in that they are not self- sufficient. They depend on the surrounding Mixtec Indians for such typically Indian artifacts as woven palm mats, baskets, and belts; and for pottery. They depend on Mestizos for other manufactured items--thread, clothes, metal tools. This pattern seems to extend back to pre- Conquest times, when trade was common.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 177
\ct Acculturation
\da The priest has been an important agent of acculturation recently. He has taken and sent people to Huajuapan and even Mexico. He has boarding schools.
Another means is going to Veracruz to cut cane. Many Triques now do it to earn money or escape danger. They pick up Spanish, new artifacts, etc.
There have also been government schools.
One of the most important sources of change, however, has been the road.
\dt c. 1970
18 THE CULTURE AS A WHOLE
181 Ethos 182 Function and integration 183 Norms and standards 184 Cultural participation 185 Goals of the culture 186 Ethnocentrism
\mn 181
\ct Ethos
\da Typical Mesoamerican. Group outranks individual. Custom and tradition are very important. Ritual conformity is required.
People are conservative, against most change, keep their distance from outside forces.
The yearly cycle--agriculture and fiestas--are important.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 181
\ct Ethos
\da Time is determined more by fiestas than months.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 181
\ct Ethos
\da All Triques feel that they belong to Copala, even if they live nearer Putla and use the latter for a market center. Copala is the religious center. The images in the SJC church are revered to some degree by all.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 182
\ct Function and integration
\da The culture is moderately integrated in a state of equilibrium that is a blend of Spanish and Indian elements. There are gaps in consistency in various beliefs about spirit beings and the afterlife, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da In spite of strong in-group feelings of solidarity among Triques, there is a feeling of cultural inferiority. The areas where people have expressed a difference that bothers them are:
Trique
unwritten language lazy people small houses drink tepache and aguardiente fight no chairs poor fiestas
Outside written language industrious people good tile houses drink pop and beer don't fight chairs good fiestas with band
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Honesty is given lip service, but people keep an eye open because cheating is OK if you can get away with it!
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Neatness is not especially valued - right angles not especially pretty. Nor is cleanliness of clothes or person. Floors are swept, however, and people are concerned to drink good water. Skirts should be right side out - ok if filthy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Values
Status is granted to: age ability to cure service as mayordomos - ritual spending Reading isn't especially valued
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Values Medicine is good and important. Children will spend a few cents on medicine the way U.S. kids buy candy. Shots are better than other kinds of medicine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183 \ct Norms and standards
\da Values
Fertility is very desired, though considered to be controlled by God. Children give a sort of immortality, as well as maintaining and increasing the population.
We have been asked for fertility medicine, but never for contraceptives.
Barrenness is considered sad, though doesn't seem to carry a stigma.
Sons are especially desired, because daughters marry and leave and are responsible to and for their husband's family. Sons care for one when old and give one a proper funeral.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Values
To have a picture taken is good. If you die, your relatives can still see you.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Mores
Good people don't go out at night.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Physical contact and social contact
This is okay with children or someone of the same sex. It is perfectly okay to tickle or swing children around. Women will pull at my clothes and treat me like a flour sack and paw me around, either to see my clothes or to explain their symptoms.
People all stand close together, too.
Occasionally, a man will put his arm on my shoulder (usually drunk). Men shouldn't do this but they can talk to women when sober. It is proper for women to refuse to talk to drunks. Women shouldn't look at men when they do talk to them.
Girls shouldn't be around soldiers.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da People tend to be opportunistic and not to plan ahead or save. One man saw an unexpected peso's worth of jícama for sale, bought it and he, his wife, and baby consumed four small jícamas right there on the spot.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Modesty
Small children may run around unclothed. Babies wear only a little shirt and a belly band that serves as diaper. When children are walking, little girls wear a dress or huipil only and they are not encouraged to keep it down. Little boys wear only a small shirt. At 5-6, boys begin to wear calzones and girls begin to wear a skirt. From then on, modesty is encouraged mildly. (Girls begin to wear the tight belt at 4 or so.)
At puberty, modesty is encouraged strongly. Girls and women must be covered from knees to waist. There is occasionally shyness about bare breasts. Older women can wear shorter skirts (mid-calf) but younger women are expected to wear skirts that reach almost to the ankle.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Privacy
Neither physical nor mental privacy is valued. People don't want to be alone and can't understand such a desire. Privacy isn't demanded for bathing nor changing clothes, nor for sleeping--not even for giving birth! OK to peek through cracks in house and look in windows.
People do not have any compunctions about interrupting others when others are reading, working, conversing, etc. (They have no book-learning, so interrupting a person reading is understandable.) They demand attention immediately (seems like children's behavior to an American), and call repeatedly if not answered. They can't bear to be ignored for even a short time. It is considered rather rude not to answer right away. If you don't answer, people will say you have "mohina". They have no compunctions about waking people up (except babies).
Anyone who sells should let this outrank all other activities so that he makes his sale.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Personal characteristics considered bad:
stinginess, esp. with food anger
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Values
To be talkative is considered bad--murderers talk too much. It is good to be quiet.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Values
Boldness is considered good and shyness bad. A shy person doesn't get anything to eat because he doesn't ask.
Okay, however, for women to be shy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da Directness is valued. Hidden is a bad word, especially when applied to a person's words. A hidden word is a bad word.
\dt c. 1970 need new datum to counterbalance this
\mn 183
\ct Norms and standards
\da See 826 for physical characteristics considered desirable.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 184
\ct Cultural participation
\da Membership in the society is determined by birth. If both parents are Trique, the child is. If one parent is, the child may be (if he speaks the language). An influential Trique man married a woman from Yucunicoco. She learned to speak the language virtually perfectly and dresses like Copala women, but she feels she is still treated as an outsider. Her children are considered Trique, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 184
\ct Cultural participation
\da The culture is, for the most part, homogeneous in that there are no occupational specialties to speak of except shaman. Everyone is an agriculturalist, though a few have small stores. Mayordomos especially engage in commerce to earn enough to put on the fiesta.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 184
\ct Cultural participation
\da Conformity to the culturally approved ways, even in small details, is highly valued, especially by the women. They reject any innovation is hairstyle as "not pleasing", and scorn even a slightly different tenate. On a trip to the market, I carried a Trique tenate and a friend a larger coarsely-woven Mixtec type, and at least three people commented on hers and suggested replacing it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 184
\ct Cultural participation \da Consensus is valued. Disagreement is bad. Indecision is also bad. (Two hearts in one person or in a group is not good.)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 184
\ct Cultural participation
\da A strong personality is considered good, although such a person is expected to exercise it within the bounds set by the culture. (síí5 avii32 scà'1)
Meekness and wishy-washiness are considered bad. (síí5 avii32 nij32).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 185
\ct Goals of the culture
\da There is a cultural preoccupation with "winning" (the word employs a Spanish loan -- 'yaj3 canaán [ganar] -- and to this extent Triques are individualistic. Heaven is a place where you "win", and this is an incentive to believe the gospel. Informant wanted to use Jesus won over the devil at his temptation and in Nazareth, also for enduring temptation.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 185
\ct Goals of the culture
\da Except for a certain concern about eschatology, there is no focus on the future. Progress is not a positive value; maintaining the status quo is. Children are desired as a form of immortality and to maintain the Trique way of life. The universe is conceived as an eternal present, passing in annual cycles, unchanging.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 185
\ct Goals of the culture
\da There is almost a fixation on reproduction. Childlessness is a tragedy and everyone desires many children, even though they are poorly fed and clothed. Children are considered a sort of immortality. When a baby boy is born, people say that his father is born over again. that a little José, etc. is born. In translation, 3 or 4 passages that were obscure to the informants were interpreted to mean that people would or should have many children.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 185
\ct Goals of the culture
\da I asked several people what they would do if given 10,000 pesos. I later asked about 1,000 because 10,000 was too far beyond imagination. Several were suspicious or incredulous. No one will! They didn't expect sudden bounty and they weren't used to considering hypothetical situations.
Answers included: buy food (corn, meat), put it away, buy clothes. They didn't suggest animals, better houses, radios.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 186
\ct Ethnocentrism
\da Although all Copala Triques who live in Copala speak Trique as a first language, there is some feeling of shame about it. The reason given is that it is unwritten. This shame is probably due to the constant deprecation of Triques and their language by all their neighbors.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 186
\ct Ethnocentrism
\da There is a strong in-group vs. out-group feeling. People who are not Triques are not necessarily looked down on, but they are clearly outsiders. There is some intermarriage. Triques consider themselves more Trique than Mexican; there is almost no sense of belonging to any larger group, though there is a sense of being dominated by outsiders. Triques are at the bottom of the local social ladder and are discriminated against by others. Their reaction is to be polite and submissive in town, but to stay in their own territory as much as possible and keep outsiders away from it.
People are expected to show more solidarity with their relatives--blood, affinal, and ritual, than with other members of the in-group. A person is loyal first to family, then to barrio, which usually contains more relatives than other barrios, then to Copala...possibly then to all Triques.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 186
\ct Ethnocentrism
\da One myth says the first two people "hatched" in Copala and from there populated the whole world. \dt c. 1970
19 LANGUAGE
191 Speech 192 Vocabulary 193 Grammar 194 Phonology 195 Stylistics 196 Semantics 197 Linguistic affinities 198 Special forms of language
\mn 191
\ct Speech
\da There is a general lack of focus on the mechanisms of speech and language, exemplified by: 1) Difficulty with primer drills that are meaningless 2) Difficulty with primer drills using words out of context 3) Lack of puns, word play and other verbal humor 4) General difficulty in talking about language as opposed to its semantic contents
\dt c. 1970
\mn 191
\ct Speech
\da Bilingualism
Triques all speak their own language at home. Some of them also speak Mixtec, Spanish, Aztec to varying degrees. Very few handle Spanish, the prestige language, with any degree of adequacy. Desire to speak it is expressed and drunks tend to talk Spanish.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 191
\ct Speech
\da There is some feeling that Trique is stammering on ugly because it isn't written and that Spanish is good.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 191 \ct Speech
\da There is no monologue speech pattern. English informal style has listener "uhuh" at proper point, but in formal style, no response is expected. Trique lack the formal style and in the informal style, there is more feedback than "uhuh". Sometimes it is repeating the sentence or the last part of it. Sometimes it is asking a question or a3han2, or paraphrase.
Application: school and church shouldn't repress feedback. Tapes that are distant are a flop.
The more in culture a discourse is, the more feedback it tends to generate, e.g. rabbit story generates more than book about God.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 192
\ct Vocabulary
\da See main section of Dictionary file and lexicon section of grammar notebook.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 192
\ct Vocabulary
\da No special dialects or jargon are known.
One song is hard for us to follow; it is Mixtec.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 192
\ct Vocabulary
\da A few linguistic forms are literary allusions, namely the names of certain wasps.
xkuu3 takanj3 poss. sandal animal xkuu3 ru'wej32 ball of thread animal
xkuu3 tachraa21 poss. tortilla animal
these refer to the possessions of the Grandmother gaßah3 that each wasp grabbed and used to build his nest, in the origin of the sun and moon legend.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 192
\ct Vocabulary
\da Loan Words
A few loans from Mixtec have been noted, mainly in the field of medicine and disease.
Over 200 Spanish loan nouns have been catalogued. A few adjectives, a few verbs (used as uninflected modifiers of an inflected Trique dummy verb do), a few interjections, have also been catalogued. Personal names are Spanish, too.
Conspicuous by their absence are any loans that serve as function words - relaters, such as prepositions or conjunctions. There are none.
see published paper on this \dt c. 1970
\mn 193
\ct Grammar
\da See Grammar notebook and word level paper
\dt c. 1970
\mn 194
\ct Phonology
\da See Phonology notebook and paper
\dt c. 1970
\mn 195
\ct Stylistics
\da See figures of speech section in grammar notebook.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 195
\ct Stylistics
\da A few words seem to be in use primarily by men or by women. These are noted under the individual words.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 196
\ct Semantics
\da Most of what we've learned about semantics is found scattered through the dictionary file and grammar writeups, where it seemed relevant.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 196
\ct Semantics
\da Cognitive Processes
MCR is good at analogy. One day he compared a field that is always planted with the same crop to a person who always eats just one food. They are both weak. He also compared a coffee tree's growth to the learning of a school pupil.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MCR
\mn 196
\ct Semantics
\da Cognition
The edge of a hat eaten by a goat was compared to teeth falling out.
aze4 wa31 gayu3 ku21 ya'3 yuwi35 dah53 wa34 gayu3 du'wa3 nawe53 gi'yah3 dana34 a32h FIX
\dt c. 1970
\sr MCR
\mn 196
\ct Semantics
\da Teaching questions are usually misunderstood as requests for information.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 197
\ct Linguistic aaffinities
\da Trique has three major dialects: Chicahuaxtla, Copala, and San Martin. Trique, together with Cuicatec and Mixtec, belongs to the Mixtecan family, which is part of Otomanguean.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 197
\ct Linguistic $$
\da People of Sabana recognize that the people from "below" talk somewhat differently. They have:
$$ gatin36 instead of gatun36 "waist" ku21 ziten32 instead of ku21 ziton32 "Fingernail" gaan / kaan34 instead of maan34 "It's hot"
\dt c. 1970
\mn 198
\ct Special forms of language
\da Baby Talk
n = l aln = pal pal, retr = alv.
High pitched There are also a few special baby words, like mamanj5 "to carry on back"
\dt c. 1970
\mn 198
\ct Special forms of language
\da Whistle Speech
Men sometimes communicate at a distance by whistling the linguistic tone of common phrases. There is also a whistle call: 3-1 2-3, roughly.
\dt c. 1970 COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY TWO
20 COMMUNICATION
201 Gestures and signs 202 Transmission of messages 203 Diffusion of news and information 204 Press 205 Mail service 206 Telephone and telegraph 207 Radio and television 208 Public opinion
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da When listening to something "official" sounding, women will sometimes repeat each phrase, or at least say "mhm" after each. This seems to be a reaction to rote learning in school or catechism? It is a way of indicating assent or recognition of importance.
People have reacted this was to gospel records and to a reading of Mark. But, they don't seem to do it in Spanish, only Trique.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da When leaving, hand nearer person addressed is raised thumb up, up and away from body to the side, as person says goodbye. Palm goes down and then out.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da When asking a person to repeat, head is jerked up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Head shaken from side to side for "no".
\dt c. 1970 \mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Shrug of shoulders with elbows at sides and palms up - "I don't know". Or hands in front of shoulders, palms forward.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Shake hands in front of chest or face, means the item in question isn't had by the one gesturing (food, money, item for sale).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da If a Trique wants you to take something, he holds it out and shakes it a bit.
If he wants you to give him something, he holds his hand out, palm up, and shakes it a bit.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Pointing is accomplished mainly with eyes and chin. Nod head and jerk chin in direction you look at. This also means "Let's go there."
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Left hand at chest height, palm inward is flicked to left side with palm outward to indicate that there is none.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs \da Gesture indicating length
The finger of one hand is placed across the hand, wrist, arm of the other to show distance from tip of finger. For very short lengths, the thumb of the same hand points to the length on arm then finger, usually index. Distance between two hands used only if longer than a meter.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Gestures indicating height
Plant, inanimate object - hand horizontal, palm down Animal - hand vertical, pinky down Person - palm down, only index finger extending (also for a flower) Size of bird or glob of masa - palm cupped and down
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Gesture - knocking
Back of knuckles are used, never palm side.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Thumb is used to flick two or more fingers against to indicate a twitch. Fingers are flicked outward.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 201
\ct Gestures and signs
\da Triques do not wave to people from a distance. They do nod their head, probably a recent innovation from Mexican custom.
In 1971, waving was coming in, a loan from Mexican culture.
\dt 1971 \mn 202
\ct Transmission of messages
\da No use of smoke, fire, drum or other signalling device has been observed, nor use of animals.
Messages, oral or written (in Spanish) are sent by means of people. The officials in Copala may send minor officials to carry messages to the barrios. Official communication with the outside is generally through written messages, carried by messenger.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 203
\ct Diffusion of news and information
\da Gossip is a major hobby and all kinds of "news", much of it spurious, passes by word of mouth through the area.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 204-207
\ct Press, mail service, telephone and telegraph, radio and television
\da Printing, mail service, telephone and telegraph, radio and TV are all outside phenomena. Few Triques can read but they've all seen books, newspapers and magazines. They are all aware of the post office in town and some who go away to work send letters (in Spanish). Only those who leave the area have seen telephones, but they know of the telegraph office in town and sending money by wire. Only those who have been out have seen TV, but many Triques own radios and listen often to music. \dt c. 1970
\mn 208
\ct Public opinion
\da Since it is dangerous to deviate from accepted ideas, people will publicly conform to the ideas held by the old men, who are the ruling power.
Gossip and occasional juntas make it clear to everyone just what the opinion of the old men is.
\dt c. 1970
21 RECORDS
211 Mnemotechnic methods 212 Writing 213 Printing 214 Publishing 215 Photography 216 Sound recording 217 Archives 218 Articles for writing and printing
\mn 211
\ct Mnemotechnic methods
\da No mnemonnic devices have been observed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 212
\ct Writing
\da The only writing known to the Triques at present is Spanish, hence not part of their culture, but adapted from outside. Few Triques can read, write. When they can and do, they use pencil or ball point on any paper they can find - even cigarette paper. Notes and letters are the most common things.
There is a town secretary, not a member of the society, who handles legal correspondence.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 213-216
\ct Printing, publishing, photography, sound recording
\da All of these techniques are known from contact with outside, but none of them are done within the society.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 217
\ct Archives
\da No records are officially kept. People do get a paper to mark births, baptisms, sale of land, etc., but no copies are filed in Copala.
\dt c. 1970 22 FOOD GATHERING
221 Annual cycle 222 Collection 223 Hunting birds 224 Hunting and trapping 225 Marine hunting 226 Fishing 227 Fishing equipment 228 Marine industries
\mn 221
\ct Annual cycle
\da Hunting and gathering form only a small portion of the food consumed. Such food is seasonal, but doesn't affect life much. A rabbit, greens, bugs, frogs, and brought home then they are found.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 222
\ct Collection
\da See 262, which lists foods collected. Such foods aren't of great importance and collection is casual.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 223
\ct Hunting birds
\da Various birds are hunted in a casual way and used as food. Children with sling shots catch them, and snares are used for calendrias.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 224
\ct Hunting and trapping
\da A kind of deadfall trap (xi'3) is used in and near houses for mice and rats. A channel is made of two rows of sticks in the ground and stones are arranged in the middle with bait so that one falls on the rat as he eats the bait.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 224 \ct Hunting and trapping
\da Small mammals are hunted with slingshot or deadfall trap. Dogs are sometimes used for rabbits. The animals are hunted as much for the nuisance they do (eating chickens or cornfields) as for the meat they provide.
This is not an economically important activity.
Guns are never used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 226
\ct Fishing
\da Small fish of an unidentified species are caught only when the river is swollen from rain. Men tie two contiguous corners of an ayate around their neck and hold the other two in front of them, one in each hand like a large bib. They wade in waist deep and scoop in the backwaters with the ayate.
This is not an economically important activity.
\dt c. 1970
23 DOMESTIC ANIMALS
231 Domestic animals 232 Science applied to raising animals 233 Grazing 234 Milk and milk products 235 Fowl 236 Wool production 237 Secondary products obtained from animals
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Triques keep horses, donkeys, cows, goats, occasionally sheep, pigs, turkeys, chickens, dogs. Horses and donkeys are mainly beasts of burden. They graze and eat zacate de milpa Cows are for pulling plows, milk, meat - they graze. Goats (common) and sheep (rare) are for meat - they graze. Pigs, turkeys, chickens are kept to sell (animals and eggs) to non- Triques. They forage for bugs and manure and are fed corn (masa for babies). Dogs are for pets and to protect houses and to lick up when baby messes. They are fed tortillas. Triques don't have mules, which are very valuable--they don't interbreed horses and donkeys. A few Triques have small flocks of goats, as a major family activity. Other animals are kept in small numbers. Cats are rare. They die off from malaria spray. \dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Raising chickens and turkeys and selling the birds and the eggs is primarily woman's work. Also raising pigs, since they eat masa cleared off metate.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Pets
Besides dogs, children catch mice and birds and large beetles and tie a string to one leg. They are sort of cruel and the animals usually die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Beef butchering
It is possible for anyone to do this, but in practice, the mayordomos do it mostly, to earn money for fiestas. Only for All Saints Day is there wide-scale butchering, even out in the hills.
Knives are used. After slitting the throat and catching the blood, the cow is rolled upside down on a bed of fresh, leafy branches for skinning and cleaning and cutting up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Goat butchering
\da Anyone can do this.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals \da chruun3 xkuun32
The bark of this tree is whittled off and ground with salt. The cow or goat with bloating then eats the mixture.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Chicken Disease
Scrape a paste from nopal and feed it to chickens. Also, rub it on back and neck.
Also infusion of ash bark.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 231
\ct Domestic animals
\da Selling meat
No scales are used. Therefore, in order to measure, beef is cut into strips. A strip about 1 sq. in. and maybe 10" long is a peso. Liver is sold in cubes, .20 for maybe 1 cu. in.
Goat is sold only by the quarter, plus the neck as a separate piece.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 231
\ct Domestic Animals
\da Sores on back of donkey: camphor balls are rubbed on.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 234
\ct Milk and milk products
\da Some Triques know how to make cheese from cow milk, but using dried cow stomach to sour it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 235
\ct Fowl \da Cradles similar to those used for babies are sometimes hung from the rafters of houses for chickens to lay eggs in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 237
\ct Secondary products obtained from animals
\da Tallow candle making
Green supple sticks are bent into a double circle, and string is looped over one of the sticks. The closeness of the other stick tied to it keeps the string from slipping (or one circle with nails to hold strings). Four ropes suspend the circle and these are joined above to one rope which hangs the whole thing from the ceiling. The candles are not dipped, but rather poured. A gourd dipper is used to dip melted tallow out of a bucket over each string individually. When the tallow gets semi-solid, it is reheated. The pouring continues, together with reheating until the candle is about 2 cm. thick (worth twenty cents a piece, smaller 10 cents).
The tallow comes from beef butchered in town. The shiny four or five ply loosely twined in balls is bought in Juxtlahuaca.
One person or family will make candles individually to sell for twenty cents each in the market. The purpose is to get money to use for a fiesta; usually mayordomos make candles.
\dt c. 1970
24 AGRICULTURE
241 Agriculture in general 242 Agricultural science 243 Grain cultivation
244 Horticulture 245 Tree cultivation 246 Forage cultivation 247 Flower cultivation 248 Cultivation of fiber-producing plants 249 Special cultivations
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Agriculture is the dominant economic activity. The most important crop is maize. Beans, squash, chayote, tomatoes, greens, fruit trees are also cultivated for food. Coffee and bananas are cash crops in the warmer portions.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Cornfields often have beans and squash planted right in with the corn. Bean vines climb the corn stalk. Chayotes are usually planted in a small patch and staked up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da There are several types of cornfield; none gives more than one crop a year:
Milpa de riego - irrigated, planted in January, plowed, harvested in July. Milpa de picado - planted in March, harvested in September, irrigated and plowed.
Milpa de tiempo - clearing in brush, no plow, planted in May, harvest in November. Mountain milpa - Same, except harvested in January. Hot country milpa - planted in April or May, harvested in October.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da naa31 maan1 " tempo4 milpa de tiempo naa31 itzi13 milpa de riego
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Corn is planted in furrows a vara apart using dibble or coa and little basket over shoulder or around waist. Five-seven grains in holes a vara (or meter) apart.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241 \ct Agriculture in general
\da Radishes are sometimes planted in milpas by scattering seeds. Beans and squash are planted in hole with corn.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Newly planted corn may be eaten by ants or blackbirds and sometimes needs to be sown over again.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da When corn is 8"-12" tall, it is plowed so that earth heaps around plants.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Cornfield is plowed when the leaves become rough. It is then about 1/2 meter high. It is about a meter high for the second plowing (if higher, the oxen will break it).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Some Triques use goat manure as fertilizer, but it is not a general practice.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Ears of corn are picked by hand, husked and carried in baskets or carrying net to house where they are dried in the sun before storing.
Corn to be used for seed is not husked. Two ears are tied together by husks and dried in the sun. Then they are looped over a pole in the roof of the house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Beans are harvested in the pods and then dried in the sun on plastic or petate until they are thoroughly dry. Then they are put in a sack and beaten with a mallet to loosen the beans from the pods. Loose pods are separated by hand and the beans and small bits of trash are winnowed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Irrigation
This is by means of ditches in the ground carrying water from an uphill source to the field. Such ditches may cross gullies passing through hollow logs. There are no pumps.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Agricultural tools are mainly machete for clearing, coa for weeding and pointed stock for sowing. Plows are also used, made at home of wood with a commercial metal point. Commercial metal plows are owned by a few.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Cornfields are often fenced and sometimes have scarecrows of cloth or old clothes (called ghosts), or even leaves.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Agriculture is an affair of the extended family. Brothers often farm together.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Agricultural ritual consists mostly in making offerings to the rain god (St. Mark). In the spring, offerings are taken to the cave said to be his home. More are taken in case of drought. If there is too much rain, rain is fumigated with copal. Harvested ears of corn are fumigated with copal in house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Coffee and bananas are cash crops. Fruit trees help provide shade for the coffee. These grow only below the frostline.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da In the warmer barrios, pineapple and sweet potatoes grow.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da You sow marigolds in fiesta of rumendo4 in June to get flowers for all saints.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 241
\ct Agriculture in general
\da Three ways to sow:
1. Uno32 with dibble - corn 2. axrij5 3. tixaßnuu31 - scatter marigold kaan32
\dt c. 1970 25 PRESERVATION AND PREPARATION OF FOOD
251 Preservation and storage of food 252 Preparation of foods 253 Meat industries 254 Refrigeration 255 Packing industries 256 Grain industries 257 Candy and related industries 258 Miscellaneous food preparations and packing industries
\mn 251
\ct Preservation and storage of food
\da There are no specialized means of storing or preserving food. In general, the Triques don't plan far ahead. Corn and beans are dried well for storage. Sometimes a corn crib is made in the house.
Meat is dried in the sun.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 252
\ct Preparation of foods
\da Cooking methods are: toasting, boiling and roasting. Frying is known but used mainly by those who have lived out of the area. No ovens or barbecue pits are used, though all are known. (Barbecue pits are used).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 252
\ct Preparation of foods
\da Fresh meat is stewed. Dry meat is roasted in fire until toasted on outside.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 252
\ct Preparation of foods
\da For toasting, the clay griddle is used. Every woman has one. They are used for cooking tortillas, toasting corn, coffee, grasshoppers.
For boiling, unglazed clay pots and pitchers are used. For roasting, things are placed directly in the fire.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 252
\ct Preparation of foods
\da Eggs are scrambled with salt, but without grease, on comal and they don't stick. One was served to me that way, but the family themselves ate tortillas and chile only, so I suspect this is outside influence adapted for greaseless cooking.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 252
\ct Preparation of foods
\da See 262, for a list of prepared foods and their ingredients and methods of preparation.
\dt c. 1970
26 DIET
261 Satisfaction and control of hunger 262 Diet 263 Spices 264 Meals 265 Commercial provision of meals 266 Cannibalism
\mn 261
\ct Satisfaction and control of hunger
\da Fasting is practiced when one is angry, when one fights with spouse, for instance. Not religious.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da There is enough quantity of food at all seasons, though corn, the staple, is imported from outside to supplement. There is, however, a lack of protein and B vitamins. In general, people eat a lot of whatever is available; they don't seek variety.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 262
\ct Diet
\da There are certain peculiarities in the Trique diet, compared with that of surrounding Mixtecs, Aztecs and lower class mestizos.
Triques do not eat chicken, turkey or pork. They don't use grease (cooking oil, lard). They don't make mole. They don't eat eggs. (There are individual exceptions to this among the more bilingual and acculturated.) They don't drink milk or coffee.
They do eat bugs and mice.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Grains:
corn
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Greens, cultivated:
Many kinds, mainly lettuce, radish, cilantro.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Greens, wild:
Many kinds.
See all compounds in kweh34 in fauna section of dictionary file.
Also koh34 (ni)xiin3 / rixiin
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262 \ct Diet
\da Vegetables, cultivated:
chayote (fruit)] chayote (tuber ] boiled and eaten without seasoning squash ] beans and stringbeans - use white salt to make tender very green bananas potatoes (rare - from Yucunicoco) tomatoes green tomatoes jícama, eaten raw, peeled with fingernail, unseasoned
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Vegetables, wild:
Tubers of elephant ears in marshes (not those along rivers) Flowers of maguey - break up and boil, add chile powder Many kinds of mushrooms
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da chruj3 tihaan2 Tigridia pavonia - eaten cooked lixxon2 Milla biflora - eaten raw
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Bulbs of milla biflora are eaten raw. Their flavor isn't strong. They are shaped like a little tangerine. Called a chruj3.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet \da Edible fruits (2 bulbs) at base of Tigridia pavonia (eye flower) are eaten cooked.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Fruit, cultivated
Many fruits, local and otherwise are eaten raw. Citrus fruits are "drunk". Lemons and other citrus have salt sprinkled; others are eaten plain.
bananas (various types) mamey nato32 ya'aa2 mango avocado black zapote pineapple
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da nato34 bananas
May be eaten raw, boiled in water (very green), or roasted in fire (guineo, bolsa).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Fruit, wild
Chirimoya Guayaba Calentura
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Other vegetable foods: Sugar cane - chewed and juice sucked out. Cornstalks
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Meat - domesticated
Goat and beef are the main kinds eaten. Rarely chicken or pork, but some Triques consider these unfit to eat because the animals are dirty. Many Triques keep pigs, chickens and turkeys, though, to sell. Some Triques don't use eggs, lard, or grease either.
Fresh meat is stewed. Meat is preserved by rubbing with salt and drying. Dried meat is roasted in fire until toasted outside.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Barbecue is made in a pit. You use avocado leaves for flavoring, banana leaves to protect the meat. After you build a fire, you arrange all this and cover it and wait.
You also put ollas in pit to cook along with meat. The olla has kan'3 of cracked nixtamal, intestines and grease in it, seasoned with salt, chile and avocado leaf. (But the meat doesn't drip onto the ollas.)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Game - fish
When the river is high, Triques catch small fish (3-4") in an ayate, two ends tied around neck and two ends held in hands. They stand in backwaters and scoop.
They also buy dried fish from the coast. They occasionally get large fresh-water fish from Putla.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da xkuaj32 niton4 You cut large fresh fish in pieces and fry it in a cazuela with hot grease in it. You eat it with lemon juice.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Game - reptiles and amphibians
Frogs are eaten (on torts)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Game - birds
Boys catch various birds by slingshot or snare pigeons.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Game - mammals
xitu3 dino32 - a mouse lih3 - a mouse duguya34 - rabbit yau'3 - armadillo xita duna34 xutah3 - deer
Various traps are used, snare, deadfall.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Insects
xa'ah3 - chinche voladora - stinkbug, eaten raw on fresh tort, burns like chile. Twist head off to kill.
xuku3 ruwa32 - large beetle - its belly is full of things like squash seeds. This is eaten toasted on comal, especially the seeds.
la'wah34 - flying army ants
riki31 - grasshopper - eaten toasted on comal (Mexicans fry them)
Also honey from various species.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Edible larvae - all eaten raw
xkuu3 takanj32 xkuu3 tachraa5 xongo4 (greasy flavored) xtaan3 tu'va3 gaxra'1 xuku2 ca'aan31
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Armadillo animal grubs are eaten. They are about 1" long and are in a "skin" on a tree. There are holes in the skin and one is in each. You touch hot ocote to them to make them fall down. Then you collect them, toast them on the comal, and eat them with ground chile. They're greasy to eat.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Other animal foods
Milk - boiled and drunk hot Cheese - eaten as is Honey
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Prepared foods Canned chile Canned sardines Commercial cookies Commercial hard candy Commercial gelatines
All of these are available and are occasionally eaten as sort of luxuries.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 262
\ct Diet
\da Chewing gum
Commercial gum Tar White sap of "milk plant" when dried
\dt c. 1970
\mn 263
\ct Spices
\da Seasonings - salt
You can dry these:
epazote - fish mole mint - blood of cows poleo - bean atole (also poleo del pastor) chiles (comes from hot country below Putla - Mesones) essential ingredient in many dishes.
*avocado leaf - barbecue, stew *yerba santa - beef stew koj32 nitzin'5 *two small plants koh32 nataan13
*anise flavor
\dt c. 1970
\mn 263
\ct Spices
\da Salt White salt from Nieves/Tamazola/Tehuacan? This is mined and bitter. Used to make stringbeans tender.
Good salt from the coast. Eaten on lemons. Not eaten on boiled chayote or squash.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 263
\ct Spices
\da chruu32 ya'ah3
This is a seasoning powder made by mixing together ground salt, ground dry red chile, and ground avocado leaf.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 263
\ct Spices
\da ya'aj3 xtun'3 - chili sauce
chile salt water
These are ground together in grinding bowl after toasting chiles on the comal. Green tomatoes and guajes may be added too.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da Triques eat two-three meals a day, for which there are clear names. Meals are a rather informal affair. You sit or squat on the floor. Often many people dip tortillas into a common bowl of greens, beans, broth. There is no concept of a meal as a family ritual, all starting at the same time.
obl Breakfast - 8 - 10 obl Dinner - 1 - 2 opt Supper - after dark
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264 \ct Meals
\da The Triques rarely use any utensils for eating. A tortilla or fingers serve to transfer food from dish to mouth.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da Etiquette - table manners
Tamales are held in one hand and bite size pieces are broken off with the other hand and put in mouth.
Bananas are eaten very ripe, split down one side and eaten out from the split.
Pozole, yellow squash, etc. can be eaten by hand, not even with a tort. Piece of bamboo may be used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 - tortilla
Ingredients: corn and lime
Shelled corn is placed in olla full of water with lime and cooked for a short while, then drained and washed. The corn is ground on metate and patted into torts, cooked on each side on a comal. They may be stood up at side of comal to toast further.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da rukwanh3 - totopo
Ingredients: corn and lime
Same as tortilla, except the corn is cooked longer and the dough is stickier. Also, they are cooked until crisp. They last longer and are made when durability is important for trips and all saints.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 {taa5 } ya'ah3 a32 {ca'ngaj5}
Tort spread with chile sauce, sometimes with beef broth in it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da yatij32
This is a hot tortilla folded and dipped in chile sauce.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 nihaj3 too32
Pieces of tortilla softened in hot milk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da na32 chraa13 - tort water
Crumble old dry torts into a jug of water and put on fire to cook. Add tallow, chile ground with salt and yerba santa. Stir often. Eat like soup.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 tze32 This is a fresh corn tortilla.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 yo'oo5
This is a wheat flour tortilla.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 cachrinj5
Cooked mashed beans Chile Salt Avocado leaf
This is an uncooked tortilla filled with bean paste and flipped over three ways to form a triangle, then cooked.
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 cuchruj3
You mix ground toasted chicatanas with chile and salt, tuck in hole in ball of masa, wrap in leaves of koj32 yaj32 ya'aan1 and cook like tamales.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chraa3 {xri'3 {xichri'3 - intestine tort
Folded tortilla with filling. Can be: corn fungus with mint, chile, salt squash flowers, yerba santa, chile mushrooms with chile and koh34 yoo34 ra'an ru21xa34 goat intestines with blood in them, mint and chile --- mix and boil and grind You grind the filling and and put it on uncooked tortilla, fold over and press edges and cool as a tortilla until well-toasted. cooked goat intestine, cooked goat blood,mixed and boiled with mint, chile, salt, goat grease, garlic, then grind and ut on uncooked tort, fold over and cook on comal
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da rataa35 chruj3 ni2tuu32
You toast chruj3 ni2tu32 and grind with chile and mix with masa to make tamales. It is also used for atole and stew.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da rata35 rune34
Ingredients: beans, red chile These tamales are fat.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da rata35 dana34 - goat tamales
Ingredients: goat meat, mint, red chile These tamales are flat. Masa has bits of meat, ground chile and salt added, then wrapped and boiled.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da 'nuu5 canee1 - pozole hominy
Ingredients: corn and lime Corn is put in olla full of water with lime and cooked for a short while, as for tortillas. Then it is washed well and cooked again for a long time (all night). It is usually eaten with meat and a chile broth.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chruu32 ('nuu5) - corn pinole
Toast corn on comal and grind on metate to a fine powder. Shave panela and mix in. Eaten as is for a snack.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nakunj32 - atole
You cook corn without lime and then grind. The corn is called xiki'3
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nakunj32 nataan3
Has toasted koj32 nataan13 ground with chile, salt, tomato verde added. You use stringbean water to make atole.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nakunj32 chruh3 ni2tu32
You grind the toasted nuts with chile and salt and add to corn atole.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nakunj32 runee32 Has poleo, chile, salt
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da na3kunj32 ra'aan3 ru5xaa2
Has avocado leaf, chile, salt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da na3kunj32 yaj32 cuya'1
Has avocado leaf or yuu4 poleo, chile, salt
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nakunj32 ruva4 - squash seed atole
You grind toasted squash seeds with chile and add to atole.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da Other corn products eaten are:
Stalks chewed for juice Roasted ears not yet ripe (elote) Roasted tender kernel-less cobs Corn fungus - made into taco
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nihaa32 chruj13 - egg mole Eggs scrambled in lard - swells up. Put salt, chile and yerba santa in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nihaa32 xkuaj32
You grind together onion and salt with chile and tomatoes and add to boiling water. Then add cleaned fish. You use lemon juice to season.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nihaa32 chruj3 ni2tuu32
You grind up the toasted nuts with chile and salt and add to meat and broth.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nihaa32 tana32 - goat stew
Ingredients: goat meat, mint, salt, chile, green tomatoes Chop up meat and put in pot with water. Add mint sprig. Grind last three ingredients together to form a paste with water and add.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da nihaa32 skuj5 - beef stew
Same as goat stew except replace mint with hierba santa.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals \da nia34 {xtaj3 {tucuya32
Game stew is made by boiling meat in water and adding salt, chile, yerba santa.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da ton34 zikuh21
Blood from neck of cow is caught in pan and mixed with water and cooked. Garlic is added and mint, salt and chile.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da rnee32
Ingredients: beans salt water chile cilantro meat
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da ni3nuj1 rnee32 - bean paste
Ingredients: beans water chile yerba santa
Toast beans on comal and grind dry on metate. Cook with water. Season with chile and yerba santa.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da chruu32 rnee2 - bean pinole Toast beans on comal and grind on metate to a fine powder. This is an ingredient of bean gruel, made by mixing it with water and cooking, with salt, chile and yerba santa added.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da Various vegetables:
Chayotes Tubers Very green bananas
All may be boiled in water whole, unpeeled, without seasonings.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da kwej32 ri'ya3 - cooked greens
Ingredients: greens of various kinds salt chile
Greens are poked into olla of boiling water. They are served with salt and chile, ground together.
Greens are not dried
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da ruva4 - squash seeds
You wash well, then dry in sun and then toast with salt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 264
\ct Meals
\da Squash Cooked in water with panela, no salt, eaten as a dulce.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 265
\ct Commercial provision of meals
\da The Triques know of restaurants but do not themselves run any. A few restaurants are located in Copala, but are operated by mestizos.
It is customary, among the Triques, to give food to relatives (real and ritual) if they are at or near your house and need it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 266
\ct Cannibalism
\da Cannibalism is not practiced by the Triques, but is known and is widely suspected of outsiders.
\dt c. 1970
27 BEVERAGES, DRUGS AND STIMULANTS
271 Water and thirst 272 Non-alcoholic beverages 273 Alcoholic beverages 274 Beverage industries 275 Establishments selling beverages 276 Narcotics and stimulants 277 Tobacco industry 278 Pharmacology
\mn 271
\ct Water and thirst
\da Triques are very concerned about drinking good water and think that only certain water holes are good. River water isn't drunk, and springs are plentiful.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da Various kinds of atole (these are semi-solid and are more properly perhaps considered food than beverages) Coffee - though grown here, it is a luxury to drink it. Pop - available commercially
\dt c. 1970
\mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da nakunj32 - corn gruel
Ingredients: corn, water
Cook corn in water, without lime, for a short time. Grind corn on metate. May be lumpy (nakunj34 kan'2) or lumps may be strained out by running one's hand through and regrinding (nakunj32 cavii32).
Various things can be added, such as deer blood.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da nakunj32 nataan13 - stringbean atole
Add cooked stringbeans to corn atole. Flavor with chile, salt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da nakunj32 runee2 - bean atole
Add bean water to corn atole. Flavor with salt, chile and poleo. Recook all together.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da nacunj32 nato2 - banana atole
Ingredients: tallow beef very green guineo bananas
\dt c. 1970 \mn 272
\ct Non-alcoholic beverages
\da Around Easter, the white orchid blooms and people put it in water and drink the water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages
\da Tepache
This is made by men. Before filling the large jug, they burn chile and fumigate inside jug. This is said to prevent souring of the tepache. Then panela is put in (8 loaves) and 8 pitchers of water. Then add starter (1 small gourd - 2-3 quarts) from another batch, and wait a week. This is like beer in alcohol strength, but the starter batch is let ferment very strong.
Fresh cane juice may be used instead of panela if cane is available. Cane press is set up and taken down, of wood with two horizontal rollers and turned manually at both sides. It should be stirred with wood every hour. A handful of corn is toasted and ground and added to it. (May serve as yeast food). After one day, tepache is good. After 3-4 days, it is sour and strong.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages
\da Pulque
This is less common than tepache and made only in the cold mountain barrios where maguey grows.
The center leaves of a large maguey which hasn't yet bloomed are cut out and the inside scraped with a rounded blade. The aguamiel collects in the hollow and once or twice a day, a small jicara is used to gather it. From time to time, the surface is rescraped. The cut pencass are used to cover the hole to protect it from dust and basura.
The aguamiel is put in an olla to ferment and pieces of bark of the rataa5 tree are added (for flavor?, aid to fermenting?).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages \da Aguardiente
Commercial, but made locally by mestizos.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages
\da Beer
Commercial
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages
\da Drinking is socially required and drunkenness is common. Drunks "sing", are sometimes violent and rude. The singing may be a wail or a flower song, sung only by drunks. Drunks also show a tendency to speak Spanish.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 273
\ct Alcoholic beverages
\da Drunkenness is often associated with fiestas and markets and meetings because drinking is socially required. Drunks are sometimes jailed if too obnoxious.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 274-275
\ct Beverage industries Establishments selling beverages
\da Making tepache can be considered a small industry since it is usually done to sell, often to earn money to put on a fiesta.
Tepache and aguardiente are sold in private houses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 276 \ct Narcotics and stimulants
\da Several narcotic plants are known. Use of them is more or less confined to shamans, who use them ritually as part of divining ceremonies, or for sorcery.
2 species of milkweed (or just red and yellow) 2 species of datura gray divine plant (in river) $$ zigola32 plant Leaves only are taken before brujo "blows"
No mushrooms are used, nor morning glory or ololiuhqui seeds.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 276
\ct Narcotics and stimulants
\da Tobacco
Tobacco is used ritually and medicinally. Chewing and spitting, poultice.
Smoking tobacco is known and commercial cigarettes are available. A few Triques smoke corn husk, home-rolled cigarettes as a habit, but mostly commercial cigarettes are bought and passed around to show social solidarity.
\dt c. 1970
28 LEATHER, WEAVING AND RELATED MANUFACTURES
281 Leather working 282 Tanning and manufacture of leather articles 283 Rope and string 284 Knots and tying 285 Mats and baskets 286 Weaving 287 Non-woven cloth 288 Textile industry 289 Paper industry
\mn 281
\ct Leather working
\da When Triques butcher cows and goats, they scrape the inside of the skin clean and dry it. No true tanning techniques are known or used. Often the skins are sold to mestizos who work leather.
Sometimes skins are cut into strips to bind a yoke to the steer's horns.
Sometimes, hair is removed by soaking in lime and the skins used for drumheads. A leather strap to be used for carrying may be softened with grease.
\mn 283
\ct Rope and string
\da For simple tying, Triques employ various kinds of vines and inner bark. The latter may be twisted, sometimes using two strands. They also employ rope made of palm fiber, twisted in two or three strands by themselves or Mixtecs. Occasionally, rope of palm is braided, or rope is twisted of ixtle. Commercial rope of a kind of ixtle is also used.
Rope is made by men.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 283
\ct Rope and string
\da Spinning
Now that thread is available in stores, this isn't too common, but nearly everyone still knows how. Store thread is sometimes re-spun.
Cotton comes from hot country or is bought in raw balls, either brown or white, in Putla. First it is fluffed out (zi'nu'3) with fingers to remove the seeds (ru'mi'3). Then a strip is laid on petate or banana leaves and beaten (aga'3) with two sticks (chrun3 rianh34). Then the cotton is spun. Spindles (guchri'3) are bought from outside, a sliver of wood in a clay weight, gaily painted. The bottom rests in a jicama and the women twirl the top.
Thread is spun by women.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 284
\ct Knot tying
\da Knot tying is not highly developed. The difference between a square and a granny know is known and humorously labelled "man's" (square) and "woman's" (granny) knots. A slip knot is used. A slip knot plus passing the free end of the rope through noose, with overhand knot on end to keep it from going through, is used for a halter. Others say square knot for horse.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 285
\ct Mats and baskets \da Although mats and baskets of palm are found in every Trique home, few Triques make them, unless they are in jail. These items are made mostly by Mixtecs, who sell them to the Triques. Tenates are often from Nuxañu.
These items are done with no frame, using a sort of twill weave (over and under 2). The baskets begin with a square and then the palm is doubled fanning out around. This creates four bumps in the bottom of the basket, at the corners of the original square.
Tubular belts are also made.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 285
\ct Mats and baskets
\da Types of baskets
Ordinary tenate with mecapal - women use for carrying. Small tenate with shoulder strap - men use for sowing. Tall colored tenate - made in Chalcatongo - men use them in asking for a wife - sold in Putla. Paired tenates - one serves as cover - used to store clothes and thread.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Commercial thread is available in Copala and, for this reason, few women now spin cotton. Even those that do spin white or tan cotton for the background of a hiupil, however, will use commercial thread for the designs. Years ago, however, women did dye thread for designs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Dyeing
The only two dyes currently used are the bark of chrun3 runako3 (elite - an alder - Alnus sp.) and chrun3 rian34 na34 rya3na34 (Bocconia sp.) They each dye reddish brown. The bark is boiled in an olla with water and the prepared loom with warp thread is dipped in, also the thread for the weft. It is left in for a while and then taken out and dried in the sun. It isn't rinsed. The dye is permanent.
(Pennington notes that the Tarahumara use Alnus acuminata for dye) \dt c. 1970
\sr Pennington
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Women weave using the pre-columbian loom. Only some of the garments used are woven, however.
Women's clothes: *huipil - nearly always woven, rarely of cloth. Skirt - *Blue ones with red stripes woven Black ones (valued more highly) woven in S.M. Progreso and bought Belt - woven somewhere near Oaxaca and bought.
Men's clothes: Shirt - always bought - made in factory or by seamstresses in Juxtlahuaca and Putla. Calzones - always bought - made by seamstresses in Jux. and Putla. *Belt - woven by women
*Striped bags for corn and tortillas are woven. No blankets are woven locally.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Spanish names for loom parts
spindle - huso, malacate shaft - varilla weight - volante beater - vareador warper - urdidor (I need a diagram of this) loom stick - enjullo (superior, inferior auxiliar) sword - machete shuttle - bobina, lanzadera separator - vara del paso heddle - varilla de lizos strap - mecapal rope - cordoncillo ? - templero
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286 \ct Weaving
\da Set up loom -
gu'u'3 - use 5 stakes to wind warp. dochree34 - starch - pinole in water - submerge loom and dry in sun - becomes rough ground tort, or pinole in water - cook to make starch and starch loom
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Seeds of chruh3 rokoh21 put in ridako to rattle when weaving. The sound is pleasant and it keeps the women awake.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da A 1-2 neddle loom is used. Plain weave, a gauze weave, and a 3-1/1-3 weave are used, plus brocading of designs into the weave.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da If warp breaks, you tie in a new thread to mend it, taking the thread from the shuttle.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Webs are finished with just a needle when there is no room for shuttle.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving \da Women weave as a sort of serious hobby. Every adult woman, eyesight and pocketbook permitting, weaves when no other task demands her attention.
Setting up a loom may take two days. Weaving may take 1-2 months for a huipil web, two weeks for a bag.
Thread is expensive and selling the weaving doesn't bring a high profit. 9 pesos - lb. of thread.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Breast edge designs are:
bent flower (most common) cloth and ball rebellious animal leaning or cloud zigzag
The second edge, if present, may be above, or above and below. It is always a flower tree, but there are several variants.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Weaving is never reversed in direction at shoulders, so the designs with polarity are upside-down either front or back.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da The center panel of a huipil has a special breast design in front and back. This is a solid vertical zigzag bordered narrowly in red and then edged with one of several edge designs, again bordered in red. The first or both reds may have a narrow yellow stripe. Optional is a second border which may be above or both above and below, in either case separated from the breast complex by a narrow white space. This border is a flower tree. If flower tree isn't used, the regular design bordering breast edge may be closer to breast than the usual space between. Rarely a second border on top may have no white between it and the first border. \dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da For a small girl, a huipil may have one web rather than three. In either case, there are two features of child's huipil that are different. One is that it usually has woven bands of color on the edges of the center web (or for a one web huipil 1/3 and 2/3 of way across). The other is that some designs have only one red band next to them rather than being enclosed between two.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Designs are not owned and new ones are created only rarely. Copala society does not especially encourage creativity.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da See lexical file for a list of weaving designs and 291 section of 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for a picture of some and picture of loom.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Men know how to net ixtle fiber to make a small morral, a weave similar to a hammock. Commercial morrals are preferred now.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Morral of ixtle, boy made it himself; got ixtle from a wild pulque maguey on the mountaintop. Made in simple hammock weave.
$$ (design)
\dt c. 1970 \mn 286
\ct Weaving
\da Men know how to weave horsehair to make decorative hatbands with tassels. Usually two colors.
\dt c. 1970
29 CLOTHING
291 Ordinary dress
292 Special dress 293 Accessories 294 Manufacture of clothing 295 Specialized clothing industries 296 Cleanliness and repair of clothing
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da See 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for a description of clothing.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da SMI clothing:
Men: belt with red zigzag stripes across white base. Many colored cross stripes on ends.
Women: black skirts like Copala, but up to knees. Huipils have wide designs. No ribbon, woven bands instead and embroidered together. Breast design is very similar but not edge of breast.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da SAC clothing:
Men: floppy calzones, plain shirts - no points. Women: Knee length wraparound skirt, red stripes on blue. Huipils have woven bands instead of ribbons, different designs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da Felt hats:
These are no longer made or used, but people can remember them. They went out when factory hats became more available.
Triques carded wool and molded on a wooden frame. They were large, sometimes with slightly tilted brims and a pointed crown.
They decorated them with peacock feathers, and used the brims for carrying--they were very solid.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da There is a difference in dress according to women's ages. Older women wear plainer huipils, designs further apart or just breast design. They use navy thread and have woven shoulder bands rather than ribbon. They carry coarse tenates, and can wear their skirts as short as mid calf.
Younger women wear skirts near ankles, carry fine tenates and have elaborate huipils with designs closer together and lots of red. Navy thread is rarely used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 291
\ct Ordinary dress
\da Woman's clothing:
Wool is better than cotton. Quantity is desirable, beads, earrings, red thread on huipil. "Coral" plastic beads are valued.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 292
\ct Special dress \da Wedding clothes - women:
In addition to a new outfit, with lots of jewelry and combs, a girl will have a head cloth of white lace or filmy commercial cloth for the ceremony.
Sometimes girls have an extra huipil made of white filmy commercial cloth to wear over the striped huipil. This seems to combine aboriginal form with prestige substance.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 292
\ct Special dress
\da Wedding clothes - men:
Men always wear a silk scarf (commercial - 24" sq. or larger) tied around their neck, plus new shirt and pants. Also a woven belt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 292
\ct Special dress
\da Fiestas:
Fiesta clothing isn't different in kind from everyday clothing, but is likely to be newer. Women are likely to put jewelry and combs away for every day and wear them for fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 292
\ct Special dress
\da Rainwear:
Commercial plastic sheeting is the commonest form of rain protection. Some people still use capes made of palm knotted to a framework to form a sort of thatch. Or a banana leaf or two may be pressed into service.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 294
\ct Manufacture of clothing
\da See 286 for weaving of garments. Finishing of woven pieces is treated here. \dt c. 1970
\mn 294
\ct Manufacture of clothing
\da Huipil:
The three webs are sewn along the long sides with an overcast joining. The neck hole is cut and sort of rolled hemmed. The sides are overcast about halfway up. Then two colors of commercial cheap rayon ribbon are used to cover the seams and around the neck. At the neck, two layers are used, the bottom plain and the top slashed and sewed into points. Streamers are left down the back. Occasionally, ribbon covers the "sleeve" edges, and the join in front near the bottom.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 294
\ct Manufacture of clothing
\da Skirt
The two pieces are joined lengthwise by an embroidery sort of buttonhole, using colored yarn or thread in various colors. Then the ends are likewise joined to form a tube.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 294
\ct Manufacture of clothing
\da Men's belts
They may be worn as they come off the loom, just folded and tied, or they may have ribbon sewed on the end.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 296
\ct Cleanliness and repair of clothing
\da Every adult Trique and older child is responsible for washing and mending his own clothes. There is wide variation among individuals as to cleanliness and neatness of clothes.
Sometimes clothes are never washed until they fall off. Sometimes they are washed by bopping and squeezing them on a rock with or without soap. It is not usual to pay special attention to areas of bad soil, but just to squeeze water through the whole garment. Dry on fence, bush, or roof.
Women sometimes heat water in house to wash baby clothes. If no rock, bottom of maquila will serve.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 296
\ct Cleanliness and repair of clothing
\da Clothes are never mended or reinforced beforehand. Any piece of cloth will do for mending, however, for large tears and worn places.
Small holes made by sparks or crickets are bordered in blanket stitch to keep them from further ravelling, and sometimes darned in a round and round way. They are not patched.
\dt c. 1970 COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY THREE
Numbers omitted because irrelevant for Trique 39 tool-making industries
30 ADORNMENT
301 Adornment and accessories 302 Grooming 303 Manufacture of toiletries 304 Mutilation and physical deformation
305 Beauty specialists 306 Manufacture of jewelry
\mn 301
\ct Adornment and accessories
\da Men use almost no jewelry or similar adornment. Watches are coming in as a status symbol.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 301
\ct Adornment and accessories
\da Women use beads, earring, combs, gourds, ribbons. Beads are papelillo or plastic coral or any other cheap plastic type (both commercial). Earrings are glass balls, or any cheap commercial type. Combs are plastic, commercial. Gourds are painted in some not-too-distant village. Commercial ribbon or wool bands are braided into hair. Commercial ribbon may be hung from bead strings, hanging in back - bunches of one meter of various colors are used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 301
\ct Adornment and accessories
\da Styles don't change quickly, but bought accessories change style according to what is available. Whatever combs, beads, earrings, ribbons there are for sale will be bought, the bigger, brighter and cheaper, the better. For example, when thick yarn came into style in Mexican culture as a hair tie, Triques began buying them to the exclusion of other types of ties, just because they were available, and they liked them. \dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da Men:
Hair is clipped short all over head, except for long bangs. Some Trique men know how to cut hair. One variant of the style tapers the hair from hairline up keeping all of top long.
Another variant is to clip all hair very short except for an inch or two above forehead to form bangs.
If the bangs are cut off for some reason, a boy will tie a handkerchief over forehead.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da Women:
Hair is long, parted in middle, formed into one braid at center back, tucked into huipil.
Hair is washed once or twice a week, and oil (brillantine) is sometimes rubbed on). Soap or soaproot is used.
Hair is brushed (and sometimes combed to remove lice). Women often comb hair in afternoon and don't comb it again until the next day (afternoon).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da Teenage boys are vain about their complexions and carry little mirrors bought in market.
Girls, on the contrary, rarely look.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming \da Fingernails often just wear down from work. Sometimes they are cut or bitten down. The pieces aren't treated carefully as hair is.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da xatiß - split ends
Hair oil is used for preventing split ends and for killing lice. About two tsp. oil, pour one tsp. on hands, rub together, then rub over hair, repeat.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da A vine called head-lowering plant is used to promote hair growth. Women use it so hair will get long.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da ra'wi21 - dye from a lemon-shaped greenish fruit of a tree - watery liquid dyes hands blue overnight, lasts for two-three days.
Woman only, palms only, for adornment.
Used to be used to dye thread. No, others say.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da No cosmetics or other body painting are used, nor perfumes, except hair oil.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 302
\ct Grooming
\da Teenage boys worry about blackheads and pimples, and carry small mirrors to check on their complexions.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 304
\ct Mutilation and physical deformation
\da Ear piercing is done to all girls when they are young, though not necessarily babies. This is done with sewing needle and thread and thread is left until hole is healed. Then girl can wear earrings.
\dt c. 1970
31 USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
311 Utilization of soil 312 Provision of water 313 Lumber 314 Other forest products 315 Petroleum and natural gas 316 Mines and quarries 317 Other natural deposits
\mn 311
\ct Utilization of Soil
\da Land
The land belonging to Copala is nearly all divided up among individuals, but the use of the land is communal except for agriculture. You can clear for a cornfield or plant only on your own land (or rented land). But you can use anyone's land for grazing or lumber or firewood as long as it is not planted. You can build a house (rent free) if the owner gives permission.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 311
\ct Utilization of Soil
\da Ownership of land gives owner the right to rent, buy and sell, and the owner's sons inherit it. In 1964 (approximately) a 100 m2 piece of land with coffee and bananas went for 4000.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 312
\ct Provision of water \da Water for irrigation is taken from streams or springs uphill and carried in ditches (redug each year, if necessary) to fields below. Sometimes the source must be dammed with rocks and sticks to raise the level enough so that the water enters the canal. Sometimes the water must cross a stream and hollowed logs are used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 312
\ct Provision of water
\da Water for drinking and household use is obtained exclusively from springs. Sometimes they are "improved" by being dug out to form a hole, lined with rocks or even with cement.
Women carry water for household use, dipping it with gourds into clay pitchers, rarely buckets. Men carry water for tepache making, either same way or by cans or buckets hanging from shoulder pole.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 312
\ct Provision of water
\da Water for washing clothes and bathing may come from a stream or spring--go to the nearest plentiful source.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 313
\ct Lumber
\da Wood is used for firewood and house building and plows. Tools for working with wood are mainly machete and axe. Wood is transported mainly by carrying on the back, or by dragging with a rope.
For firewood, various kinds of oak are considered best. For beams, "black oak" is considered best. For crosspieces, ranu35, rumi34, bamboo
chrun3 ri'yu35, re21, richruh34
\dt c. 1970
\mn 314
\ct Other forest products
\da Pine trees are a source of pitch pine for torches and starting fires. \dt c. 1970
\mn 314
\ct Other forest products
\da Some Triques burn charcoal as a salable product in nearby towns, where mestizos use it for cooking and heating irons. Triques themselves don't use it.
richruh3 oak is used for charcoal. The tree is felled and green and unsplit, a fire is built using ocote to start. Then the tree is covered with leaves and dirt and left for a week. If still burning, then put water on it. Load it in sacks and take it to town to sell.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 314
\ct Other forest products
\da A few trees have bark which is good tying fiber. Handflower tree - cold country gutzi32 tree - hot country
\dt c. 1970
\mn 314
\ct Other forest products
\da Pine resin is used for mending small holes in pottery. The jar is heated in the fire before smearing resin on.
Orchid bulbs are also used for glue, used for violins.
Note: Aztecs used glue from orchid bulbs for feather work - tzauhtle zaucle
\dt c. 1970
\mn 316
\ct Mines and quarries
\da Although Copala territory is said to be rich in minerals, there are no mines operated by either Triques or mestizos. The only product "mined" as such is stone for lime burning from "just any rock or cliff", and stones for sharpening machetes and metates, which come from hot country and edge of town, respectively.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 316
\ct Mines and quarries
\da The rocks that become lime.
They are piled in an oven and burned for a week, day and night. The oven is made, like a brick-tile oven, in a bank with a firebox below and a chamber above.
Then water is put on rocks and they swell and become lime.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 317
\ct Other natural deposits
\da No soil or quality clay is found locally.
\dt c. 1970
32 MANUFACTURE OF RAW MATERIALS
321 Bone, horn and shell work 322 Wood work 323 Ceramics 324 Stone work 325 Metallurgy 326 Metal crafts 327 Iron and steel industry 328 Other metal industries
\mn 321
\ct Bone, horn and shell work
\da Shell is rare - there are no shellfish of any size in the area. Therefore - no shell work.
Bone and horn of cows and goats is plentiful, but is not exploited.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 322
\ct Wood work
\da Wood is used only crudely, for the most part. Painting and lacquering are not used, except using commercial products by the more acculturated. There are no carpenters. Machete and axe are the only tools commonly employed.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 322
\ct Wood work
\da Wood for houses
Rough finished logs, beams and smaller pieces are used mostly. More careful work is done on doors, which are often made of a solid slab. The hinges are two projecting dowels at top and bottom, which fit in the doorframe sockets.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 322
\ct Wood work
\da Small items made of wood include little benches carved of a solid piece, battens carved for loom, and also end pieces. Drumsticks are carved. Plows are shaped. A few men know how to carve ox yokes.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 323
\ct Ceramics
\da Possibly because no good clay is found in the area, all pottery is imported. The main source is the Mixtec town of Cuquila, which produces unglazed pots, pitchers, comals and bowls. These products are found in every household. At fiestas, decorated bowls from Oaxaca and green glazed pottery is also available.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 324
\ct Stone work
\da Stone grindstones, mano and metate, are factory-made and purchased at fiestas. They are sharpened (=roughened) periodically by pecking with a hard pointed stone.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 325-328
\ct Metallurgy, etc.
\da There are no Trique blacksmiths. Metal instruments are all imported - axheads, machetes, knives, plowpoints, pick and shovel heads. \dt c. 1970
33 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
331 Construction industry 332 Excavating 333 Masonry 334 Steel structures 335 Carpentry 336 Plumbing
337 Electrical installations 338 Other professions related to construction 339 Industries related to construction
\mn 331
\ct Construction industry
\da Every Trique man knows how to build the usual structures used. There is no construction industry and no specialists.
A few buildings are of better construction - adobe, tile, even stone or brick. These are built by hiring Mixtec builders. A few buildings have been constructed by the government.
Building a local style house is considered to be hard work.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 331
\ct Construction industry
\da Economic life.
When a man builds a house, he hires people to help. His relatives don't help him.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 332
\ct Excavating
\da Because of the hilly country, excavation is often needed to level a house site. The work is done with coa.
Sometimes the uphill side is used as one house wall.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 333
\ct Masonry
\da Locally built houses have no foundations. Walls may be of mud and stone filling inside a double pole frame. A broken pot, or a tile, may be built into the wall as a sort of shelf for odds and ends.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 335
\ct Carpentry
\da The main supports of a roof and the framework of the roof is always of poles, roughly finished. The framework is tied with vines or bark.
Roofs are of tile, rarely (bought from Mixtecs), or tejamanil nailed on, locally split from pine, or roofing grass tied on.
\dt c. 1970
34 BUILDINGS
341 Architecture 342 Dwellings 343 Non-residential buildings 344 Public buildings 345 Buildings for spectacles and sports 346 Buildings for religion and education 347 Commercial buildings 348 Industrial buildings 349 Other buildings
\mn 342
\ct Dwellings
\da Houses are mainly one room, from 2x3 meters to 4x5, with one door, no windows, dirt floor, moderately sloped roof. Houses are low, often one has to stoop to enter. A platform loft may be built of poles or carrizo above part of the house for storage. One corner may be made into a corncrib to store mazorcas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 342
\ct Dwellings
\da Apsidal house is very common in Copala. Unlike Yucatán, however, the roof of the semicircular ends is separate. \dt c. 1970
\mn 342
\ct Dwellings
\da During the dry season, especially for the 3rd Friday fiesta, many Triques live in booths made of brush, with brush roofs (protects against sun, but not rain).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 342
\ct Dwellings
\da See 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for a description of houses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 343
\ct Non-residential buildings
\da Many families have a vapor bath. They are often built into a bank, the walls of mud and stone, three-four feet high, flat roofed of poles and mud. Inside, they measure 5-6 feet long and 3-4 feet wide. The door is at one end and a fire pit of stones at the other. On tope of the fire "box" are loose stones piled. On these, water is thrown to make steam. Sometimes, a framework with roof is erected over them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 343
\ct Non-residential buildings
\da Chicken "coops" are mainly a circle or rectangle of poles with a few crossbars for roosting and a bit of thatch. They don't really protect animals from rain.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 344
\ct Public buildings
\da The town hall is a two-story building of adobe and tile. The top story is a one-room town meeting place, with floor of beams. Its furnishings are only squared beam benches and a table. The lower story is a two-cell jail (men and women).
This building was built by Mixtec builders for the Triques.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 344
\ct Public buildings
\da Buildings for an official purpose are "supposed" to be fancier than dwellings. The Copala townhall is plastered adobe and tile, though few private houses are. The people of San Miguel tore down an adequate plastered adobe and tile building because the government offered to build them a better one. The believers in San Miguel feel that a church building is necessary and are collecting money for it. (A building the style of their houses wouldn't cost anything but labor).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 346
\ct Buildings for religion and education
\da The church is a masonry structure, built by outsiders for the Triques. The present church is 40-50 years old, I judge. One very old woman (now about 70 in 1969) helped her husband build it when they were young.
There used to be a chapel with thatched roof on site of present clinic.
\dt c. 1969
\mn 346
\ct Buildings for religion and education
\da The mayordomo building is an adobe and tile structure of the form common in local towns. It was built by Mixtec builders for the Triques. It is used for dipping candles.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 346
\ct Buildings for religion and education
\da The only schools in Copala were built by outsiders (not at Trique request). Some barrios have schools, built by local methods, only larger with windows.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 347
\ct Commercial buildings
\da Stores are either in the U-shaped plaza or in private houses. Such houses are made with a window for selling.
The plaza was made by the town, using Mixtec help. It has a tile roof and low walls, leaving the top 2/3 open. It is partly floored in brick.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 349
\ct Other buildings
\da There is a concrete monument in the center of Copala. No date on it and significance unknown - to make it pretty. An agent had it made "long ago".
\dt c. 1970
35 BUILDING EQUIPMENT AND CARE
351 Plots of land 352 Furniture 353 Interior decoration 354 Heating and illumination 355 Assorted equipment 356 Care of houses 357 Domestic service 358 Care of non-residential buildings
\mn 351
\ct Plots of land
\da There is little concept of beautifying either the inside or the outside of houses among the Triques. Utility is more important. Although the Triques know about gardens, only rarely are flowers planted. Then there is usually another motive - floripondio is a narcotic, marigolds are used at All Saints.
There are no patios, and only rarely are plots near houses fenced. If so, it is keep animals away from small useful crops--sugar cane, lettuce.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 352
\ct Furniture
\da Furniture in Trique houses is a bare minimum. Tables are rare--if used, they are for storage off the floor, not for eating or working (Authorities sit at tables in town hall to judge, however). Chairs are almost never used, though small benches are carved from a solid block of wood. Maquila measures are also used for sitting. Occasionally there is a log bench.
Beds are practically unknown. (Rarely, a structure of otate poles on a pole frame is used). Triques sleep on petates unrolled on the floor, with a blanket for covering on top. No sheets or pillows. Hanging cradles are used for tiny babies.
Wood boxes and suitcases (metal, etc.) are used for storage, as are hanging palm baskets on wall or from hanging wooden peg. Mayordomos have to store boxes with candles for saints in their houses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 352
\ct Furniture
\da Petate
Palm petates are used as a place to sit and a place to sleep. Also used for selling and drying things. Occasionally corrugated cardboard or lime sacks are used, mats of banana fiber, or skins.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 353
\ct Interior decoration
\da Interior decoration is unknown among the Triques. House interiors are for utility.
Occasionally Trique will hang a calendar o other picture on the wall for a little color and prettiness.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 354
\ct Heating and illumination
\da The main source of heat and light is a wood fire on the floor, star-shaped. The fire is used mainly for cooking. There is no chimney, but houses are full of air spaces for smoke to escape in and near the roof. Three stones support the comal.
For better light, pitch pine, candles, and occasionally candiles for kerosene are used. A few houses in town have electric light, just a bare bulb on a hanging wire, installed by the government. Put out fire by separating pieces of wood and sprinkling water. Start with matches or from coals. Fire can be taken from another house by putting live coals on a potsherd.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 356
\ct Care of houses
\da Houses are swept every several days with a bunch of leaves. The area outside a house may be swept occasionally with a bunch of twigs (works like a lawn rake). People toss corncobs and other trash anywhere, in or out of house. There is no notion of a trash can or of any special place to put trash.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 356
\ct Care of houses
\da House repairs are rarely made unless forced by rain. When part of a wall falls down, or a roof, replacement is made by the same technique used to build in the first place.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 357
\ct Domestic service
\da Among themselves, domestic servants are unknown, but Triques under economic pressure sometimes work as domestic servants for mestizos. Children run errands for room and board (orphans, usually). Women may shell corn, make tortillas, rarely wash (they have no other employable skills) for a small salary.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 358
\ct Care of non-residential buildings
\da Care of church and town hall falls to appointed yearly officials, who mainly sweep. See 621 and 624.
\dt c. 1970
36 TOWNS
361 Types of towns 362 Dwelling conditions 363 Streets and traffic 364 Sanitary services 365 Public services 366 Commercial services 367 Public parks 368 Various urban services 369 Rural and urban life
\mn 361
\ct Types of towns
\da Only one settlement, San Juan Copala, can rightly be called a town. It is a commercial and politico-religious center mainly. It contains several public buildings, usually well- built, and various, usually poorly-built, dwellings.
The residence pattern, however, is for Triques to live where their lands is, unless town duty requires their presence in Copala for 1-2 years. Thus, most Triques live in loose settlements called barrios.
See 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for maps and description of Copala.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 361
\ct Types of towns
\da Copala is a center.
1. Political - bounded land area - set by government but governed Trique style.
2. Cultural - all SJC Trique speakers. Excludes some people living in Copala, includes some living elsewhere.
3. Economic - Monday Market - 3-4 hours walking. Includes some but not all Copala Triques, plus Mixtecs and Meztizos.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 362
\ct Dwelling conditions
\da Houses offer only moderate protection from rain, wind and cold, since they often leak and are not really tight.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 362
\ct Dwelling conditions \da Living conditions are crowded by U.S. standards, but they aren't felt to be so by the Triques unless there is an actual shortage of floor space for sleeping. Ten to twelve persons may occupy one small one-room house.
There is no housing shortage, since any properly motivated male can build a house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 363
\ct Streets and traffic
\da Copala has one main street, passing between church and plaza, and this is where all trucks enter.
Elsewhere, houses seem to be built on a haphazard pattern, with no trails or streets in mind.
There are no pavement, drains, or traffic lights.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 364
\ct Sanitary services
\da There is no sewer system or drainage system, except that a ditch across the low part of the market allows rain water to drain from the area in the middle of the U.
After markets, minor officials sweep the plaza and burn the trash.
On the whole, the town gives the impression of a manure pile, full of trash. There is little pride in keeping the town clean.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 365
\ct Public services
\da No public services are provided by the Triques. The Mexican government does provide electric lights in the town to those who pay.
The Mexican government also provides a clinic.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 366
\ct Commercial services
\da On or very near the plaza are all commercial services (one Trique has a store in Subana, on the road - other barrios have nothing resembling a store).
These include a few mestizos who have small stores and/or restaurants. The restaurants are patronized mainly by soldiers, and the stores by Triques. One Trique has a store in Copala. (It is of interest that both Triques with stores have non-Trique wives).
Mayordomos in Copala often sell things to earn money for putting on fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 366
\ct Commercial services
\da Monday is market day, serving as a commercial center for Mestizos, Mixtecs, Aztecs and Triques who live no further than four hours walk away. Triques sell bananas and sugar cane to outsiders, buy corn, thread, earrings. Also for sale are meat, tamales, bean tacos, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 366
\ct Commercial services
\da Religious fiestas, such as Third Friday, provide expanded opportunities for commerce.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 367
\ct Public parks
\da There are no parks (though a few flowers have been planted around the monument in the center of town).
There are no public recreation facilities except that both the soldiers and the priest have made courts - the soldiers for volleyball and the priest for both volleyball and basketball.
\dt c. 1970
37 ENERGY AND POWER
371 Principal sources of energy 372 Fire 373 Light 374 Heat 375 Thermal energy 376 Hydraulic energy 377 Electric energy 378 Atomic energy 379 Other sources of power
\mn 371
\ct Principal sources of energy
\da The main sources of energy used are human and animal power, fire. Also possible, though not used, would be wind and water to some extent.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 372
\ct Fire
\da Fire is lit only by matches
\dt c. 1970
\mn 372
\ct Fire
\da Fire is used for cooking and light and heat.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 373
\ct Light
\da Fire, candles, ocate are the major sources of light. Occasionally, candil kerosene lamps are used.
The government has provided electricity in the village of Copala.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 373
\ct Light
\da Candles
Brown-black from earth bees Yellow from domestic bees (for saints) White tallow from cow fat (for brujos) White paraffin from factories
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Fire and sunshine are the only sources of heat
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Hot and cold foods -- From Lina, Margarito’s Mixtec wife
Hot Cold Mango fish Hot water cold water chile citrus fruit red tomato squash egg greens
Torts are neutral beans?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Hot and Cold Foods
There is a classification of foods into hot and cold (see next slip). These must be taken with certain diseases (see slip after that). If you are overheated, e.g. from climbing a hill, you can't eat cold things, or bathe, or you'll cool off too much and get diarrhea and a bellyache and even die. You can't even wash your hands or your shoulders will ache.
There is also a belief that some medicines are delicate and when taken, the person must abstain from chile, salt, grease, meat.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374 \ct Heat
\da Hot and Cold from a Trique boy
Hot Cold
Goat meat torts chile Beans atole chayote Squash bread sugar cane Chicken? pop grease Beef? beer salt aguardiente fish candy turkey greens beef? fruit chicken?
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pablo Fernando
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Hot and Cold Foods
Take hot water for: Take cold water for:
diarrhea cold fever
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Hot and cold condition - should avoid extremes. If a person is "hot" as from climbing a hill, then he shouldn't eat something "cold" like an orange. You'll cool too fast and die. Nor can you bathe or even wash your hands. Bathing causes a bellyache and washing hands causes shoulders to ache.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da If a person is in a "cold" condition, such as a chill, eating something sweet will make it worse.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 374
\ct Heat
\da Hot and cold
Cold condition causes sterility and hot medicine is required.
Cutting cord with metal object, which is cold, is believed to cause sterility in the mother.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 374
\ct Heat
\da A baby who gets a chill and cools off gets green diarrhea.
\dt c. 1970
38 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
381 Chemical engineering 382 Petroleum, coal and derivatives 383 Rubber 384 Synthetic products 385 Industrial chemistry 386 Paints and dyes 387 Fertilizer 388 Soap 389 Explosives
\mn 386
\ct Paints and dyes
\da Dying
Since colored yarn and embroidery thread is available (also commercial dyes) practically no dying of thread or textiles is done now. Some dyes are known, however.
Bark of chrun3 runakon3 'elite' gives a red-brown color Leaves and stems of koh34 ya'ah53 gives a dark blue
Grind, put in water and cook.
ra'wi21 is used cosmetically to dye palms of hands.
\dt c. 1970
COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY FOUR
40 MACHINES
401 Mechanics 402 Industrial machines 403 Electrical machines 404 Machines for domestic use 405 Machines for weighing, measuring, counting and others 406 Machines for moving heavy objects 407 Agricultural machines
\mn 401
\ct Mechanics
\da Triques make use of some simple machines in their methods of working and using their tools. In the use of the coa and crowbar, the lever is employed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 404
\ct Machines for domestic use
\da The only machine used in the home is a factory-made grinder for corn that many Trique homes have.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 405
\ct Machines for weighing, measuring, counting and others
\da The Triques do not employ any form of scales except a commercial spring balance for coffee.
Few Triques have watches, but all understand what they are and some can tell time.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 407
\ct Agricultural machines
\da The only agricultural machines used are plows and cane presses.
Though a few people have metal plows, the common type is an old Spanish plow made from a piece of wood. The bottom part is straight, and the handle part is curved. See 8 1/2 x 11 sheets for picture of plow and yoke. People make their own using machete, and buy the metal point in the market, made by a blacksmith. \dt c. 1970
\mn 407
\ct Agricultural machines
\da Cane presses are home-made, of wood, and are turned by human power.
\dt c. 1970
41 TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
411 Arms 412 Tools and instruments of general use 413 Tools and instruments of special use 414 Hardware 415 Utensils 416 Special instruments and equipment 417 Various equipment
\mn 411
\ct Arms
\da The main weapons used by Triques are various light to heavy rifles and pistols, all factory made. These are used to protect the house and to kill people. They are never used for hunting.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 411
\ct Arms
\da Slings and slingshots are both known and are used by children, who often kill birds with them. Some slings are made and some bought. Slingshots are usually bought, but the wood may be carved with a machete/knife.
Slings are made of ixtle in a sort of hammock stitch with a center ridge, and the ends are twisted into rope.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 411
\ct Arms
\da The principle of the bow is known but is used only as a children's toy. People say that they used to be used as a serious weapon for killing people. Arrows were reeds with thorns.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da Factory made knives, machetes and scissors are all widely known and used (every male has a machete). The scissors is used for haircutting, the knife for butchering, and the machete for dozens of uses.
Chisels are also known and used, but saws very rarely.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da Factory steel needles are widely used for sewing and as weaving picks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da Files are known but not widely used. A stone for sharpening is more common.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da Triques make mallets out of a chunk of wood, but cutting it down to make a handle.
$$
Hammers are also known (factory made).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da The coa is the indispensable agricultural instrument. The blade is factory made and the handle of wood is fitted by the buyer.
Picks and shovels are also sometimes used. Crowbars are known and used sometimes. \dt c. 1970
\mn 412
\ct Tools and instruments of general use
\da Combs, brushes and brooms are either made by outsiders or are haphazard affairs.
A hairbrush made by outsiders (Mixtecs?) is widely used. A comb for lice made by outsiders is sometimes used. Brooms are usually just a bunch of branches or twigs, which may or may not be tied together.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 413
\ct Tools and instruments of special use
\da The few Triques who can write use pencil or ball point, factory made.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 414
\ct Hardware
\da Almost no hardware is used, except for nails, which are used for tejumainl roofs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 414
\ct Hardware
\da A kind of deadfall trap called a lliß. I saw in a house. A palisade of sticks about 40 cm long was about 20 cm from another row. Between them were flat rocks and at one end a forked stick planted in the ground on which to prop the rock that would fall.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Every adult woman has a grindstone set. Usually a factory metate is used (45-55 pesos, available at 3rd Friday fiesta) and a factory mano (11 pesos, also at fiesta). Rarely, a flat slab of stone is used. The surface is re-picked when worn smooth and eventually they wear thin enough to break. The sharpening is done with a "knife-stone" or machete point.
In the past, stone metates and manos were in general use. Some are said to be left on the big mountain as a result of the flood.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Olla - an unglazed clay pot, no lip or handles, used for cooking. Made in SM Cuquila.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Jarro - an unglazed clay pitcher, one handle, used for carrying water mainly. Smaller ones are used for tepache. Made in SM Cuquila.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Tinaja - a large unglazed clay pot with small handles, used for making tepache. Made in SM Cuquila.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Comal - a clay griddle, slightly concave, about 20" in diameter, is used in cooking tortillas and toasting things. Made in SM Cuquila.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Plato - an unglazed clay bowl, used for serving food? \dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Preparing pottery for use
Nearly all cooking is done in unglazed pottery utensils that come from Cuquila via San Martín middlemen.
Before using a utensil, a paste of lime and water is rubbed on the outside all over and then the pot is left in the fire to "cook" and get smoked up. This seals it and makes it much less porous.
Broken pottery - in wall for shelf, sherd for incense.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Jícara - half the shell of a round gourd. Used for eating and drinking and dipping water. Comes from Costa Chica.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Bule - a long gourd used for carrying water. From Costa Chica.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Bandeja - a large flat gourd used for shelling corn into and various other uses. From Costa Chica.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Ladle - half the shell of a long gourd, wide at one end, used for stirring. (Or a stick alone may be used). From Costa Chica. \dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Glazed pottery
Green pitchers and Oaxaca bowls are for sale at big fiestas and most households have a few. Bowls are especially used for All Saints' Day. From Oaxaca?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Bottle - used liquor bottles are used for aguardiente. They can be cleaned by shaking sand inside. From factories.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Garrafón - a large bottle, usually with basket woven outside for carrying and storing aguardiente. ? \dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da vaso - a large glass, usually left from a veladora, used for drinking.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Enamelware - spoons, kettles, plates are brought in at fiesta and many people have a few pieces. From factory.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415 \ct Utensils
\da Bucket/can - factory galvanized buckets are available at fiestas and are sometimes used for carrying water. Large tin cans are also purchased for carrying water, such as oil cans or lard cans. From factory.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Basin - factory basins of plastic or galvanized iron are sometimes used. From factory.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Paired tenates - a pair of palm buckets with one slightly smaller so that one serves as cover for the other. Used to store clothes and thread.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Tenate - a carrying basket of palm, fitted with mecapal. Carried by women. From Nuxañu.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Square tenate - a small palm basket with a shoulder rope. Used for sowing. From Nuxañu.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Colored tenate - a tall tenate with colored palm woven in. Used for the chile-tort gift given to family of bride. Chalcatongo/Coycoyán. \dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Chiquihuite - a large basket, used for charcoal. ?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Red - a square of loosely woven ixtle formed by sewing two webs together, used by men for carrying.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 415
\ct Utensils
\da Morral - ixtle or plastic shopping bag with handles or shoulder strap. Used for carrying, more by men.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 417
\ct Various equipment
\da A kind of ladder is made by notching a post at intervals to give toeholds.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 417
\ct Various equipment
\da Fences are made by cutting posts on the spot and sort of laying or winding other newly cut branches among them. Gates are not used.
\dt c. 1970
42 PROPERTY
421 Management of property 422 Movable property 423 Immovable property 424 Incorporeal property 425 Acquisition and loss of property 426 Loans 427 Renting and leasing 428 Inheritance 429 Administration
\mn 421
\ct Management of property
\da Triques seem to recognize two classes of possession. Food is communal, to be freely shared. Clothing is individual and is not shared, though it may be handed down. When I tried to give a box and a few cans to a household, the people other than the person to whom I handed them seemed to think they were only for one person and asked me for another one.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 421
\ct Management of property
\da Concepts of property
Personal ownership of clothing and animals is recognized, also of land, though it tends to be a family business to live and farm.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 422
\ct Movable property
\da Personal property is that which is buried with a person when he dies. It includes clothing, jewelry, machete, loom (though sometimes a woman's child will keep the loom and finish weaving the huipil so they can use it at the cross- raising ceremony).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 422
\ct Movable property
\da Other movable property -
Plow, yoke, gun, shovel, pick, metate, mano, suitcase. Such items remain with the nearest relatives for their use.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 423
\ct Immovable property
\da Lands and houses are recognized as immovable property. They are inherited and can be sold.
Water?
Wooded land, though owned, may be used by anyone for firewood or limited source of lumber.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 424
\ct Incorporeal property
\da There are no culturally recognized kinds of intangible property. Names?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 425
\ct Acquisition and loss of property
\da Buying and selling is common. It's the only way to get land except through inheritance.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 426
\ct Loans
\da Loans are known but not too common.
[2004 -- probably not true]
\dt c. 1970
\mn 427
\ct Renting and leasing
\da Land use is rented to Aztecs for cash. The Aztecs use it to pasture large flocks of sheep and goats, owned by Mestizos in Jux., Tlax., Putla. The money is used for town projects, such as hand instruments.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 427
\ct Renting and leasing
\da Rent
Land my be rented and rarely, a house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 428
\ct Inheritance
\da Land and houses are inherited through the father to the sons. Ideally, the sons should live together and farm together, but in practice, they sometimes quarrel and split up.
If there is no son, daughter and son-in-law get it--then to brother or nephew.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 429
\ct Administration
\da Care of widows:
Widows often have to fend for themselves, making a living by raising poultry or making torts or working for people. Widows are recognized to have a hard lot.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 429
\ct Administration
\da Care of orphans:
Family members always take orphans, but if they are babies, they sometimes die for lack of milk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 429
\ct Administration
\da Care of physically and mentally handicapped: Such people are usually cared for by their families. Occasionally, old people are destitute and have to beg. People give willingly to them.
\dt c. 1970
43 EXCHANGE
431 Donations - Gifts 432 Buying and selling 433 Production and distribution 434 Entry and demand 435 Price and value 436 Means of exchange 437 Transactions 438 Interior commerce 439 Exterior commerce
\mn 431
\ct Donations - Gifts
\da Gifts are often given. Small gifts of good are often given to show good will, especially to visitors, and when a favor is going to be requested.
Gifts of food or clothing are often given to the poor or disabled.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 431
\ct Donations - Gifts
\da The compadre relationship is also a source of gift-giving, formally when relationship is established and casually after that.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 431
\ct Donations - gifts
\da Puppies are given away to people who ask for them. The recipient is supposed to give in return, a hen for a female dog and a rooster for a male.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 432
\ct Buying and selling
\da Money is used by all, and buying and selling, both within the cultural group and outside of it are the norm. Probably 90% of all exchange outside the immediate family is through buying and selling.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 432
\ct Buying and selling
\da The idea of rationing is not known among the Triques or elsewhere in the area. When we refuse to sell large quantities of medicine or to sell Trique books (at subsidied prices) to non-Triques, people are upset. Also unknown is selling with no profit motive. People treat us as storekeepers because they have no pigeonhole to put us in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 433
\ct Production and distribution
\da The economy produces coffee primarily for selling outside the culture, and bananas both for local and outside consumption.
The staple, corn, is not produced in sufficient quantities and must be imported.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 433
\ct Production and distribution
\da The Copala area doesn't grow enough corn to feed itself. Much is imported and is for sale on the market by Mixtec and Spanish speakers.
This may be partly due to use of land for coffee.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 434
\ct Entry and demand
\da Income in Copala is mainly from sale of coffee and bananas, and sale of other products - goats, weaving. Some Triques earn money by going to cut sugar cane.
Social pressure puts some restriction on demand, at least for personal use.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 435 \ct Price and value
\da Prices are determined by interaction in local Mexican economy, not by Trique culture alone.
Triques are materialistic, in that they are always looking for a better price or better deal, but the social system stresses conformity and ritual compliance, so a person can't be too acquisitive.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 436
\ct Means of exchange
\da Money is used for nearly all transactions - Mexican currency. Sometimes payment is made in eggs or other produce for small transactions.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 437
\ct Transactions
\da Money is used in transactions mainly. Barter, in that eggs or other produce are exchanged, is used some. Work for produce is also known and often used in dealings with outsiders. Bargaining is known and practiced. It is frequent in the larger society.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 437
\ct Transactions
\da People are reluctant to interfere in someone else's business deal. They won't name a price, even when asked. But after the deal is concluded, they'll express an opinion.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 438
\ct Interior commerce
\da Because of sharp altitude differences, some barrios can grow tropical products and others can't. This leads to exchange within the area, as well as out of it. The Monday market in Copala is the main center of exchange.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 439
\ct Exterior commerce
\da Copala for export produces mainly coffee and bananas, which are sold in the Monday market, or to visiting buyers, or to buyers in nearby towns - Agua Fria, Putla, Juxtlahuaca.
Also sold by Triques to earn money are firewood, charcoal and pitch pine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 439
\ct Exterior commerce
\da Many necessary items in Copala life - items of Indian origin - are imported:
Women's belts - from Santo Tomás Jalieza -- Mixtec vendor Spindles - Jumiltepec - fiesta Black skirts - San Miguel Progreso, Mixtec vendor Pottery - Cuquila, via San Martín middlemen in Monday market Palm products - Mixtec villages near Juxtlahuaca, fiesta and Juxtlahuaca Rockets - Barrio de Guadalupe and Santiago Chile - Mesones, via Mixtec arrieros, in market Potatoes - Yucunicoco Painted jícaras - Olinalá, Gro (or Uruupan?) Preconquest - Kiddle Blankets - Tezoatlán, Teotitlán del Valle
\dt c. 1970
44 COMMERCE
441 Commerce in general 442 Wholesale commerce 443 Retail commerce 444 Specialized retail merchants 445 Public service businesses 446 Selling practices 447 Commercial advertising
\mn 441
\ct Commerce in general
\da No Trique is a large-scale merchant, though a very few have small stores*, handling cookies, pop, beer, soap, cigarettes, candles, matches, candy, gum. They are supplied by merchants from Juxtlahuaca who are both wholesalers and retailers and transporters as well.
*usually mayordomos \dt c. 1970
\mn 442
\ct Wholesale commerce
\da While no Trique is a wholesaler, many Triques sell coffee and bananas to Mixtec and Mestizo wholesalers in the plaza on Monday, in Aqua Fr/ia on Thursday or in towns.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 443
\ct Retail commerce
\da Retail selling is primarily done at the Monday markets, except for the few stores in Copala and Sabana, operated by Mestizos or Triques, which sell seven days a week in daylight hours. Door to door selling is rare, though produce is sold in the market other days beside Monday on a small scale. Some bargaining takes place.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 443
\ct Retail commerce
\da Capitalism in fiestas
Outgoing mayordomos hand over 100 pesos to the new mayordomo as capital. The new officials use the money to buy merchandise to sell - salt, chile, panela, tepache, aguardiente, etc. This, over a period of 12-18 months must multiply to 2-3 or more thousand pesos for the expenses of the fiesta. The initial investment is called father of money or money that sprouts (reh3 za'anh34 or za'anh34 naka3)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 443
\ct Retail commerce
\da Markets:
Weekly markets are a feature of the area. Markets occur at the following places:
Copala - Monday SA Chicahuaxtla - Monday Aqua Fría - Thursday Juxtlahuaca - Friday Tlaxiaco - Saturday Putla - Sunday
\dt c. 1970
\mn 443
\ct Retail commerce
\da Much commerce takes place at fiestas, which is the culturally obvious time to make major purchases. For example, at the 3rd Friday fiesta, the Indians can buy the following, not otherwise available in Copala:
Blankets, sandals, hats, cloth, clothing, rebozos, cotton, jewelry, metates and manos, plow points, glazed pottery, machetes and knives, religious pictures and medals
\dt c. 1970
\mn 444
\ct Specialized retail merchants
\da The people of San Martín, who are poor, buy pottery at Mixtepec market on Friday, carry it home on their backs and carry it to Copala on their backs to sell at Monday market. Some say it is made in Mixtepec, but it comes from Cuquila.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 446
\ct Selling practices
\da No advertising is used, except to display the merchandise on the ground or plastic or a petate, and to call to people passing by. At fiestas, some Mestizo vendors use loudspeakers.
\dt c. 1970
45 FINANCES
451 Accounting 452 Credit 453 Banks 454 Savings and investments 455 Speculation 456 Insurance 457 Exterior finances 458 Economic cycles
\mn 452 \ct Credit
\da Much Trique business is done on consignment. A cow to be butchered is paid for after the meat is sold, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 452
\ct Credit
\da Buying on credit is a fact of life. Patrones are expected to extend credit. Many people seem to want as much in the hand now as possible without thought of how they can pay back.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 454
\ct Savings and investments
\da A Trique who accumulates extra money is likely to invest it in domestic animals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 454
\ct Savings and investments
\da An interesting form of investment is the mayordomía system, where the new mayordomo receives 100 pesos as a fund to multiply by small business ventures to obtain the thousands of pesos necessary for a fiesta. Such ventures are selling meat, salt, chile, tepache, aguardiente.
\dt c. 1970
46 WORK
461 Work and idleness 462 Division of labor by sex 463 Specialized occupations 464 Labor and employment 465 Salary 466 Relations between employer and employees 467 Organizations of laborers 468 Conflicts and collective bargaining
\mn 461
\ct Work and idleness
\da Work is not valued as a positive good for its own sake, rather as means to an end. (Children, however, should be given responsibility so they will grow up "serious").
People do not feel obliged to put in so many hours at a job or keep busy. Women are busy mainly early each day, men at times of peak cornfield activity.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 461
\ct Work and idleness
\da Liquor is used to make disagreeable work, like town work improving roads, less painful.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 462
\ct Division of labor by sex
\da Men's work:
farming making tepache getting firewood (women sometimes do) mending and washing own clothes butchering care of large animals - cows, goats
\dt c. 1970
\mn 462
\ct Division of labor by sex
\da Women's work:
preparing food weaving carrying water for household use most buying and selling raising pigs, chickens and turkeys
Mending and washing are done by women only for themselves and babies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 463
\ct Specialized occupations
\da Occupational specialization: This is rare. The only recognized occupation is that of shaman and even this is part time.
Agriculture is the occupation of all the rest. Crops depend on climate and in cold areas, cows and goats are substituted.
A few Triques have little stores in addition to farming.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 464
\ct Labor and employment
\da Triques formerly were very reluctant to work for wages for anyone. Now, fear of murder and economic pressure have made this an acceptable alternative. Local employment occurs, and Triques go by the truckloads to cut sugar cane in Vera Cruz for better wages.
Triques do hire each other to plow or to do other agricultural labor.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 465
\ct Salary
\da Local salaries are very low - 5 or 6 pesos a day for agricultural labor, though old clothes may be given and loans extended. Sometimes room and board are given.
In cane country, salaries are about 15 pesos a day, plus lodging.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 465
\ct Salary
\da When someone helps you to harvest, the usual method of payment is to give him a share of the harvest rather than money. He usually gets a small tenate or ayate full of mazorcas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 465
\ct Salary
\da When a Trique is scolded by his employer, a favorite trick is to refuse pay. The purpose is to make the employer feel bad for scolding. \dt c. 1970
\mn 466
\ct Relations between employer and employees
\da Triques tend to look on any Mestizo who employs them or buys regularly from them as a full-fledged patrón. The peon is respectful, and the patrón is asked for - and expected to give - bonuses in the form of loans or old clothes. There is a clear social stratification, since patrons are Mestizos, and peons Indians.
\dt c. 1970
47 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION
471 Property and control of capital 472 Private enterprise 473 Corporations 474 Cooperatives 475 State-owned businesses 476 Forms of mutual aid 477 Competition
\mn 471
\ct Property and control of capital
\da The main forms of productive capital are land and cattle. These are owned by an individual or a family - a group of brothers, fathers and sons.
The mayordomo system has a system of money investment in retail selling to earn for fiestas. This is carried on by different individuals each year for public good.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 476
\ct Forms of mutual aid
\da There isn't much mutual help except to close relatives, who tend to form economic teams for farming and living.
Wide ties of relationship sometimes form the basis of such help. Daughter and husband, who normally live with his family, return to hers to help - birth of baby, harvest, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 477 \ct Competition
\da Although all stores in Copala handle much the same merchandise, they do it in a friendly fashion and don't overtly fight over business.
In Juxtlahuaca, storekeepers of greater sophistication sometimes ask us why we don't buy more from them, however.
\dt c. 1970
48 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION
481 Human locomotion 482 Carrying - burden bearing 483 Carrying and lifting loads (too heavy for one person) 484 Trips 485 Services for travelers 486 Travel regulation 487 Routes 488 Storage - warehouses 489 Transportation in general
\mn 481
\ct Human locomotion
\da Triques usually walk. They rarely run (unless getting wet or something - and children). They move steadily along and can cover 4-5 mph.
Older people carry canes or staves, or those somewhat crippled.
People walk single file, even when trails are wide (though most are narrow); women follow men.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 482
\ct Carrying - burden bearing
\da Loads are carried primarily on the back by means of a mecapal around the shoulders, not the head. For men, the mecapal is just rope, or of leather, and carrying is in a net or a load tied with ropes. Women carry on a tenate with mecapal made specially for shoulder use, usually by Mixtecs (who carry their own on the head).
Men also carry light morrales or unloaded ayates over a shoulder or hanging from hand. The machete is held with end of handle in hand and back of blade in crook of elbow. A blanket is tucked into a shoulder strap or folded and placed over shoulder.
Women carry babies on back using blanket, shawl, or cloth. Small items are in fold of tucked up huipil in front, smaller ones still are carried in belt. \dt c. 1970
\mn 483
\ct Carrying and lifting loads (too heavy for one person)
\da Large trees are moved by dragging with a rope tied around a groove.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 484
\ct Trips
\da All Triques have been to the Mexican town nearer them, Putla or Juxtlahuaca, for buying and selling. Many go every week or once a month at least. Such trips require no overnight stops except in town, where they may sleep with relatives or friends or even in the street.
Some Triques have been further away, especially those who have gone to cut cane or who have education.
Much hiking within the Copala area is common, to the village or to other barrios.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 485
\ct Service for travelers
\da Although there are restaurants and hotels in the towns, Triques tend to carry their own food, or buy it in the street, and sleep in the street or with friends or relatives.
Such services are beyond their means and considered above their social class.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 487
\ct Routes
\da Triques learn the footpaths and trails as children and no one has thought of marking them or mapping them. A distinction is made between footpaths and main trails suitable for animals or vehicles. Footpaths abound. Main routes tend to follow government built roads where such exist.
The old trail from Aqua Fria to Copala and then to Putla is rarely used now because of the road, longer but leveler and easier to travel.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 488
\ct Storage warehouses
\da Storing of commercial wares is a casual thing, almost always in a private house.
\dt c. 1970
49 LAND TRANSPORTATION
491 Highways 492 Animal transport 493 Vehicles 494 Highway transportation 495 Auxiliary services for highway transportation 496 Railways 497 Railroad transportation 498 Stations 499 Construction of highways and railroads
\mn 491
\ct Highways
\da Roads suitable for vehicles have been built mostly by the government. The road descending from Sabana to Copala and occasionally the stretch from Aqua Fría to Sabana, are maintained by the Triques, however, using pick and shovel labor.
Such roads, because of the mountainous terrain, are winding and poor in quality (none paved), lack suitable drainage, and deteriorate in the rainy season. There are no bridges* or culverts. All streams are small and are forded. Sometimes a rock bed has been laid for the ford.
*Log foot bridges are used on main trails and over deep rivers.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 492
\ct Animal transport
\da Triques have and employ horses and honkeys (no mules). These animals are used with pack saddles for carrying loads. Triques almost never ride unless sick and then only by putting a blanket over the pack saddle as padding. Riding saddles aren't used (though known), and no vehicles are used (I saw a little wagon from a box - child's toy). The mountainous terrain makes them unpractical.
No bridles are used, just a rope. Animals are usually driven, sometimes led. A rod is used as switch. Loads are in pole crates, banana bark crates, sacks or petates. Each animal has a prescribed maximum load. A man can carry about 40-45 lbs on his back, a donkey 2x that, and a horse, 2x that again.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 494
\ct Highway transportation
\da Trucks made trips occasionally and charge 5 pesos a person to go to Juxtlahuaca.
There is bus service from Putla through part of area.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 495
\ct Auxiliary services for highway transportation
\da A waiting-room--wall-less thatched roof with bench is provided on road at place where washed out road to Copala turns off.
\dt c. 1970 COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY FIVE
Numbers omitted because irrelevant for Trique 50 sea and air transportation
51 LEVEL OF LIFE AND DAILY ROUTINE
511 Level of life 512 Daily routine 513 Sleep 514 Elimination 515 Personal Hygiene 516 Postures 517 Concepts of recreation and amusement
\mn 511
\ct Level of life
\da Triques, by U.S. standards have a very low level of life, nor do they aspire to a much better one.
Houses are with few exceptions, one room, rarely larger than 3x4 meters, and inhabited by a whole family, who may take up the entire free floor space to sleep. Floors are dirt and furniture is not used.
A person rarely has more than two changes of clothing and clothes are usually dirty because of living on the floor.
Food is 90% corn, and protein and vitamin deficiency is common.
The conditions they live in are less than necessary for health.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 512
\ct Daily routine
\da Daily routine - women
Early morning - wash hominy, grind and make torts (4-5 a.m.). Women usually arise at first tinge of light, or even earlier.
After this, there is no necessary order, but a large chunk of most days is spent weaving.
Meals - 2 or 3
Women usually comb hair in late afternoon. Women carry water near sunset. Dusk - shell corn and put with lime to cook. Go to bed soon after dark - by 8 p.m.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 512
\ct Daily routine
\da Many, if not most, women go to market on Monday every week or two. If they make something to sell, then they spend Sunday doing it (tamales, bean torts, etc.).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 512
\ct Daily routine
\da Men have no daily routine as such because of the varied nature of cornfield work. They get up at or before dawn and go to bed shortly after dark.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 513
\ct Sleep
\da People sleep from shortly after dark to about first crack of dawn. Very small children sleep on same mat with parents. Only petates underneath and a blanket above are used - no bed, sheets or pillows.
Older children sleep together with siblings of same sex, but the whole family is in one room and in close proximity.
Sometimes people take naps, but this is casual. There is no idea of getting one's sleep as necessary. You sleep because you're sleepy or bored or because it's dark.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 513
\ct Sleep
\da Sleepiness is a noun, and when someone yawns, people say that sleep comes to you or that you call sleep.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 514
\ct Elimination \da Urinating and defecating may take place at any time and almost any place, though some degree of privacy is sometimes sought, especially for defecating.
Men urinate standing up, just turning their back to people. Women half squat--half kneel anywhere (their skirts must be a mess inside). Both squat to defecate and use corn cob or leaves to clean off. Excrement is left on ground for pigs or chickens or dogs to eat.
You don't do it in a house, only outside.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 515
\ct Personal hygiene
\da Many Triques never bathe except for their hair and face and hands. Some bathe the whole body, though. Hands are washed by one person pouring water over hands of another from a jícara. Face is washed by splashing water on it. Hair is washed by pouring water on it with a jícara and squeezing. Soap or soap root are used.
Soap is sometimes used. Estropajos may be used to scrub. Towels aren't used.
Teeth aren't brushed but mouth is rinsed with water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 515
\ct Personal hygiene
\da People do pick lice out of each other's hair.
People frequently take a vapor bath, spending up to 10 minutes in a steam- filled bathhouse and swatting oneself with bunches of leaves. This is supposed to help itching.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 515
\ct Personal hygiene
\da Cleanliness is not highly valued and dirt is considered normal.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 516
\ct Postures \daWomen have a gliding walk that seems to not affect the upper half of the body. They rest and work almost entirely on their knees, sitting back or standing.
\dt c. 1970
It is considered improper for women to cross their legs. 2002
\mn 516
\ct Postures
\da Men usually rest by hunkering or sitting on a low bench or the ground with knees bent.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 517
\ct Concept of recreation and amusement
\da Recreation is thought of as idle conversation or attending a fiesta to shop and watch. No sports, either as participants or spectators occur. Art is not created or appreciated, unless occasional clay molding or weaving are considered.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 517
\ct Concept of recreation and amusement
\da There is no idea of a house or its surroundings as an aesthetic object, though a pretty calendar may be hung on walls. No attempt is made to keep a house neat, by putting things away, lining things in a row, folding, etc.
Clothing has an aesthetic value to them, and women have definite ideas that wool is better than cotton (in thread or skirts), lots of red in huipils (they are brighter and wear longer) is nice, lots of beads and earrings and ribbons and combs are pretty. Anything that departs from custom is ugly. There is no sense of moderation as a value in dress and no idea that too much is bad.
\dt c. 1970
52 PERSONAL RECREATION
521 Conversation 522 Humor 523 Individual hobbies 524 Games 525 Games of chance 526 Sports 527 Holidays and rest days 528 Vacations 529 Public recreation services
\mn 521
\ct Conversation
\da Gossip is a common amusement, especially among women. They take notice of everyone passing in view and speculate as to where they're coming from or going and why.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 521
\ct Conversation
\da A favorite amusement is to belittle the customs of SAC and SMI Triques, and also their language or short skirts.
The reverse, however (now the SJC Triques compare unfavorably with Mestizos), is not at all uncommon.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 521
\ct Conversation
\da A favorite topic of conversation (and of our recorded texts) is a version of "ain't it awful", talking about economic hardships, price of corn, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 521
\ct Conversation
\da A chief form of recreation for men is to gather for drink and talk. The drink may be aguardiente, tepache, or beer. Aguardiente is most common. Drink is bought by one and passed around, usually to older and respected people first.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Humor is primarily in the situation, not in word play. People who are clever and deceive, people who are foolish, people who experience misfortune, are all targets for fun and laughter. Teasing is common, especially threats to do something one doesn't intend to do.
People laugh easily and enjoy a joke.
Misunderstanding by an outsider like me of words and customs also causes laughter.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Part in rabbit story where lion carried rabbit and rabbit whistled, pretending his foot was hurt always gets a laugh.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Joking
Woman said that a girl wouldn't be able to learn to read because her brains would get cooked in the steambath.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da To personalize an inanimate object is considered mildly funny.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da A woman was saying that she didn't like pullover sweaters, but rather that she preferred cardigans. She called a pullover a rabbit skin, referring to the way the Triques skin rabbits, without a belly slit.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor \da Margarito said, when translating with Bruce, after putting in something that didn't belong:
gao'4 ßunh1 xiso4 a - I gave you a "bonus"
\dt c. 1970
\sr Margarito
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da When a girl's husband arrived at the house, I asked her who it was (she knew that I knew). She said, "Oh, just a person", and giggled.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da When I said that a man's foot was dirty, he said there was no water here. I snorted and then he said that water was expensive. Everyone laughed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Verbal
People laugh at deliberate misunderstandings, e.g.
pxt - to call baby and I asked if that was her name. Diff kinds of fillers of vocative.
nakun21 zo'5 neh34 and I said guwa'4 zo'5 neh - figure taken literally
xaka21 (pod) and I talked about a pig} homophone ziki'3 (gum) and I talked about mud } homophone
But people don't seem to do this to each other. \dt c. 1970
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Puns (these are rare)
gun3 zi'yah53 ni'32 anh - It becomes our possession for gun3 ni'yah53 ni'32 anh - Thank you
ganike53 ra36 so'5 ah - Your heart is ugly for nike53 ra32 za'5 anh - You are poor inside = thank you
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pablo Fernando
\mn 522
\ct Humor
\da Laughter is also a defense when scolded or attacked verbally, or when one is afraid to express approval of a new idea.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 523
\ct Individual hobbies
\da The Triques have such a uniform society that there are few individual hobbies.
Collecting is unknown because houses are small, possessions few, money limited, and the idea of having something just to have it is considered odd. Possessions are to be used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 523
\ct Individual hobbies
\da Playing the guitar and the harmonica can be considered hobbies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 523
\ct Individual hobbies
\da Cat's cradle
Children play cat's cradle with string sometimes. One figure is done'3 xukwah32
Another is: ~re32 (spr. red?)
\dt c. 1970 \mn 524
\ct Games
\da There is a game the children in town play. One is the buyer, one the dueño and the rest each a different animal. The dueño secretly tells the animals what they are, and then the buyer calls out the name of a kind of animal. They run and buyer chases.
This is in AGA's book and Terry says it wasn't brought by teachers.
\dt c. 1970
\sr AGA/Terry
\mn 524
\ct Games
\da Games are almost unknown except among children. Cards are used only for fortune telling.
See 857 for children's activities.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 525
\ct Games of chance
\da Although gambling is known, it is rarely indulged in. It is thought of as a Mixtec or Spanish activity, or else as a child's amusement.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days
\da Days of rest
Sunday is NOT considered in any sense a day to refrain from manual labor or commercial activity. It is common to see people plowing or pounding coffee on Sunday. Our refusal to sell medicine on Sunday is commonly met with incredulity and even anger. Once MLF asked us to sell two aspirin to a passerby and we reminded him of our rule. Right within our hearing, he told the passer-by that we were out of aspirin. He evidently felt a white lie was simpler than trying to explain such an unreasonable, arbitrary and local - culture - disregarding custom.
Friday is considered by some a delicate day, however, and Fridays of Lent and other fiestas people think they will be punished if they work. Some people think of Sunday as a day off from work, though. This is usually thought of as a boon, not a requirement, however. Sunday seems to be a prime day for tequio, town meeting, or band practice.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days
\da Sunday is a mean day (gwi3 yuwa5). You don't work, though you can bathe and wash clothes. All the other days are good - people work.
Tuesday and Friday are especially good. On these days a certain medicinal plant will make sick babies revive and on no others (koh34 nayon32 ne'eh3).
Fridays of Lent are more delicate than Sundays even. If you work, you'll get cut, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days
\da Fiestas are observed only for religious days. Mexican national holidays are almost unknown in the area. Even religious holidays of minor significance are not observed by the whole population, just by the mayordomo and helpers.
The major fiestas, accompanied by markets, are true holidays for people.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days
\da General fiesta
Music - violin and drum, band Fireworks - cohetes, tiros, bulls, castillos Food and liquor Dancing opt Prayer - four days for Tatachú, none for Corpus? opt Procession
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days \da "Bullfight"
Part of fiestas is two bulls, made of old horns and carrizo covered with petates and wired with cohetes. A man gets inside and runs around with each one. He has to be brave because it explodes with him in it. Aguardiente sometimes helps him to be brave.
Two other men drive the bulls with a cuarta before they explode.
This seems to be related to the true bullfight which is part of Yucatecan fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 527
\ct Holidays and rest days
\da See 621 for complete list of fiestas
\dt c. 1970
53 FINE ARTS
531 Decorative Arts 532 Plastic Arts 533 Music 534 Musical instruments 535 Dance 536 Theatre 537 Oratory 538 Literature 539 Literary texts
\mn 531
\ct Decorative arts
\da Pictures
Manuel, when I asked him what pictures would be good in the baby book, chose static pictures of things, not actions. This seems related to the misunderstanding of action pictures I've noticed. Also, facial expression, gesture.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 531
\ct Decorative arts
\da Illustrations were like a cast of characters and props. They were static, lined up in order of appearance. Bruce suggests that this is how they remember the story, perhaps. \dt c. 1970
\mn 531
\ct Decorative arts
\da Decorative art is limited to weaving. Men make hatbands and women weave bags, belts, skirts, huipils. The huipils are the most decorative. See 286 and 294 for description of these articles. See lexical file for list of all huipil designs and their meaning.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 531
\ct Decorative art
\da Woven figures
These are made in fall of grasses, for fun and to decorate All Saints altars.
The forms made are horse (two kinds), donkey, buzzard, hummingbird.
The grasses used are: chen34 and koh34 chrin'4 tzi53
After the fiesta, they are thrown away.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da The main form of Trique music is European in origin and instrumental. Vocal music is associated with drunkenness, religious chanting, or Spanish culture.
Whistling is acceptable for males only. Singing seems to be acceptable for males only.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da Attitude toward music
When we brought up the subject of singing hymns in Trique instead of only in Spanish, MLF and PRF were quite sure it couldn't come out right to put words to music. The cultural tradition is that only in other languages can words fit music. Later, however, PRF wrote a hymn in which he totally ignored the tones of the words.
PRF feels that violin and drums are inappropriate for hymn accompaniment, but that guitars or a band are OK.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MLF and PRF
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da Indigenous music is somewhat rare. There is said to be a native song with Trique words called the "cuxa", which speaks of the sun and moon.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da Instrumental songs, not vocal, are the norm. MCR described them as songs we sing in our heart.
(chra'3 achra21 nunh21 niman32 nuh21 ah)
\dt c. 1970 \mn 533
NOTE, 5/06: see list of songs in TRCAPP folder. We also have a number of digital files containing music, archived on the external hard drive. These need to be sorted and organized. See TRCTRUDY folder for a file containing a rough index of material in these audio files.
Possibly do this appendix as a dictionary (difrasismo) style, with each song name a dictionary entry. At the moment, however, songs are not in the database, only in the list.
What is really needed, of course, is to match each song up with the music as well as with the occasion, and to collect further comments about the songs. I find it hard to remember the name of each song, precisely because it does not have words. I am thinking of making up words in English or any other language to help the identification of each tune stay in my head.
\ct Music
\da There are some songs with Indian tunes and Mixtec words. The tune is gliding, reminiscent of Plains Indian songs. One of these is the flower song, which is well known. People sing it when drunk. Another, less well known is the "Cancion de la mujer". One old man, a brujo can sing it (when sober).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da In SAC, there are songs with Trique words, according to Fulgencio Sandoval.
Cancion de tristeza Cancion de la muchacha
\dt c. 1970
\sr Fulgencio Sandoval
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da There is a large group of songs of European origin of which music only is known, no words. These are simple tunes in mostly major keys. They are played on the violin (no vibrato) with drum accompaniment, for fiestas.
Many of these are ceremonial, played for certain fiestas in the annual cycle, funerals, weddings.
Others are casual, and are played any time, "de gusto". The guitar or harmonica may be used for these, or they can be whistled. See 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for music to these.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music
\da Mixtec areas and SAC have town bands, with wind instruments. There is also one in Rio Venado (trumpets and saxophone). But in Copala itself, only violin and drum are used. Mixtec bands from Yucunicoco and Santa María are imported (hired) for some fiestas. They think bands are better than violin and drum. Bands have drums, cymbals, trumpets and clarinets.
In 1969, a band was started in Sabana.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 533
\ct Music \da No lullabies are known, nor work songs to ease the labor.
\dt c. 1970
4 March 2014, the following notes are taken from something I wrote in July, 1992 at a short music workshop in Catalina. It described traditional music in Copala as a stable blend of Indian and Spanish elements.
Music is usually played outdoors, in dront of the house of a mayordomo, in front of the house where a wake is taking place or a wedding, in front of the Catholic church or a cross located at various places around the village.
One man plays a violin, and another plays a drum. Both instruments were introduced after the Spanish conquest. The drum is large, skin covered, suspended from the player’s neck. At Carnaval there are dancers in masks abd costumes who accompany the musicians, mainly teenage boys. One is dressed as a woman, and one as a lion in each group.
At some fiestas people dance, a group of women in one place, and a group of men off to the side a bit. The dancers do not touch each other, but use a sort of su8ffle step. The songs are traditional, of European, likely renaissance, origin, and there is no singing. There are songs for specific occasions. One long sequence of songs is part of a traditional wedding.
People who are not playing or dancing do not seem to enter into the music emotionally in any way. They may be standing around, or busy with other fiesta duties, like serving food. What seems important is that the fiesta be carried out properly, including the music, so that the saint will be satisfied (and not send calamities). Both musicians and spectators are expected to drink aguardiente. The music contributes conformity to social norms, validation of social institutions and religious rituals, and it is a contribution to the continuity and stability of the culture.
Fiestas last three days, one to gather flowers, followed by the víspera, and them the misa, which is the real day. Music is played on all of the days.
There is one Mixtec song about flowers, with a kind of chant feel to it, clearly indigenous in style as well as words, not at all like the European music used elsewhere. This sone is sung only by people who are drunk, I have been told. We heard it once sung by a woman, who hid under the table so people would not know she was singing it.
Musicians in Copala society are always men, they are respected for their skill, and tradition is the authority. New musicians learn by observing and imitating, just as people learn other things in this culture. There is no formal training.
With more exposure to the national culture, however, starting with the introduction of transistor radios, there has been heavy influence from outside, especially ranchero music, but this influence does not affect the fiestas, only more casual music. There are grupos, and each grupo has a leader, who takes on the role by personal charisma. Schoolteachers sometimes teach band instruments.
In churches, Spanish hymns and choruses are sung, with guitar accompaniment
\mn 534 \ct Musical instruments
\da Drum
Drums are made by the Triques of a section of pine trunk. It is hollowed by fire or chisel. Both ends are covered with goat skins held down by bent slats. (The skins are treated with lime to remove hair first).
Two narrow pieces of wood are bent over slats so they protrude and two ends are fastened with wire. Edges of wood extending are bored and laced with fine ixtle rope. Pairs of lacings are tied to improve tension.
Drumstick is of wood, with ball carved at end.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 534
\ct Musical instruments
\da Violins and guitars are bought from a Mixtec village that makes them - Santa María Chalcatongo.
Harmonicas are factory made.
Whistles may be made of clay or bamboo by children, but these are more toys than serious instruments. They have 2-4 holes but not forming true intervals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 534
\ct Musical instruments
\da Violins are glued with orchid bulbs to fix them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 535
\ct Dance
\da Dancing
At fiestas, weddings and calendar fiestas, dancing takes place to instrumental music. Each person dances individually. The men, however, form a group apart from the women. The step is simple shuffling and motion is improvised. Women wear huipils down with hands inside to hold them out on the sides as they dance. Unmarried people can't dance, only mature adults.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 535
\ct Dance
\da At the carnival fiesta, a group of unmarried men dance. They have a dance similar to the ordinary fiesta dancing and several others reminiscent of European folk dances, each with its own tune. One is in a circle, another in two rows, another with pairs of dancers linking elbows.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 535
\ct Dance
\da Mahoma? Bradomín 1960 pp. 174-5--Dances. Mixteca is poor in dances except for the Danza de los Moros, the Dance of Santiago, and Los Cabrioles done by the máscaras de Carnaval. The first two of these are called Los Rubios and Los Chareos in Jux.
Only in and near Jux. are there dances with some aboriginal traits: El Macho, Los Chilolos, and La Malinche (the latter by children or young people).
pp. 188-9--Music. The sones and chilenas of the costa chica show Spanish influence from fandangos, peteneras and cante jondo: San Marqueña, El Palomo, La Indita, La Petenera, El Panadero, La Malagueña (Yo soy el que ando de malas pero ya mero me voy). These are sweet-sad songs.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Bradom/in, 1960
\mn 537
\ct Oratory
\da Oratory is not highly developed, but older men lecture newly married couples, and officers address the town from the steps of the town hall.
Such lecturing is exhortation, given in an emotional style, with much repetition.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 537
\ct Oratory
\da There is a definite "oratory" style. This involves a fairly loud voice, use of certain fixed phrases, definite beginning and ending. It is used for both stories and exhortation.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 537
\ct Oratory
\da ze34 cha4 lunde34 - buzzard eater (an insult used of someone--usually not to him).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 537
\ct Oratory
\da In some situations, e.g. when I read scripture aloud to people, the people repeat each sentence after me, often changing the wording a bit. This doesn't occur with folktales, though. Is it a teaching or advice style? Something learned from schoolkids being taught by rote? They feel some response is needed, even if only yes or a grunt of assent.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da No proverbs have been discovered, although there are weather sayings and the like, but in these, the content is crucial, not the words used to express the content.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da There is a rabbit story cycle. In Paraje Pérez, a girl told a version of holding up the rock in which a possum replaced the rabbit.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da Storytelling as a form of oratory is culturally reserved for old men. But young people know the stories, even though they usually won't tell them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538 \ct Literature
\da Riddles and poetry seem to be almost unknown genres; also proverbs. The only genre widely known and used is the story (folktale). Some of them are about deities and origins. Others are about animals (rabbit always comes out on top), others are about tricksters. (Romala)
\dt c. 1970
\sr Romala$$
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da Legends
Long ago, the rainbow snake lived in bottomless pits. Snake is long and hole is deep.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da There's a story telling of the following four objects, each left on a mountain. The mountains were named for the objects.
Needle, nopal, metate, jícara
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da The grandmother ga'ah3 has a sister gayoh21 / goyoh21.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da There is a sort of story-poem about a woman who carried her baby in a red blanket and went out to look for her husband.
Here is a very approximate version of the first part
roto4 ve'eh53 ata53 no'3 neßeh3 a ga'anh4 ni'32 xran34 nano'5 ni'32 re21 zo'5 tah34 no'3 a wah34 no'3 xraan34 a gurihanh5 noß3 reh34 koh34 rixußwaa35 ni'yah4 nawi34 noß3 ra35 chrun3 rixu'waa35 guta3 no'3 yah34 rixu'waa35 'yah3 no'3 ne'eh3 diko34 da'ni21 no'3 a
She finds her husband in the mountains
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da 1) The pink sunshine on the mountains in the evening is a woman who loved a man, but he didn't love her. She leaves the big church and goes to the slope. Then he has a change of heart and follows her, but she's gone for good.
2) Another version says just that she is fleeing from a man she doesn't want to marry and that she gets away because she is so fast. She is a very pretty woman.
3) Another version says that a man beat his wife and she got mad and ran away/or he "threw her away". She went up the mountain and turned into the pink sunshine. Like the pink sunshine she moved up the mountain too fast for her husband, who had a change of heart and wanted her back. So he went after her to catch her. Then when the sun set, she turned into a rotten tree and disappeared, and her husband went home crying because he couldn't catch her. According to this male storyteller, she suffered worse than he did. He said this story really happened long ago.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da Doublets
Apparently not synchronically productive. A few fixed phrases do occur:
Worm mouth fly mouth (MV says in reverse order) All went out all {went {came Names of river (MV) river big river long
\dt c. 1970 \sr MV
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da There are stories about Juan Ceniza who was lazy and slept in the ashes, but who wanted to marry the daughter of a rich man.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da New stories are developing. The Peruvian myth that gringoes have factories where they boil people down for grease, used as rocket fuel. The moon landing turned into a story about foreigners getting into a ball (sphere) and going up to where the mood god is.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da In low country (at least) there is a story that the first person in the world long ago walked around Copala territory and left things here and there. The places are named for the item left there. Sometimes there is a rock formation that resembles the item.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 538
\ct Literature
\da In written style or speech, logical consistency isn't greatly valued--okay in Spanish, but unnecessary for Trique; for example, in expressing things in parallel fashion.
As a matter of fact, variety in presentation is valued.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 539
\ct Literary texts
\da See notebook of text materials for texts of stories.
\dt c. 1970 54 PUBLIC AMUSEMENT
541 Spectacles 542 Commercial sports 543 Expositions 544 Public lectures 545 Musical concerts and theatre 546 Film industry 547 Cabarets 548 Public vice 549 Manufacture of articles for art and recreation
\mn 541
\ct Spectacles
\da Religious fiestas can be considered a form of public amusement. They combine commerce, fun and piety.
The fireworks display and mock bullfight* are spectacles. Watching carnival dancers is a spectacle Free A merry-go-round costs 20 cents and comes to big fiestas.
*Men get inside bulls and move around, but no one baits them. This is a very degenerated form of bullfight.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 541
\ct Spectacles
\da At the third Friday fiesta, amusements observed are band, merry-go-round, loudspeakers with music, mariachi, fortune telling, games of chance.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 547
\ct Cabarets
\da During fiestas, a few tents offer music and drinking.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 549
\ct Manufacture of articles for art and recreation
\da Cámaras are a form of fireworks that is more noise than display. Metal frames (reusable) are filled with gunpowder pounded in with a metal rod and mallet. The top is plugged with clay. Around the little hole at bottom, they spit and pour powder and smooth it off.
C/amaras are placed on ground and powder on outside is touched with ocote. It acts like a wick and when flame reaches hole, explosion may raise heavy frame several inches in the air.
$$ illustration
\dt c. 1970
\mn 549
\ct Manufacture of articles for art and recreation
\da The fireworks displays and bulls are made of bamboo and purchased cohetes. Powder wicks join the cohetes.
The bull has a frame covered with a petate and real horns attached. Capetes are attached outside.
\dt c. 1970
55 INDIVIDUALITY AND SOCIAL MOBILITY
551 Personal names 552 Names of animals and objects 553 Manner of giving names
554 Status, role and privilege 555 Social mobility due to ability 556 Accumulation of wealth 557 Social mobility by intrigue 558 Loss of status, role and privilege
\mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da See paper on personal names in another folder
\dt c. 1970
\mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da Men's names:
xtaa32 la'wah5 skinny eagle cu5cuj32 Juan Clemente
\dt c. 1970 \mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da Nicknames not listed in paper - men
sampa4 yaan32 - Spanish name? cha3ti'1 lih3 - kind of mouse chayo4 - oldest son of cho'oo5 chruun3 ssij32 nitii3 - jefe of cañada
\dt c. 1970
\mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da Nicknames not listed in paper - women
tachro'1 - Pascual's mother walih3 - span? luu3 yaj32 - flower cat chape4 - span? chii3 la4 (i)cuaan32 - apellido?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da Spanish names not listed in paper
witu Victoriano tano Cayefano keloj3 Ezequiel
\dt c. 1970
\mn 551
\ct Personal names
\da Native appellidos not listed in paper
ti'nuu32 - Tina's boy - place name in Yosoyuxi raa5 ituu5 - Pablo's grandfather. tacoo5 xroj32 - yellow flower tree foot - Red shirt's mother rtu'vii13 - from place called that (one-eyed man in house above Terry) na32 co'o32 scuj5 cho'oo5 rihuun32 chraa5/raa5 yuwe1
\dt c. 1970
\mn 552
\ct Names of animals and objects
\da Dogs and cows are often named, though the practice may be a recent development. Some informants say dogs aren't named. Names are often Spanish, as are people's names.
Objects aren't named.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 552
\ct Names of animals and objects
\da Dog's names (native)
xcuun32 - 'scorpion' witu'1 dugutanh32 - 'porcupine' (male) xutah3 - 'deer' si5ndo32 - possibly a fast form of si5ndo'o32 (name of a female dog) to3manj32 - ? (male)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 552
\ct Names of animals and objects
\da Dog's names (Spanish)
Ranchero Por todo Teniente Coyote Conejo Muñeca
\dt c. 1970
\mn 552
\ct Names of animals and objects \da Cow's names (Spanish)
rendo4 - sargeant ganaryo4 - canary
\dt c. 1970
\mn 553
\ct Manner of giving names
\da Naming
Children are named by the calendar. The parents tell the secretary the day the child was born and the secretary finds the appropriate name(s) on the calendar for that day. Two or three names are given. No surnames are used normally, so that child shares no names with either parent. Parents pay about three pesos for this service.
Then the parents can proceed to have the child baptized. Some say parents can choose names and get them okayed by secretary. Sometimes child is named for relative.
Many Triques are vague about the process and know only that they have to have a literate outsider find the name.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 553
\ct Manner of giving names
\da It is said that Triques living near Putla will pay a Mexican 10 pesos to look up a baby's name on the calendar. It is further said that Triques name children for well-known Mexicans.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 554
\ct Status, role and privilege
\da Ability to cure confers status, as does town service in the hierarchy and age. No external marks of status are used, other than gray hairs, or canes of office. In general, within the society there is no class system and no special privileges or statuses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 554
\ct Status, role and privilege \da Wealth is not an index of social position, since mayordomía keeps everyone poor. Age is the main criterion.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 555
\ct Social mobility due to ability
\da There is no cultural reward for outstanding ability in any field, though a diligent worker may gain economically to some degree.
From one point of view, shamans could be considered to gain prestige by their "ability".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 555
\ct Social mobility due to ability
\da Copala people that get more than a 1-3rd grade education usually do not stay in the area, but look for jobs in cities. Most of the teachers in Copala barrios are SAC Triques and one Copala man is a teacher near SAC.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 556
\ct Accumulation of wealth
\da Although everyone recognizes the utility of money, no one tries to get rich. No prestige is given to it.
One minor form of displaying wealth seems to be having more clay pots than really needed around the house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 556
\ct Accumulation of wealth
\da Watches and radios are greatly desired as status symbols. These are the items most likely to be bought with one's earnings if one goes to cane country, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 557 \ct Social mobility by intrigue
\da Intrigue and friendship is of little help in gaining prestige in a society where prestige is not valued, but rather conformity.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 558
\ct Loss of status, role and privilege
\da Loss of prestige (or worse) are penalties for failure to conform, or getting too rich or uppity.
\dt c. 1970
56 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
561 Age stratification 562 Sex status 563 Ethnic stratification 564 Castes 565 Classes 566 Servitude and peonage 567 Slavery
\mn 561
\ct Age stratification
\da Relative age
People must show a certain amount of respect to their older relatives, especially in-laws.
In a household with more than one nuclear family, the oldest woman rules the kitchen and the oldest man the field work. The younger ones obey.
Age is the main correlate of status.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 561
\ct Age stratification
\da Older siblings are respected to some degree. If father dies, older brother takes his place.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 561 \ct Age stratification
\da Age grades
There are no clearly defined boundaries marking age grades. Marriage does sort of mark entrance to adulthood, however.
ne'eh3 0-8 xnii3 3-11 zii5 yaan2 12-marriage zii5 tachruu } zii5 ta'aj2 } up to 40 chii3 nga13 over 40
\dt c. 1970
\mn 561-562
\ct Age stratification and sex status
\da Social rank
When man and woman walk together, the man precedes and the woman follows.
In other circumstances, the man of lower rank (younger) walks first, since he is most likely to be shot (some say).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da Though men rule the town and are the spokesmen, women are very independent, carry money, and often tell their husbands what to do. Husbands beat their wives, though, but not vice versa. Women are shy around outsiders and have more limited experience.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da Economic life
Women handle much of the money and minor commerce. Eggs and fowl and weaving are sold by women, who keep the proceeds to spend as they wish. Their husbands do not interfere with this personal income.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da Women are shy and giggly and don't want to talk much about anything serious when there are other people listening. It is considered appropriate for women to be shy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da There are clear kinds of work appropriate according to sex. Women - weave, grind, cook, care for children, chickens, turkeys. Men - farm, make houses, care for goats, cows, horses. Both - wash, mend.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da Women aren't permitted to sing, whistle, or play musical instruments
\dt c. 1970
\mn 562
\ct Sex status
\da Women often say that paper doesn't speak with them. They think books in Trique are for "xini3 dugu'yon32". Thus, they effectively remove themselves from the influence of books by refusing to take an interest. This seems to be a pretty well-entrenched attitude among the women.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 563 and 565
\ct Ethnic stratification and Classes
\da Within Copala society, there are no classes and no ethnic stratification.
In the larger society of which Copala is a part, however, there is clear stratification, so that white blood and wealth go along with the upper class (some actually born in Spain). Mixed blood and moderate wealth and a trade or small store go with the next class. Both of these are Spanish-speaking. Next down is the bilingual Mixtec, followed by the monolingual Mixtec, and then, last of all by the Triques. There is a clear pecking order by class. The upper classes consider manual labor beneath them.
A Mixtec will pick on a Trique.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 563
\ct Ethnic stratification
\da Among Trique dialects, all sort of look down on the others. Copaltecos consider people from SMI thieves. In any case, both other dialects are out- group.
\dt c. 1970
57 PERSONAL RELATIONS
571 Relations and social groups 572 Friendship 573 Clubs and gangs 574 Visits and hospitality 575 Voluntary organizations 576 Etiquette 577 Ethics 578 Antagonisms 579 Quarrels and riots
\mn 571
\ct Relations and social groups
\da The residence kin group is the main social group in the experience of the Triques. For men, the town officials constitute another.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 572
\ct Friendship
\da Although friendships exist in an uninstitutionalized way, the primary loyalty is to kin, blood and ritual. The fact that the word for friend is the word for relative brings this out.
One way to institutionalize friendship is to ask the friend to be a child's godparent. This produces the compadre relationship, which is a friendship with solidarity and mutual aid.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 574
\ct Visits and hospitality
\da Visits seem to be rare unless there is some motive other than pure socializing--buying, selling, borrowing, returning, asking a favor, are all occasions as is just passing by.
Such visits are often the occasion for conversation and gossip, however. Food is often given to visitors.
There is no stereotyped formula for beginning conversation in visits.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 574
\ct Visits and hospitality
\da When a Trique offers you food at his house, he doesn't repeat the offer if you refuse, unless he offers it at your house as a "bribe", hoping for a return favor. When he asks you a favor at your house, however, he'll continue to ask after repeated refusals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 574
\ct Visits and hospitality
\da New houses ordinarily don't require a fiesta, but the custom is known because it is practiced by Mestizos.
Such a fiesta would have goat mole, fireworks, music and dancing, drinking. A person would invite all his relatives. It would last one day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 574
\ct Visits and hospitality
\da Invitations to a meal are unknown, though a person who appears at your house will often be offered food.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Triques are very informal about greeting and visiting. There is no pat formula to be followed. On a trail, it is proper to say "I'm on my way" when passing someone, or as a leavetaking after talking. It is proper to ask if a person is well if you haven't seen him for a long time.
Leavetaking is more important. When you leave a person's house, you should say "I'm going now" individually to each person of importance.
Doors are open in the daytime when people are home and visitors walk right in without being invited. It is considered very rude, however, to enter a house if a person isn't at home. Only thieves to that.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It is rude to enter a house if the owner isn't inside. If you both enter, the owner should precede.
If the owner is there, it is ok to go in without waiting to be asked or announcing oneself in any way. It is even OK to push open a closed door.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It is considered proper to use the right terms for greeting and addressing people, especially older people.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Curiosity
It is OK to ask questions about most anything including a person's age and the price paid for something. In fact, the latter is to be expected whenever a Trique sees you have something new.
It is not OK to ask a person's name, however, and if you do, you may be refused an answer or given a false answer.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette \da Values
Begging is acceptable up to a certain point. Within the society, asking for food is OK and it's considered good to give. Old people, travelers, and sick people are especially permitted to do it.
With outsiders who are rich, begging is common--food, clothes, cans, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It is considered boorish to step over food.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Public display of anger is rare, except for scolding a child. Adults never scold each other and never apologize. If a person is scolded or chided, he becomes sullen and silent. Triques never admit they are wrong. A real grievance can be aired before the authorities, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It is not considered rude to laugh at someone's misfortune, or to tease. Ridicule is especially used for bringing children into line.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Covering head
Men do not remove their hats when they enter the house. It is considered "dangerous" to do so if your head is sweaty, because you'll cool off too fast. Men do remove hats on entering church.
Women never cover their heads, except with j/icaras or when they marry in church (lace scarf). Evangelicals cover heads in church with huipil, handkerchief, scarf, or any cloth at hand.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Hand kissing
This little ritual is performed between compadres, and is done in general to a person you wish to show respect for, especially to a priest (even occurred to us).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Gifts - handing things
Gifts of food are common--often used to butter a person up. When you are given something, the polite thing to do is to take all that is offered you right away. Even if up to your hands in mud or dirty water, the person always expects you to take it in your own hands. If people want you to take something they shake it as they offer it, holding it toward you.
Borrowed things, when returned, must be taken in your own hands, too.
Scissors and knives are handed blade first.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Food is often eaten with the fingers. Tamales are held in one hand or on lap and small pieces broken off with the other hand. (This is transferred to cake even). Bananas are split down the side and the insides eaten out, especially if they are soft. Soft ones are preferred.
Sometimes pieces of split bamboo are used like spoons.
When you pass food to someone, he takes all you hand him, not part of it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da After drinking from a glass or j/icara, the custom is to dump what is left on the floor, wall or ground. Even if the person drank all of it, the gesture is still followed. Sometimes a person will drink part, pour a little on the ground, and then pass the jícara on to someone else.
2004 -- could this be an offering to the spirits?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da One man said right in front of his wife that he'd like to get another wife up north and neither he nor she seemed to think this was out of place.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Slurping a hot drink is the norm. Dunking into it is, too. Gum is chewed with mouth open and loud snapping.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Food is served into a bowl or a jícara and the torts that go with it are laid on top of the bowl.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da After eating, it is customary to rinse one's mouth with water and spit it on the floor.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Proper way to sit Men usually squat or sit on low stools. Women usually kneel back on their ankles.
Proper way to walk
People walk single file, even on wide streets. Women follow men, but otherwise important people walk last.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Behavior inappropriate to the sex of the doer is considered bad. There are rather strong notions of men's and women's behavior.
A nun riding a horse was said to ride just like a man, in a deprecating way, because she rode astride.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Saying
If a woman whistles, she's "happy" (= promiscuous). Therefore, women aren't permitted to whistle.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Running oneself down is OK in some contests. When you give someone a bag full of elotes or a jícara full of fruit, you say "eat one (or two) elotes (or fruits).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Directness is the mode of action. None of the flowery phrases and beating around the bush of Mexicans and some other Indian groups.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Although the Copala Triques don't have the exaggerated and phony politeness of some other Middle American groups, they do have some of it. A polite refusal to buy a calendar may be phrased, "I'll come back and buy it later".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da One woman feels that the term "you are poor inside" for thank you is rude and that people won't give you things if you say it and you'll never get ahead. The polite term, in her opinion, is "we $$ become blessed". Other people use "you are poor inside".
This seems to conform to other instances where people express a strong preference for their own idiolectal variants. This seems to go across the general trend to cultural conformity and also across the general tendency to be unaware of speech as distinct from semantics.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It is considered good to repeat every sentence you hear in a formal context. Thus, it is nearly impossible to read a connected passage. People feel a need to parrot the content, parts of the content, or some expression of assent to every part. This doesn't seem to be true in Spanish, only in Trique.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da "Paying attention" in any kind of formal situation (which are rare in themselves) is not valued. If the president is speaking, the men murmur among themselves. During mass, everyone mills around. People interrupt gospel records freely to ask relevant or irrelevant questions.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette \da Interrupting is not bad. People feel that they are free to state what they want no matter what is going on. Requests for medicine are made boldly even if we are eating, sleeping, resting (on Sunday), doing informant work, playing a gospel record for someone. The strength of this is shown by the fact that informants usually stop working when someone comes to the door until the person is taken care of- they won't let us ignore the person at the door, for even a few minutes.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da Interruption is not considered rude. A woman came into a Bible study and interrupted the leader to greet him. It is rude, however, not to greet or not to respond to a greeting*. This carries over to interrupting tapes to talk about totally extraneous things, though the radio may be a factor here.
If you don't respond, people say you are angry.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 576
\ct Etiquette
\da It seems to be an indication of esteem and very polite to make your guests enter the house and sit on a chair. PRF's father seems to be upset if we don't go right in and he keeps inviting us until we do. I don't think it ever occurred to him that we think the area by his house is beautiful and like to be outside.
\dt c. 1970
\sr PRF
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Respect for elders and loyalty to family and the Copala society are highly valued.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Lying isn't considered bad, and minor cheating is common. There doesn't seem to be any love for truth in the abstract. \dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da The usual moral values are given lip service as social values:
Stealing is considered bad Killing Adultery Arson
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Jealousy is considered a worse sin than adultery by far, in the view of one informant.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Sexual Morality
Illicit love affairs are frowned on, either before or after marriage. An illegitimate child before marriage is shameful. (The man boasts, but the woman is ashamed -- a double standard). Women often kill an illegitimate baby; others love the baby and keep it. A woman with an illegitimate child isn't likely to get married--men don't want her. But it's also bad to kill the baby. People feel that the sad thing about an illegitimate child is that it has no father.
In spite of this, however, love affairs, before and within marriage, do occur, and husbands also abandon wives and take up with other women.
To be too interested in sex is condemned. A person who is sexually forward is called a dog or woman with itchy vagina.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Incest
The incest taboo goes out bilaterally as far as relationship can be traced, at least as far as second cousins. When the taboo is broken, people call the person an animal. One can marry an affinal relative, someone in family of sibling's spouse, e.g. two brothers can marry two sisters (or a man can marry the sister of his dead wife--some say no).
Incest taboos cover love affairs as well as marriage. Co- parents and parents-in-law (= older relatives of spouse) are forbidden sex partners.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Personal characteristics considered good:
Generosity with food Kindness to children
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da A sort of reverse golden rule is considered a good way to live: do unto others--first! If you think someone is out to make trouble for you, then get him first.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 577
\ct Ethics
\da Ideas of justice
Blame is a legal concept. It is always finished by a legal judgement, usually involving a fine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 578
\ct Antagonisms
\da Conflicts and antagonisms are common. Envy and land disputes are a major cause. Marital problems are another.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 578 \ct Antagonisms
\da A form of expressing displeasure is sarcasm, e.g., Go ahead and do that after I die. I won't be able to see it then because they'll cover my face with dirt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 579
\ct Quarrels and riots
\da Quarreling is common, and there is much killing and violence. Drinking is responsible for much of it, as are border disputes about land, between barrios and with encroaching mestizos, Aztecs, Mixtecs, etc., especially down toward Putla.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 579
\ct Quarrels and riots
\da The Triques maintain an uneasy peace with the Mexican government, which maintains soldiers in Copala. Triques prefer to handle their own affairs and don't like to call in the soldiers. This is because the government on higher levels wants to do something about the Trique situation, but at the local level is shot through with corruption and the Triques have learned never to expect a fair deal.
\dt c. 1970
58 MARRIAGE
581 Concepts concerning marriage 582 Regulation of marriage 583 Marriage arrangements 584 Courtship and engagement 585 Wedding 586 Termination of marriage 587 Second marriages 588 Unusual marriage unions 589 Celibacy
\mn 581
\ct Concepts concerning marriage
\da In a real sense, a mother will push her son to get married so that she can have some household help, and a young daughter-in-law is virtually a slave to her mother-in-law. When children are born, the couple often moves away, and even if they don't, a woman will urge the next son to marry to get more help.
The bride price isn't just a regulator and stabilizer of marriage--it represents a true economic transaction, almost, but not quite, slavery. \dt c. 1970
\mn 581
\ct Concepts concerning marriage
\da Every Trique expects to marry. Marriage is thought of as the normal way of life. The major goals of marriage are raising children and economic cooperation.
Marriages are arranged (properly) between the families, not just the individual, although the boy has great freedom to choose the girl the families will negotiate for. Boys want pretty girls they say.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 582
\ct Regulation of Marriage
\da Puberty is the bottom limit for marriage. Age 15 for boys and 13 for girls is not uncommon, though many are older and some younger. Boy has to earn bride price or his family helps him.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 582
\ct Regulation of Marriage
\da You cannot marry your consanguineal* or ritual relative, nor an affinal relative, as defined by the system (can't marry relative's wife if he dies, but you can marry her sister). You can't marry a former spouse's relative, though this is occasionally broken.
Incest is one of the very worst moral offenses. "Animal" or "dog" is the epithet reserved for such people, and they will go directly to hell.
*In one case, a man was "uncle" to both bride and groom, but he was related to one through his father and the other through his mother, so they weren't related to each other.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 582
\ct Regulation of Marriage
\da Taking additional wives is generally looked down on. People try to talk the man out of it, and they pity the first wife. Some people consider that sterility of the first wife is grounds for taking another, but it is even better to stick with one, say others. \dt c. 1970
\mn 583
\ct Marriage arrangements
\da Marriage is an economic transaction, with the boy or his family paying up to 1000 pesos or more for the girl to her nearest male relative. This is the preferred way to marry.
In this method there is matri-patrilocal residence, the matri part being just a few days or weeks during which the boy works for his father-in-law.
The transaction is described as selling - xcaj342, ane'3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 583
\ct Marriage arrangements
\da Eloping
There is an elaborate ceremony to request a wife and a bride payment. This is sometimes ignored--the girl "just follows" the boy. This is tolerated, but not approved. Both spouses are ashamed in front of girl's family after elopement. Elopement is the only way to get a second or third wife.
There is no period of matrilocal residence in this form, naturally.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 583
\ct Marriage arrangements
\da Marriage customs seem to be conforming more to Mexican usage than to the old customs, as time passes. In 1971, love letters are written, and teenagers will defy parental opposition to marry.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da Affection is not expressed publicly and courtship is not open.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584 \ct Courtship and engagement
\da Boy likes a girl and tells his father. Then the boy and his older male relatives (father, uncles) go on the visits to ask the girl's family, who assemble the evening before at the girl's house and sleep there.
If the girl is unwilling, her father scolds her.
If the parents are unwilling, they take the girl and flee to the woods.
Boys look for thick hair, light skin and a pretty face.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da The marriage arrangements take five Wednesday morning visits (before dawn) by the boy's family to the house of the girl.
1. yagaton3 - give liquor and cigarettes and talk over and pop? 2. " ? 3. " ? 4. dakwih5 - give 10-12 baskets of chile torts 5. wedding - give money for the girl and marriage takes place. (600-1000-1500) nearest male relative receives the money.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da There is a go-between in marriage negotiations, a man who speaks on behalf of the boy. It can't be his father, but is usually an uncle. He offers the liquor to the girl's family and does the talking. He does not give advice to the couple. He goes on all the Wednesday morning trips to the girl's house. He gets drunk before he speaks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da During the visits, the girl's relatives spin a peso in a bowl when go- betweens are there.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da A special basket (yo32 ya'wih5) is used only for marriage arrangements. It is a tenate with black palm woven in. It is made in Chalcatongo and sold in Putla. Since 10-12 are needed, they are sometimes borrowed. On the fourth visit, the boy's family fills 10-12 of them with tortillas rubbed with chile and beef broth as a gift for the girl's family. Her father gives them out to the whole family and later the empty baskets are returned to the boy's family.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 584
\ct Courtship and engagement
\da In 1980, the going bride price is about 8-10,000 pesos. In 1965, it was about 1000 pesos.
\dt c. 1980
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da Two wedding ceremonies are distinguished. First, there is a simple native ceremony at the conclusion of negotiations, which is accompanied by a fiesta. This is culturally recognized to be a proper marriage. (Any common residence is recognized as marriage, however).
The second is a church wedding (plus opt. civil ceremony, usually minus). This takes place some years later and is considered important to assure going to heaven when one dies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da Respective in-laws provide clothing for the bride and groom. If the boy is poor, there is no fiesta. If he has money, there are food, fireworks, music and dancing.
The boy spends up to one week with his in-laws after the money is paid. He can sleep with his wife during this time and they get used to each other. Then they go to his house. During this time, boy works for his in-laws, field work, etc. Boy brings firewood, and his father-in-law makes khim take steambath. They are considered married and affinal and co-parents terms are used as soon as marriage takes place.
Wife is expected to be shy, but after the money is paid and the fiesta is over, they go in house and wife puts down petate and they sleep together.
From time to time, the couple make visits to girl's family.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da gachrih21 nih3 zo'3 za'anh34 xe'e32 xa3na5 a reh34 'anh34 ginah4 za'anh34 - where the money goes to stay
This is the woman's house and this refers to the fiesta that takes place on the occasion of a wedding.
gunu34 xi'yanh34 guchruh4 zo'3 za'anh34 xe'e32 xa3na5 ah
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da ao'3 zi21 chruun4 nuguan'3 raa35
This is a ceremony at weddings where a shaman gives advice to the couple. Understanding doesn't seem as important as the act so it is likely somewhat magical in nature.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da ga4 na32 ro'3, me32 zo'5 xana5 yan4 ah yah53 ro'3, gun32 zo'5 xana5 wa34 n=ika4 ah cuno32 zo'5 rihan34 nika4 zo'5 ah
Part of the advice given to bride and groom.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da At the home wedding, there is dancing after the money has been paid and after they eat. When the first song is played, the boy dances with the girl's father and her other male relatives. Then on the second song, the girl dances with the boy's mother and other female relatives, but in a group apart. After that, everyone dances. This is after the boy's mother has dressed the girl in new clothes and after the girl's father has dressed the boy in new clothes. The process seems to signal the establishment of new kin - a quasi-parent-child relation primarily.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da Church wedding
This is regarded as a very important ceremony, but it usually takes place years after marriage. It is believed that if you die without being married in church, you'll become an animal (problems here for polygamous marriage - you can marry only one in church).
The bride is dressed in a fine, new huipil. Sometimes a thin, white one of bought cloth, or woven in net, is worn over the regular one. She has a thin white rebozo to cover her head. She wears lots of beads, earrings, combs, ribbons. Godparents provide clothes.
The groom wears new clothes and has a silk scarf. For ceremony, it is tied under chin and covers his head, so only face shows. Afterward, it is worn as a neckerchief. Godparents provide clothes. Both wear amulets - medal and beads sewed to ribbons.
There are wedding godparents, same as baptismal, unless dead. The godfather pays the priest for the ceremony - 10 pesos. They also provide two very large candles, needed for bride and groom to hold during ceremony.
The couple have to have money to marry. It costs 200 pesos for the good-- goat mole, etc. After a wedding, there is food, fireworks, dancing, music. People eat goat mole and plain torts and then everyone drinks himself drunk.
The most popular time to marry (the Trique counterpart to June) is the Saturday after the third Friday fiesta.
House of bride has garlands across door.
The day before the wedding, the girl's family all bathed, and the bride went far upstream to wash her hair.
Before the ceremony, a boy instructs the couple in the catechism.
After the initial part of the mass, the priest goes to the back of the church and leads the four to the front. Madrina lights candles and hands them to couple. Just before elevating host, priest talks to couple. After elevating host, couple did not receive sacrament. After mass, band (who didn't go in church) plays as soon as couple leaves church. Couple then goes to priest's study (to make out the certificate ?).
\dt c. 1970 \mn 585
\ct Wedding
\da At church wedding, the man's godparents stand behind the pair. If they are unable to serve, then the woman's godparents do it. If neither can serve, then the boy's father chooses new ones. They are always a married couple, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 586
\ct Termination of marriage
\da Marriages are fairly permanent, but either side may break it up. Women leave if they are mistreated and go home. Men often go to get them back, though. Either spouse may leave and take up with someone else.
Sterility is often a cause of a man leaving his wife and taking another, or taking another in addition.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 586
\ct Termination of marriage
\da It is common for a woman to leave her husband for various reasons. Almost invariably she returns:
1) of her own accord 2) her husband goes to get her 3) her family makes her return
We once witnessed a woman who brought her daughter back, giving her a good scolding for having left.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 587
\ct Second marriages
\da Widows and widowers
They may remarry. Some do and some don't. A widower may marry a virgin.
Widows return to parents or relative's house to live and for them to properly remarry, a man goes through the usual form of asking for a wife and paying for her.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 587
\ct Second marriages
\da Widows aren't permitted to remarry until the cross is raised. A young widow with no children goes home and remarries. If there are children, woman may leave them with her husband's family and go home. Or she may take her children with her. If she and her children are older, she will stay with her husband's family.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 588
\ct Unusual marriage unions
\da The incest taboo seems to be weakest for one's xichee21. Some say it is wrong and other OK. (It is hard to know if they are upset about bigamy in general or marrying xichee in particular). One man has two cousins as wives.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 589
\ct Celibacy
\da Celibacy is unknown as a way of life.
\dt c. 1970
59 FAMILY
591 Residence 592 Domestic group 593 Family relations 594 Nuclear family 595 Polygamy 596 Extended family 597 Adoption
\mn 591
\ct Residence
\da Residence is patrilocal after very brief matrilocal in the ideal set-up.
Matrilocal residence occurs when the girl has no brothers.
Marriage may mean a move of several hours hike or a move over the hill a bit for the girl. Couple sometimes stay temporarily with girl's family when extra help is needed.
Son's in-laws do have responsibility to wife's family. One boy had to go to town with a letter when his wife's brother died. There were few men in family. Girls have greater responsibility to husband's family, however. \dt c. 1970
\mn 592
\ct Domestic group
\da The usual domestic group is one or more nuclear families related through the males--a group of brothers, fathers and sons, uncle and nephew. Older relatives or widows or the like may also be part of the household. A widow will move to her own relatives' household unless she remarries.
These people may live in one house, or in 2-3 built nearby, if the one is just too small. Ideally, all brothers and families live in one house.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 592
\ct Domestic group
\da The family cooperates in farming and cooking. The oldest man and his wife are the bosses of these two areas.
Treatment of a sick member is a family affair and so is a funeral.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 593
\ct Family relations
\da One way to enforce obedience is to scare kids by deceit. They say that the gringo will eat you, or give you a shot. They also say that the do3'oh5 (soldier) will carry him off.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 593
\ct Family relations
\da Filial loyalty
It is ideal for all sons to marry and live in one house, farming together with their father and to stay together after his death. In practice, however, sons do move out to their own houses, even to separate land.
Sons are responsible to care for parents when old and to give them a proper funeral.
Daughters are responsible after marriage to husband's family. If there are no sons, daughters may take some responsibility for parents. \dt c. 1970
\mn 593
\ct Family relations
\da In the relative age system, younger should respect older, though in practice, this isn't always true. The new-born baby is catered to and spoiled until another comes along. Children are expected to care for younger siblings.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 593
\ct Family relations
\da Children do not make major decisions while parents are living. A mother has authority over a married son even while father is dead.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 593
\ct Family relations
\da Stepmothers are considered to be cruel, in the main
\dt c. 1970
\mn 594
\ct Nuclear family
\da The nuclear family is the unit for sex, reproduction and child rearing. A nuclear family may split off from a larger group if there is quarreling.
Large families are desired. A childless person perishes when he dies because he has no descendants. A man with no sons has no one to care for him when he is old, or to bury him when he dies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 595
\ct Polygamy
\da This is tolerated, but no encouraged. Wives beyond the first are eloped with, never asked for, because a man won't give his daughter to a man who already has a wife.
Plural wives sometimes quarrel--the first wife rules. \dt c. 1970
\mn 596
\ct Extended family
\da See 592
\dt c. 1970
\mn 597
\ct Adoption
\da Adoption seems to be unknown, though the godparents have a kind of ritual adoption. Orphans are cared for by relatives, but their original father and mother are still recognized.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 597
\ct Adoption
\da Orphans are taken in by aunts, grandmothers, godmothers, but never by unrelated people. They wouldn't care well for the baby, it is believed.
\dt c. 1970 COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY SIX
Numbers omitted because irrelevant for Trique -- all covered in 62 63 territorial organization 64 state 65 government activities 66 political life 67 law 68 crimes and sanctions 69 justice
60 KINSHIP
601 Kinship terminology 602 Relations among relatives 603 Grandparents and grandchildren 604 Aunts-Uncles and Nieces-Nephews 605 Cousins 606 Parents-in-law and children-in-law 607 Siblings-in-law 608 Artificial kinship 609 Conduct toward non-relatives
\mn 601-608
\ct Kinship terminology - artificial kinship
\da See description of kinship system in lexical section of grammar notebook.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 601
\ct Kinship terminology
\da Consanguineal takes precedence over affinal and step, if a relative happens to be both (usually by breaking a minor incest rule).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 606-7
\ct Parents-in-law and children-in-law and Siblings-in-law
\da Relative age is very important in affinal relations.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 608
\ct Artificial kinship \da Ritual relatives
At baptism of a child, a compadre relation is established between the parents and godparents of the child. This ritual relation extends to the whole family, so that your godparent's children are your ritual siblings, etc.
Godparents are asked to serve after baby is born. Sometimes the same godparents serve for several siblings.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 608
\ct Artificial kinship
\da Godparents are never relatives of the family. The request may be made at any time of any day. At baptism, godparents provide clothes for baby, hold the child during the ceremony, and pay the priest. Parents give chiladas, cigarettes and liquor to godparents.
Godparents show solidarity by drinking together and giving small food gifts on various occasions. They kiss hands when they meet. Possibly more respect from father to godfather, but respect is mutual.
Godparents also give clothes at various times for the child. This is not apparently demanded, but is sort of expected. Godparents also help a boy get a wife and follow the couple in a church wedding and pay for the ceremony and provide clothes for the couple. Formal responsibilities end at church wedding, but ahijado calls him padrino as long as they both live.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 609
\ct Conduct toward non-relatives
\da Unrelated persons within the society are those who can't be traced to blood, marriage, or ritual tie. One should treat such persons nicely but with more distance than one should show to relatives.
Even more distance is shown with those outside the society unless a marriage or ritual tie is established, or at least familiarity. Strangers may be ignored or treated with hostility, even.
\dt c. 1970
61 KIN GROUPS
611 Rules of descent 612 Kindreds 613 Lineages 614 Sibs 615 Phratries 616 Moieties 617 Groups of bilateral relatives 618 Clans 619 Tribe and nation
\mn 611
\ct Rules of descent
\da Inheritance is through the male line, normally. If a man has no sons, his daughter and son-in-law inherit. This goes along with the patrilocal residence, though not necessarily the bilateral kinship.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 612
\ct Kindreds
\da Though there are bilateral kindreds forming an incest-defining group, the very nature of such groups, shifting from person to person makes them of minor significance.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 619
\ct Tribe and nation
\da Triques feel themselves to be Copala people by common dress, language, culture, location. There is a strong in-group feeling and marriages are mostly within the community.
\dt c. 1970
62 COMMUNITY
621 Community structure 622 Local chiefs 623 Councils 624 Local officials 625 Police 626 Social control 627 Non-institutionalized justice within the group 628 Non-institutionalized justice among groups
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The loyalty to the system seems to be directly proportional to the proximity to SJ Copala. Bruce is badly treated whenever he goes down to town, although up here we don't have any trouble. And the people who go far away to work are quite open to new ideas. Also, the men who are in office are perfect bastards for the entire year, but not when out of office. \dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da People of Copala in fall of 1970, petitioned the state government to be affiliated with Teposcolula, rather than any of the nearby towns - Juxtlahuaca, Putla, Tlaxico. It was denied. Possible reasons:
1) frustration with unfair treatment in local towns. 2) desire to have less close supervision
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The Copala Trique society is a peasant society depending on the larger context for many things, mostly through the nearby towns of Putla and Juxtlahuaca. It is, politically, an agencia municipal under Juxtlahuaca. This fact, however, has little relevance to the internal structure of Copala.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The "government" is thought of as a vague important entity way off in Oax. and Mexico City. It controls money. Occasionally, a political candidate comes through Copala and a fuss is made--band, arches set up, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The government has become associated in the minds of the Triques, with handouts, sort of akin to New Guinea cargo cults. They have heard that the government wants to help Indians and they know they are poor. So, especially when any official is going to come to Copala, rumors go around that the government is going to give away clothes. I don't know why the focus is on clothing rather than food or money or town projects. (Governor's wife came in '71 or '72 and gave toys to the children. A man from Oaxaca gives blankets. Government has installed several projects since 1970).
\dt c. 1970? \mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The internal structure of the Copala Trique society is a cluster of scattered barrios (~32), each with houses, far flung, clustering about San Juan Copala as a ceremonial and civil center. (For those living in nearby barrios, it is also a market center). Only refugees and officials live in the village; thus the population changes from year to year to a large extent. At any one time, maybe 200 ~ people live there plus ~50 non-Triques. The houses of mayordomos are called houses of God.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da There are 26 barrios. (See page 70 of Tinujei)
\dt c. 1970
\sr $$
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Although all barrios feel themselves part of Copala, some, especially the more distant ones, have chapels and have taken saint names and have fiestas.
e.g.: Santa Cruz Rio Venado Concepción Corrizal Guadalupe Tilapa?
There are also chapels in Cruz Chiquita and Coyuchi
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The internal structure of a barrio is weak. Usually one older man has the role of jefe supremo and he makes the decisions. Barrios are treated fairly equally as co-members of the Copala community.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure \da Civil and religious functions are handled by a single hierarchy of yearly officials.
Some say old mayordomos choose their successors for the following year. Others say the elders choose them. The incoming mayordomos choose the agente municipal.
The outgoing men must provide a feast for the incoming ones, and also liquor and tepache.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Political order
The officials are a group of men chosen for one year. These include many religious offices and a few civil ones. Each group (or elders ?) appoints the next. People can and do refuse to serve, but serving, though expensive, gives one social status and prestige. It costs, in '67-'68, about 4000 pesos to put on a fiesta. If a person accepts a position and doesn't come through with a good celebration, he is put in jail. For this reason, the responsibility is so great that people do beg off. For fiestas, the mayordomos must provide fireworks, band, meat (cow is worth 1000-1500 pesos), etc. To earn money for these duties, mayordomos make candles to sell, butcher beef to sell, make tepache to sell, buy aguardiente wholesale to sell, buy salt (in Juxtl.) and chile (in Putla) to sell. These functions keep officials in town for their year of service and nearly the entire Trique population of Copala is made up of mayordomos and their families. This is the reason for the population shift.
Except for people who refuse, the pattern is for a person to hold office for a year, have a few years off, and hold another office. No one ever holds them all in a lifetime. There seems to be some hierarchical structure, but not rigid. Older men are usually agente municipal. A typical beginning job is to sweep the church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The social pressure to serve is quite strong. The agente can put a man in jail if he refuses to serve. Acceptance of the post is signaled by drinking aguardiente. The man stays in jail until he comes around.
It is considered good to serve because one is doing the work of the saints.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621 \ct Community structure
\da Taxes and sources of funds for community government
There is a small tax for market space on Monday, maybe 50 cents to one peso. Also, mestizo merchants using town property permanently are charged say 20 pesos a month.
Another source is fines levied on law breakers.
But there is no property or income tax.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Town labor is a form of tax. Men are required to work on road for a few days each year, or they are asked to get beams for a new public building, or to sweep the plaza, or even contribute money.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Funds for running the town are also obtained by charging the Aztec shepherds rent for the use of grazing land.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The capitalism on the part of mayordomos for religious fiestas is treated in other sections (443)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Public works
This is more or less limited to road work, performed by a labor tax, and to occasional improvements in public buildings. This may be done so that people will remember the agente municipal in office, or to improve the appearance of the town, in either case aping the town government in Juxtlahuaca. Most work on buildings is done by hiring Mixtec albañiles. \dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Crimes and punishments
Murder injury to body adultery stealing allowing animal to eat someone else's cornfield refusal to serve as mayordomo refusal to take part in town work drunkenness in public
All of these are punishable by fine and/or imprisonment. Breach of a contract or ordinary laziness, however, is not punishable.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Women can be held responsible for crimes, and so can children when they reach age 12-15 or so.
Animals aren't responsible for crimes, but if an animal eats your cornfield, you can take the animal to town and tie it up there. The owner must pay a fine before he can reclaim it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The agente and alcalde work together to judge crimes. The offended person himself brings the complaint, and the accused answer for themselves. Only in Juxtlahuaca will there be need of a go-between because of the language barrier.
Occasionally, a person with no official role is asked to judge a case.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Fines are usually paid to the authorities, who keep them, rather than giving them to the winner of the case, or to the wronged individual. Needless to say, corruption is rampant.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da A town jail is maintained with two rooms, one for each sex. Capitán has keys, follows orders of president to put in and take out.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Relations between the Copala Triques and the Mexican government are a sort of uneasy truce. Triques prefer to manage their own affairs with as little interference from outside as possible (unless the "interference" is in the form of a handout). They generally get unfair treatment from the nearby towns over them politically.
The towns consider them intractable and uncivilized, but put them in jail and soak them large fines.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da The Triques, as a group, have in the past openly rebelled against the Mexican government. At present, they are willing to defy orders from above.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 621
\ct Community structure
\da Cheto is said to have a Trique "army" in the hills, well- armed and ready to fight anyone who upsets the status quo. This is outside the civil-religious hierarchy, but within the cacique system supporting it. Guns of every caliber are in the area, the larger ones via black market, but no other military equipment is used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 622 \ct Local chiefs
\da ssih3 (man5 kih34), principal, cacique; also zii21 chih34, chii3 nga53, zii21 raa5
These are usually old men who can make final decisions. They are chiefs of barrios. They hold the office until death, not like others who hold office only one year. They are self-appointed in that natural leadership ability is the main criterion. They may be good or bad in their influence. Their functions include: They lead and people "follow". They collect tax/protection money (maybe only bad ones); they judge cases; they teach/advise people. Good ones speak "grown" and bad ones speak "yuwaa5". FRS didn't think Jesus was a sih3.
Sometimes, a young man may be a sij, like Chucho (Santiago), 30-ish and bad.
There is some hierarchical structure involved in that some ssih34 are more influential than others. They are said to "speak" more and the less influential ones "follow" more.
In Sabana in 1972, Marcelino Domingo is the chief ssih34 and someone called Celestino living over toward Yosoyuxi is the second one.
\dt c. 1972
\sr FRS
\mn 622
\ct Local chiefs
\da ssih3 man5 kih34
This is the chief of all the sih's. He never comes to the town hall, but rules secretly from the mountains where he judges cases and is a final court of appeal for the Triques.
Or is this just another term for all sij3's?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 622
\ct Local chiefs
\da Long ago, an old man gave a speech to the new president each year, but the custom has died out.
ao'3 zo'3 nugwan'3 raa35 zinde32 naka5 ah
\dt c. 1970
\mn 623 \ct Councils
\da There doesn't seem to be any consejo, in that the bosses stay in their barrios and don't go to town. Thus they rule by making their opinions known, but not by deliberating as a body.
Town meetings are held with representatives from each barrio, however, Major decisions are made there as people make the wishes of (the jefe supremo of) each barrio known.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da Jobs in the socio-religious hierarchy:
zuun34 dukua32 ya'anh34 - god-house work: sweep church, beginning level. zuun34 ro32 nuwi32 zagose32 xiki'3 zmee32 rutze5 xana5 zagwaa32 rumendo32 nima32 zinde32 regale32 - sits at table, hears complaints zlende32 - goes around to barrios to collect money wita32 - jailer wisun32 - many of these - policemen hold bull tendons and keep peace, break up fights, put drunks in jail.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da reh3 xe'e5 / ro32 xeße
This is a stand-in, or apprentice. For most offices in the village system, one of these is appointed as well as the "zi21 nikah34 zun34 ra35". He is a younger man, who "follows" the other.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials \da zinde32 agente
This is the agente municipal, an older man, usually, who holds office for the calendar year and has a stand-in. He is recognized as a civil official by the municipal authorities in Juxtlahuaca, but to the Triques, he is both civil and religious leader.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da The agente mun=icipal is chosen each year in January for the next year by a junta of the mayordomos, called by the mayordomo of Corpus Christi. The caciques have veto power over the choice of an agente.
Each mayordomo picks his successor, and the caciques don't "speak concerning" them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da It is desirable to have a president who:
1) stays in town 2) speaks "hard"
rido32 gwenda32 zinde32 -- regidor
His responsibility is to make the fiesta for the change of authority at the new year. He must provide the seven bowls and the tenate of chilalas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da regale32 - alcalde
This is the alcalde, an older man, usually, who holds office for the calendar year and has a stand-in. He is recognized as a civil official by the municipal authorities in Juxtlahuaca. He handles disputes over land and murder cases (?).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624 \ct Local officials
\da rido32 gwenda32 rega3le32 regidor
His responsibility is to make the fiesta for the change of authority at the new year. He must provide the seven bowls and the tenate of chiladas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da The president and the alcalde together take care of the town. They are like a father to the people. They judge cases. There doesn't seem to be any functional difference between them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da (zi) lende32 - suplente de barrio
These are a set of men, one from each barrio, who hold office for the calendar year and do not have stand-ins. There job is to gather people together in town from all the barrios for official meetings.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ziniko5
This is an official who changes yearly. He serves as a stand-in for president. He measures the size of puesto space in the market.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da zerero32 -- tesorero
This is an official who collects taxes in the market. He changes yearly and serves as a stand-in for the president.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da wisun - comisión
These are a set of men who hold office for the calendar year and have no stand-ins. It is a low-ranking office, usually held by teenagers as young as 10. Some are married and some aren't.
They do not live in town, but they are there for the third Friday fiesta. They roundup the drunks and troublemakers and put them in jail.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da wita32 - capitán
This is an older man who holds office for the calendar year and has a stand-in. He has the keys to the jail and opens the door.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ro32 nuwi32
Person responsible for church - cleans and sweeps. He holds a two year term. He gathers flowers and throws out old ones. He also gathers candles for fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da nih3 zi21 ata53 zun34 rian34 nuwi32
This is a group of men who care for the church. They change yearly.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials \da ridomo3
This is a mayordomo, the man who has the chief responsibility for one of the fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da mayu32 gunih53
These men help the mayordomo put on the fiesta.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da mayu32 chih34
This is the chief mayor, who will put on the fiesta if the mayordomo is unable to. He must provide the band for the fiesta and therefore, usually gets a larger quota of the father of money to work with than the rest of the mayores.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 ro32 mage5
Holds office for calendar year, has stand in. Some say he doesn't have a stand in, but a collection of mayu32 instead. He has to feed all the diputados breakfast (chile torts) on a certain day. He makes bees wax candles.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ro32 xiki'32
One job is to pray to the saints to stop bad winds and bad rain. He controls the Tatachu, who is his possessed god (da?anh).
\dt c. 1970 \mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da One of ro32 xiki'3 's jobs is to make candles to burn all year. He buys cakes of bees wax from Mixtecs and collects candle stubs left in church.
On Saturday after third Friday, old mayordomo transfers three saint boxes across to new one (they are kept in mayordomo's house for the year). Band plays and old mayordomo fills box with long beeswax candles in front of his house and covers them with red cloth. Cohetes, smoking, drinking, incense, music.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da C/amaras are exploded during the making of beeswax candles. This activity has ceremonial value.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da Fiesta - Dec. 20 and 21
New mayordomos, only of Tatachu with mayores, get together and dip new large beeswax candles to be used in third Friday fiesta.
This is accompanied with the usual trappings: rockets, drum and violin, drinking - rinte and tepache, eating torts and mole (three pieces of meat to a bowl, yet!)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 zagwa32
Holds office for calendar year, has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials \da rdomo32 ro32 xana5
Holds office for calendar year - has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 rumendo32
Holds office for calendar year, has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 zme32
Holds office for calendar year, has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 isiro32
Holds office for calendar year, has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 xiki'32 no data about duties on ficha
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 ya'anh34 nima32 Holds office for calendar year, has stand-in.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 dukwa32 du'wi3 rdomo32 zimariko32
He is in charge of sacrifice to the "dry rain god" on April 25 at his rock in the mountain.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 ruse5
He is in charge of sacrifices to the rain god on April 25 at his cave.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 lupe32 no data about duties on ficha
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da rdomo32 guduko34 xilolo4
There is one in each barrio, chosen annually. He has ~6 mayu32 who help him. The old one chooses the new one in Nov. and the new one signals his acceptance of the post by drinking the aquardiente offered him by the old one. Then the new one helps the old and sort of learns the ropes when the fiesta takes place in February. The new one stores the clothes in box or tenate in his house for the year. He, in turn, chooses a new one in November.
Starting from the time the man is chosen, he has to earn money for the fiesta. (It costs about 500 pesos in 1969 for carnival). The old man gives him the father of money to start and he embarks on a sales career--salt, chile, liquor to earn.
For the fiesta, he must provide crepe paper, masks, socks, bells, rockets, and maybe replace some of the clothing.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ro32 xiki'32 gaxito32
The Fridays of Lent (except third Friday) and the Easter fiesta are the responsibility of this man. He goes to the mountains at Easter.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ro32 rose3 or ridomo32 ro32 ruse3
Mayordomo of San Jose
Christmas and Easter.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ro32 nuwi32
This is usually an older man. He is responsible for gathering candle stubs to hand to the mayordomo of Tatachu, and for sweeping the church.
Since he has no fiesta to put on, he has no mayors and no commercial activity. Yes, he does -- the money is used for church repairs. He takes care of painting the saint tables, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da mayu32 These are a group of men who agree to help the mayordomo of a fiesta with the responsibility. They are often related to the mayordomo and usually younger (brother, sister's husband).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da xita32 - sacristán
Helps priest, works in church, puts flowers. Holds office for one year and has a stand-in. Older man. He chants in church.
He is sort of a church policeman and keeps drunks from breaking the saints. He puts saints up and down for processions. He rings the bell and gathers people together.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da raka32 xika32 - fiscal
This is an older man who holds office for the calendar year and who has a stand-in.
He is responsible for the care of the church, brings flowers, etc. He sort of works for priest now that there is one. NOTE: some say this paragraph is not true.
He also has responsibilities at the Easter fiesta, when the saints "walk" in the street. He goes with the procession and scatters flowers before the saints and he shouts.
He carries two long poles with ribbons on the metal heads. When he whistles, people gather together. He rings the bell.
He has a role in the "appearing" of new officials, because he blessed the flower jug containing the tepache of responsibility with his staff. He also goes on the 3 days of each fiesta to call the new mayordomo.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da ruwano32 - secretario This is a hired outsider, whose term of office is variable. Outsiders (Mixtec or SAC Trique or low-class Mestizo) are chosen because no Trique still living in Copala is literate enough. The few educated men live in Huajuapan or Mexico.
Bulmaro Cortés Martínez was secretary up to 1964
\dt c. 1970
\mn 624
\ct Local officials
\da gwe3se5 - juez
This is an official in Juxtlahuaca, who has to handle criminal cases that involve jailing in Juxtlahuaca.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 625
\ct Police
\da In addition to control imposed from outside consisting of federal soldiers living in town, and occasional visits from Juxtlahuaca town police, one job in the hierarchy is that of policeman. The outside forces arrest murderers, etc. The local police just round up drunks and keep order in town during markets and fiestas.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 626
\ct Social control
\da The local officials judge complaints among Copala Triques and it is considered important to take grievances to them. They can impose fines and penalties and acquit and condemn.
To Triques, it is important to settle an affair--the officials end the blame. Then the two involved can be "de acuerdo" again.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 626
\ct Social control
\da All prisoners in the Copala jail must pay a fine to get out. The money is usually raised by relatives. \dt c. 1970
\mn 626
\ct Social control
\da As a punishment to women for promiscuous behavior, town officials may put ground chile in their vagina.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 627
\ct Non-institutionalized justice within the group
\da MRF says that people kill at end of year because the new president won’t pursue a crime committed the year before. He says the reason is mainly chismes.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MRE
\mn 626
\ct Social control
\da Conformity to the Copala way of life is forced by ridicule and fear of reprisal (murder, witchcraft, etc.). Everyone is very sensitive not to offend, and speaks guardedly in the presence of other Triques. Gossip is rampant.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 626
\ct Social control
\da One Trique alone will talk openly and seriously about some topic not culturally approved (like the Bible), but when he is among his peers, he will giggle and make like he thought it silly (he can bear to offend us, but not his peers).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 627
\ct Non-institutionalized justice within the group
\da People take justice upon themselves (or injustice, as the case may be) in the frequent murders.
\dt c. 1970
COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY SEVEN
Numbers omitted because irrelevant for Trique -- all below covered under 62 70 armed forces 71 military technology 72 war
73 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
731 Natural catastrophes 732 Personal physical abnormalities 733 Alcoholism and dope addiction 734 Physical disability 735 Poverty 736 Desertion 737 Deserted old people 738 Delinquency
\mn 731
\ct Natural catastrophes
\da Earthquakes and heavy rains causing landslides and very strong winds and occasional fires are the common forms of catastrophe. Also hail.
Help to those affected comes from relatives or outsiders. Tragedy is common enough so that sympathy isn't often expressed, though help may be given.
Such disasters may be attributed to the rain god's anger, witchcraft, end of world.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 732
\ct Personal physical abnormalities
\da Blindness, deafness, insanity--retarded mentality, cleft palate with or without harelip are all known. Blindness is thought to be caused by the water god. Such people are cared for at home or sometimes beg.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 732
\ct Personal physical abnormalities
\da Blindness
Some people are born blind and other go blind later. The latter do so because they have bent/lain face down to drink water at a swamp. The water god is offended and he causes them to go blind. \dt c. 1970
\mn 733
\ct Alcoholism and dope addition
\da The social system required drinking, and alcoholism is a problem. Drunkenness results in poverty, beating, machete cuts, etc.
No action is taken.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 734
\ct Physical disability
\da Sick people are cared for at home by family, who let them rest, feed them and get medicine or shamans for them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 735
\ct Poverty
\da Since all Triques are more or less poor, this isn't considered a problem. Widows and orphans and handicapped people are the most poor, and begging is acceptable, especially from rich outsiders.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 736
\ct Desertion
\da All charity cases are handled by family and relatives.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 736
\ct Desertion
\da One woman said about an abandoned baby's mother, "du'weh21 no'3 ne'eh3 rian34 ya'anh34 ^ah" (she sold the baby to God), implying that she had done something good. (Most people thought it was very bad to throw a baby away.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 736
\ct Desertion
\da Orphans
If parents die, a near relative raises children, usually a grandmother or aunt. The person who raises a girl received the bride price. Sometimes, people that take child don't feed it well and it dies. It is good to take an orphan and treat it well.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 737
\ct Deserted old people
\da Destitute old people are rare. Social pressure makes relatives care for their old people.
An old person who doesn't have relatives may have to beg, and people are quick to give.
\dt c. 1970
74 WELFARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
741 Philanthropic institutions 742 Medical research 743 Hospitals and clinics 744 Public health 745 Social security 746 Public welfare 747 Private institutions for public welfare 748 Social service
\mn 741
\ct Philanthropic institutions
\da Within Trique society, there are no philanthropic institutions, but the R.C. church and the S.I.L. could be so considered as part of their work among the Triques.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 743
\ct Hospitals and clinics
\da Within the society, the only medical service is that of shamans, but clinics are operated by the government, the R.C. church, and S.I.L. in the area. They provide mostly simple medicine and consultations. \dt c. 1970
\mn 744
\ct Public health
\da Within Trique society there is no concept of public health, but all Triques know the malaria sprayers sent by the government.
\dt c. 1970
75 SICKNESS
751 Preventive medicine 752 Sores 753 Concepts concerning sickness 754 Witchcraft 755 Magical and mental therapy 756 Psychotherapy 757 Medical therapy 758 Medical attention 759 Medical personnel
\mn 751
\ct Preventive medicine
\da In order to prevent disease, several means are used:
1) Protective witchcraft - see 791 for details. Examples of this would be the bits of tobacco or floripondio or tlapa sewed into cloth and tied on baby for "medicine", or tied into clothing to protect child against sickness/evil and gods.
2) Careful attention to food taboos, such as hot and cold -- see 374 for details.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 751
\ct Preventive medicine
\da Medicine balls
Bits of leaf are sewed up in scraps of cloth and tied around neck or to clothing of baby. They are left until they fall off. These are medicine to protect the baby. The leaves are bits of tobacco mixed with bits of yellow chile.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 751
\ct Preventive medicine
\da alcanforina (mothballs) is dissolved in aguardiente and rubbed on the body of a baby to ward off sickness.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 751
\ct Preventive medicine
\da Garlic is considered to have a protective function because of its strong odor. Some people rub it on babies to ward off evil.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da There is little in the area of first aid for injuries. Cuts are tied with a cloth, but aren't washed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Other beliefs
When a person is cut by an axe or a machete, the offending implement is put "in jail"; it is tied with rope in the house, and is released only when the cut heals. They believe that if it isn't tied, the cut won't heal.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Bullet wounds
1) Deer neck fungus for pain. 2) Curious beyond-water plant
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752 \ct Sores
\da Burns
1) ra'wi21
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Chafing
Rub cheese on.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Eye with foreign body
1) Blow with glottal friction into eye of person who gets poked.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Fractures
1) Break-fruit plant, grind tuber and rub paste on area with broken bone.
2) For fractured rib, use chest-pass plant crushed raw in water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Itching
1) Steambaths, taken medicinally to stop itching from bites, etc. Spouse or relative whisks you with leaves.
2) itch plant
\dt c. 1970 \mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Rash
1) itching sore plant 2) shiny leaf plant 3) paste of black zapote
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Scorpion bite
No medicine
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Snake bite
1) Paste of tlacosuchil leaves 2) Petunia - paste (grind plant and use as poultice - rattlesnake bites) 3) Buttercup 4) Ocote infusion 5) Leaves of nina' bean plant 6) Eat salt
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Spider bite
1) Divine spider plant (buttercup) 2) Coralbean leaves
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores \da Sprain
1) Massage - for hand, pull fingers until they snap and roll arm between two hands.
2) koh34 ni'nuh3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 752
\ct Sores
\da Swelling (infection)
1) Tie a cloth tightly around limb above swelling to keep it from spreading.
2) Paste of lime (cal) and water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da There is a constellation of beliefs about hot and cold. The body must have a proper balance, but if there is imbalance, it cannot be corrected too quickly, or death will result. Ex.: a person overheated from climbing a hill shouldn't eat something cold, like citrus fruit or he'll cool too fast and die.
Actual heat and cold are only part of the complex. True heat is involved in hill climbing and drinking hot water. True cold is involved in chills and cold water. Other designations are to me arbitrary. Foods are classified. Cold is connected with metal and sterility, heat with fertility.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da There is a belief that some fruits will make one sick. If you eat more than one or two mangos or nato34 ya'aa4 you'll get malaria. This is connected with their being "hot".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness \da Sickness
Disease floats around in sky and falls on people. Other disease is caused by brujos or evil eye. Other disease is caused by cold or water or food or air. Also, there is fear and soul loss and jealousy. Also, object intrusion. Also, gods grab people. Diseases are cured by brujos, native medicine, doctors and store-bought medicine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Toothache and itching eyes have been attributed to people talking bad about the person suffering.
A cavity is attributed to an animal eating the tooth -- xcuu xrínß [palate animal. Remedies include lemon, the divine spider plant, and the animal eat tooth plant
Athlete’s foot is caused by a mud animal eating foot -- xcuu siguiß
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da A person who talks a lot (= talks bad) in presence of a baby can make him sick. His words/breath gets on the baby.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Soul loss
A person can get "aigre" from a fight, a fall, a corpse. This is equal to soul loss.
A child can be frightened by being punished or being forced to take medicine.
If spirit is in ground, this is cured in a baby by mother patting floor and baby's chest alternately several times. She is calling his heart over. If this doesn't work, a brujo is secured, q.v. brujo blows and uses eggs. Also, you make the child eat dirt if he was caed on land, for example, if he fell along the trail. You also spit on your finger, put it in the dirt, and make a cross on the baby.
If spirit is lost in water, baby has to drink water. Copal is used to fumigate place where soul was lost. These procedures are called "calling the baby's heart".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da yuwe32 tanh4 - espinilla
This is caused by a child getting his head wet by being out in the rain. Then it causes the child to get weak. He's swollen and has diarrhea.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Sibling rivalry
Older child is sickly and crabby while mother is pregnant with next one. His bottom gets withered, too. When baby is born, however, this is over.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da People with wounds, babies and pregnant women should avoid corpse because of danger of contamination from bad air.
One healthy adult woman thought she was weak because "nana" of a corpse had grabbed her.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Wind - air
When a child is sick, he should be covered up so the wind won't hit him. The wind can kill a sick child, but not a strong one. People don't want to get an injection outdoors, lest the wind enter it.
People want to be inside when they get a shot and they want to cover the place where any shot was given or lesion was treated.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Craziness is caused by mountain god grabbing. Measles is caused by firstborn god grabbing.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Craziness is a syndrome well-defined. People stare up, shake arms up - down with fists clenched, grind teeth.
= convulsions
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Hiccuping is believed to be caused by cold weather.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Diarrhea
This can be caused by getting wet out in the rain. Babies get green diarrhea from being chilled and therefore cooling off too fast.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness \da Colds are caused by eating certain greens:
kweh34 ne4 - guaje kweh34 kun53 - onion
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da ton34 noko'3 niman32
This means that the blood is hanging from the heart. If it isn't raised up again, the person will die. Its symptom is a hardness of the spleen and loss of appetite. Also called: nanih34 ton34 rumi34 nako'3 du'wa3 niman32
It is caused by drinking water when one is chilled.
Also called: noko'3 nima32 ton32 noko'3 rike3/noko'3 ton32 rike3 'na'3 ton34 niman32 noko'3 zia' niman32 ginih34 ton34 riki'32
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da Chipilera
This is a jealousy sickness. A baby who is nursing gets it if mother becomes pregnant again.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 753
\ct Concepts concerning sickness
\da The names for certain diseases, e.g., measles, may be prefixed by the word ya'anh34 - deity. This indicates that such diseases are considered personal and supernatural. People say "God grabbed child" when it gets measles. Also whooping cough - ya'anh34 achrinh5 ya'anh34 xi'i35 yan4 (pink eye) ya'anh34 luh3 dah3, ya'anh3 xawa'5 = measles (gray sore god) (first born god)
\dt c. 1970 \mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da Although witchcraft is known, it is not talked about frequently as a cause of sickness and death, though people admit some brujos know how to do it.
Counter witchcraft would be the prescribed treatment though people come seeking other medicine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da 'yah3 chre53 - doing witchcraft
This means evil magic. Brujo uses candle and asks God for people to die. The reason is usually given as envy.
One woman thought that her father-in-law, who is a brujo, made her baby weak with his words.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da Another form of cursing is to put a tallow candle at feet of ya'anh niman in church and the person will die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da Casting spell
If a brujo knows a person's name, he may use it to work a bad spell ('yah chre53)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da One way to work evil magic is to take a piece of the victim's shirt, some of his hair, or other thing belonging to him, and blow aguardiente on it. Then the brujo takes it to the cemetery to bury it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da To curse a person's animal, you pull out some of its hairs to use.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da Brujos put thorns in people. Burn torts to make soot. Take needles and speak and their word travels to do harm.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da There is a vague notion about a person making a clay figure of his enemy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da a'mi34 chre53 - to curse
Anyone may curse most any object and then evil will befall it if no counter magic protects it. People can curse rian34 other people. They can curse xe'e32 people, animals or objects. Objects cursed are:
animals, like burro - falls from high place cornfield - gets mancha seca trees - die water? house
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft \da In cursing, you say the opposite of what you mean - see the two curses in the grandfather story.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da It is believed that priest can curse people he dislikes by making the sign of cross over them. In fact, anyone can do this--it is done when the victim is far away and doesn't see a person.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da Casting spell
Anyone can look at a baby and give it the evil eye, even unconsciously. The baby then gets faint. Bad brujos can do this to an even greater extent, so that the baby dies.
Evil eye can cause faintness to young animals and young crops, too.
\dt c. 1970
\mn754
\ct Witchcraft
\da There is no punishment for witchcraft, though it is considered yu'wa'.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 754
\ct Witchcraft
\da na'ah21 (ne'eh3)
This is a sickness in babies and young children believed to be caused by a brujo* "looking" at the child. (Related to Sp. evil-eye beliefs). The symptoms are weakness and diarrhea and occasional vomiting.
Treatments are varied. Olive oil, yellow tobacco and faint baby plant are all used. Incense also.
To prevent this, parents completely cover a small baby, or an older child who is sick, to shield them from view. *Others can do it, too. The person isn't necessarily trying to hurt the child --he may just have a strong eye.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755 \ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Bathing in temazcal is a remedy for fever, chills, headache, vomiting, diarrhea.
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Magic and mental therapy consists in consulting a brujo who will determine a cause by divination and take measures to cure. See 787 for divination.
The Triques say that the brujo blows and the sickness jumps away from the person.
Description of a brujo cure
The brujo takes eggs, and he blows on copal, and rubs them on and waves them over the patient.s head. He takes a mouthful of aguardiente and blows it all over the pateint. The egg is thrown as far as possible. The sickness enters the egg. Some say that the hen who laid the egg will die.
For a man a rooster is killed, and for a woman, a hen is killed. The brujo cuts the neck of the chicken, and puts the blood on the forehead, neck, and back of neck of the patient. The rest of the checken is made into stew for the brujo to eat.
The patient may also be fumigated with copal. Or copal may be rubbed all over his body.
The brujo may also chant. One chant included names of Catholic saints.
This treatment brings back heart and breath. Then the person eats, drinks, speaks and recovers.
If, however, a person dies, they say that the brujo did not find the way.
Around 1970, the cost of such a cure was about 25 or 30 pesos: brujo 5-10 chicken 10 liquor 6 copal 2 eggs 3
For a fright, a brujo cure consists of going to the place where the fright took place. If it is on land, you sprinkle copal around and fumigate. If it is in water, you put copal in the river, put water on head, wash the frightened person’s clohtes in it, and make him drink some of it.
You take an egg to the place where you fell or were frightened. You hit the egg on the land or water. If it breaks, you will recover quickly, but if it does not break, you will die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Cure for da'maan3 (which you get from taking a bath in swamp water) is to have a brujo blow tobacco and aguardiente, take steam baths, and take eggs and money to the water. This is called paying back - nago'5 ni3 du'we34 ni3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da When one member of the family is sick, the whole family may take a steambath.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Brujo cures sleepiness by blowing water in a person's face.
If a baby’s skin splits (behind ears?), you put an egg in the baby’s anus. -- But not everyone accepts this
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da The interior of the Copala church is a common place to consult a curer. The curer takes two tallow candles. He lights, snuffs out, relights, stares at flames, puts bottom of one in mouth, waves one around body of patient and takes them up and leaves them in front of a statue.
Curing in the church also involves waving leaves in front of statues.
The curers are usually old people, both men and women. One woman was from San Martín. \dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da If sickness is considered to be caused by object intrusion, then brujo sucks out sand or stones, symbolic of the disease. He eats a bit of tobacco and then sucks. He spits the results in a corn husk to be burned.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Brujos, as part of curing ceremony, bite the affected part and suck blood out.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da koh34 no53 ~ gono53 -- tabaco
It is chewed and spit on baby's belly and temples for bellyache (by brujos).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 755
\ct Magical and mental therapy
\da Bathing in temascal is a remedy for fever, chills, headache, vomiting, diarrhea.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 756
\ct Psychotherapy
\da The Trique shaman (zi21 chrun4) is thought of as more good than bad, and he has several functions--divining, protecting, curing, cursing. He gets his power from God, sun, R.C. saints. There is no apprenticeship or training. He has status in the community, and earns for each "consulta".
\dt c. 1970 \mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da The difference between medicine and magic is hardly a clear one for the Triques. All medicine we think of as "scientific" is to them magical, as we see magic. They do, however, distinguish to some degree between activities prescribed by a shaman, and other remedies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da "Aigre"
1) camphor - sold by Mixtecs 2) rue
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Anger
1) mohina plant
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Backache and ya'a34 (cuerdas)
1) hierba de maestra put whole in aguardiente and drunk 2) rue drunk in aguardiente 3) swamp mint - catnip
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Bellyache
1) drink lemon cut in half with bicarb rubbed on surface (we'e35) 2) koh34 e'5 yukwah21 - drink infusion (ni'yah34) 3) koh34 we'e35 rike3 - drink infusion 4) ash bark tea 5) relative or spouse presses hand or foot into belly very hard to massage - aguardiente and tobacco can be rubbed on in the process 6) Hierba de maestra put whole in aguardiente and drunk 7) cooling plant (if belly ache is caused by cold weather) 8) yoloxochi flower 9) leaves of bitter ra3tah3 tree ground and mixed with coals ?, then drunk. 10) Spit tobacco on belly button of baby.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
Child whose permanent teeth do not come in -- rub the hind leg (tibia) of the chidá o13 grasshopper (large, inedible, short horned) on his gums.
\da Chill
1) Crush "chill" plant and drink 2) temazcal bathing
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Constipation
Tea of koh34 xtaman'5 and/or koh34 rilu3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Cough
1) Husk tomato paste is rubbed on throat and covered with handkerchief. 2) Alache flower 3) Chest-pass plant for chest congestion. Crush raw in water and drink.
Cracks in foot -- hendidura catch a salamander and rub it one the cracks. It will make your foot soft. Then you let it go \dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Crying (baby)
1) koh34 rixuwee3 - put in cradle/ baby drinks it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Mother and baby eat tamales made of chruh3 nituu3, the fruit of a tree, as a medicine for da'man3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Diarrhea
1) poleo tea (pennyroyal) 2) tea of "chile" plant 3) olive oil (for babies - caused by faintness) 4) sticky plant 5) leaves of calzón-edge tree 6) diarrhea plant 7) temazcal bathing 8) crush flowers, stems, leaves of rattlesnake plant and drink 9) drink crushed koh34 gwe'35 yan53 (10) swamp mint (catnip?)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Earache
You cook earache fungus in a pitcher and put water on ear for earache. put a xcuu coto (mold animal) in ear -- a borwn insect. rub pork on it
Eczema -- eat buzzard meat \dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Faintness
1) crushed gueneo banana leaves in water - brujo blows water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Faintness (babies)
1) Blow yellow tobacco on 2) Faint baby plant crushed and rubbed on head 3) Feed 2-3 spoons of olive oil
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Fever
1) Crush koh34 ya3ka4 naan4 with water and drink it and put it on head 2) temazcal bathing
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Hanging zia'3
1) Hanging zia'3 plant
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Headache 1) Tie cloth (or vine, or slingshot rubber, etc.) around head tightly, Plains Indian style. 2) Pierce temples with a needle until they bleed, and add tobacco poultice 3) Crush kalanchoe and put on head, then take steambath 4) lemon 5) temazcal bathing
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Insanity
Mountain god grabs a person if he sleeps out. Syndrome includes foaming at mouth, clenched shaking fists, looking up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Pain
1) Deer neck fungus (pain from bullet wound) 2) Leaves of chruun3 yah34 runitah3 (e'5)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Muscle pain - a'ngah34 xra'3 Rub aguardiente on feet
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Measles
Measles plant - leaves put on head and back
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757 \ct Medical therapy
\da Eye disease - pink eye
1) alache 2) ponchilhuits sap 3) chicalote sap - in eye
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Relapses
1) sickness returning plant (two kinds)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy colds (this is a hot disease, and it is treated by eating cool foods) crush jimson weed leaves and put on head and then take steambath drink coralbean drink lemon juice and also put the juice on head rub raw chicken egg on babhy’s chest crush tiny monster plant with water and drink and put on head put a head of cold flower plant in your nose crushed peach leaves put on babh’s head or drunk
Sores xcuaßan3 foot plant coj naganß xcuu -- rub paste on turkey egg scramles on comal with chile and rubbed on scalp (for scabby scalp sores) bitter ra3taj3 tree leaves splinter earwig. You kill one and rub it on and tie it with a clothn. The next morning the pus is ripe and the twig comes out
\da Stomach ache
1) camphor - sold by Mixtecs in irregular brownish-white balls 2) koh34 we'e35 niman32 - 8" tall 3) poleo tea 4) 1/2 spike of yah34 kwah53 is made into tea (heart?) 5) yoloxachi flower boiled with sugar 6) Tree morning glory leaves 7) tea of koh34 rudah3
Swelling floripondio flower ground with water ponchilhuits (milkweed) sap rubbed on when you bathe cihuapatle ground up with water eat rattlesnake meat from the middle of the snake.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Swollen belly - cows
You put lemon juice in the cow's mouth. If you don't have a lemon, then use lemon leaves.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Ticks
Lard and sulfur are mixed for a medicine against ticks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Toothache
Ground leaves of ? packed on tooth.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da Vomiting
1) temazcal bathing 2) grind koh34 gwe'35 yaan53
Whooping cough tea of coj chißiì nachrìnj ground clam shell mixed with water armadillo shell old qinto anolis lizard peach tree leaves wormlike roots of coj yaj rihuu3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 757
\ct Medical therapy
\da To cure a mute, a person who speaks well takes two large lemons. He hits the mute on the back hard with one of them. Then he turns the mute around and shoves the other one in his open mouth. He'll "vomit" up the lemon and start to talk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 758
\ct Medical attention
\da Attention for sick persons is usually care given at home by his family. He rests on a petate, but isn't isolated, which would be practically impossible under usual living conditions. He may be treated by a shaman or with modern medicine. He is probably fed a special diet - see 374 for description of hot and cold foods and diseases.
Curing is sort of a family affair - as is burying dead.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 759
\ct Medical personnel
\da The shamans are the only "medical" personnel known to the Triques - see 791.
From outside the society, however, help is offered in Copala from the R. C. church, the government and S.I.L., and there are doctors in the nearby Mexican towns.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 759
\ct Medical personnel \da There is a strong folk belief that the gringo's medicine is better than the government's or the R.C.'s, (certainly not because the gringo played it up).
Some Triques even feel that our medicine is superior to the witchdoctor's treatment, that it's cheaper and more effective.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 759
\ct Medical personnel
\da Medicine - Lina (Mix)
20 cent piece around neck of child to ward off whooping cough (CT's wife says no).
Yerba del guajolote and manzanilla make a tea for disentería blanca.
\dt c. 1970
\sr CT's wife
76 Death 761 Life and death 762 Suicide 763 Death 764 Funerals 765 Mourning 766 Unusual mortuary practices 767 Morticians 768 Readjustments after death 769 Worship of the dead
\mn 761
\ct Life and Death
\da Death is thought of as the heart "finishing up" or the "breath". Either starts home to God at death.
A sharp distinction is made between death by violence and natural death from sickness.
There is some fear of death.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 761
\ct Life and death
\da Dying in childbirth is considered to be a violent death, with the baby as the murderer.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 761
\ct Life and death
\da It is believed that if one dies without children, one perishes. Children are a form of immortality.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 761
\ct Life and death
\da MV believed that people die now because JC died; before that, no one ever died.
\dt 1/80
\sr MV
\mn 762
\ct Suicide
\da Suicide seems to be unknown.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 763
\ct Death
\da Many animals are thought to cause or announce impending death - see 825
\dt c. 1970
\mn 763
\ct Death
\da Once a person expects to die, he stops eating. Shamans may predict death.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 763
\ct Death \da Important to die in one's own country, so there will be a proper funeral, with rockets, violin and drum. If one dies away from home, he dies like a dog, without proper ceremonies.
When a person dies, his "heart finishes up".
The church bell is rung for each death. A continuous ring of small bell for baby. Big and little bells alternating for adult. People that live out of town are carried to town wrapped in a petate on a pole stretcher, to be there for the wake. Two men carry.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 763
\ct Death
\da Reaction to death is weeping by women. Post-mortems are done only for people murdered.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da People help immediate family of dead person by bringing firewood, corn, candles, money, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da There is a difference of treatment for children who die and adults who die. In Copala, however, cohetes are set off for both. In Juxtlahuaca, among Mixtecs, only for babies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da After a baby was buried with little ceremony (no fireworks or music, only incense), a woman (mother of baby?) came to cross at brook on way to cemetery and left a cornhusk with something in it. She poured aguardiente, did something with torts, and chanted.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da There is a difference of treatment for those who die a natural death and those that die an unnatural death.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da Corpses aren't feared but there is concern about not getting "aigre" from them, especially if a person is in a delicate state, such as having a wound. One family buried a dead baby within hours so its very sick mother wouldn't get aigre from it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da Preparation of body
People who can afford it buy coffins made in Juxtlahuaca and brought out. Poor people and children are buried in petates. Priest blesses coffin with holy water and after corpse is put in, it is fumigated with copal.
The corpse is dressed in new clothes. They may be put on over old ones. All clothes are buried, also jewelry and other personal effects.
Several objects are buried with corpse: his hat, his morral, his machete, his coa. Besides such personal things, torts, mole, plate, eggs, candles, leaves, new jicara.
It is said that money - up to a thousand pesos is buried with the corpse.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da Funeral - wake
Every person who dies naturally is given a one night wake in town, in the house of a relative or in an empty house. Candles burn around coffin, which is opened, with face covered with handkerchief. Beeswax candles may be used.
Violin and drum play funeral song. Rum, cider and cigarettes are passed around. Rockets are set off. The priest may chant in house before the group goes to cemetery.
There is dancing at the wake.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da Burial
From one to three day interval between death and burial. When the procession leaves for the cemetery, the bell gives a single ring, or continuous? Two cohetes shut off when coffin leaves house.
The day after the wake, they start off for cemetery. Two carry a petate wrapped corpse--up to four or five for coffin. Every little while they stop, pass aguardiente around, play the funeral song on drum and violin and shoot off rockets. There is less fuss for a child or a poor person.
At creek, they wash arms, feet, head of corpse with soap and tie palm sandals on feet. Then they go on to cemetery. At cemetery, they open coffin or petate and thump on chest before finally closing coffin and filling grave. Often bones are removed from grave.
Some graves have fancy stones.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da There is a small adobe and tile building in the cemetery, but it isn't a chapel. It was built by someone from ra21 nio34 as a fancy mausoleum. Inside, one woman is buried.
There are several concrete monuments, also, in imitation of Spanish customs.
Many graves are unmarked.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da For those who die of unnatural causes, burial is in a special cemetery uphill from the regular one, located at a place called ruse5 rawee3. These people do not get an overnight wake, but stop in town just a short time for burning candles. They aren't taken into a relative’s house, but only under a tree.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 764
\ct Funerals
\da The dead are carried out of the house either head first or feet first on way to cemetery. One I observed feet first.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 765
\ct Mourning
\da There is weeping at funerals and much drinking, but no formal mourning period or clothing or activities.
When a baby dies, less fuss is made, especially if it dies at birth.
There is a feeling that all members of a family must come and see the corpse and be convinced that he died. Burial will be delayed, if necessary.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 765
\ct Mourning
\da Cross raising
In non-Trique cultures, this is a memorial 9 days after death. The Triques do it whenever there is money. It may be a year or two after death.
The ceremony lasts for a week or nine days. It includes continual dancing in the house and visits to the cemetery. Chanters may be hired from a neighboring Mixtec town, such as S.P. Chayuso. The usual things that go with a fiesta are in evidence--incense, liquor, fireworks, violin and drum playing song of the dead. Priest also may go to the cemetery.
In the house, there is a platform with a petate on it. On this are put blankets, hat, cross decorated with bougainvillea, bowl; jicara, torts, bananas, corn on floor, incense burner on floor. A bent pole decorated with bougainvillea is behind. Candles are around all. This is a sort of representation of the wake. On trips to cemetery, cases of beer and pop may be taken. Also a bucket of something leafy and green. Food is left. Tepache and aguardiente are sprinkled on grave. Cross is taken home.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 768
\ct Readjustments after death
\da Personal property of the dead person is buried with him. Other property goes to relatives. Real property is inherited, including houses.
Widows may go to their own family.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 769
\ct Worship of the dead
\da Praying for the dead is known and done to some extent but there is no fear of retaliation if prayers are omitted.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 769
\ct Worship of the dead
\da Ancestors send unseasonal winds to destroy cornfields when they are angry. Angry ancestors can also cause the living to die. One woman said if she died and I wrapped her in a petate instead of buying a coffin, she'd take me (joking).
A baby's sickness was said to be its dead grandparents taking it. The woman went to the priest to have a mass said to get the grandparents to leave it alone.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 769
\ct Worship of the dead
\da Trique women believe that when they die, they will be reincarnated as a child that their xo3ko'5 bears. Pablo's mother calls her granddaughter Silvia by the name of her own deceased mother Cilia.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pablo's mother
77 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
771 General characteristics of religion 772 Cosmology 773 Mythology 774 Animism 775 Eschatology 776 Supernatural beings and Gods 777 Luck and chance 778 Sacred objects and places 779 Theological systems
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da Religion is not primarily a personal affair, but one related to the whole village. It is a matter of ritual, not of ethics.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da Religion is thought of as a contract or bargain with deities. If we give them their due, they'll leave us alone and send enough rain. Therefore, ritual conformity to the annual cycle of fiestas is of great importance.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da Images in the church are worshipped with incense, candles and flowers.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da Pilgrimages are rare. Triques go occasionally to outside fiestas, more for fun and commerce than worship. They rarely go further than a day's walk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da It is not necessary to have new ceremonial equipment for All Saints or other fiestas.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da There is a feeling that prayer is restricted to those with special knowledge.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da There is a feeling that religious services deserve remuneration. Native curanderos and R.C. priests are both paid.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 771
\ct General characteristics of religion
\da There is a feeling that any major religious celebration requires the trappings of a fiesta.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 772
\ct Cosmology
\da Murdering at end of year is an unconscious thing, according to SLM.
\dt c. 1970
\sr SLM
\mn 772
\ct Cosmology
\da There seems to be a fuzzy and inconsistent blend here between the native view of other worlds to be traversed after death, and R.C. views of heaven, hell, limbo, purgatory.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 772
\ct Cosmology \da The earth is flat. It is covered by the sky, which is like an inverted blue bowl. It helps keep world together.
Inside the earth are dead people, and at night, the sun goes inside the earth.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 772
\ct Cosmology
\da There are seven worlds, ours and six others. When a person dies in this world, he's born into one of the others. When he has died seven times, it’s the end of the world and he goes to heaven or hell.
\dt June 1972
\sr PRF
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Creation
This seems rather fuzzy. One story says people went up to sky and tossed stars in place.
The saints in church were alive and came down to earth. They weren't carved. They carved people out of wood (this may be post-flood)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Copala is the center of the world. Long ago people "hatched" in town* and from there they populated the world, including Mexico City and Oaxaca.
*They came out of the ground.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da The reason corn plants have only a few ears (one or two) now is because the woman rain god kicked the plants and knocked off a lot of the ears. (They used to have seven each). She kicked them because she was angry with her husband for burning her father to death. The reason some ears have only half an ear of good grains is that the man rain god went to the field when she was kicking the plants and the ears became weak.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da The sun and moon ascended to the sky after their adventures on the earth. This ascension is confused with the ascension of Jesus Christ (who also lived on earth long ago!). The ancestors and the grandmother ga'ah3 are both thought to be responsible for the ascension.
The sun looked for three men and three women to become his brujos. The sun's brujos really know how to heal.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Beliefs
When the flood came, it didn't reach up here. That's why the soil here is "raw" and clayey. The flood did reach low country. That's why the soil there is "cooked" and loamy. God cooked the soil in low country long ago by means of the flood.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da When the twins went up to the sky, Grandmother Ga'aj became angry and threw the seven stakes she used to set up her room at them and they became the Pleiades.
2004 -- could this really be Taurus?
\dt c. 1970
\sr Agustin
\mn 773
\ct Mythology \da xi'32 na5
He is the 1st person to live on the earth. He took the devils and went across the ocean. He also built the Copala Church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Christ
Long ago Christ appeared in town. After he died, he became the sun. Also a belief that Christ was killed by beating, and then his body was hung on the cross.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Christ
Devil wanted to divide people up with Christ, but Christ was unwilling. That's why Satan caused trouble for Jesus. It is believed that Satan drove nails through Christ's hands.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Easter
Long ago, Christ and the devil were fighting. St. James came to the help of Christ on horseback and helped him win the fight.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Legends
St. John the Baptist went to the mountain NNE of our house long ago. That's why flowers are there.
SJB is from Copala. Long ago he lived on rumi32 kih34 yu'weh34 across the river and SW of town. On this mountain, there are rocks that look like the foundation for a small chapel that was never finished.
Then another god came to Copala (Tatachú -- Yaßanj ruma guèè) This saint was intended for another town but couldn't go beyond Copala. SJB fled to the mountain. He's alone and speaks; he lives in a hole up there.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da An old race of people lived a long time ago. Both men and women had breasts so long they tossed them over their shoulders. When the world wasn't yet "hard" and the sun walked differently - longer days and nights.
\dt 4/80
\sr MV
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da zi21 xmuu32
People from long ago--a special market day in late October commemorates them. They walked in street with old petates on their backs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da There is a story about various artifacts that were left on mountains--one on each summit near Copala. The articles were: needle, nopal, grindstone, gourd.
Connected with flood?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 773
\ct Mythology
\da Source of wind
Some people say that winds come from wind-holes in the ground. Wind and spirit are same. Evil winds cause disease. \dt c. 1970
\mn 774
\ct Animism
\da nima32
This is the heart, life, soul, spirit of a living person. It is a Sp. l. from ánima and means one's heart or stomach as literal body parts, as well. When a person's heart finishes, he dies, and no longer has a nima32.
Some of the same things are said about breath - na3na5.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 774
\ct Animism
\da The heart/soul is believed to walk around when one dreams and to go even to the world of the dead.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 774
\ct Animism
\da gachun’5
This is the soul of a dead person. It literally means shadow. Before death one doesn't have a shadow, except in the literal sense. The souls of the dead walk around and never end. The word da'nah24 'ghost' seems to refer to an apparition (to the ears, by a creak or knock, if not to the eyes) of a gachun’5. Souls walk at night and whistle when someone is going to die, and let you know of trouble coming. They are generally feared.
Informant wasn't certain if they came at All Saints to eat food.
When babies die without being baptized, they turn into monsters that fly at night. These are worms or snakes (perhaps a footless lizard or blind snake, burrowing) in the day time, but are believed to fly at night. If they go in the house or pass near a house and show themselves or whirr, someone will die. It passes over a pregnant woman or a woman who has given birth, and it hits her. It also hits babies. It wants another baby to die. In the morning, the person who ishit has a green sopt (bruise). When it flies in the day, it makes a voiceless rrrr trill sound. They are 25 cm.long.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 774 \ct Animism
\da zando32 no5
This means "blessed saint". Each person has one. It is a part of a person's psyche having the function of a guardian angel. FRJ says it's a person's espíritu. It can be strong or weak. If it is strong, the person is immune to effects of curse. If it is weak, the person is susceptible.
Yacàà -- monster that unbaptized babies turn into. It flies at night and bites people, and it leaves a green mark. Some say that a yacàà comes from the sky and is invisible like the wind; others say it is green. It says (ta)runj32, and it makes babies cry. It also turns babies green, and they need to be fumigated to be cured. makes pregnant women have a difficult delivery
\dt c. 1970
\sr FRJ
\mn 774 Animism
For tona and nagual, see 825 Ethnozoology
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da Eschatology and future life
The pagan and Catholic blend here to an incoherent jumble. Baptized babies who die go to heaven, called "face-God" or "glory". Wicked people, such as those who sleep with their mother-in-law, go to hell, called "face-fire" or "oven" where you burn. Others just have shadows wandering around.
If the priest says prayers, a person can leave the fire and go to the sky. (Hell and purgatory are not dist.)
Dead people are believed to go to another world.
It is very important to be married in church, though this can take place years after a couple comes together. If you are married, you become a person when you die, and you go to heaven. Ir you are not married, you become an animal -- a barn owl or a fox.
[[note that these are animals that come around at night and cause trouble; compare the yacàà that unbaptized babies turn into.]]
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775 \ct Eschatology
\da xuman'3 ya'anh4 - 'divine town' xumi35 ya'anh4 - 'divine world'
This is where people are said to go when they die. \dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da When a person dies, he must take all his hair with him--his soul will wander looking for it after he dies. For this reason, men put their hair when it is cut in a carefully chosen place and women keep all hairs that come out in the comb in their palm belts.
This isn't extended to fingernails, though, which may wear down or be cut or bitten off and then thrown away.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da Other beliefs
People who die violent deaths go to hell. There is a separate cemetery for them. This belief, when challenged, is often dropped.
The black vulture eats the flesh of people who do bad things. The black vulture is called the divine vulture.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da Dead people are believed to come back once a year at All Saints Day to eat.
It is also believed that corpses can "make" ghosts that knock and scare the living. Also cause dreams.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology \da da'nah34 (= gachunl5 niman32 ?)
This is a ghost, an apparition of the soul of the dead. The soul of the dead "makes" one only if envious, will do it if someone has his personal possessions that should have been buried with him.
It causes the house to creak and knock and it frightens people. Dusk is the main time for this. Ghosts never speak, however.
Ghosts are around water hole and at dusk, a woman shouldn't go alone for fear of them.
Ghosts don't usually haunt houses other than the one in which they died.
Sp. influence - soul from Purgatory.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da Ghosts will haunt a person who appropriates personal possessions of the dead.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 775
\ct Eschatology -- end of world
\da The world at present is said to be gachih34 - 'grown', 'mature'. This probably accounts for the belief in a soon- coming end of world.
People says that the world will become dark or go lost at some time in the near future. They said this a lot during a very bad rainy spell in Sept 1967.
In December 1967, this story ws circulated: One Jan 3 1968 the world will end. A child in Yutasan/í went into the earth and heard about it there. He will become a god, thunder will roll, and he will go up to the sky and go away. The world will get dark, and snakes in the ocean will bit people. A new race will inhabit the earth.
When the world comes to an end, household objects will turn into fierce animals. The mano de metate and firewood will turn into snakes. The bowls, gourd trays, ollas, pitchers, three hearthstones, and comal will turn into lion, tiger, dog, and they will all want to eat people. They say that the metate will rescue the people from this by saying, "Don’t eat my friends -- they feed me. But there are many animals, and they will not listen. They will eat people and that will end the race. The world will be dark, and it will have only animals for a time. Then the world will shine again with a new and different race of people.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 775
\ct Eschatology
\da Saying
If a mule gives birth, the world will come to an end.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34
This is a very general word for a deity. Some say that it must be good to people, not bad. Many natural phenomena are ya'anh34's as well as Roman Catholic saints. There is no supreme god; all are equal in power. They do not know people personally.
MOUNTAIN GOD One god is evil, the mountain god. Others, natural and R.C., both, are good, for the most part. (Water god causes blindness).
The mountain god (perhaps the same as what Mixtecs call duendes) is essentially evil. There is no fiesta to the mountain god, no sacrifice made regularly. He lives in the swamps. He gets angry if people urinate in waterholes, swamps and rivers, and he will cause them to get sick. You can’t lay a child down outdoors, and even leave one alone in a house, for fear that the mountain god will grab them and "play" with them.
He is said to be the owner of wild animals, but he does not take good care of them. He does not like it if you kill them, but he does not retaliate. Some say he is the owner of relatively harmless wild animals like the deer and the armadillo
If you sleep out in the woods, the mountain god grabs you by the nape of the neck, and you get a headache and go crazy. You foam at the mouth, and you shake clenched fists and look up. (Probably convulsions) A brujo can cure you. He makes chicken broth and sprinkles it on the ground, and when the mountain god eats it, he is pacified. The mountain god also grabs dogs.
Mixtecs call this deity tabayuco, and identify him with San Cristóbal. One child called him Catulca.
There are more devils than gods and devils are stronger and would win a battle.
Gods "rule" and can cause sickness and sterility.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ro32 man ge5
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da Julio says that there is a legend that Tatachú was intended for a town in Guerrero (Yusucañu?) but that the mules carrying it refused to walk any further and that's why it is in Copala and why lots of people from that town in Guerrero come to the Third Friday fiesta here.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Julio
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 dalupe32
There is no statue of Guadalupe in town, but there is one in the Tilapa chapel. She is considered different from ya'anh34 ro32 xana5 a4.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 xiki'32 - Sto. Domingo?
Lord saint, has fiesta in August (15?). Statue, male, in church, small.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 zagwa32
St. John
\dt c. 1970 \mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 rude5
This is a green cross in the church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 rixto32
This is a large crucifix in church. Holy week is its fiesta. It is considered to be different from all other representations of Christ.
One woman wanted to pray to "padre32 Jesu? ze / san gristo32. She had no idea of the Trinity.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da Julio says that the image of Christ in the Copala church is really a Roman soldier who was mistreated by the bad people of the Mexican government in Oaxaca.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Julio
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 rixto32 le32
This is a small crucifix in church. Holy week is its fiesta. It is considered to be different from all other representations of Christ.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ruman32 ge5 - also called ya'anh34 xiki'3 His fiesta is third Friday and he walks in street. \dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ro32 ruse3 San Jos/e san32 gose32 $$
A small statue in church
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ruman32 ne'eh53
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ro32 xa$$na5
This is the virgin, the mother of the baby god. She is a small wooden statue and is dressed in a huipil. She gives birth Christmas Eve and 20 days later returns to her house in town (= church). She is the patroness of women's work and candles are burned to her.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 niman32
This means heart/soul saint; it is the name of a statue in the church. It is said to eat food on All Saints day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ra32 rumendo32 ? ~ ruwento
A statue in SJC church, male, large.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 yato'34
Stars, for some people, are personified as gods. Stars are good and don't cause trouble for people.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da rutze5 che21 xata'5
The Southern Cross supports and protects people; without it, people would die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 gwi53
The sun is personified as a god (female?). He is necessary for life and he is good.
Mario says that Jesus Christ was sent to earth by God so he could become the sun and circle the earth. He died and became God and went to the sky.
There is also a myth about origin of sun and moon (773).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da Moon's phases
Each month is thought to be a life cycle of the moon. A baby moon appears each month, grows, walks all night, gets tired and dies. \dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da The phases of the moon control agriculture to some extent. In the dark of the moon, sowing, planting and cutting wood is avoided. The fields will do poorly and the wood will get worms.
The baby moon (new moon) or full is good for sowing and the full for harvest. Crops grow better when the moon is waxing.
Menstruation is thought to occur at new moon.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 kih4
The mountain god has his sacred places: caves, swamps, rivers, waterholes, and these places are delicate. If you do things that you should not there, like letting a baby urinate, he will grab you and make you go crazy or get sick.
Some people make offerings to him when they clear a cornfield. Otherwise, if his possessions are burned, he'll make you sick.
Note: on the coast a snake is believed to inhabit swamps and waterholes, and he needs to be treated with great respect.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da Harvest
The ears of corn "are" the thunder god. You make a fuss after harvest by fumigating the ears with copal. Then you can dry them and use them. No gleanings are left in field, though.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods \da ya'anh34 yo'oh5
The earth is personified as a god. He is necessary for life and considered good.
When people pour out tepache three places on ground before drinking out of jicara, it is so that the earth god can drink first.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 ya'a34
Fire is personified as a god. It is necessary for life and is considered good.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 gwa'ah4
This is the goddess of the steambath. She is associated with healing, especially of post-partum women, perhaps a kind of ritual purification. Also diarrhea, vomiting, headache, chill fever.
Offerings to her are sweet white atole, and small chile torts with an egg. Offerings are made after a baby is born so she won't harm him.
She is also called ya'anh34 dachrunh53. Also referred to as nga3 ca’ah
Mothers call the souls of the babies at steambaths.
The grandmother Ga'ah became her long ago, after she couldn't become the sun god. She causes evil to the children of the sun god.
There is a rather specialized vocabulary for parts of the steambath. Taßánj for firebox -- check
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 yu'we'4
The grandmother goyoh21 / cuyúj became her long ago. \dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 chruun53
A spirit that resides in big trees or trees on border of lands. If you cut a boundary tree, it will harm you.
Give offerings - 1 liter of aguardiente and copal, fumigate and put liquor on ground in circle.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 xicheh4 - weight god
God of abundance, not in church. Pray to him for crops.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da ya'anh34 xawa'5 - firstborn god or ya'anh34 luh3 dah3 - measles god
There is an evil being who grabs children and makes them sick and sometimes they die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
Yaßanj sameé -- San Miguel
blesses people, animals, plants, but does not own them. If you sleep too much, you pray to him to take away sleepiness.
IDEAS ABOUT THE DEVIL
There are lots of these. Bad people follow him. He is the source of power for some brujos. He owns harmful animals. Some people sayh he created them. He looks like a rich person a snake invisible He lives in barrancas and holes where thunder is
Only tough guys and brujos eat snake meat, not good people. If you eat it, you will get sick. When the thunder god cries out, you’ll get shakes, chills, and sores.
Rarely people equate the devil with the shadows of dead people. Some people say that devils have bones.
\da Devils are believed to live in rivers and gulches--low places.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da If people are bad, the devil grabs them and kills them. If they accidentally get the wrong one, they let go.
When devils are thirsty, they drink blood.
Devils walked long ago, but they don't walk now. Devils grab babies if they are left alone.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da xilinge32
This creature is some kind of devil or kind of person. People disagree about its attributes, but they are short and eat people. They usually come from far away across the ocean, though some say from SAC or Putla.
It bites if it jumps out at you. Pictures of odd items in scrapbooks are asked about, if they are xilinge32 or not, so there is no common belief about how they look.
Another version is that they are people from across the ocean who sent soldiers to fight with the government in Mexico City long ago. (War with Spain and France?)
Descendants of the brother of the Triques' ancestor, who ate baby mole and was sent across the ocean by the good Trique ancestor, who asked the ocean to come between.
xilinge32 is not the source of supernatural power.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da nana5
Wind is personified as an evil force, because it takes off roofs and knocks over houses. Wind is believed to come from bottomless pits.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da nana5 chree53 or nana5 xi'ii5
This means an evil wind. It comes from a demon (or possibly also from a corpse) and it causes sickness.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 776
\ct Supernatural beings and Gods
\da xree3 nuh53
le kaan53 le'eh3 - baby eaten le kan53 gachih32 - women and men not eaten
A large donkey-like animal--used to be in water long ago. In rainy season when water is high, would grab children and eat them.
2004 -- could this be related to la Orejuda?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 777
\ct Luck and chance
\da Among the tangle of beliefs are some about luck and chance and fatalism, but they do not seem to form a coherent system. There are no specific words for such concepts, either. But amulets or little "idols" are used to control it.
There are games of chance at Third Friday fiesta and gambling is known.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 777
\ct Luck and chance
\da iko5 ($$)
This is a small (carved?) stone figure, some are found, some made. Natural formations or artifacts from caves? They function as good luck charms or amulets.
Found ones may have form of heart, ear of corn (for good harvest). They are found in St. Mark's cave, but can't be found any more. They may be of very light stone.
Made ones are worked stone, shaped like people. We were offered one for sale for 500 pesos, said to be a charm for selling. There area also charms to make one work (take away laziness) and to make one drink a lot.
The one offered to us was inherited from his grandmother, he said.
Work charms are dirty; go for a walk charms are clean.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 777
\ct Luck and chance
\da No numbers or days of the week are considered in themselves lucky, unlucky, or sacred. Fridays of Lent, however, are considered "delicate" - one shouldn't work. If you work in fields, you'll cut your hand.
Another informant said Tuesday and Friday are days in which a certain plant can cure a baby. They said all days are good except Sunday, which is mean. Sunday is the last day of the week.
2004 -- there is a belief about 9 not mentioned by this informant
\dt c. 1970
\mn 777
\ct Luck and chance
\da It is believed that if the first day of a month falls on Sunday, people will suffer. \dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da gwi3 ge5 - holy day
This is a day when you fast, like Good Friday.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da dikuu34 nayaa34
This is a small R.C. medal, for sale in market. It is put on neck of baby when baptized and of bride and groom when married. It is said to cause the blessing of the saints on a person.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da nuwii32
This is a Roman Catholic church, loanword from Nave. The only true church is in Copala itself.
There are chapels in cemetery, in Río Venado, in Cruz Chiquita, and in Tilapa.
There used to be just a chapel in town on the location of the clinic. No one remembers when the church was built. The same saints were transferred to the church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da Saints in Copala church
1. 2. 3. 4. ya'anh34 niman32 5. 6. 7. 8. ya'anh34 dalupe32 9. 10. 11. 12. ya'anh34 ruma32 ge5 13. ya'anh34 rixiton32 le32 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. ya'anh34 ro32 xa3na5 19. ya'anh34 san3 ziro32 20 21 ya'anh34 rixito32 illustration
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da There are no saint shelves in Trique houses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da rutze5
There are crude wooden crosses of pinewood, nailed at center, sometimes painted, at various locations. They are decorated at Lent and day of cross and processions visit them. of pinewood
Four are located at four corners of town, though they seem to be located more in reference to the church than the town itself. They are also on every trail leaving town, and more in hills. They were put up by people of long ago. If wood rots, they can be replaced.
Candles and flowers are put in front of cross as offerings. People cross self or kiss them also.
An especially prominent cross is on ridge between Yerba Santo - Rastrojo. Sacred Heart and Guadalupe pictures are with it and lots of flowers -- at foot of big tree with hole in it.
One near Yosoyuxi has a table in front. Tepache may be poured in front of crosses, and flower arches or other things left there.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da Some caves contain money (old pesos, very large and now very valuable) and these are believed to belong to the devil. If a person goes in and steals the money, he'll die. MV believes this is what happened to her father.
\dt 3/80
\sr MV
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da There's a place SSW of town near where the new road to Putla passes, where a devil is believed to live within a few hundred yards of the river.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da dukwa32 du'wi3
These are caves where the thunder god (St. Mark) is worshipped. There are several, maybe one in each barrio. One behind church, E of town One in Sabana, above road, near river with waterfall. One in du'wi tun (Cerro Ocho!) One in kih34 nuu34 xoh53
These caves have a rock or stalagmite, revered as image of the god, and a pothole full of water.
One in AF where old and new trails separate. To get to them, you climb toe-holds in rock.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places \da There are some places outdoors where candles are burned. One is a hilltop S of Copala where pictures of saints are. Another is a spring flowing into the river south of town on the west bank.
Between Copala and Tilapa is a cave that is said to be the home of a devil. There is a cliff with a crack in it. There is pop inside and eggs, and people go in to get them, but there are live snakes inside, and people see them, and they are afraid, and they die. [[note similarity to Cerro Gachupín story]]
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da kih34
The hills are more delicate than the town. You can't leave a baby or small child home alone. It will go crazy (fist shaking), cry, and then die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 778
\ct Sacred objects and places
\da The places where guyuu53 / koh34 yo53 grow are 'holy'-- swamp and edge of river, also water holes. There is a mountain spirit who lives there, and he is bad. He causes sickness, especially eye disease, and swelling behind ears.
These places will harm a baby-- give it convulsions, if a baby takes a bath in its water. Baby won't sleep--will cry out at night and get pus in its eyes.
If you bend down and take a drink, you will go blind. Use a jicara or a bent leaf. If you urinate there, you will get sick -- sores, aráán sihuu, swelling, or you will die. But you can get a brujo to cure you with eggs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 779
\ct Theological systems
\da There is no one theological system, but rather an inconsistent jumble of Middle American, R.C. and Spanish folklore beliefs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 779
\ct Theological systems
\da The new believers put great stock in baptism as the turning point, rather than the day of conversion, as such. PRF thinks it’s terrible for someone who is baptized to get drunk, but it’s OK for someone who isn't yet baptized.
\dt c. 1973
\sr PRF
\mn 779
\ct Theological systems
\da When opposition to the gospel arose in SMC, GC started it by urging people to drink and saying believers were deceived. He said that horns would grow on the believers' heads.
\dt c. 1970
78 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
781 Religious experiences 782 Propitiatory practices 783 Purification and expiation 784 Prohibitions and taboos 785 Asceticism 786 Orgiastic practices 787 Revelation and divination 788 Rituals 789 Magic
\mn 781
\ct Religious experiences
\da For the Triques, religion is not ecstasy, nor is it ethics, nor yet any personal relation to God. Rather, it is ritual conformity, and the only religious experience I've observed is a satisfaction and sort of security from having performed the expected rituals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Many Triques, when they go to town, take flowers with them or buy candles there to put in front of statues in church.
Incense burned and pine needles on church floor.
Candles burned before saints are considered to be prayers. They are burned for the benefit of a person.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da The mountain god has to be propitiated, some believe, when you clear a field. Various offerings are made to him. If you burn his clothes (= foliage) and things, he'll make you get sick (choke to death, diarrhea, various kinds of swelling, sores, stomach ache).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Agricultural ceremonies are attenuated. Ceremonies to the thunder god are held before the rainy season and in times of drought, and incense is burned to him in the house when the ears are brought in. Failure to have the proper ceremonies can result in no rain. The mayordomo of thunder god gets a brujo to perform the ceremonies at the caves.
Tepache and aguardiente are sprinkled on mazorcas after harvest, but not on fields.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da At the time of sowing, aguardiente is sprinkled on the ground to assure fertility.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da The mayordomo of Tatahu (ro32 xiki'32) asks a favor of the saints in church and they "bless" the god on the top of the mountain. This tames the wind.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Whenever it is raining too hard, the crosses in the church are taken to the town hall, and this makes the rain stop.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da It is believed that one must cut down weeds in milpa for blessing (no32) to pass through a field and the mazorcas to come.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Palm is braided and put in cornfield so corn will grow well. Sometimes a cross is tied on top.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Fumigation
This is a procedure used to ward off evil influences. *Burning copal is placed in a potsherd and waved in front of object so smoke reaches. This is part of official fiestas and is also a private rite.
Animals, such as donkeys, can be fumigated: this is done if they are mean. You fumigate a dying person or a horse.
You can fumigate the saints in the church. The saints are said to eat the smoke. Every Saturday and Wednesday this is done (?).
Copal can be buried in house or dumped outside.
*Copal is put on coals until it emits a fume, but isn't burned.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Burning candles before saints is a way of praying to them, e.g., for animals and people.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782 \ct Propitiatory practices
\da Money offerings
People toss coins at foot of saints so that saint will help them to be rich. This is done in secret when no one else is around.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory practices
\da Fireworks are used as part of religious celebrations (weddings, funerals, fiestas) only, and are probably to be classified as propitiatory, though they are undoubtedly fun, too.
Cohetes are bought (5 pesos a dozen - 1967) from Mixtecs who make them in Santiago and Barrio de Guadalupe, which is the center for the region. They may be set off the usual way, stuck in ground so they rise only a little and are louder, or tied onto bulls or castillos --see 549.
Cámaras are made in Copala - see 549.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory Practices
\da Men remove their hats in or in front of or passing a church. Women often don't cover their heads to enter.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 782
\ct Propitiatory Practices
\da The fiestas which follow the annual cycle are a kind of offering to the saints - see 796 for a description of the system.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 783
\ct Purification and expiation
\da The Trique religious system is basically non-ethical. Therefore, sin and salvation aren't in focus in the system.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da Sayings
It is yu'wa'5 to pick or touch koh34 aka34 yatzih21, 'Indian Paintbrush'. If you do, your clothes will burn.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da When your husband goes away, don't sweep the house that day. It is yu'wa'5, and he will be in danger if you do. One should sweep as soon as a corpse is removed, however.
Mixtecs believe in not sweeping for a few days after a departure or a death.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da Triques are opposed (at least sometimes) to allowing pictures to be taken of images of saints.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da People do not want their cut hair to be scattered and hide it in holes. This seems to be because they have to gather it after they die, not fear of witchcraft.
One older man took old bandages when I changed them, but most people leave them.
Some people just toss hair away.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos \da It's taboo to bathe a baby or child in the river. If you do, he'll swell and get a bellyache.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da It is taboo (sin) to step on, step over, or toss out grains of corn. This angers the thunder god, who gives us food. It isn't taboo to spill it--just gather it up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da If you wind a ball of thread on Sunday, when you die you'll have to hold a Neomammillaria cactus (tanh34 rumi34 yu'weh34) in your hands for a ball of thread.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da It's not good to joke about a possible misfortune, because such joking might bring it about, e.g., I was told it was "delicate" to stand under a ladder and say I was in jail. (This had nothing to do with ladder being bad luck). Then the mouth (saying) would be to blame.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da When you sow a cornfield, you have to put the cobs of the seed corn in running water. This keeps the baby corn from drying up. (Imitative magic).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da If you drink from a swamp/waterhole/river by lying down, or by scooping the water in your hands, then you'll get cataracts, because bodies of water are taboo. You should use a gourd, cup, or leaf folded.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da If you sweep the floor when your husband has left with a donkey as a pack animal, then the donkey will fall down.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
If you drink the water in which elotes were cooked, your house will burn down.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 784
\ct Prohibitions and taboos
\da Other taboos are mentioned in the 77 section in connection with religious beliefs, also under 824 and 5 if they concern plants or animals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 785
\ct Asceticism
\da Asceticism is not part of Trique mentality. Fasting, an R.C. practice is observed for breakfast on the Fridays of Lent, and some people also go without lunch.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 786
\ct Orgiastic practices
\da Orgiastic practices are not part of Trique mentality, except that drunkenness is common at fiestas because of required drinking.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da To predict the climate for the new year, whether it will be good for crops or not, on New Year's eve, people go out at midnight and look for a cloud. If there is a cloud in the sky, or if it is raining, that means it will be a good year.
\dt 6/88
\sr SLM
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divination - candle (looking at candle)
The way a candle burns tells brujo whether person will die or recover.
Also, people burn candles to tell whether "tough guys" are coming or not.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divination - measuring
The brujo "seeks the way". He rubs his hands together and blows on them. Then he measures his left arm with his right hand by spans from his elbow toward fingers ("takes the measure"). With pinky at elbow, he turns on thumb. If pinky "reaches" first joint of finger, people are delaying. If pinky "lowers" to knuckle or edge of palm, people are on the way. This is done to predict arrival of soldiers or of "tough guys".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divination - Datura
A brujo or the owner of a lost object drinks bit of leaf of either jimson weed or floripondio ground up and put in cold water. These poisonous species of Datura give him visions that tell him where to find lost object. They take 8-9 seeds, or bits of leaf. Triques say the plant "lets him know".
\dt c. 1970 \mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divination - birth
A brujo feels the belly of a pregnant woman and then tells her when the birth will be, soon or delayed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divination - cards
Some Triques use packs of cards to tell fortunes. This is a Spanish borrowing, of course. Tale, when he heard that someone wanted to enter our house and kill them, used the cards to see what would happen. (He has been away to work in cane country, etc.)
The cards are put on blanket or huipil, never on floor/ground. Cards are face up in four rows of 10 columns. Deck has 40 cards in four suites--sword, coin, club, dish. There are ace to 7 and three picture cards--page, squire, king? in each suite.
This is not associated with black magic, but is morally neutral. Anyone can divine with cards--you don't have to be a curer.
Cards are not used for games, just for divining.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Copal is put on the ground and fire is put on it. If fire leaves the heart of the copal, the person dies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da One method of divination is to put 7 (or 15) pieces of incense in a jícara of water. If there is no incense, then corn is used. Some float and some sink. Curers can interpret (read) the future from them. If the sickness opens, person gets well. \dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divining
No informant, no matter how glib about other matters, admits to use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or morning glory seeds or ololiuhgui. Probably, they aren't used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Witch doctors put the neck (kuu35) of a broken pitcher on the fire and looks to see what the fire does inside it, as a method of divination. If the fire burns strongly inside it, then the sickness is strong. If the fire burns low, then he'll get better. The witch doctor also puts it out by spitting liquor over it, and then may repeat the ceremony.
Some speakers reject this.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Divining
Stones and glass (crystal) aren't used, nor are candles burned upside down, nor reflections in mirror or water. Nor is knotted string used.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Triques frequent fortune tellers at fiestas. A common type is a man who has a bird which chooses a folded paper fortune for a person.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination \da See 825 for signs given by animals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Dreams
The content of a dream may tell something about the future. A woman dreamed that a fellow now murdered was embracing me. This meant that I would die violently as he did.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da In dreams, dead people appear to speak to the living. They put pressure on people to die also (?).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da namanh34
Apparition of child or ghost that comes during sleep and frightens a person. It forbodes evil. It grabs the person and he wants to cry out but he can't and he wants to move but he can't. It comes to people who are going to die of a bad sickness or a weak sickness.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 787
\ct Revelation and divination
\da Saying
Bad dreams are warnings. Don't leave home if you've had one or something will happen to you. Both living and dead people who appear in dreams are said to cause the dream.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 788 \ct Rituals
Waterholes
Every year on January 3 there is a sacrifice to the water god -- yaßanj nà at waterholes. You sprinkle pulque at the spring, and you kill a goat or checken, sprinking the blood at the spring, then cooking the meat and leaving caldo blanco, meat (breast, if chicken -- breast is considered the best part), and tortillas there. You also give tepache.The purpose of this sacrifice is to prevent the spring drying uip during the rest of the dry season. Some people say there are a male and a female water god.
Agriculture -- town collective ceremonies
On April 25, the day of Saint Mark, people go to various caves, all known as the home of St. Mark. They take candles, copal, frangipani strujng like beads. This is placed areound the neck of the rock which represents the god. They play vilin and drum music, enter with candles and fjumigate him with copal. A checken is killed and blood is sprinkled around. Another chicken, this one black, is let go live down the pothole, which is full of green water. Them leave goat or sheep broth, tortillas, tepache, aguardiente. A goat is killed, and blood from its neck is left in cave (sprinkled ?) People say that if water falls from above into pool, rains will come soon. If no drip falls when people are there, no rain will come.
If the rains do not come, people will make a second trip later to offer a chicken.
Agriculture -- before planting
Some people go through certain ceremonies before burning off their clearing. It is not clear to me whether they do this themselves or have a brujo do it for them. The toss by sevens pieces of copal into the middle of the clearing. They make a cross and put "flowers" made of cucharilla and palmilla on each side of it. They kill a checken and sprinkle blood on field, also aguardiente and tepache. They make mole and eat it. They also fumigate the field.
Not everyone does this at present.
Agriculture -- harvest
When the corn harvest is finished, the ears are piled up and a wooden cross decorated with flowers is stuck in the pile. Tepache is sprinkled over it. A shard of burning copal is placed in front iof it, and a bowl of chicken meat cooked with mole sauce from a sacrificed chicken. This is all a gift to the rain god.
\da Chanting doctrine - praying
This means chanting/praying doctrine. Mixtecs know how to, but Triques don't. Triques feel that they cannot pray to God because they do not know how to chant. For some ceremonies, Mixtec chanters (from SP Chayuco) are hired. Triques also hire curanderos to chant for them as part of cures using eggs, liquor and incense. These things are often done at the home of the person. There does not seem to be any special desire to pray in the church or in the direct presence of a statue.
Prayer causes devils and evil to flee, so houses of Mixtecs are safe, while houses of Triques are dangerous (ge5).
Triques want to learn this, to obtain favor from God, as well as protection. One woman asked for a book of doctrine to study, and then put a ribbon in front of it. By this, she hoped to get her husband back to support her and sleep with her.
Prayer is used for good fortune, healing, and for pardon??
\dt c. 1970
\mn 788
\ct Rituals
\da The sign of the cross is a magic act performed for petition or protection ('yah3 no32). It causes devils to flee.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 788
\ct Rituals
\da danya32
letania. When a child is sick, parents take it to priest and he recites prayers and scripture over it, lays on his hands and sprinkles holy water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 789
\ct Magic -- protection
\da Braided palm
A palm leaf, braided in such a way that the leaves stick out to sides is placed in cornfields as a protection against mean winds, so that corn will grow well.
To protect a house from evil, a witchdoctor uses tobacco or tropicl milkweed. he ties it is a cornhusk with an egg, and ties it all to the eaves of the house, outside, one bundle in each corner. This protects it from tough guys.
If divination with candles reveals that tough guys are coming, brujo buries and egg together with a divinging here alolng the trail, or he hangs it on a bush or tree. This frightens them, and they return home. Protection is also performed for people. A brujo was protecting a married couple and curing faintness. He chanted constantly, but the only words I could understand were Santo Señor. He took copal and an egg ih his hands and closed his hands over them and whisper blew on them. He poured liquor on the egg, took a swig, blew more, and added more copal. The egg was wrapped in a corn husk and put in a basket. He later rubbed another egg on the face, chest, back, and hands of the pair. Then the woman rubbed banans leaves in a gourd of water, and he took this plus chile and garlic, and he blew liquor and the banana-leaf water over the people and over eggs and molnehy held in his hand.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 789
\ct Magic
\da If a husband beats his wife too much, she gets a brujo to come prepare a meal and chant over it. When he eats it, he begins to love her and stops beating her. Any food will do.
Blows on hands, rubs them and mutters, cross of thumb and index to "bless" it, waving it over bowl.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 789
\ct Magic
\da See 754
\dt c. 1970
\mn 789
\ct Magic
\da There are said to be special stones used for witchcraft (good magic). One in Tilapa (originally in Copala) and one in Cruz Chiquita. The latter is black outside and silver inside.
When baby chickens or turkeys hatch, special care is taken of the shells. It is believed that the fate of the shells will be the fate of the chicks. The shells are threaded oh a stick, and they may be hung in a tree (some say no), or put away in the house, or hung in the eaves (neck) of the house. The shells may be put under a rock so that a hawk will not see the shells and come down and eat the chicks. Some people also smoke the shell by impaling them on a stick, and the stick is stuck in the wall or roof above the fire. This is so that the hawk will not see them, and so that they will grow well.
[[there is a similar custom in China, stringing shells on straw and hanging in chimney to proteck chicks from hawk. ]] CURSING
One way to curse people is to throw and egg at their house.
Other items that are used in evil magic are eggs, tobacco, florpondio, and coj èß scoláá -- you eat the leaves.
You blow aguardiente on anb egg and put it in a corn husk with copal, yellow chile, and floripondio or plant y taza (milkweed). Then you bury the bundle on the trail near the person’s house, or hang it on the wall. [[note the similarity between protecting and cursing]]
When eggs are used for magic, copal is stuck on them at the end and in crosses around the middle, or in a ring around the middle.
\dt c. 1970
79 ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION
791 Sorcerers and diviners 792 Prophets, monks and others 793 Clergy and priesthood 794 Religious congregations 795 Sects 796 Ceremonies 797 Proselytism and missions 798 Religious persecution
\mn 791
\ct Sorcerers and diviners
\da zii21 chruun4/xana5 chruun4
There are brujos who have power for both good and evil, but mostly for good. Brujos can cure, protect, divine, and cast spells. The power for good comes from gods, the sun and R.C. saints in church. The word basically means wise, learned person/women. There is no apprenticeship or training. The power/ wisdom comes from god, they say. Brujos can cast out devils.
The role is sort of charismatic, depending on personal qualifications.
Some brujos do good--others do evil.
They function to relieve anxiety in a family where someone is sick. Medicine and Religion come together in them.
Deformity is not a prerequisite to becomeing a brujo.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 791
\ct Sorcerers and diviners
\da To become a brujo, one has a dream calling one.
Or, one is very sick and "dies". But "sleep" lets him know his role and he is told to return to the world. So he revives and gets well. He becomes wise.
There doesn't seem to be a sex taboo for brujos, nor a minimum age, though must be adult.
Deformity is not a necessary qualification. AGA wrong here.
\dt c. 1970
\sr AGA
\mn 791
\ct Sorcerers and diviners
\da You become a brujo by "herencia". Long ago, the grandmother Ga’aj chose 7 men and 7 women to become the first brujos. The sun god chose 3 men and 3 women to become brujos also. The latter are better.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 791
\ct Sorcerers and diviners
\da Shaman can turn into ants, which are fast animals.
\dt c. 1980
\sr MV
\mn 791
\ct Sorcerers and diviners
\da zi21 'yah3 chre53 One who curses
This is not a role as such. It means to do evil magic. It is "delicate" to do it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 792
\ct Prophets, monks and others \da Within Trique society, no such roles as prophet or monk occur, but R.C. nuns are known and live in town to teach school and sell medicine, etc.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 793
\ct Clergy and priesthood
\da xreh3/padre32
This is an R.C. priest. Priests are respected and their hands kissed because they are good (= important?), holy, and like gods. Priests are necessary for such ceremonies as baptism and marriage but are otherwise superfluous to the fiesta system except for the mass they say.
Ignacio N. Jauregui, 1961 through July 1963 Sóstenes Ramírez Torralba, 1964-1969 Juan Hernández, 1969- ?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 793
\ct Clergy and Priesthood
\da zi21 na'wih21 rezador maestro cantor
Chanters are usually Mixtecs imported for the occasion. No Trique really knows how. They are used in cross raisings and other ceremonies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da The only organization really relevant to Trique religion is the annually shifting mayordomía.
A possible exception is the All Saints fiesta, which is a home and family affair, not just a town one (though it has a mayordomo and is celebrated in the church, too).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations \da we'3 xumaan32
Used by mayordomos for dipping candles.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da Service as mayordomo is "voluntary" in that a person must give his consent. Extreme social pressure is put on to make people consent, however (like putting them in jail).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da Mayordomos have to find a group of helpers to share the burden of the fiesta (diputados = mayu32). The mayordomo has to feed these men certain meals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da Religious functionaries choose their own successor, who in turn, chooses his diputados. (Secular functionaries are chosen by the principales).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da There is a fiestita a few months before the fiesta to initiate a mayordomo- to-be into the selling part of the cargo. It is called "the new ones appear". The fiscal uses his staff to make the sign of the cross over the flower jug of tepache of responsibility.
Cámaras are exploded. The new ones drink the tepache, and the old mayordomo hands over the father of money to the new mayordomo, who divides it up with his mayores.
The old mayordomo pays for this fiesta. If the new one runs away, he has to pay for the cámaras.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 794
\ct Religious congregations
\da Transfer of office
The outgoing mayordomo and his diputados must prepare a large quantity of food (seven bowls), which are given to the new mayordomo and his diputados at the fiesta. The latter eat it, to symbolize the passing on of the responsibility to them. The old group is then free. The candles and clothes of the saint are also transferred at this time, each in a box. No staff or rod is used for religious offices.
The old mayordomo must also give 100 pesos to new mayordomo as capital to earn enough for the next fiesta. The transfer is called natuh21 go'o3 rian34 zo?3 a
On the day before (di3?nu34) the fiesta, bean atole is given to the new mayordomo, and on the very day of the fiesta, stew is given to him.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 795
\ct Sects
\da At the present (1969) there are no competing churches in Copala (though the R.C. official church and the fiesta system aren't in harmony). Cf. 797
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da In barrios, the fiestas of Carnaval, St. Mark, and Santa Cruz are celebrated with their own mayordomos.
On the fiesta of Santa Cruz, they play music in the house of the rain god.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da 2nd Friday
Town of ya'anh34 gosaluna32 S. of Tlax. -- Santa Catarina Yosonotú
X Teposcolula/ xuman'3 zigoluna32 xia21 ya'anh34 ya'anh34 zigoluna32/Sr. de la Columna (because supports sky)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da The fiesta is the typical unit of religious observance. Fiestas fall into an annual cycle, some fixed and some (because of the variable date of Easter) movable. Fiestas are reference points for remembering dates.
A fiesta has a 3-day structure: 1. naran'3 yah34 - join flowers - 2 days before 2. ni3 di'nu34 - eve - day before 3. misa32 - mass - very day
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da yo'3 naka5
New Year's day. This is the time when the new civil officials take office and there is a fiesta.
It is believed that at this time people get "new hearts". They don't do anything to make this happen--it just happens. nu3 naka5 niman32 yuwi35 a. It is believed that the world becomes good again--reshines. In contrast, at end of old year, there is trouble because the "tough guys" are on the move.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da New Years
Everyone bathes the last day of the year, even the women. They have a fiesta for themselves in each home.
At midnight, they look for a cloud in the sky and if there is one, or if it is raining, that means it will be a good year for crops.
\dt 6/88
\sr SLM
\mn 796 \ct Ceremonies
\da One of the St. Mark caves is in Yerba Santa, in open country, in view of our house. Another is E of us, and the wooded hill east of town has a rock, but no cave.
There is said to be one per barrio.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 zaziron32 May 15 San Isidro Labrador
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 rutze5 May 3 Dia de la Cruz
This is the fiesta of the cross. A band comes and plays at the various crosses near town. The crosses and the houses are decorated with palmilla and spoon flowers. Fireworks and food, drum and violin. Fumigate cross with copal.
In the evening, people dance, men and women in separate groups, between two bonfires.
This fiesta is also celebrated in Río Venado.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da za'anh34 zagwa32 June 24 San Juan Bautista
"Conjunto de mayordomos"
Formerly the patrón. There is a legend that Tatachú was meant for Guerrero, but donkeys stopped in Copala. San Juan fled to mountain then and lives there now. That's why there are flowers there.
St. John the Baptist
\dt c. 1970 \mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 xiki'32 Aug. 4 Santo Domingo
No such statue in church
(Cesar Huerta Ríos Aug. 6 Fiesta del gasto - no saint)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 du'vii3 Apr. 25 each barrio
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 zame32 - Sept 29 San Miguel
The fiesta of St. Michael comes at the time when cornfields have "espigas". People pick a cluster of espigas to put before his statue.
People wear good clothes and dance.
9/27 Flowers are gathered 9/28 víspera 9/29 misa
He is said by non-Triques to be the patrón of horsemen.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 ro32 xana5 Oct. 7 Nuestra Señora del Rosario
The statue of the virgin is carried through the streets. On Oct. 7, people were making flower bundles of ladle flowers and marigolds in front of church, band playing, aguardiente passed.
Big fiesta in Amuzgos. In Putla, Dia de la Natividad - pretty big.
Oct. 6 - blessing of truck Oct. 7 - Calendar Oct. 8 & 9 - girl dressed as virgin rides in truck \dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 nano32 ni'32 go'oo3 noon Oct. 31 noon Nov. 2
For this fiesta, a table (may take up 1/2 of house - high, women can work under it) is lashed of poles in the house and decorated. A bent pole is tied above it and marigolds are lashed to completely cover poles and a shiny green leaf is also used to decorate. Oranges may be hung.
On the table, candles burn and plates of food and stacks of totopo are placed. Figures made of chen34 straw are woven for decoration - horse, donkey, hummingbird.
The table is fumigated with incense in a bowl, homemade bowls of unbaked earth may be used.
Tepache is poured at base of table for spirits to drink.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 zando32 Noon Oct 31 - Noon Nov. 12 Todos Santos
1st day of All Saints fiesta when souls of dead babies and children are believed to return--noon to noon.
Food is put out for them - torts or totopo and beans. Beans are cooked with meat, cilantro, chile, salt. A candle burns and a jicara of water is out and all is on a bed of fresh flowers - salvia (lavender) and others.
All Saints
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 chih34 Noon Nov. 1- noon Nov. 2 Dia de los Muertos
2nd day of All Saints day when souls of dead adults are believed to return - noon to noon.
Food is put out for them--hominy, stewed meat and chile broth, atole with poleo, beans with cow foot.
Table is decorated with ladle leaves and marigolds; marigold covered rings of supple branches, which are hats for the ancestors; oranges. The marigolds completely cover poles, straight and bent, and are tied on with palm. Woven horses are put out. Cigarettes and water are on table; also totopo and chayotes. Candles burn.
All saints
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 dalupe32 Dec 12 Virgin of Guadalupe
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da On December 22, the new mayordomo of Tatachú and his mayores receive the "tepache of responsibility" and drink it. They all get together and look at the candles. They make new candles. This man will put on the fiesta in a year and 3-4 months.
\dt 12/22/71
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 a'nga34 ne'eh3 Dec. 24 Navidad
Triques believe that the baby is born each year in town. They asked if the baby was to be born in our house when we decorated it. Baby is born in other towns too. They say that the baby is born in church with virgin and St. Joseph and that the mayordomo "causes" it, at night on Christmas eve.
They make a house in church of koh34 ni'yu'3 and the virgin spends 20 days there before returning to her box.
Everyone drinks atole to celebrate and people bring flowers to put in front of saints. Poinsettias are put in house with baby god.
There seems to be no conception of a once-for-all unique incarnation as an historical event.
Although local Mixtecs have Posadas, the Trique do not.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 xilolo4 Before Lent
Young men, some married, dress in costume and dance. There is a group from each barrio. All wear masks and some cover heads. Each has a pole with paper streamers. Some have "hats" of split bamboo with paper covering and streamers. Most have socks and clothes are Trique cut, but wild cloth. Some have mirrors on chest, bells on ankles. Some groups have 2 "women", one in dress and one in huipil. Some groups also have an old man, dark clothes, stick, beard, old hat. He is said to be the father who cares for the boys. Some groups also have a lion, who catches boys, and pretends coitus with his tail held between his legs, then lets them go. Some may have horned masks.
These groups dance Sunday through Tuesday before Lent. In barrio, Sunday and Tuesday and in Copala on Monday. Various places in town. One group had a paper Mexican flag.
The rationale for the fiesta is that the young men play because the 3rd Friday fiesta is near; that it's custom; that it's fun.
This fiesta, like others, includes liquor, fireworks, music. There are a set of songs, one for each dance.
1. individual shuffle steps - basic 2. pairs - stomp foot 3x, then other foot, change places. 3. circle around girl - go one way, shout and change direction. 4. link arms and swing 5. two rows, like Virginia Reel (clown, acrobat)
See 8 1/2 x 11 notebook for a description of masks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da The carnaval dancers go to each house in the barrio to dance and the inhabitants bring out 1-2 liters of aguardiente. The dancers stay until the liquor is gone. In 1973, the houses of evangelicals were bypassed.
\dt c. 1973
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da gwe3'nuh5 ra21 yah3 Ash Wednesday
Fires are put out and ashes are gathered and thrown out and hearth swept. A new fire is started.
Ashes are said to be "yu'wa'5".
There is also a procession, but no ashes on head.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 werne32 'ngo4
This is considered a fiesta of Christ. Palm branches are placed in each house, on church door, on crosses. A man is responsible for passing them all out.
In afternoon, village is swept, and trash burned. In front of church, men make lanterns of wood, bamboo, and colored paper. As they work, music is played, cohetes fired, liquor drunk. Chains of flowers also made (worked during rosary).
At dusk, there is a procession that visits crosses at four corners, counterclockwise. First go out church and go south, then cross river and around. The virgin, crucifix and one other are carried (counterclockwise).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da 2nd Thursday of Lent, four crosses from church are decorated with leaves and placed in town hall with candles and copal. Holy week they go back to church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 werne32 wa'nuh5
This is largely commercial--the biggest market of the year, (see 443, and fun, a big spectacle--see 541).
This is fiesta of Tatachú, the patron of the village (Christ carrying cross on shoulder). A novena is celebrated and different barrios are assigned different days to provide flowers, etc. But Triques don't think of it as a novena.
There is a procession Friday afternoon. People have candles, flowers, incense. Tatachú under a canopy wearing a purple velvet cloak covered with amulets and two other saints carried. Don't want pictures taken.
Some festivity at dusk each day.
During height of commercial activity, three men go around, one with bell, one with plate and one with statue of risto32 lee32 for offering. There are castillos and toros as well as minor fireworks. Pine needles on church floor.
On Saturday, the boxes of candles change from old mayordomo to new mayordomo.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da At 3rd Friday fiesta, population of the village at least quadruples. Mestizos bring tents. Triques and Mixtecs build ramadas. Several people set up restaurants.
People come from far away - Oaxaca, Huajuapan, Puebla, Tezoatlán, Guerrero (Mestizos for commerce).
Indian areas represented are San José de las Flores (huipil), San José Yusucañu (long skirt and two blouses), Zacatepec, (diaper boys), Secialpa (?), Gro., Guadalupe, Gro. SAC, La Laguna, Tlapa,Gro., Coicoyán, Sto. Tomás Ocotepec.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da At 3rd Friday fiesta, there is a high mass (3 priests) and a novena, though Triques are vague about the latter. For nine evenings there are candles, flowers, and a rosary before the actual day of the fiesta.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 raman32 Palm Sunday Domingo de Ramas / Ramos
There is a procession to the little hill S of town, where a leaf-arch is erected. One statue is carried up there around 11 a.m. and then carried back to church.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da From Tuesday of holy week until Saturday, it is believed that the world becomes dark. People don't work. Then on Sunday, the world "shines" again.
1. gun3 rumi'4 xumi35 2. naxugun35 xumi35
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da What happens during the holy week is vague and confused. One version is that on Wednesday of holy week, the crucifix is put in jail until Sunday morning early. He doesn't die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Wednesday of Holy Week
This day all candles in church are put out, and a cloth is put over the eyes of the crucifix.
God doesn't really die--the church door closes for a few days. He is wounded though? Wednesday? Friday?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Wednesday noon Christ is put in jail
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Thursday noon, Christ and his "children" (= people) eat goat barbecue.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Friday of Holy Week (Good Friday)
This is the day God dies and the devil walks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Good Friday
This involves a trip to the cemetery.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Friday, a cloth is put on Christ's face and there is a procession. There are no candles in church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Saturday of Holy Week
This is the day God comes alive and the devil flees. The cloth is taken off Christ's face and mirrors are waved in front of it to wake him up. Candles are lit again in church.
Water is carried into church. Those responsible for carrying it put leaves called yah34 runah34 on head for shade. The water is put in front of crucifix and is blessed (na32 no32) and people drink it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Sabado de Gloria
New fire - vague 10-11 a.m. Fast until then; fast Good Friday, too. Early they put out fire and start it again at noon. It's "delicate" to have fire.
Eat chiladas Saturday and Sunday.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Saturday of Holy Week
People make two booths, one in cemetery and one in town--say Gods live in them on Sunday.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 paskwa32
This is the day the saints go for a walk. People wear new clothes and take tacos with them to hills. There is mole to eat.
Mayordomos go to hill in morning. Later, a procession starts out with the virgin and two crucifixes for the hill near Yerba Santa. The statues are covered with flower garlands of frangipani and bougainvillea. The saints dance on hill at cross.
At dusk they return, stopping from time to time. The saints are put down on petates. A woman carries the virgin and men the crucifixes. There are cohetes, violin and drum playing special Easter song (also various songs), liquor, incense, people carry candles and sprinkle tepache on ground.
Pine needs on floor of church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 rumendo32 variable May-June Corpus Cristi Thursday after Trinity
Vat of mole and petate sack of torts to eat.
Cámaras and cohetes Band Walk saint on hill west of town Sp. l. - Sacramento Corpus Christi
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da San Sebasti/an Jan. 20 Tecomaxtlahuaca
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Santiago July 25 Juxtlahuaca
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da You can hear sea roar as it "plays" on St. James day, July 25. Horses play, too.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 xiki'3 Aug. 4 kih34 ni3 guee5 Sto. Domingo
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Natividad Sept. 8 Yucunicoco Virgin de las Remedios xa'anh34 ndita32
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies \da xa'anh34 sime32 Sept. 29 ra4 rukwa34 dako21 ramih34
San Miguel
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da yu'we34 xmuu32 Friday - 2 weeks after Rosario fiesta in Copala Juxtlahuaca
This is a special market day in October about two weeks after the Rosario fiesta (Oct. 7) in Copala, and one week before the large market day just before All Saints.
It commemorates (?) people from long ago who walk in street with old petates on their back. \dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da yu'we34 xinanga32 Juxtlahuaca Last Friday in October
This is a very large market day just before All Saints day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da San Andrés Nov. 30 Chicahuaxtla
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da Immaculate Conception Dec. 8 Zacatepec Concepción Immaculada de Nuestra Señora Concepción Carrizal
\dt c. 1970 \mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 lupe32 Dec. 12 nichruu3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da xa'anh34 xilolo4 each barrio
\dt c. 1970
\mn 796
\ct Ceremonies
\da werine32 wih5 nichruun3
\dt c. 1970
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da The new believers show several carryovers from the old system:
1. They think only specialists can pray adequately. 2. Religious specialists should be paid for their services. 3. A function such as a baptism demands a fiesta. 4. There are no regular meetings. 5. Literacy is not greatly valued. 6. A building is very important to them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da Ways in which the basic culture carries over into the attitude of the believers:
1) General customs are maintained, if there is no clear connection with evil in their minds, for example, incest taboos are strong and are maintained and women follow birth taboos.
2) Education of children is totally un-formal. They get it by osmosis. Because of this, the believers have made no attempt to give their kids any formal Christian education. There is no Sunday school or equivalent and it seems unimportant to adults to have the kids attend services.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da There is a low-key evangelistic attempt by ourselves, as foreigners, coupled with our medical and educational goals.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da Through a Trique man, Pablo Ramírez Flores, who spent three years in Caborca, Sonora, and was converted to evangelical Christianity through an Assemblies of God church there, there was a people movement in San Miguel Copala in November 1971 (resulting from his preaching at a town meeting there) culminating in a baptism on April 21, 1972, with 28 men and 24 women baptized. Also four women from Sabana. Also, a small group of Triques in Sabana, members of his family, were converted too. By 1975, all but three or four of believers in SMC had fallen away.
New Christians are characterized by 1) non participation in the fiesta system; 2) total abstinence from alcohol; 3) community participation in practical projects; 4) not attending mass (though some have sent their children to R.C. schools); 5) refusal to use shamans.
\dt c. 1975
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da Church growth and spread of gospel:
Attending service is considered virtually equal to commitment, so interested people don't come. The gospel is thought of as in opposition to the cult of wooden saints. There is much talk in private about the gospel. The gospel is equated more with Fernando than with Pablo among the Triques not yet believers.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Agustin
\mn 796 \ct Ceremonies
\da The official R.C. system and the Copala Trique system are essentially separate, with a few points of true contact only. Baptism of babies is important in both systems, although the meaning is different in each. Mass at fiestas is also important. Otherwise, the services of a priest are not required by the C.T. system.
The resident priest in Copala has a program, but the Triques have their own and different program. I have observed the priest calling people to rosary while the mayordomo and his helpers sat in the churchyards making paper lanterns. The latter group continued with their work throughout the rosary. During mass, Triques mill around the church and talk, or engage in curing ceremonies, anything but pay attention. Just before the elevation of the host, one old woman once brought a jícara of oranges to the priest as a gift.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 797
\ct Proselytism and missions
\da Work in northern Mexico has had a definite effect on attitude toward the gospel. People are freer to consider new ideas when they are away from the social pressure of Copala. Pablo became a believer up there and he talked about it to his fellow Triques. Some from San Miguel became interested up there in Sonora and they were the nucleus of the movement in San Miguel.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Pablo
\mn 798
\ct Religious persecution
\da The Triques, though having only minimal exposure to other religions (mainly Protestant), are quite intolerant of deviations from their system. A person who conforms outwardly is OK. One who deviates too far may be murdered.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 798
\ct Religious persecution
\da There has been some open persecution. We have been kicked out two or three times over opposition stirred up by R.C. priest or Trique traditionalists, and there is petty trouble for Bruce every time he goes to town.
In the summer of 1972, Toño and his wife and parents were called to the town hall and there was a big fuss. They were going to beat him, but the sergeant intervened and spoke in his favor. There was a murder attempt on one of the believers in San Miguel which resulted in a head wound for another believer.
\dt c. 1972
\sr Toño COPALA TRIQUE ANTHROPOLOGY EIGHT
Numbers omitted because irrelevant for Trique 81 scientific and philosophical knowledge
80 NUMBERS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURE
801 Numerology 802 Numeration 803 Mathematics 804 Weights and measures 805 Measures of time
\mn 801
\ct Numerology
\da Seven (7) seems to be a significant number. In Manuel's story, seven kinds of wasps were in the deerskin and the Ga'aj came out on seven lomitas before finding it.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Manuel
\mn 802
\ct Numeration
\da The number system is described in the grammar 8 1/2 x 11 notebook, q.v.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 802
\ct Numeration
\da In 10/90, Seve, with primary school and one year of Bible school, seemed to be forgetting the Trique number system. He had to think to get them.
\dt 10/90
\sr Seve
\mn 803
\ct Mathematics
\da The vast majority are completely illiterate. They mostly keep accounts in their heads, but may use grains of corn to help them figure out large amounts. Four basic operations are used, add and subtract more than the other two.
Many adult women have trouble figuring the price of more than 10 or so eggs.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 804
\ct Weights and Measures
\da The system of measurement is described in the lexical section of the grammar notebook, g.v.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 805
\ct Measures of time
\da There do not seem to be any remaining traces of a pre- Columbian calendar.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 805
\ct Measure of time
\da See description of time units in lexical section of grammar notebook.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 805
\ct Measure of time
\da Sunday is the last day of the old week, and the new week begins on Monday.
Monday follows Tuesday Tuesday precedes Monday
\dt c. 1970
82 IDEAS ABOUT MAN AND THE WORLD
821 Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy) 822 Ethnophysics 823 Ethnogeography 824 Ethnobotany 825 Ethnozoology 826 Ethnoanatomy 827 Ethnophysiology 828 Ethnopsychology 829 Ethnosociology
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy)
\da The world (zumi35) includes land, sea and sky (= the whole visible universe). After death, however, people go to a different one.
Future time is viewed as up in the sky, waiting to descend.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy)
\da The world can be frightened (guxu'wi'3 xumi35) if a baby is left to cry, some women say.
Some people say the world is alive.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy)
\da Cosmology
The Copala Trique view the sky as the heartwood of the universe (ruzika'3 xumi35 a). The sky is like an inverted bowl over the land. It is hard and if you went up, you could bump your head on it.
The heavenly bodies stand in it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy)
\da The sun is believed to go inside the earth/or under it at night (inside/under = word is ambiguous.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The phases of the moon are described as a baby moon growing, walking all night, and getting tired. Thus, it goes through a life cycle each month. See 776 for affect of moon phases on agriculture and other aspects of life.
It is said to rain at dark of moon.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Eclipses
The moon or sun (?) is said to be burning up. There is no feeling of danger to pregnant women or growing things, however.
People are scared and throw water up to sky. It is also said that powder covers the moon.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da A rabbit is seen on the surface of the moon, sitting up facing left as you look at risen full moon.
Some say he's there because he's smart (or tricky). Others say the moon god swallowed him before going to sky. Some say the rabbit in the moon has a hare lip.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Saying
A tipped crescent moon brings wind or rain; a straight one brings good weather.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The morning star is recognized as appearing just before dawn, but no evening star.
xida'nga3 = luceno = Venus This is not connected with the feathered serpent, however. The evening star is xa3chran5 yukwah21, probably Venus, according to MV.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MV
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Very few constellations are recognized:
Plow (Orion's belt and sword) Pleiades - several names, one is yuwe21 duwe32 (soplador) because of shape Cross (Southern) Stokes (Taurus' head) identified with stakes for warping Midnight ditch (Milky Way) - looks like lime
2004: check yuwe duwe -- maybe Bootes
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da xachran5 yukwah21 - Venus, evening star two plows, good one is Orion's belt Stakes - Taurus' head Scorpion $$ Pleiades
\dt 1980
\sr MV
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Various folklore is associated with the Southern Cross. Some people say there are two crosses. One is from God and has bent arms. Another is from the devil and has outstretched arms. It is composed of six stars low in sky.
Some people say there are many crosses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821 \ct Ethnometeorology
\da Other beliefs
Obsidian blades are thought to be meteors. Meteors are said to be star dung.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da When meteors fall, they drop money at foot of cliffs/rocks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da When clouds are on top of the mountains in the morning, people say it is the cloud from the mouth of the snake, because it is like the breath from the mouth of the rainbow snake.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Mackerel sky effect is a result of birds scratching sky.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Some clouds are thought to cause the wind to blow.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da There's a story that there are three winds in the sky, very strong. One is called the nana5 ya'ah53, the chile wind. It's up near the hard part of the sky.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Wind (bad and good) comes from bottomless pits, which are home of rainbow.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Sky is believed to be bluest in Oct., Nov., Dec. because there is no smoke and few clouds.
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Both the grandmothers (ga'ah34 and guyuh21) are now living inside the snow- capped mountains (Popo, Ixti, Orizaba). The ga'ah34 grandmother sends the hummingbird to see how things are and drink the nectar and he drinks bean flower nectar and forgets her orders. Then, when the beans are ripening, the hummingbird returns and speaks gossiping to her. He deceives her and tells her there are still nice flowers. He wants to help people, but she is envious of people's prosperity and she sends the cold strong wind and frost at the end of the year, when the crops are maturing and ruins them a bit. (If the hummingbird had gone earlier, she'd have sent the wind sooner and ruined everything).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The change of the year is believed to bring about the strong NE winds, and the change of the month lessens NE winds.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The R.C. saints are believed to control the wind and prevent it from ruining crops. The mayordomo of Tatachu prays to them and they "bless" the grandmother ga'ah who sends the wind. When she is "blessed", she "lets off".
\dt c. 1970 \mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da When the sparrow hawk faces toward the east (to SAC) to "dance" (hover), that means it will rain. When it faces to the north, that means it will clear up. (It is true that a north wind means clear weather and an east wind brings rain).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Saying
When sparrow hawk cries out, it's clear.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Saying
When sparrow hawk hovers, wind will come up.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The thunder is the voice of the thunder god crying out.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da If it thunders to the North or East, it will rain, but if it thunders to the West, it won't rain.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology \da Weather
Thunder on the mountain to N, NE of house means that there will be no rain, but rather wind.
Thunder to the S, SE, on the other hand, brings rain.
This is what people say and it seems to be true.
Rain is believed to be caused by the ya'anh34 da'wi53. Wind is believed to be caused by the ya'anh34 da'wi53 nako5.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Saying
If you're sleepy, it will rain later that day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da Smoke is believed to cause rain. The Triques link the smoke that fills the world from the burning of clearings in April and May to the rains which soon follow.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 821
\ct Ethnometeorology
\da The rainbow is said to be a snake that lives in swamps. It is bad (a few say good). It eats the souls of dead people in the other world.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 822
\ct Ethnophysics
\da Ideas of time
Time isn't thought of as something to be spent, as most Americans do.
Future is uphill and past downhill. Monday follows Tuesday and March follows April, rather than v.v., as in English.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 822
\ct Ethnophysics
\da MML used dinda32 for blues and blue-greens (even a few that were green to me. He uses black-faced or blackish pink for purple and retains pink for all pink and lightish reds. His system is quite totally Spanish except that he lack orange and uses dah13 for all light colors except yellow and pinks.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MML
\mn 822
\ct Ethnophysics
\da Shadows are thought of as lingering after death; therefore, they are part of the psyche.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 822
\ct Ethnophysics
\da It is believed that the earth eats the flesh of corpses.
When a pot mades noises before the water boils, people say that there.s a worm in the pot crying. Others say the water is crying.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da The ocean is called divine water, and is thought to be alive. It is located on the edge of the world. It "plays" (surface has a lot of waves) in July.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da Ocean is salty because the country there is hot/because that's how God made it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da The world is thought of as large - "flat". No particular shape. It has an edge.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da God shows poor people where their ancestors' money is hidden by sending lightning to strike at night in the place where it is hidden. This is called ya'an34 yuwe34. Some people say the devil sends it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da There is a xumi35 xuma'3 ya'anh34 far away, the old men say.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da The center of the world - ombligo del mundo (zituh21 xumi35) is considered to be located on the top of (raa35) kih34 ruze34. This is because there is a sort of hole or valley and because it is located at a watershed.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da Soil Triques recognize three kinds of soil:
Loamy - covered by the flood - in low country - good for crops Sticky - missed by the flood - in high country - not so good. Clay - red - makes pottery
Loamy is called cooked, burned, fevered soil. Sticky is called raw.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da Triques, because they live on a mountain, orient themselves as uphill or downhill or to one side.
Because of sunrise and sunset, E and W are more often spoken of than N and S (which can be oriented by nearby towns).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da Local ideas of direction, i.e., north is uphill and south is downhill, tend to be projected to the whole world, even when they don't fit.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da Scenery is not considered especially pretty, but clear air is.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography
\da All or most caves, which abound in the region, are considered to be dwellings of the thunder god.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 823
\ct Ethnogeography \da Earthquakes are said to occur as a punishment to evildoers, especially those who strike or kill their parents. The earth opens and swallows them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotany
\da See lexical file for list of all Trique names for plants and their identification and uses.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotany
\da Plants may have no use, or any of the following:
Food Medicine Building - zacate, wood, vine, banana bark Sweeping Ground cover, as for butchering Wrapping and tying - corn husk Glue - orchid bulbs Offering to saints - flowers & decorative leaves Fodder Witchcraft - narcotics Fencing Stakes and loom parts Dyeing Fiber (cotton, ixtle)
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotony
\da Many plants used by meztizos and Mixtecs for medicine (probably of Spanish origin) are not used by the Triques:
mirto, artemisa, romero, albahaca, salvia Even ruda is barely known. Local meztizos, however, use all of them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotony \da Plants
Cacti and very thorny plants are said to be ze3 tanh4 zi3 chre53 (devil's thorns). Flowers, on the other hand, are said to belong to God.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotany
\da If you grab a koh34 yangih21, you'll die--it "stings", you'll get stung.
If you grab a koh34 aka34 yidih4, then your clothes will burn.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 824
\ct Ethnobotany
\da If you dream of greens, you'll die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
LOS DUEÑOS DE LOS ANIMALES
Animals are said to have dueños. Beneficial animals are God’s pets or pets of christ, and harmful animals are devil’s pets. Some say the devil created harmful animals. Others say God made all the animals.
The animals that belong to the devil include snakes, heloderm lizard, spider, especially black widow, scorpion, wasp, buzzard, eagle, fox, coyote, cat, mouse, all harmful animals. Some say also black animals. Lion, "duj", jaguar, pecccary, coati.
There is a difference of opinion about the lion. Some say it belongs to the devil, others, to San Agustín, other to God.
Animals that belong to God include lion, dog, chicken, cow, goat, deer, butterfly. Also most birds, including oriole, sparrow, owl.
People also say that all animals have a dueño: domestic animals belong to people, and wild animals belong to the mountain god. Another belief is that God made animals initially, but the earth gods are the ones who make animals abound. But they assign to God the role of keeping animals from getting lost. Animals that are said to belong to the mountain god include rabbit and squirrel, cows, goats, deer.
Some say that some animals belong to various gods, some to the devil, and some to no one. Some say wasps and bees have no owner.
Animals that some say have no owner include: rabbit, squirrel, oriole, hummingbird, collared lizard, swift, tre frog, checken, toad.
The rain god is said by some to be the owner of some animals. Anolis lizard, sparrow hawk, swallow. These animals are signs about the weather.
This idea is developed so that various saints are said to be the dueño of animales (probably equivalent to the idea of a patrón in Spanish).
Saint Isidro is the patron saint of farming and draft animals. Men burn candles to him to bless their work. He blesses animals, makes them work hard, and makes them become gentle. His statue shows him behind a plow, and he blesses animals. His fiesta is May 15.
Yaßanj sameé (San Miguel) blesses people, wild and domestic animals, and plants, but he is not said to be the owner of them.
There is said to be a picture or statue in the Copala church, Yaßanj Salinó (Marcelino?) said to be the owner of chickens.
Santo Domingo is said to be the owner of dogs.
Yaßanj salacuá (San Lucas ?) is in the church in San Martín Itunyoso, and he is said to own domestic animales -- goats, sheep, donkey, horse, cow, chickens. If you go there and pray to him, your animals will abound.
TONA AND NAGUAL
Everyone is believed to have an animal companion, called his "become again animal" (xcuu nahuun yuviì, síí nahuun). The animals that serve as companions include the tigre - snißyó, león - chuvaà, deer - xtaj3, fox - chonee, owl - chaßuù, great horned owl - tucutúnj, coyote - xcaßyánj, ardilla - xaá, puerco espín - tucutanj. Also skunk, weasel, snake, deer, rabbit. People do not know which animal is their companion. Some people say also monkey, possum, coati, "duj", raccoon.
There is a belief that people have certain characteristics of these animals.
If your companion animal is a violent one (lion, jaguar, duj), then you are a síí yuvàà.
If your companion animal is a a coyote or fox, you are a thief.
... a rabbit, you are tricky in your speech.
... a deer, you are good.
... a possum, you are not smart / you are industrious / you want things. ... a raccoon, you will be blamed falsely.
... a coati, you will work hard and eat well.
If you do not smoke, people say you have a snake tonal.
When you get gray hair mixed with black, people say they are the hairs of your tonal appearing on your head. cutziin32 nanj3 -- said mainlhy of possum or dumb person.
If your companion animal dies, then you will die too, except that a brujo can help you find another one. The brujo kills a chcken nd put the caldo and eggs on a rock or treetop to ask for more years for the sick person. He crushes certain leaves and mixes them with chicken blood, and he bathes the person.
People say you can tell a tonal fox from an ordinary fox because the tonal fox is smaller, has rounder eyes, and the meat stinks and is red, not fatty. You can eat the fatty meat from an ordinary fox, but not the meat from a tonal fox.
I have not recorded information about brujos that turn into animals at night (nagual).
IDEAS ABOUT ANIMALS confusion between two different animals
Freeliving planaria are thought to be liver flukes. If you drink water that contains planaria, you will get liver flukes, people say.
It is believed that sphinx moths turn into hummingbirds. that is why they call them butterfly hummingbirds (check this)
Stages in the life cycle of insects are not always recognized. The relation between the xnakaa grub and the xtamàà / xtamaà beetle (June bug) is known, but we have been told that the former becomes a cicada, or perhaps a smaller kind called a xnacaa nii, and a larger kind xnacaa xìj becomes a butterfly. The idea that the adults lay eggs that become the caterpillars did not always seems to be recognized. For pupation the term nahuun xnacaa chruj, nè xraß uún xtamaàn is used.
\da If you dream of fish, you'll get money.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
BELIEFS ABOUT SNAKES Rattlesnakes come out and are happy when the wind comes up at the end of the rainy season. There is the most danger of a bite at this time. When it thunders, rattlesnakes hide under rocks. They are scared of the thunder because they belong to the devil. It is also said that when it thunders, rattlesnakes stretch themselves out to full length.
\da If you dream about ants or other stinging animals, you will die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da Young roosters are believed to say Jesucristo (gi3zugri3zito32) when frightened.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da If you dream that a cow dies, you'll die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da If a woman grabs a tiny toad (pi'3) she'll have only girl babies.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da If you dream of tadpoles or frogs, you'll get poor.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da If you dream of bees, you'll die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825 \ct Ethnozoology
\da See Hollenbach, Elena. E. de 19__. "El Mundo animal en el folklore de Los Triques de Copala" Tloloc
\dt c. 1970
\mn 825
\ct Ethnozoology
\da See lexical file for list of all Trique names for animals and their identification.
One classification of animals is into those that eat chickens and those that eat milpa. Foxes and dogs eat both poultry and elotes and so belong to both groups. There are also animals that eat neither -- they chéé maßàn -- just walk. Cornfield coati rabbit peccary fox squirrel parrot macaw raccoon chickens hawk fox weasel possum coyote just walk armadillo anteater otter wildcat xtihaj
Another classification is into those that have different dueños -- God, the devil, the mountain god, various saints.
Still another classification is into those that are considered to be the souls of dead people returning -- used to be people. Xcuu nimán. All of these animals give a mala seña when they come, meaning that someone is going to die. They come to take the soul with them. [[misery loves company?]] These animals include the boa, some kinds of butterfly (mourning cloak, buckeye and others), all lizards, and the fox. The owls and foxes give their signs by whistling or crying out, but the boa and butterfly only by their presence. It is not taboo to kill these animals. Another special group of animals are those that give signs, usually a bad sign. When they cry out or are present, it means that someone is going to die or that trouble is going to come. In addition to the ones in the above paragraph, which are souls returning, there are two kinds of solitary wasps and the velvet ant (xcuu yaa and xcuaa duj32, duú. If they have nothing in their mouths, they are not giving a sign. If you see them with a cricket or spider in their mouth, a woman will die. If you see them with a worm in their mouth, a man will die. It is not taboo to kill these.
Speakers tend to see things fairly concretely. Abstract classification is not part of their system. One speaker who had never attended school could not come up with characteristics shared by all birds, such as feathers. The Trique bird class includes mainly perching birds, but not hawk, buzzard, parrot, hummingbird, raven, roadrunner. It does include inca dove. To express the botanical group of birds, it would be necessary to say that they fly, that they have a beak, or that they have feathers.
MYTHICAL ANIMALS There is a xcuáá racàj (lizardy snake), which lives in the ocean, and which may be either a crocodile or a dragon. It is shaped like a lizard and is big enough to eat a person. Perhaps put this under 776
There is a xcuáá cußlúú, which means either rainbow or lightning serpent. These creatures are said to drink sunshine and to live in swamps in Yosoyuxi. Others say they live in hoyos del viento (bottomless pits / sinkholes). Some say they are bad, devils, and are associated with swamps. Others say they are good and cause the weather to clear. Some say it swallows the souls of dead people and they go to another world. -- or maybe he swallows them after they go to another world.
Monkeys were people who escaped from the flood long ago.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da Physical Characteristics - women
The following characteristics are considered pretty:
Long, thick hair, no split ends Fair skin, no pinto, not too dark Fatness, especially in legs No veins showing fertility
\dt c. 1970 \mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da Dimples are not believed to be pretty.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da Low country people say that their blood is ugly because they have dark skin. They value fairness.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da Women don't want to have overly big breasts, or they will be embarrassed.
\dt Oct. 18, 1976
\sr JLM
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da Physical Characteristics - Men
The following characteristics are considered good:
Strength to carry heavy loads Clear skin Sexual potency
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
\da One woman says that people here have "black" skin because the frost falls.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy \da People with large heads are believed to be sort of dumb.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 826
\ct Ethnoanatomy
If a person has a lot of moles, he's said to be a brujo.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Old women are afraid of their ovaries falling.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Getting hoarse when talking to a person is a sign that either the speaker or the addressee will suffer some evil.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Saying
If your ear itches, someone is talking about you.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827 & 824
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da If women play with the flowers of the yah34 ze34 tzi53 (breast flower), then their breasts will get very big and they will be embarrassed/ashamed.
Smilax sp.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da There are two plants believed to serve to change sex of next child born to what you want, if you've had only the other.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Other beliefs
If cut hair is scattered or blows away, then hair will fall out. When hair is cut, the person gathers it and hides it in a hole in the rocks.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Saying
If you pull out gray hairs:
a) You will get weak and die b) More grow back
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Saying
Sneezing brings:
a) money b) relatives to visit c) letter comes that day d) people of other sex are talking about (remembering) you.
MV sneezed and said people in village were talking about her and someone wanted to marry her.
\dt 3/80
\sr MV \mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Sleepiness means it will rain later that day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da When flesh twitches (ni'ya'3), this is believed to be an omen of danger and causes fear. For example, when MV's shoulder hurt, (= twitched), she thought maybe someone would come out to Mitla and kill her.
\dt c. 1980
\sr MV
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Tooth decay is caused by steambath.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da A sty is a sign that the person getting it will die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Hiccuping means you stole the food you ate. Also, it means trouble.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Gurgling or rumbling noise in intestines is attributed to worms crying out.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Saying
If a woman eats a twinned fruit, she will bear twins. Bearing twins is considered dangerous, so women won't eat it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da The Triques (and Mixtecs, too) believe that the runt of a litter was the last one to be born.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Triques feel that babies don't see. Also babies can't be sad.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 827
\ct Ethnophysiology
\da Before babies can talk, they can't be sad, angry or mean, but they can be happy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da In keeping with the lack of focus in the culture on the form of a message, but rather only on the content, words have no esthetic value, only the content has.
Reading is hard to teach because two synonymous sentences are perceived as the same.
Puns are rare.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da The person is not thought of as having various parts, but as being a unity. It is extremely difficult to put certain Scripture portions in Trique (Romans 7, James 3) because they assume a flesh-spirit conflict.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da The heart is believed to stand still in a person who is frightened or sad. But in a person who is angry or brokenhearted, it doesn't. There is no term for peaceful inside, it seems.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da Dreaming is called sleep speaking to one. It can be good or bad. The person you dream about is the one who makes you dream.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da If you dream of food, you'll suffer trouble of some sort.
If a man dreams he's lying next to a woman, then he'll be killed by a "tough guy".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da Old women know how to interpret dreams.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828 \ct Ethnopsychology
\da If a person has a bad dream, this is caused by people speaking evil about you. For ex, MV dreamed she gave birth to a puppy, and she felt this meant people were saying she was sleeping around. She thought it was her husband's older sister.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MV
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da If you want something and don't get it (da'man34/ata'3 man34), your foot will get cracks by that thing, or you will get sores somewhere on your body.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da Saying
If a person hiccups, that means he's a thief.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da Girl's ears were pierced, not only so that she could wear earrings, but because she didn't obey.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da Temple is thought to control memory.
Cigarette smoking in youth is thought to ruin it--(probably through outside influence--recent).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828 \ct Ethnopsychology
\da People born in February are said to be crazy.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da A non-Trique belief MML picked up was that a tea of epazote roots makes one get smart (na34 yaa21 nu34 xidu'wi5) A herbalist told it to him.
\dt c. 1970
\sr MML
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da There is a belief that people become new each year. That's why people kill their enemies at the end of the year. It's as if the slates are wiped clean on New Year's Day.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 828
\ct Ethnopsychology
\da When a person dies, it is said that his heart finishes up. His soul after death is called either a shadow (gachun'5) or a heart (niman32). If it appears on the earth to frighten people, it is a ghost (da'nah34).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 829
\ct Ethnosociology
\da 1) Triques of Copala naturally consider themselves the center of the universe. They feel themselves (Copala people) to be in-group.
2) Other Triques from San Martin and Chicehuaxtla, are felt to be out- group and are looked down on, though the languages are recognized to be related. San Martin people are considered thieves.
3) Any local non-Trique is a du'wi35, whether he speaks Mixtec or Spanish, or even Aztec, though there is a special term for Aztecs. These people are outsiders and are viewed with some suspicion, though they are tolerated and intermarriage occurs. 4) xila32 or xina'anh5 people are "de razón". They don't wear costumes or sleep on the floor. They come from big cities.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 829
\ct Ethnosociology
\da Tale tells of a story that some people render human meat for their fat and this grease is used to make airplanes and trucks run. This is a story common in Peru.
He also said that people go to Puebla and Mexico City and "get lost" (= they get rendered). The word for "get lost" is similar to the word for Puebla, but not the same.
Also, long ago, people were afraid to go to big towns because people would eat them.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Tale
83 SEX LIFE
831 Sexuality 832 Sex stimuli 833 Sex relations 834 General sex restrictions 835 Sex restrictions because of kinship 836 Premarital sex relations 837 Extramarital sex relations 838 Homosexuality 839 Other forms of sex behavior
\mn 831
\ct Sexuality
\da Sex is considered normal and natural and every Trique desires marriage and a large family. Chastity is almost unknown as an ideal*.
Yet, it is improper to act overly interested in sex. If you do, people will call you a dog.
*One informant said, however, that good people in the sight of God were those who didn't marry. Probably R.C. influence.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 832 \ct Sex stimuli
\da Any behavior that could be called sexual is avoided in public. Affection is not displayed, nor is courtship open. "Making eyes" is a culturally recognized form of flirtation.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 832
\ct Sex stimuli
\da Younger people kiss their spouses, but older people do not. Recent innovation.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 833
\ct Sex relations
\da Sex life begins at marriage normally, though sometimes there is sex before marriage.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 834
\ct General sex restrictions
\da Conversation is free among the sexes, but it is considered improper to look directly at an unrelated person of the other sex.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 835
\ct Sex restrictions because of kinship
\da Incest taboo extends to consanguineal kin as far as kinship can be traced, and to ritual kin. Also to spouses of relatives (though not to their consanguines) and relatives of spouse.
Violations are thought to result in certain damnation. People who violate them are called animals. Such behavior will cause the world to burn.
The taboo is sometimes broken, most often by a man marrying the cousin or sister of his first wife.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 836 \ct Premarital sex relations
\da Premarital sex is condemned, but tolerated, more tolerated in men than women.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 837
\ct Extramarital sex relations
\da Faithfulness is considered good, but jealousy is considered a worse fault than infidelity.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 838
\ct Homosexuality
\da Homosexual activity among men is known, but very few Triques participate in it. It seems to be a recent innovation.
\dt c. 1970
84 REPRODUCTION
841 Menstruation 842 Conception 843 Pregnancy 844 Birth 845 Difficult and abnormal births 846 Postnatal care 847 Abortion and infanticide 848 Illegitimacy
\mn 841
\ct Menstruation
\da There is some reticence to talk about menstruation. It is thought to be controlled by the appearance of the new moon. No outward signs show that a woman is menstruating.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 842
\ct Conception \da Fertility is prized in general and everyone wants lots of children. If a woman doesn't have children, her husband may leave her.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 842
\ct Conception
\da Twins
Eating twinned fruit is thought to result in birth of twins. Women avoid them because twins are a strain.
Others say it is will of God.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 842
\ct Conception
\da Sterility
Believed to be caused by a cold condition, as from a chill. Hot medicine is the cure. This can happen after a woman has borne children, as well as to a woman who hasn't, or even to a man.
Cutting the cord with a knife causes cold condition.
Drinking cold water during post-partum period also does.
Some women are just barren and there is no cure. Only "cold" sterility can be cured.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 842
\ct Conception
\da Conception can be prevented by drinking infusion of sterility plant.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da Women know they are pregnant by abdominal "swelling" - fetal movements.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da Pregnant women are reticent to talk about or admit their condition.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da Taboo to carry water (jars hanging from hand) This causes abortion/miscarriage, because of overexertion. (OK to grind in pregnancy)
Taboo to eat grease. This causes delayed or difficult childbirth and possible death of mother.
It is OK to eat cold food.
No special beliefs about food cravings. No special beliefs about knots and tangled cord.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da Sticky plant is medicine to prevent abortion.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da For pain, pregnant women drink large monster plant crushed in aguardiente.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 843
\ct Pregnancy
\da Pregnant women eat the buds of the hand flower tree as a medicine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 844 \ct Birth
\da There are no midwifes who have special training; female relatives assist in birth. They massage. The woman squats with legs apart on old petate. She wears huipil but not skirt. Two female relatives, one on either side to hold legs apart and encourage her.
Cord isn't cut until placenta is born. They say woman will die (because they don't tie it twice). Bamboo is used because the cold of a machete or other metal object will make the woman sterile.
After baby is born, woman lies down to rest.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 844
\ct Birth
\da As soon as placenta is delivered, the mother's belt must be tightened (she has continued to wear her tight belt all through pregnancy and delivery). If not, her "cuerdas" will rise up (probably act up rather than ascend), and she will black out, fall, and die.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 844
\ct Birth
\da Placenta and cord
The placenta and cord are wrapped up in old tenate, petate, or sombrero (must be palm) and tied well. This is so that the buzzards can't eat them. The father takes the bundle out to the woods and hangs it high in a tree, preferably oak. If he is afraid, he may hang it very near town. The bundle remains there until it falls off. It is hung high so that the child will be able to climb well.
No basura or dirt can touch the placenta nor can animals eat it, or the child's eyes will be harmed (infected, weak, blind). Therefore, the woman gives birth on a petate and that is often used for hanging it. This is why people don't bury the placenta.
The stub of cord that falls off is just thrown out and dogs eat it, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 845
\ct Difficult or abnormal births \da Tea of koh34 ga'manh (zoapatle) is given to hasten birth.
If placenta delays, there is a plant to make it come, se3 koh34 dukwa32 ne'eh3 a4, also called koh34 ra'a3 rutze5.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 845
\ct Difficult or abnormal births
\da For a transverse lie, massage is used to move the baby to a normal position.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 846
\ct Postnatal care
\da Post-partum
One month is devoted to rest; woman does no work for this time, during which she is a "xa3na5 ga'manh5". For the first 20 days she takes a steambath each day (or every three days ?).
She can eat anything* (except lactation taboos) but she gets more meat and stew and broth than usual. After 20 days, her belly is open/clear and she can eat anything.
During birth and for 20 days, her belt is very tight. Right on skin (she doesn't wear her skirt). If her waist is loose, her "cuerdas" will "stand up", and then something (dukua'3) will stand up in her nose and she'll die.
She can't drink cold water or she will become sterile. She drinks hot water...some say she should avoid "cold" foods. She eats chile and torts only. Women have to be very careful in the post-partum period so their belly won't rot. Birth breaks the cuerdas and they have to rest until the cords heal.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 847
\ct Abortion and infanticide
\da Infanticide occurs only with illegitimate babies, if mother chooses to kill it because of shame. Children are desired.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 847
\ct Abortion and infanticide \da Induced abortion is not common, but an infusion of "sterility plant" will cause abortion if drunk and will further cause permanent sterility.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 848
\ct Illegitimacy
\da Illegitimate babies are those born of unmarried women. Marriage here is locally defined by couple living together with family approval. Church or civil ceremony is irrelevant.
Such children aren't penalized, nor are parents, except for a moderate social stigma.
Illegitimate children are called "children of the sun".
\dt c. 1970
85 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
851 Social dispositions 852 Ceremonies during infancy and childhood 853 Feeding of infants 854 Care of infants 855 Child care 856 Development and growth 857 Childhood activities 858 Status of children
\mn 851
\ct Baptism
\da Very important. If an unbaptized baby (ne'eh3 yume5) dies, it becomes a monster that goes around at night and bites people (ya3ka4). It is buried in woods, not in cemetery. (Though some say it can be buried in the cemetery).
For baptism, one must find a godfather, the wife of whom is godmother. They provide clothes for the baby for the ceremony and pay priest (10 pesos) and the parents provide food for the fiesta (chiladas, meat, beef, aquardiente). The baby wears an amulet for the fiesta. Different godparents for each child in family. Godparents hold the baby during the ceremony, padrino for boy, madrina for $$ girl.
Some parents have children baptized more than once, but this is rare. Each time, the godparents are different. Parents may give different names. Godparents may buy clothing for child if they wish to.
Godparents get brujo if baby is sick and provide burial clothes if baby dies. Godparents also help in asking for a wife, giving some money to pay bride price. Baptism is always by priest, never by a curandero. Priest never becomes a compadre. Parents and godparents become compadres of each other. They shake hand on meeting. They provide clothes for the bride and groom, and groom provides food and drink for fiesta later at church wedding. They follow the couple into the church.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 852
\ct Ceremonies during infancy and childhood
\da When a baby is born, people drink sweet atole to celebrate.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 852
\ct Ceremonies during infancy and childhood
\da After the mother finishes steambaths, a very minor ceremony takes place, placing baby in a cradle hanging from ceiling, made of a bent pole and rope. Depending on sex of baby, tiny implements hang from cradle. For a girl, a tiny tenate, inside of which is a scrap of cloth and tiny tortillas (size of a silver peso) and greens (kweh34 xine5), chile leaves? something to enter baby's mouth? For a boy, a tiny morral of ixtle with a scrap of cloth, torts, and greens (kweh34 rida'ya35). Not everyone knows how to make them, and the one who makes it is given a j/icara of sweet atole by the parents.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 852
\ct Ceremonies during infancy and childhood
\da Blessing ceremony
Blessing godparents cause the child to be strong by means of the blessing ceremony. It may take place whether child is well, in which case it is a preventative, or sick, in which case it is a cure. The godfather holds the child and takes the child's hand in his own and makes the sign of the cross over the child. This is called making a ribbon or making a cross. After this, he chews one of several sacred flowers (whatever is in season) and spits/blows them over baby's face. Sacred flowers (yah34ge5) include:
yah34 guchra'5 - marigold yah34 xidaman'5 - yah34 yo'on5 - poinsettia yah34 yatu5 - decorative leaf
Godfather picks the flowers up from in front of a saint, where they were given by someone previously. Babies have one or two blessing godfathers only, says Domingo.
\dt c. 1970
\sr Domingo
\mn 852
\ct Ceremonies during infancy and childhood
\da When a baby is born, after mother has taken all the steambaths, little tortillas (~4 cm diam.) are made and put in the steambath on top of the firebox. This place is called the da'anh21 gwa'ah34 ^ah. The torts are called ra21 dachunh3 ^ah - 'torts of the steambath god'. They are put there so that the steambath won't cause sickness to grab the baby. It's not considered dangerous to adults, however.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 853
\ct Feeding of infants
\da All babies are nursed whenever they fuss or cry. Nursing is a pacifying device as well as feeding. Women usually kneel and hold baby in front, but they may also lie or walk.
If mother dies, another woman, usually related, will take the baby and nurse it, but it may die if there's no milk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 853
\ct Feeding of infants
\da Lactation
Taboo to eat greens. This causes a belly ache in baby. Taboo to eat panela or sweets. This causes upper back pain and neck pain. This causes vomiting, diarrhea, and faintness in baby.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 853
\ct Feeding of infants
\da Etiquette - feeding baby - weaning
Mother chews food or medicine first and then uses her finger to push the pre-chewed mush into baby's mouth. Usually tortilla.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 854
\ct Care of infants
\da Very small babies are swaddled in a cloth. It is believed that when the baby's hands are restrained, it nurses and sleeps better. It is also believed that it will grow up with strong hands skilled to do work if it is swaddled.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 854
\ct Care of infants
\da Babies are bathed by laying them on mother's leg and pouring water.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 854
\ct Care of infants
\da Child raising
Very small babies (under 6-9 months) are kept in a cradle made of rope laced on a bent pole so they can be rocked/swung. They are often carried also on their mother's (sometimes an older child’s -- relative, usually female) back in a blanket sling with the blanket ends crossed over in front and held under the elbows. They are rocked by swinging the cradle and also by the mother carrying the baby rotating shoulders back and forth (feet are stationary). Mothers are hesitant to put small babies on the floor. Bad to wake up a sleeping baby.
Also, to put baby to sleep, mother says "xr xr xr" and pats baby's chest.
Heads of babies are covered for fear of aire. Babies are swaddled in old clothes. Arms are tied inside.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 854
\ct Care of infants
\da Women "dance" their babies (dandle them on knees) and sing the hummingbird song.
\dt c. 1970 \mn 854
\ct Care of infants
\da There is a fear that the mountain god will tend to grab babies more than adults, and precautions are taken. Babies aren't left on the ground outdoors-- only in or near the house--they must be held or carried. Also, they are never left in a house alone. An older child, at least, stays with them.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 856
\ct Development and growth
\da No pressure is put on children to walk or talk.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Play is recognized as a children's activity. Much play is imitative. Boys pretend to plow, girls make little dolls, pretend to grind (dirt, stick and rock), fill leaf tamales with dirt.
After carnaval fiesta, children play carnaval. Old box becomes mask, etc. After a piñata, any box may be used to play piñata.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Organized group games are unknown except where introduced from outside.
Boys play ball standing in two rows or a circle and bouncing it around to each other through the air, volleyball style, but there are no rules. The ball may be commercial or wadded paper tied.
There are no clubs or gangs. Children have contact mostly with relatives.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Children occasionally have commercial toys. Boys often have marbles and play for keeps. I've seen bananas used as a substitute. Boys also have tops or baleros. There is a native word for a top.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Toys are often improvised. Bottle caps are flipped like coins - cork and back. Bottle cap is flattened, pierced and a string inserted to spin. Broken comb is spun on string. A tin can is rolled or blown. A can lid is nailed to a stick for a wheel.
Bamboo may be made into a little plane. The fruit of one tree can be blown like police whistle. Hide a marble in one of three match boxes and guess which (probably Eur. influence).
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Other play activities are:
sliding down hill on large dry airplant swinging on tree limb or vine.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Toy - doll (ne'eh3)
Girls make dolls by winding paper around a bit of thread, which serves as hair. The paper is the doll's head and trunk. Bits of cloth or paper are tied on to form a skirt and other bits have a neck hole and form a huipil. The hair may be braided. There are never hands, feet or features.
Corncobs may be used or a chunk of broken mano.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da A noisemaker toy is made by inserting a flat stick inside the hollow center of a length of chrun3 runo'o!32. \dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Toy - artifact - bamboo gun
This is made of a section of bamboo with two notches, and a split piece of bamboo that is bent to fit in the notches. One end tucks in a small notch, and the other fits in a larger, rectangular one in such a way that it can be pulled back and then released, making a bang as it pushes to the far end of the notch and also propelling a pebble placed in the bamboo tube. This is carved by men for children to play with.
$$ - illustration
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Toy - riu34 yo'o21 - clay whistle
The boys make these out of clay, using sticks to make the proper holes. Whistles may be cylindrical or with fluted end or in animal form. There may be 2-4 holes to control the tone on cylindrical ones. The tones do not conform to any musical scale. Whistle can also be made from bamboo.
$$ - illustration
Clay may also be molded.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da Children are early given responsibility. Girls six and up are expected to carry and care for younger siblings or sobrinos. They are also sent on errands.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 858
\ct Status of children
\da It is believed that babies have hearts that aren't grown when they can't yet talk or respond to speech. \dt c. 1970
\mn 858
\ct Status of children
\da Children, though loved and desired, are at the bottom of the age-status system.
A baby is spoiled until a younger sibling comes along, then is expected to make a quick adjustment. From then on, he gradually grows and acquires experience and responsibility. There are no abrupt transitions. Full maturity is attained, partly at marriage, partly around age 40.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 857
\ct Childhood activities
\da The concept of drawing lots is understood, probably because related to gambling.
Guessing games - eyes closed.
Three matchboxes and marble - hide marble and guess.
\dt c. 1970
86 SOCIALIZATION
861 Techniques of inculcation 862 Weaning 863 Habits of cleanliness 864 Sex habits 865 Control of aggression 866 Habits of independence 867 Transmission of social norms 868 Transmission of skills 869 Transmission of beliefs
\mn 861
\ct Techniques of inculcation
\da Attitude toward child-rearing
Whereas Americans tend to consider babies as objects to be molded and formed by parental influence, Triques (and other local Indian groups) feel that babies grow up by themselves. All one has to do is feed them. No deliberate effort is ever made to inculcate beliefs, customs, or behavior into children. If they are hit, it is because a parent is annoyed, not as a thought-out disciplinary measure. Parents do not feel responsible for the behavior of their kids.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 861
\ct Techniques of inculcation
\da Discipline of children
Babies and very small children are not scolded or spanked, usually, because they don't understand. Some parents force a child to take medicine and others don't. Fear of soul loss through fear also prevents parents from disciplining children.
Often, parents don't expect kids to obey and don't punish them or scold when they don't. Threats are sometimes used (the gringo will give you a shot, for example!). When children are spanked, it seems to be often annoyance on part of parent.
Some Triques do feel that children who are rebellious and disrespectful should be beat. Children should be given work so that will grow up serious and responsible. Ridicule and social pressure are the main factors.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 861
\ct Techniques of inculcation
\da Women blow on baby's face when baby wants to spit out medicine. Related to brujo blowing?
\dt c. 1970
\mn 861
\ct Techniques of inculcation
\da Disciplinary threats observed:
Elena will give you a shot. I'll pour water on you.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 861
\ct Techniques of inculcation
\da One informant says that only on holy days do people scold their kids and try to make them behave--by pinching their ears. Other days they just let them be.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 862
\ct Weaning
\da Usually, the birth of another child determines when a child is weaned. The last child may nurse several years, or until he chooses not to.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 863
\ct Habits of cleanliness
\da Babies have a "diaper" cloth wrapped around waist, but they often wet or soil blankets, mother's clothing, etc. Urine is ignored and dogs are called to lick up bowel movements.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 863
\ct Habits of cleanliness
\da Child rearing - toilet training
When baby urinated at wrong time and place, mother jokingly threatened to tie a string around his penis. Another mother scolded a baby for wetting her lap rather than the floor of the house. But on the whole, no strong pressure is put on children to develop bowel and bladder control.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 863
\ct Habits of cleanliness
\da Cleanliness is not a value and children aren't taught to wash, bathe or comb hair early. This develops gradually and many adults hardly do these things.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 864
\ct Sex habits
\da Children are not shielded from any experience or conversation, so their knowledge of sex comes early because of births, watching animals, and many people sleeping in one room.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 864
\ct Sex habits
\da Small children are dressed only in a little dress (or huipil) or shirt and no attempt is made to cover their genitals. Only when a boy gets to be 4-6 and likewise a girl, is it considered important for them to be covered and boys begin to wear pants and girls a skirt.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 865
\ct Control of aggression
\da Aggressiveness in children is ignored more or less. Parents let kids do what they please and even disobey as long as it isn't interfering with adult.
When children fight, they may be separated, but not disciplined. Excessive crying is ridiculed. Ridicule is one of the main devices for bringing people into line.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 867
\ct Transmission of social norms
\da When children are rebellious, a parent will find a xuku3 dukwa21 beetle and put it on the kid's ear. The beetle will bite it.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 867
\ct Transmission of social norms
\da Children are allowed a large degree of brattiness, but respect for elders is drummed in early.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 868
\ct Transmission of skills
\da Transmission of skills is mostly haphazard. Children learn by observing and imitating.
At seven or so, girls start to grind and make torts, but weaving takes more teaching and girl doesn't begin until twelve or so. Boys from ten up go to fields to work with father.
Those who learn violin do it by ear--there is no teaching.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 868
\ct Transmission of skills
\da Teaching
Children learn to weave by starting with string. Little designs appear here and there on a huipil, where a child was being taught the pattern.
Weaving is specifically taught from mother to daughter, unlike most activities.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 869
\ct Transmission of beliefs
\da Children pick up beliefs by listening to parents. There is no idea of catechizing them.
\dt c. 1970
87 EDUCATION
871 Educational system 872 Primary education 873 Liberal arts education 874 Technical education 875 Teachers 876 Theory and educational methods
\mn 871
\ct Educational system
\da Some Trique children, mainly boys, attend government or church primary schools for one or more years. A few finish and may go on to secondary school-- one even became a lawyer. Those who finish primary school must leave the area to do so, and usually don't return.
The only occupation open to Trique men is agriculture, and few of them read, even a little. It isn't necessary to them, nor do they place much value on book-learning. The town secretary is always an outsider (Mixtec or SAC Trique).
Any schooling they do have has its source outside the society and is, therefore, not described here.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 871
\ct Educational system
\da There is much feeling and gossip about the relative merits of government and church schools (as there is about government, church, and gringo medicine). Some people think the nuns teach pretty and teachers hit kids. Others think the church school teaches only doctrine and no "letra".
\dt c. 1970
\mn 871
\ct Educational system
\da Practical education for Trique children consists in boys learning to farm and girls learning to weave and make tortillas. These activities are learned to a large degree by watching and imitating. Children accompany parents. Imitative play is common.
Trique children also learn to handle money and to figure in their heads a bit, but there is no formal teaching.
\dt c. 1970
88 ADOLESCENCE, ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
881 Puberty and initiation ceremonies 882 Status of adolescents 883 Activities of adolescents 884 Coming of Age 885 Adulthood 886 Old Age 887 Activities of old people 888 Status and treatment of old persons
\mn 881
\ct Puberty and initiation ceremonies
\da There are no puberty rites. Marriage marks the transition to adulthood, and teenagers commonly marry, the boy 15-18 and the girl 13-15.
For boys, entrance into a low-status job in the civil- religious hierarchy may mark the transition. \dt c. 1970
\mn 882-883
\ct Status of adolescents and Activities of adolescents
\da There is no adolescent period recognized as such. As a child matures, he is given more and more responsibility until ready for marriage. The transition at marriage is not too great, because the couple always live with in-laws at first. Such young adults are subject to older relatives.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 885
\ct Adulthood
\da Full adulthood isn't reached until about 40, when gray hairs appear, and few older relatives are left for one to be subject to.
\dt c. 1970
\mn 888
\ct Status and treatment of old persons
\da Not too many Triques live beyond 55-60. Those who do are treated with respect by people, and usually live with children. Men have role as counsellor until senility.
\dt c. 1970 ENGLISH SUMMARIES OF COPALA TRIQUE MYTHS AND LEGENDS Barbara E. Hollenbach drafted 2004, revised November 2020
********** This material was gathered in the 1960s and 1970s when we lived in Copala. For some of these, I have Trique texts, and for others, I do not. Some of the material has been published, and much of it has not.
Murdoch numbers associated with these: 533 538 539 776 789 825
Published texts with analysis Sun and Moon -- Tlalocan Flood -- LAIL Three myths tar baby -- syntax sketch grammar
Published texts with no analysis many literacy pieces
THRUSH
There is a song / poem ascribed to the xtâj chihúj sa̱ ꞌ, a thrush with a spotted breast. There are several lines of words, falling into various pitch patterns. The lines, with their pitch patterns are: ta̱cóó ya̱hi̱j, ta̱cóó ya̱hi̱j foot of rock high rise, low rise, high rise, low rise. yoꞌóó chru̱ u̱ sand high rise, mid level, high rise, low fall. a̱chráá chra̱ ꞌ sing song high rise, high rise, high rise, low fall ca̱³ra̱ꞌa̱ a̱ swish mid level, low rise, mid level, low rise ra̱a̱ chru̱u̱n top of tree low fall, mid level, low fall, mid level. na̱ veꞌé still water low fall, high rise, mid fall, mid level.
Another speaker gives the song as xiri̱i xiri̱i. It sings from February to June. People say that God puts a stone in its mouth, and then it stops singing after June.
WREN
The xtâj ssij³, a wren, is clever, and it tells you what will happen, because God gave it this work to do. It tells you that someone is coming by saying “Cu̱ riha̱ nj ssij³ cu̱a̱no̱ vij.” But it does not tell you whether the person coming is good or bad. Other people say that it says: “Ca̱ꞌna̱ ꞌ ssij” or “na̱ri̱ꞌ ssij”.
If you want to go on an errand, this bird will tell you that you’ll meet somebody by saying “na̱ri̱ꞌ tu̱viꞌ ssij cu̱a̱nꞌ vij”. And you do meet someone.
If you are on your way to the town hall for business, it tells you if you are going to lose the case. It “ambushes” you and says “no̱ sihu̱u̱ sij vij.” Then you go to jail. It tells the truth. This Trique phrase seems to mean literally that you will get it in the anus, as in homosexual acts.
This is the same bird that told the sun and moon how to make barbecue out of the deer meat.
THUNDER SNAKE
There is a cosmic battle between the thunder god, who is good, and the thunder snake (xcu̱áá tu̱ꞌvi̱i), who is evil. If the thunder god did not prevent it, the thunder snake would fill the world with water.
The xcu̱áá tu̱ꞌvi̱i is an evil being who wants to destroy the world by flooding it, but the thunder God prevents him from doing so. He does not have feathers, just a “shell” outside. He has long hair like a woman and a snake-like tail. There are a pair of these, husband and wife -- not everyone agrees.
He used to live on the coast, but he came to the Trique area, and he now lives in the mountains. He causes lightning. He lives in lagoons, any lagoon, and he makes the water bad because he pulls people down.
The story is that he brings the ocean closer to the land, but then the rain god gets up and thunders to drive the ocean back again.
Long ago the thunder snake came from the coast and he needed a girl to marry. People in Copala were afraid to give him a girl because he had a tail and long hair like a woman. So he went on to Juxtlahuaca and to Tlacotepec and asked there. He said that if they would give him a girl, he would make their mountains nice with palm and otate growing, and he would make the cornfields produce well.
And so they gave him a girl, and he kept his promise. Theu have palm and otate and good cornfields. The Laguna Encantada near Juxtlahuaca is his water. He does not hurt people from Juxtlahuaca or Tlacotepec, but he pulls people from far away down into the water.
JESUS AND THE DEVIL
The devil is the oldest son, the thunder god is the middle son, and Jesus is the youngest son. But the devil and the thunder God are the same.
The devil chased Jesus, who went into a pine tree, but it did not help him, and so he went and hid inside a sabino tree (Montezuma baldcypress), and it helped him by beoming fat. The devil tried to cut it down, but he couldn’t even though he kept working at it. He went to drink water, and when he came back, the tree was whole again. Then Jesus left the tree, and the devil found him and killed him with a knife / sword. He was dead seven days (sme say three days).
Then the devil went home and decided to make stew out of his rooster. Roosters had no feathers back then. But the bird revived. Jesus told it to cry out, and it did and flew away. Jesus gave it its clother (feathers) then. Now roosters cry out every morning and scare the ghosts / devils away by warning them that it will soon be light.
Jesus revived and won out over the devil, and the devil fled. Then Jesus sent the pine tree to steep hillsides to punish it (i.e., he banished it from good land). But he blessed the sabino and rewarded it by letting it grow on plains and river banks.
At the present time, Jesus is in the sky, and the devil is at his home in a large hole in the ground (as big as a town) at Qu̱ij Xroj³².
BUZZARD AND MAN
The turkey vulture deceived a man who wanted to get married. The man and the girl’s father set a day, and on the day before, he was getting all the money and things together. The women were making mole for the fiesta. The men were gathering flowers. The groom went to take a bath in the river. While he was in the water, the buzzard came and flew right over his head. The man said, “Why does this squash-head (bald) buzzard pass so near my head?” By saying that, he cursed the buzzard. Then the buzzard left.
A little while later, the buzzard, who had turned into a man, was walking along. He looked like a priest. He came to the man and said, “Here you are taking a bath, brother.” “Yes. Where did you come from?” “I came from downhill.” (He had been going uphill as a buzzard too.) “Take a bath.” “No.” “You have nice clothes.” “You think my clothes are good. Let’s trade. You wear these to ask for your wife.” “OK.” And he gave the priest his clothes, and the priest gave him his.
When he finished bathing, he put on the priest’s clothes, and he got feathers and flew to the sky. The priest put on the man’s clothes and went to the house. His father did not realize what had happened. The next day the man and his father went to the girl’s house. The money and tortillas [in exchange for the girl] “entered”. The girl’s father did not realize either [that the groom was a buzzard] because he had on the boy’s clothes.
The girl’s father began to drink and eat. He said, “Let’s eat and drink with our son-in-law, and then we will put new clothes on him” And then he put the new clothes on him and said, “Let’s have a song played, and we will dance.” And a song was played, and he danced with his son-in- law. The women had to dance too. The boy’s mother and ten relatives danced with the girl. But the groom did not dance well. His legs did not bend, and he just walked. And his father-in- law said, “Why is my son-in-al so shy? Here, have some rum, and you will dance better.” So he gave hm a copa and he drank it. And then on the next song, he jumped instead of dancing. His father-in-law wondered why his son-in-law couldn’t dance and also why it smelled buzzardy there. And the buzzard said, “It is just your nose.” And so they all danced to another piece of music.
When the fiesta was over, then they scattered. He was left with this father-in-law. At dusk, the father-in-law told his wife to sleep with him. Okay, she said. She slept with the buzzard. And so, several days later, the smell of the buzzard got on her. Her father wondered why the smelled. She said, “It’s his fault.” Her father was tired of it, and so his son-in-law ran away. He walked all over the world.
TRICKY VULTURE
The turkey vulture is a tricky (xa̱ j) bird. If someone throws a rock at it, then it will fall to the ground. A person can then catch it, tie it up, and put it on a hillside. It will talk to its companions, but they will not know how to untie it. And so it says to them, “Do me a favor,” and they get leaves of the coj xa̱ j² (tricky plant) and put the leaves down where the buzzard is. And so the rope unties itself, and the buzzard flies away. Then its captor returns, but the buzzard is gone. Just the plant is left. The man takes the plant and puts it in his pocket, and he becomes a thief. The plant helps him steal things without being seen. Money just comes to him.
BOTTOMLESS PIT
Once a man wanted to marry a girl, but she tricked him and spoke with another man. The first man went for a walk in the mountains with her, and they came to a bottomless pit. She pushed him in, and there was a thunder snake in there, who said to him. “You won’t die, and if you can eat my food, you will live.” He ate just mice. “I can,” the man said, and he did. He stayed seven years. By then his hair had grown to the back of his knees. He said to the thunder snake that it was time for him to go, and then the thunder snake pulled a feather out of its back with all the colors on it. He told the man to take it and sell the colors to get money to buy food to eat. So he went back, and the people wondered where the feather had come from. He told them that someone had given it to him. He sold it and got money to buy food.
[[see SAC text, "The plumed serpent rescues a man."]]
WOMAN WHO DIED
Long ago a man married a woman, and he loved her, but they had no children. She got sick, and he looked hard for a way to cure her, but he couldn’t. She died, and he was left. She had taken care of their money, but because he thought that she would get better, he never asked her where the money was, and he did not know where she had left it. He was sad, both for his wife, and for the money. And so he asked a “sacristán” to help him find her. The sacristán said, “You will find her if you really want to.” “Let’s go look,” he answered. “Where?” the sacristán said. “If it is near, let’s go ask for my wife back,” he said. “You know doctrine.” “OK,” the sacristán said.
They set a day and went. They walked many days and got there. “When you get there, we will separate,” the sacristán said. “I will find the woman, and you wait.” And so he went to the town hall. “OK,” they said, “but there’s a lot of blame here.” They didn’t say where she lived. He was sad. “I’m going to the market,” the sacristán said. “You wait in front of the church. When they come for mass, don’t talk to them. After they are inside the church and come out, don’t talk to them.” “OK,” he said. He sat still and many people came, and his wife was there with them. But he didn’t say anything. He was sad. The women went far away. He followed them, and he saw his wife enter a house. He arrived there and went in and found her.
“What happened that you came?” she said. She was alone. “Nothing, but I was sad for you, and I came,” he said. “I didn’t realize you would come,” she said. She was just like his wife. He was very happy. He wanted to play-speak (=have sex) with her, but she was not willing. “You’re very guilty for coming,” she said. “This place is not like our town. My blame has been cleaned,” she said.
He got scared. “Really do I have blame?” he said. “If you did it, you’ll go to jail,” she said. He asked about the money. “Oh no, it’s at the top side of the metate.” “Let’s go and you show me.” “The one who lives here will be back soon, and he will grab you.” “Who’s he?” “He’s the one I live with. If he sees you, he’ll grab you and take you to jail. Don’t stay here where you are visible. Climb up into the loft. When he comes, be quiet. Don’t move.” So he did, and the man returned. He talked to the woman. “I’m hungry.” She made torts. But he was a fox, the man in the loft saw. The fox said, “Why does it smell here?” “How do you think it smells?” “Like the other town (= of the living).” The woman said, “It’s nothing, just your nose and the wind of the hour.” She gave him the food, and he ate it standing up. Just one tort. He said he had an errand. “I have to get a person, the town hall tells me.” “Go quickly then,” she said. He grabbed a rope and went. The woman was left, and her husband came down.
“You’re married here,” he said. “Yes, I’m not free.” “It doesn’t matter,” he said. “Let’s go, and you show me where the money is.” “But the man will come back to eat. I can’t. Not until he is gone some day.” She set a day to come. “Really?” “OK,” she said. She agreed to go and show him and then return. “Heat up the steambath and sit in the trail and wait.” “OK,” he said. She offered him torts to eat on the trip back. She put them in the net. “Go now,” she said. He left the house and met the sacristán. “Let’s go.” They returned here. The sacristán went back to the church, and the man went home. He was sad because his wife wouldn’t return. He cried.
He and the sacristán took out the torts to eat on the trail, but they were cow excrement, and the salt was worms. He threw it all away.
The day came, and he heated the steambath. He got leaves and water and put them by it. The fire died down, and he put the leaves down. He went out and sat. He thought his wife would come. He sat in the trail and looked.
A woman came in a red huipil carrying a tenate. “It’s my wife,” he said. He was happy. She got nearer and then went into a gulch, but she didn’t come out the other side. He wondered why. He sat for a long time. Then he went home and went to the steambath. There was no woman. “I’ll take a steambath,” he thought, and he picked up the petate over the entrance, and a huge snake was in it. He didn.t realize it was his wife. He was scared. He went to get a stick and hit it. He killed it and threw it out. His wife didn’t come. He was sad.
He went back alone to the world of the dead. He found his wife and said that she hadn’t come. “I came, but you hit me.” “I only hit a snake.” “I won’t return. You would just hit me again.” “Come, and I won’t do it,” he said. ‘I’ll come when I heal,” she said. She set a day.
He went home. He heated the steambath that day. “Don’t wait in the trail,” she had said. “I’ll come to the house.” So he did [what she said]. He sat by the steambath. He saw her coming on the trail. He sat there. A snake came, He followed it into the house. The snake went to the nose of the metate and banged its nose three times on the spot where the money was. Then it went to the steambath. He was scared to go, but he followed at a distance. The snake went in and came our once. It went back in and came out again. He was sad. He looked up and didn’t see the snake. He was sad and cried because it was just a snake that came. He went into the house. He dug at the nose of the metate. He found the money, and he was happy. Then he knew that the snake was a soul. That’s why people say that snakes are souls. They see a fox and say it’s a soul animal. That’s an old story. That’s why people say that. FLEAS GET PEOPLE MOVING
When God created people, they did not move, and so he sent head lice, body lice, and mosqjuitos to bite them. But they still did not move. And so finally he sent fleas, and then people moved because fleas bite harder. [773, 825]
CRICKET AND CICADA
The cricket told the cicada that its father died, but the cicada did not cry. Then it told the cicada that its mother / brother / sister died, but the cicada never cried. Then finally, the cricket told the cicada that its lover died, and it began to cry. And so the cicada is called “insect that cries for its lover.”
CRICKET AND LION
The lion wanted to eat the cricket, and it followed the cricket’s “crying”, but the cricket had always moved to another place by the time the lion got there. The lion pawed the dead leaves on the ground as it went, and the cricket led it to the nest of the huarache animal (paper wasp), and they stung the lion. [[mcrs, texts m 1B, pl 21.
LIONS AND PEOPLE
Some lions loved people long ago. Others ate them.
In one story, a lion went into a ramada to protect a man from a du̱j.
In another story, a lion grabbed a man and held him on his back with his tail. The man escaped by poking a stick in the lion’s anus. [[[III 2b, ppl 7-11]]
FLOOD
The flood came, and the water covered the lowlands, but not the highlands. Where the flood covered the land, the soil is good (loamy), and where it did not, the soil is clayey.
The mountain called Qu̱ij Xca̱j³ grew when the flood came, and it remained above the water. Some people fled there, and they left their possessions up there. If you climb this mountain, you can see their bowls, stone metates, stone comales, and broken stone manos, people say.
Some people escaped the flood by climbing the mountain, but they became monkeys. When the flood was over, they went down to the Copala church, and the saints there “blessed” them, and they grew tails and turned into monkeys.
There were therefore no true survivors of the flood, and so God made a new race of people. In one version, he carved them from wood. In another version, he made them out of the ashes of the “guayacán” tree mixed with earth. WIND
The wind wants to hurt people. In September, it sends the hummingbird to see if the cornfields have grown. But it does not go back to the wind. It stays and drinks nectar. In this way the hummingbird helps people.
Then the wind sends the drunk eagle in October or November. But it gets drunk and does not return. In this way it helps people.
Then the wind sends the sparrow hawk in October or November. It goes back and tells the wind that the fields have grown. It does not help people. Then the wind comes and blows fiercely. But, fortunately, by this time the cornfields are ripe, and it is too late for the wind to hurt them.
XTUU RACU̱NJ
A lazy man wanted to sleep. There was a woman who had had a lover, but her lover threw her away, and so she went to the house of a certain man to sleep several nights. This man was smitten with a very bad and uncontrollable desire to sleep. This is described as: Ca̱ta̱ꞌ nej ra̱cu̱ nj ma̱n soꞌ a̱.
This man was very disappointed / discouraged and sick with sleep. His mother told him to get a xtu̱u̱ ra̱cu̱ nj to eat. He gets one, kills and skins it, cuts it up and puts it in a tiny jarro. It cooks with no seasoning. He eats it and drinks the broth, which gives him diarrhea and vomiting, and this expels all the little ra̱cúnj (millipedes ?) that were in him making him sleep. Then he gets well.
ANIMALS LONG AGO
Long ago, back when the world was dark, animals talked and were like people. They really wanted to become people. But God did not want them to become people, because then people, who were God’s children, would marry animals and come to an end [[as a separate race?]]. And so God “blessed” the animals, and they became mute and went to the woods and mountains to live. God made their voices go down into their stomachs so that they couldn’t talk, and then they were convinced that they were animals.
VENUS AND THE SHREW
They say that the morning star (Venus -- xta̱ꞌnga̱a̱³) kills shrews at night by falling from heaven on them (shooting them) and eating the head. Some say he also kills birds. He does this because the shrew is a bad / poisonous animal. If you eat a shrew, you die. People say that he kills one each night, or as many as he can get, or whenever he sees one. He does this to help people. If you find a dead shrew, it looks as if a little stick poked it and a bit of blood came out. Another version is that one kind of mouse kills another.
EAGLE AND BUZZARD The eagle likes baby girls because they will grow up and have chickens and turkeys, which the eagle will eat. He is unhappy when boys are born.
The vulture is happy when boys are born because they will grow up and have dogs and donkeys, which the vulture will eat. But it vomits when baby girls are born.
INCA DOVE AND BUZZARD
The Inca dove and the buzzard met. The buzzard was crying, and the dove asked him why. He said he was crying because he had no friends there, and he did not think he would ever get back to his home town. The dove answered, “I have lots of friends. I have no home town. The whole world is my home town. I’m happy. I am not sad. I’lll sing for you to make you happy.” So it sang the inca-dove song, but the buzzard was still sad.
SUN AND MOON
This epic includes the basis for several “creencias”, and literary allusions to it are fairly common.
Allusions A woman who took hot coals on a potsherd to another house was laughingly called a possum.
Creencias
Flies enter wounds because the sun and moon gave that work to them long ago.
People trap deer with nooses now because that is how the sun and moon got the deer long ago.
The whippoorwill lies in the trail because the sun and moon put him there to watch for them long ago. It has a wide mouth because the grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j grabbed it together with the raven and tore their mouths when she saw them watching.
The raven walks funny (waddles) because when he was watching the trail, he did not see the grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j returning, and she stepped on his back.
The possum has a bare tail because the sun and moon sent it to steal fire from the grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j. It stuck its tail in the fire and, when it caught on fire, it ran away with the fire. The tip of his tail is white, like ash, because it got fully burned, and the stump is black, like charcoal, because it got only partially burned. People say that the possum was really a person, probably because of his role in the sun and moon story, but there is also another story, about meat.
We eat the meat of leopard frogs because the grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j cursed the leopard frog for saying that she ate the meat of her husband. We call it the tongue frog because it talked impudently to her. It has spots, which are scars from the beating that she gave him.
The gopher lives in the ground because he fell when he tried to get up the sky. He wanted to cut the chain to make the grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j fall, but she was too fast for him. He cut his own chain by mistake and fell. His head got bashed in, and that is why gophers have a funny-shaped head. He was embarrassed because of the fall and/or his funny-shaped head, and he went into the ground to live. Another version is that the gopher lives in the ground because the rabbit gave him work to do there long ago.
We see a rabbit in the moon because long ago the moon god swallowed a rabbit just before he went up to the sky.
Various kinds of wasps and bees have distinctive-shaped nests because each of them took one of the things that grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j dropped when she got stung. (The sun and moon had killed the deer, who was her husband, and they stuffed the deerskin with stinging wasps and stood it on a hill. When she went to take tortillas to him, he did not answer, and she hit him, and the insects came out and stung her.)
NAME OF INSECT WHAT IT TOOK xcu̱u̱ ru̱ꞌvej rmii yu̱ꞌvej ball of thread xcu̱u̱ ta̱ca̱nj ca̱nj huaraches chongó chra̱a̱ / rcu̱a̱nj a whole tortilla or totopo xcu̱u̱ chrón chra̱a̱ tortilla xcu̱u̱ ca̱ꞌa̱a̱ n ya̱chru̱ꞌ jícara / gourd bowl OR xcu̱u̱ ca̱ꞌa̱a̱ n ya̱ne̱j rcu̱a̱nj medio totopo / half a totopo
Others say that all the wasps took her tortillas, and that all their nests are called tortllas.
The grandmother Ca̱ꞌa̱j is responsible for sending the wind. Together with the moon, she causes menstruation. She wanted to become the sun, but she did not succeed, and she is now the goddess of the steambath (cu̱a̱ꞌa̱j). Some say she is the goddess of the gopher (cha̱ꞌâj). They say that she looked for 7 men and 7 women to become her brujos long ago. They also say that she helps people, and that people pray to her saying: Ca̱ꞌne̱e̱ so̱ꞌ chiꞌii̱ ra̱nꞌ neꞌej ta̱chru̱ nj. (Quite la enfermedar que padece el nene recién nacido.)
Her sister, grandmother Cu̱yúj, became the goddess of the frost. Others associate her with the wind and with the whippoorwill. She does not appear in any of the versions of the sun and moon story that I have, but she is in the story of the founding of Copala.
MALE AND FEMALE THUNDER DEITIES
After the male and female thunder gods had a fight, she roughened up her metate, and then she threw the powder on the ears of corn and ran away to the coast. The powder hatched into weevils and moths that ate the corn up. That is why weevils and moths are in corn today.
The man ate tubers after the corn was eaten up, but the woman sent the raven with wax from her ears to put in the pot and make the tubers bitter. That’s why one kind of wild tuber tastes bitter.
The raven says a̱a̱j (voiceless with friction) because it was imitating the voice of the male thunder god when he ate the tubers that had become bitter from the ear wax of the female thunder god.
RAIN GOD AND DIVINE SPIDER The divine spider (bird spider or wolf spider) is the enamy of the rain / thunder god. The thunder god is good, and the divine spider is the villain. It is poisonous. This spider lives in a hole in the ground. From enmity he wants the rain to stop, and so he sticks out his tongue at the rain god. Then it clears up, but the rain god gets angry and swoops down and kills the spider by striking it with lightning, splitting its hole. Some say that the thunder god always strikes whenever he sees the divine spider. In this way the rain god helps people.
THE TWO THUNDER GODS
There is a thunder god and also a dry thunder god. The dry thunder god growls, and then sends wind, rather than rain. The dry thunder god lives up on Qu̱ij Xca̱j, to the north of Sabana. Unlike the thunder god, he does not have a cave, just a rock, in an area where there are boulders around. But like he does for the thunder god, the mayordomo of St. Mark is in charge of making offerings to the dry thunder god on 25 April. The purpose of these offerings is to prevent destructive winds.
For the offering, they put tepache, tortillas, and flower decorations at his rock. They also kill a chicken and leave it there. They also kill a goat and leave the head there with frangipani flowers on it. The meat is brought home to make mole, and seven bowls of mole are taken back. White broth is also taken back. 776
The thunder god controls the rain. He is the patron of fields and crops, and since the Spanish Conquest, he has been equated with Saint Mark. People say that he is just fire, and that one cannot bear to talk with him. Even though he is believed to be beneficial, he is also capricious, and if he does not receive the proper offerings, he will either withhold rain or send too much. A person who antagozizes him will be punished by having his house struck by lightning, in which case he dies and his house burns down.
The thunder god is represented by rocks inside caves, probably stalagmites, but possibly carved. There is no statue in the church, and no one knows what he looks like. People give him chickens and goats to eat so that he will make their animals and cornfields multiply in return.
When it thunders, people say that he comes from a hole in the ground and cries out as he emerges. Then he causes rain. He sits on the clouds.
If it rains too hard, you fumigate the rain.
There are various stories about the thunder god and his wife, including two in “Three Trique Myths.”
BLACK SNAKE
A man went to the coast and met a black woman there. He promised to marry her, but he did not. She became angry with him, and so she sent the black snake to ambush him, and it beat him with its tail.
THE ANOLIS AND THE WHIPTAIL LIZARD The anolis lizard (lira̱ a̱ n) and the whiptail lizard (cu̱lo) are in a cornfield. The anolis, who is on a tree, is the pet of the thunder god, and he is friendly to people and the growing corn. The whiptail, on the other hand, who is on a rock, is the friend of the weeds. The anolis tells the corn to grow quickly, but the whiptail tells the weeds to grow quickly and kick the corn plants over.
When the man goes to his field, the anolis says to the cornplants, “ꞌNa̱ꞌ tu̱viꞌ níꞌ a̱” (Our companion is coming). But the whiptail says to the weeds, “ꞌNa̱ꞌ síí ra̱ a̱ siha̱ ; ꞌna̱ꞌ síí ra̱ a̱ rmi̱i̱; ꞌna̱ꞌ síí ra̱ a̱ ca̱xra̱ ꞌ a̱” (Here comes the man with the sharp head, the round head, the wide head). It tells the weeds to grow quickly and kick over the plants.
POSSUM AND HIS SON
The possum was a person long ago. He had a son and wanted to find a wife for him. He went and asked for a woman and got one. “We’ve finished talking, and now let’s have some music and dance with all our new relatives.” He was very happy to have a daughter-in-law. He wanted to dance with her. So a piece was played, and he said he would carry his daughter-in- law and dance. So he put her on his back and danced. People say that the possum is no good. His testicles turned backwards because he did that. Some people jokingly warn others not to do what the possum did. [[What the possum did violates an incest taboo: a father is supposed to have a somewhat distant relationship with his daughter-in-law.]]
POSSUM AND HIS COMPADRE
When the possum’s compadre came to visit, the possum said, “Sit here and I will go and bathe and come back.” So he went to the river and killed himself, and his wife brought back the meat and fixed it for the compadre to eat. But she told him, “Leave the tendons attached to the bones,” and he did . Tjhen she took the bones back and threw them in the river, and the possum revived and came back to talk to his compadre.
RABBIT CYCLE
In this series of stories, the rabbit, who is a small and helpless animal, tricks the larger animals over and over again. Stories in the cycle include:
Rabbit names the days
Rabbit and fox / coyote
rock
tuna
cheese (reflection of moon). In one version of this, the rabbit tricks the fox into drinking up the water to get the cheese, and in another version, he tricks him into jumping into a river or well to get it.
all look alike chickens
leaves
tar baby
fiesta -- drum
In most versions, the coyote burns up in the drum story, and that is the end of the cycle.
There is also a short story about the rabbit and the lion.
There are special precautions that should be taken when eating rabbit meat, because the rabbit was smart. Some say that these precautions are because the rabbit is the pet of the mountain god.
The meat should be in a white bowl, you should eat it on a table, and you should not spill the broth. If you spill the broth, you will not get another rabbit to eat.
You bury the leftovers carefully, or you throw the bones where no one walks. You also cover the bowl. [[not sure if you cover it with the meat in it or afterwards]] If you obey all the prohibitions, you and your dog will see well to get another rabbit. If you do not obey them, the rabbit will make you go crazy.
PEDRO DE MALAS CYCLE
This cycle is similar to the rabbit cycle in that someone poor, foolish, and of low status tricks those who are richer and of higher status.
MAN AND DEVIL
A poor man was working as a mozo taking care of goats, and they scattered. When he went to look for them, he met a man who said, “Let’s go to my house, and everything will be fine.” He believed it, and so he left the goats and went. He got there and saw that the man had a big house, lots of clothes, and musical instruments. But he was a devil. The devil made the man his servant. He gave him clothes and said that if he could rip the clothes, he could leave. But the clothes were made of metal.
He worked for the devil, and at dusk he asked for supper. The devil asked him if he wanted hard food or soft food. He said he would take anything, and the devil beat him with wire and called that hard food. When the devil asked him if that was enough, he said no, and so the devil beat him more. The man was very sad. The other people there told him he’d never get home.
He asked how he could make his clothes wear out, and someone suggested that he rub them a lot. So he told the devil he was going to wash his clothes, and he did. He washed them every few days. The devil beat him with wire again, but when he asked for soft food, the devil offered him bread. But it was not bread; it was cow excrement. After several years, his clothes finally wore out, and the devil offered him another set. But he said no, that they had agreed to one set. So the devil let him go. He returned. He explained to his companions / relatives and cried to them. They said that they thought he had died. He said no, that it was the devil’s house, and he couldn’t eat the food. His companions were convinced, and he worked again.
[[Note: a version of this was published in Spanish by Ricardo Martell Ramírez.]] Anthropology notes about sickness from San Juan Copala Barbara E. Hollenbach drafted September 2004, lightly revised November 2020
These notes were collected in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when I was living in Sabana, a barrio of San Juan Copala, unless otherwise noted. No names are given for the sources of information because in that period Triques were very reluctant to give out their names, and if pressured to do so, they usually gave an alias. The notes are classified according to the system of Murdoch numbers.
Information about these topics is also given in the dictionary posted online in 2020; in the case of a conflict, the information in the dictionary is to be preferred.
73 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
731 Natural catastrophes 732 Personal physical abnormalities 733 Alcoholism and dope addiction 734 Physical disability 735 Poverty 736 Desertion 737 Deserted old people 738 Delinquency
731 -- Natural catastrophes
The most commonly known kinds of catastrophes are earthquakes, heavy rains that cause landslides, hail, very strong winds, and occasional fires.
Help to those affected comes from relatives or outsiders. Tragedy is common enough so that sympathy isn't often expressed, though help may be given.
Such disasters may be attributed to the rain god’s anger, to witchcraft, or to the imminent end of the world.
732 -- Personal physical abnormalities
Blindness, deafness, insanity, mental retardation, cleft palate with or without harelip are all known. Blindness is thought to be caused by the water god. People with these handicaps are cared for at home, or they sometimes beg.
Blindness Some people are born blind and other go blind later. The latter do so because they have bent/lain face down to drink water at a swamp. The water god is offended and he causes them to go blind.
733 -- Alcoholism and dope addition
The social system requires drinking, and alcoholism is a problem. Drunkenness results in poverty, beating, machete cuts, etc.
No action is taken.
734 -- Physical disability
Sick people are cared for at home by family, who let them rest, feed them and get medicine or shamans for them.
735 -- Poverty
Since all Triques are more or less poor, this isn't considered a problem. Widows and orphans and handicapped people are the most poor, and begging is considered quite acceptable, especially from rich outsiders.
736 -- Desertion
Charity cases are usually handled by family and relatives.
Desertion of infant One woman said about an abandoned baby's mother, Tuꞌvéj noꞌ neꞌej rihaan Yaꞌanj a (she sold the baby to God), implying that she had done something good. Most people thought it was very bad to throw a baby away.
Orphans If parents die, a near relative raises children, usually a grandmother or aunt. The person who raises a girl receives the bride price. Sometimes, people that take a child don't feed it well and it dies. It is considered good to take an orphan and treat it well.
737 -- Deserted old people
Destitute old people are rare. Social pressure obliges relatives to care for their old family members.
An old person who has no relatives may have to beg, and people are quick to give. 74 WELFARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
741 Philanthropic institutions 742 Medical research 743 Hospitals and clinics 744 Public health 745 Social security 746 Public welfare 747 Private institutions for public welfare 748 Social service
741 -- Philanthropic institutions
Within Trique society, there are no philanthropic institutions, but the R.C. church and S.I.L. could be so considered as part of their work among the Triques.
743 -- Hospitals and clinics
Within the society, the only medical service is that of shamans, but clinics are operated by the government, the R.C. church, and S.I.L. in the area. They provide mostly simple medicine and consultations.
744 -- Public health
Within Trique society there is no concept of public health, but all Triques know the malaria sprayers sent by the government.
75 SICKNESS
751 Preventive medicine 752 Sores 753 Concepts concerning sickness 754 Witchcraft 755 Magical and mental therapy 756 Psychotherapy 757 Medical therapy 758 Medical attention 759 Medical personnel
751 -- Preventive medicine
In order to prevent disease, several means are used. Because of the high infant-mortality rate, there is particular concern about protecting babies. Protective amulets. In addition to purchased religious medals hung around the neck, Triques make medicine balls and hang them around the neck of a baby or small child, or tie them into his clothing. Bits of tobacco mixed with yellow chile, or leaves of “floripondio” (Brugmansia) or “toloache” (Datura) (both hallucinogenic) are sewed into cloth and formed into little balls. These are believed to serve as protective medicine against sickness/evil and gods. These balls are left until they fall off.
Careful attention is given to food taboos, such as hot and cold. See Appendix 1, which contains material from section 374, for details.
“Alcanforina” (the substance in mothballs) is dissolved in “aguardiente” and rubbed on the body of a baby to ward off sickness.
A “20-centavo” coin is hung around a child’s neck to protect him against whooping cough.
Garlic is considered to have a protective function because of its strong odor. Some people rub it on babies to ward off evil.
Preventive medicine is very important, so much so that kids will use a bit of spare change to buy a vitamin, rather than candy.
752 -- Sores NOTE: In this section I also cover wounds and other external medical problems.
There is little in the area of first aid for injuries. Cuts are tied with a cloth, but aren't washed.
Bullet wounds (1) Deer neck fungus (raꞌaan chihá xtaj) for pain. -- an unidentified mushroom that grows on the ground. (2) Curious beyond-water plant (coj xcó na quitzi̱i), a common plant in rainy season with small white flowers.
Burns raꞌvíí (an unidentified fruit from the Coast)
Chafing Rub cheese on.
Cuts When a person is cut by an axe or a machete, the offending implement is put “in jail”; it is tied with rope in the house, and is released only when the cut heals. They believe that if it isn't tied, the cut won’t heal.
Eye with foreign body Blow with glottal friction into eye. Fractures (1) Break-fruit plant (coj chruj cachranꞌ) -- grind tuber and rub paste on area with broken bone. (2) For fractured rib, use chest-pass plant (coj achén rucua̱a̱; alfombrilla, Glandularia bipinnatifida) crushed raw in water.
Itching (1) Steambaths, taken medicinally to stop itching from bites, etc. Spouse or relative whisks you with leaves. (2) itch plant
Rash (1) itching sore plant (coj tuꞌnaa rihaan nu̱j; Spermacoce assurgens) (2) shiny leaf plant (coj raꞌa caa̱) (3) paste of black zapote fruit (Diospyros ebenaster)
Scorpion sting No medicine
Snake bite (1) Paste of “tlacosuchil” leaves (Bouvardia ternifolia) (2) Petunia - paste (grind plant and use as poultice - for rattlesnake bites) (3) Buttercup (4) “Ocote” infusion (5) Leaves of ninaꞌ bean plant (6) Eat salt
Spider bite (1) Divine spider plant (coj tachré yaꞌa̱nj; prob. buttercup -- Ranunculus sp.) (2) Coralbean leaves (chruun rixaj; Erythrina sp.)
Sprain (1) Massage - for hand, pull fingers until they snap and roll arm between two hands. (2) coj niꞌnuj -- a fern
Swelling (infection) (1) Tie a cloth tightly around limb above swelling to keep it from spreading. (2) Paste of lime (“cal”) and water.
753 -- Concepts concerning sickness HOT AND COLD There is a constellation of beliefs about hot and cold. The body must have a proper balance, but if there is imbalance, it cannot be corrected too quickly, or death will result. For example, a person who overheated from climbing a hill shouldn't eat something cold, like citrus fruit, or he'll cool too fast and die.
Actual heat and cold are only part of the complex. True heat is involved in hill climbing and drinking hot water. True cold is involved in chills and cold water. Other designations seem more arbitrary. Foods are classified. Cold is connected with metal and sterility, heat with fertility. See Appendix 1.
SOUL LOSS AND “AIGRE” A person can get “aigre” (aire) from a fright, a fall, a corpse. This is equal to soul loss. A child can be frightened by being punished or being forced to take medicine. People with wounds, babies, and pregnant women should avoid being close to a corpse because of danger of contamination from bad air. One healthy adult woman thought she was weak because the aire (nana̱) of a corpse had grabbed her. When a child is sick, he should be covered up so the wind / air won't hit him. The wind can kill a sick child, but not a strong one. People don't want to get an injection outdoors, lest the wind enter it. People also want to cover the place where any shot was given or lesion was treated. A person who talks a lot (= talks bad) in presence of a baby can make him sick. His words/breath (nana̱) get on the baby.
If a young child loses its spirit, and the spirit is in the ground, the mother tries to bring it back by patting the floor and the baby's chest alternately several times. If this doesn't work, the services of a shaman are secured. Shamans effect a cure that involves blowing and using eggs.
Also, if a child was frigntened on land, for example, if he fell along the trail, you make the child eat dirt. You also spit on your finger, put it in the dirt, and make a cross on the baby.
If a child’s spirit is lost in water, the child has to drink that water. Copal is used to fumigate the place where the soul was lost. These procedures are called “calling the baby's heart”.
CHIPILERA -- Sibling rivalry A baby gets “chipilera” (jealousy sickness) if his mother becomes pregnant again while he is still nursing. He gets sickly and crabby, and his bottom gets withered. After the new baby is born, however, people say that this sickness is over.
Various sources of sickness (1) Disease floats around in the sky and falls on people. (2) Some disease is caused by “brujos” or evil eye. (3) Some disease is caused by cold or water or food or air. (4) Fear, soul loss, and jealousy. (5) Object intrusion. (6) Gods grab people.
Diseases are cured by “brujos”, native medicine, doctors, and store-bought medicine. Athlete’s foot is caused by a “mud animal"” eating foot -- xcuu siguiꞌ.
Cavities are attributed to an animal eating the tooth -- xcuu xrínꞌ [“palate animal”]. Remedies include lemon, the “divine spider plant” (Ranunculus), and the “animal eat tooth plant” (coj chá xcuu cúú yanꞌ; a purple-flowered legume, perhaps Cologania).
Colds are caused by eating certain greens: cuej ne̱e̱ - guaje cuej cu̱un - onion
Craziness is caused by the mountain god grabbing a person. Craziness is a well-defined syndrome. People stare up, shake arms up and down with fists clenched, grind teeth. Probably convulsions
Diarrhea can be caused by getting wet out in the rain. Babies get green diarrhea from being chilled and therefore cooling off too fast.
“Espinilla” (yuvé ta̱nj) is caused by a child getting his head wet by being out in the rain. Then it causes the child to get weak. He is swollen and has diarrhea.
Hiccuping is believed to be caused by cold weather.
Itching eyes are caused by people talking bad about the person suffering.
Malaria. There is a belief that some fruits will make one sick. If you eat more than one or two mangos or nato yaꞌa̱a̱ (a sticky yellow fruit similar to mamey), you'll get malaria. This is connected with their being “hot”.
Measles is caused by the “firstborn god” grabbing a child.
Toothache is attributed to people talking bad about the person suffering.
There is a syndrome called ton nocoꞌ nimán, which means literally that the blood is hanging from the heart. If it isn't raised up again, the person will die. Its symptom is a hardness of the spleen and loss of appetite. Also called: nanij ton rmii nacoꞌ tuꞌva nimán nocoꞌ nimán ton nocoꞌ rque / nocoꞌ ton rque ꞌnaꞌ ton nimán nocoꞌ siha̱ꞌ nimán quinij ton rquíꞌ
It is caused by drinking water when one is chilled.
The names for certain diseases, e.g., measles, may be prefixed by the word yaꞌanj - deity. This indicates that such diseases are considered personal and supernatural. People say “God grabbed the child” when a child gets measles. Also: yaꞌanj achrínj = whooping cough yaꞌanj chiꞌii̱ ya̱a̱n = pink eye yaꞌanj luj daj (gray sore god) = measles - yaꞌanj chava̱ꞌ (firstborn god) = measles
754 -- Witchcraft
Witchcraft is known, and it is considered one of the possible causes of sickness and death. In Trique, working evil magic against another person is called ꞌyaj chre̱e (do evil). This is done predominantly by “brujos”. There is no punishment for witchcraft, though it is considered yuꞌva̱ꞌ (delicate, dangerous).
Ways in which a “brujo” can curse / work evil magic include the following:
put a tallow candle at feet of yaꞌanj nimán in church (a statue of a soul suffering in purgatory), and ask that a certain person will die. The reason is usually given as envy.
If a “brujo” knows a person’s real name, he may use it to work evil magic.
One woman thought that her father-in-law, who is a “brujo”, made her baby weak with his words. (I do not think she was talking about a curse here, but something more indirect, like his speech causing the baby to get “aigre”.)
One way to work evil magic is to take a piece of the victim’s shirt, some of his hair, or other thing belonging to him, and blow aguardiente on it. Then the “brujo” takes it to the cemetery to bury it.
To curse a person’s animal, you pull out some of its hairs to use.
“Brujos” also: put thorns in people. Burn tortillas to make soot. Take needles and speak and their word travels to do harm. (The above ideas are so vague that I hesitate to include them, but they might trigger a better description of this process in the future from someone else.)
There is a vague notion about a person making a clay figure of his enemy.
Counter witchcraft would be the prescribed treatment for witchcraft, though people also come seeking other medicine.
Cursing (aꞌmii chre̱e, speak evil)
Anyone, not just a “brujo”, may curse most any object and then evil will befall it, unless some counter magic protects it. People can curse speaking directly to other people. They can also curse speaking about people, animals or objects. Objects cursed are: animals, like burro - it falls from a high place cornfield - it gets “mancha seca” trees - they die water ? house
In cursing, you say the opposite of what you mean, with thick sarcasm. Like,“May you live for a long time and have lots of children.” means May you die and also your children. See the two curses in the grandfather (Xlingué) story and also the curse of the grandmother in the sun and moon story.
It is believed that a priest can curse people he dislikes by making the sign of cross over them. In fact, anyone can do this--it is done when the victim is far away and doesn't see a person do it. (Perhaps this is a kind of opposite, like verbal cursing. I have no other data to suggest that people believe there is something evil about a cross.)
Evil eye Anyone can look at a baby and give it the evil eye, even unconsciously. The person isn’t necessarily trying to hurt the child -- he may just have a strong eye. The baby then gets faint (naꞌáj). Bad “brujos” can do this to an even greater extent, so that the baby dies. The evil eye can cause faintness to young animals and young crops, too.
Faintness, which is a recognized sickness in babies and young children, has the following symptoms: weakness, diarrhea, and occasional vomiting.
To prevent evil eye, parents completely cover a small baby, or an older child who is sick, to shield them from view.
Treatments are varied. Olive oil, yellow tobacco and “faint baby plant” (a composite with a white flower, maybe fleabane) are all used. Incense also.
755 -- Magical and mental therapy
It is difficult to make a distinction between magical / mental therapy and medical therapy because Trique thought patterns do not distinguish these. In this section some therapies that would not normally be considered medicinal are listed, and also therapies that involve the services of a shaman (brujo or curandero).
Bathing in a “temazcal” is a remedy for fever, chills, headache, vomiting, diarrhea. When one member of the family is sick, the whole family may take a steambath.
CURANDEROS Magic and mental therapy consists in consulting a “brujo” or “curandero”, who will determine a cause by divination and take measures to cure. The Triques say that the brujo blows and the sickness jumps away from the person. (For more information on divination, see Appendix 2, which contains material from Section 787.)
Description of a “brujo” cure The brujo takes eggs, and he blows on “copal”, and rubs them on and waves them over the patient’s head. He takes a mouthful of “aguardiente” and blows it all over the patient. The egg is thrown as far as possible. The sickness enters the egg. Some say that the hen who laid the egg will die.
For a man, a rooster is killed, and for a woman, a hen is killed. The brujo cuts the neck of the chicken, and puts the blood on the forehead, neck, and back of neck of the patient. The rest of the chicken is made into stew for the brujo to eat.
The patient may also be fumigated with “copal”. Or copal may be rubbed all over his body.
The brujo may also chant. One chant included names of Catholic saints.
This treatment brings back heart and breath. Then the person eats, drinks, speaks, and recovers.
If, however, a person dies, they say that the brujo did not “find the way”.
Around 1970, the cost of such a cure was about 25 or 30 pesos: brujo 5-10 chicken 10 liquor 6 copal 2 eggs 3
For a fright, a brujo cure consists of going to the place where the fright took place. If it is on land, you sprinkle copal around and fumigate. If it is in water, you put copal in the river, put water on the head of the frightened person, wash the frightened person’s clothes in it, and make him drink some of it.
You take an egg to the place where you fell or were frightened. You hit the egg on the land or water. If it breaks, you will recover quickly, but if it does not break, you will die.
Cure for taꞌmaan (an unidentified disease which small children get from taking a bath in swamp water) is to have a brujo blow tobacco and aguardiente, take steam baths, and take eggs and money to the water. This is called paying back (nago̱ꞌ nii tuꞌvee nii). The symptoms of this are that the child is covered with sores, skin splits, itchy, fever, lump in flesh. (The word taꞌmaan is also a verb that means to be sick because one craves a certain food and does not get it.)
If sickness is considered to be caused by object intrusion, then the brujo sucks out sand or stones, symbolic of the disease. He eats a bit of tobacco and then sucks. He spits the results in a corn husk to be burned.
Brujos, as part of a curing ceremony, bite the affected part and suck blood out.
Brujo cures sleepiness by blowing water in a person’s face.
Brujos cure a bellyache by chewing tobacco (coj no̱ / cono̱) and spitting it on baby’s belly and temples. The interior of the Copala church is a common place to consult a curer. We observed the following one day during a mass. The curer takes two tallow candles. He lights, snuffs out, relights, stares at flames, puts bottom of one in mouth, waves one around body of patient and takes them up and leaves them in front of a statue. Curing in the church also involves waving leaves in front of statues.
The curers who work in the church are usually old people, both men and women. One woman was from San Martín.
When some Triques became evangelicals, they brought aspects of this old belief system over into evangelical faith. One is the idea that religious acts require a specialist – praying is considered an esoteric art.
I have heard the following prayer:
Señor, so̱ꞌ me doctoor / síí chru̱u̱n / rmedió / rihaan níꞌ a Lord, you are the doctor, brujo, medicine to us.
756 -- Psychotherapy
The Trique shaman (síí chru̱u̱n) is thought of as more good than bad, and he has several functions--divining, protecting, curing, cursing. He gets his power from God, sun, R.C. saints. There is no apprenticeship or training. He has status in the community, and earns for each “consulta”.
757 -- Medical therapy
The difference between medicine and magic is hardly a clear one for the Triques. All medicine westerners think of as scientific is to them magical, as westerners see magic. They do, however, distinguish to some degree between activities prescribed by a shaman, and other remedies.
There is a belief that some medicines are delicate and when taken, the person must abstain from foods like chile, salt, grease, and meat.
Following is a list of sicknesses, and remedies that Triques have told me were used to treat them.
“Aigre” (aire) (1) camphor - sold by Mixtecs (2) rue; ruda; Ruta graveolens
Anger (1) mohina plant (coj xruꞌ, a composite with a blue and white flower) Backache and yaꞌaâ (cuerdas) (1) “hierba de maestra” put whole in aguardiente and drunk (2) rue drunk in aguardiente (3) swamp “mint” (coj riluu; probably “mastranzo”; Mentha rotundifolia)
Bellyache (veꞌee̱ rque) (1) drink lemon cut in half with bicarbonate rubbed on surface (2) coj e̱ꞌ yucuáj - drink infusion (3) coj veꞌee̱ rque - drink infusion (4) ash bark tea (chruun roꞌno; fresno; Fraxinus sp.) (5) relative or spouse presses hand or foot into belly very hard to massage - aguardiente and tobacco can be rubbed on in the process (6) “Hierba de maestra” put whole in aguardiente and drunk (7) cooling plant (coj nuvi̱j; leaf similar to coleus, partly purple) (if bellyache is caused by cold weather) (8) “yoloxochi” flower (chruun yâj tzen; Talauma mexicana) (9) leaves of bitter rtaj tree (chruun rtaj e̱ꞌ) ground and mixed with coals ?, then drunk. (10) Spit tobacco on belly button of baby.
Child whose permanent teeth do not come in rub the hind leg (tibia) of the xto̱o grasshopper (large, inedible, short horned) on his gums.
Chill (1) Crush “chill” plant (coj nuvi̱j; similar to coleus) and drink. (2) temazcal bathing
Colds (this is a hot disease, and it is treated by eating cool foods) crush jimson weed leaves (coj yaꞌanj; toloache; Datura) and put on head and then take steambath drink coralbean (chruun rixaj; colorín; Erythrina) drink lemon juice and also put the juice on head rub raw chicken egg on baby’s chest crush tiny monster plant (coj yaca̱a̱ na̱a̱n; coralillo; Anagallis arvensis) with water and drink and put on head put a head of cold flower plant (coj yâj caꞌaa̱n; a composite with a daisylike flower -- large disk and few yellow rays) in your nose crushed peach leaves put on baby’s head or drunk
Constipation Tea of coj xtama̱nꞌ (a composite with a small yellow flower) and/or coj riluu
Cough (1) Husk tomato paste is rubbed on throat and covered with handkerchief. (2) “Alache” flower; also called “violeta para tos” (cuej ravii; Anoda cristata) (3) Chest-pass plant (coj achén rucua̱a̱; alfombrilla; Glandularia bipinnatifida) for chest congestion. Crush raw in water and drink.
Cracks in foot -- “hendidura” catch a salamander and rub it on the cracks. It will make your foot soft. Then you let it go.
Crying (baby) (1) coj rixuvee - put in cradle / baby drinks it.
Diarrhea (1) “poleo” tea (yuu; Clinopodium sp. ?) (2) tea of “chile” plant (coj yaꞌa̱j; hierba del cáncer; Acalypha sp.) (3) olive oil (for babies - caused by faintness) (4) sticky plant (coj nichra̱j; unidentified plant with purple leaf) (5) leaves of calzón-edge tree (chruun taxroj / chruun tuꞌva xroj; not identified) (8) crush flowers, stems, leaves of rattlesnake plant (coj xcuáá ragáá; similar to a petunia) and drink (9) drink crushed coj güee̱ꞌ ya̱an (unidentified plant that has pods) (10) swamp mint (coj riluu)
Dysentery (disentería blanca) “Yerba del guajolote” and manzanilla -- make a tea (a Mixtec remedy)
Earache (1) cook earache fungus (raꞌaan aꞌngaj xréé; a shelf fungus on dead trees) in a pitcher and put water on ear for earache. (2) put a xcuu coto (mold animal = pill bug; cochinillo; Armadillidium vulgare) in ear. (3) rub pork on it
Eczema eat buzzard meat
Faintness (1) crushed guineo banana leaves in water - brujo blows water.
Faintness (babies) (1) Blow yellow tobacco on (2) Faint baby plant (coj naꞌáj neꞌej; has a white flower, like an aster; Conyza sp.) crushed and rubbed on head (3) Feed 2-3 spoonfuls of olive oil (4) Incense Fever (1) Crush coj yaca̱a̱ na̱a̱n with water and drink it and put it on head (2) temazcal bathing
Hanging siha̱ꞌ (1) Hanging siha̱ꞌ plant (coj nocoꞌ siha̱ꞌ nimán -- unidentified) (I have never been able to determine if this is a body part -- spleen? -- or a disease.)
Headache (1) Tie cloth (or vine, or slingshot rubber, etc.) around head tightly, Plains Indian style. (2) Pierce temples with a needle until they bleed, and add tobacco poultice (3) Crush airplant (coj aꞌngaj raa̱; sanalotodo; Kalanchoe pinnata) and put on head, then take steambath (4) lemon (5) temazcal bathing
Insanity The mountain god grabs a person if he sleeps out. Syndrome includes foaming at mouth, clenched shaking fists, looking up (probably a convulsion). Treatment would be by a “curandero”.
Muteness To cure a mute, a person who speaks well takes two large lemons. He hits the mute on the back hard with one of them. Then he turns the mute around and shoves the other one in his open mouth. He'll “vomit” up the lemon and start to talk.
Pain (1) Deer neck fungus (pain from bullet wound) (2) Leaves of chruun yâj rnitaj e̱ꞌ (unidentified; has sticky white flowers)
Muscle pain -- aꞌngaj xraꞌ cúú (bone-splitting pain) Rub aguardiente on feet
Measles Measles plant (coj luj daj; unidentified, small with red flower) - leaves put on head and back
Pink eye (1) “alache” (cuej ravii) (2) “plato y taza” sap (coj yaꞌanj tanu̱u̱; milkweed with red and yellow flowers; Asclepias curassavica) (3) “chicalote” sap (pricklypoppy; Argemone sp.) - in eye
Relapses sickness returning plant (two kinds)
Sores (1) coj tacóó xcuaꞌan -- tinamou foot plant (unidentified) (2) coj naganꞌ xcuu (unidentified purple flowered groundcover) -- rub paste on (3) turkey egg scrambled on comal with chile and rubbed on scalp (for scabby scalp sores) (4) bitter rataj tree leaves (chruun rataj e̱ꞌ; unidentified)
Splinter earwig. You kill one and rub it on and tie it with a cloth. The next morning the pus is ripe and the twig comes out.
Split skin (baby) If a baby’s skin splits (behind ears?), you put an egg in the baby’s anus. -- But not everyone accepts this.
Stomach ache (1) camphor - sold by Mixtecs in irregular brownish-white balls (2) coj veꞌee̱ nimán -- plant for stomach ache (unidentified) - 8" tall (3) “poleo” tea (4) 1/2 spike of yâj cua̱j (clavito, clavoxochi; waxy fragrant flowers; unidentified) is made into tea (5) “yoloxochi” flower (chruun yâj tzen; yoloxóchitl; Talauma mexicana) boiled with sugar (6) Tree morning glory leaves (chruun coj veꞌee̱ nimán; cazahuate; Ipomoea sp.) (7) tea of coj rudaj (unidentified)
Swamp sickness (taꞌmaan³), which you get from bathing in swamp water Mother and baby eat tamales made of chruj³ nituu³, the fruit of a tree
Swelling (1) “floripondio” flower (chruun yâj tacaꞌaa̱n; angel trumpet; Brugmansia sp.) ground with water (2) “plato y taza” (milkweed; Asclepias curassavica) sap rubbed on when you bathe (3) “cihuapatle” (chruun coj yaꞌanj scolaá; Pluchea odorata) ground up with water (4) eat rattlesnake meat from the middle of the snake.
Swollen belly - cows You put lemon juice in the cow's mouth. If you don't have a lemon, then use lemon leaves.
Ticks Lard and sulfur are mixed for a medicine against ticks.
Toothache Ground leaves of ? packed on tooth.
Vomiting (1) temazcal bathing (2) grind coj güee̱ꞌ ya̱an (unidentified plant)
Whooping cough (1) tea of coj chiꞌii̱ nachri̱nj (unidentified, small, purple flower in Nov., hot country) (2) ground clam shell mixed with water (3) armadillo shell (4) old “quinto” (coin); 20 centavo coin around child’s neck for prevention (5) anolis lizard (6) peach tree leaves (7) wormlike roots of coj yâj rihuu (unidentified; red and yellow flower in Sept.)
758 -- Medical attention
Attention for sick persons is usually care given at home by his family. He rests on a petate, but isn't isolated, which would be practically impossible under usual living conditions. He may be treated by a shaman or with modern medicine. He is probably fed a special diet; see Appendix 1 for a description of hot and cold foods and diseases.
Curing is sort of a family affair - as is burying the dead.
759 -- Medical personnel
The shamans are the only “medical” personnel within Trique ociety - see 791.
From outside the society, however, help is offered in Copala from the R.C. church, the government, and S.I.L., and there are doctors in the nearby Mexican towns.
Appendix 1. Hot and cold
374 -- Heat
Hot and Cold Foods
There is a classification of foods into hot and cold. This goes along with a classification of bodily conditions. One should try to avoid extremes and maintain a balance. Certain diseases are caused by an imbalance, and certain foods must be taken with certain diseases to create and/or maintain a balance.
You should not correct an imbalance too quickly. For example, if you are overheated, e.g., from aclimbing a hill, you can’t eat cold things, like an orange. If you cool too fast, you could die. Nor can you bathe right away, or you’ll cool off too much and get diarrhea and a bellyache and even die. You can’t even wash your hands or your shoulders will ache.
If a person is in a “cold” condition, such as a chill, eating something sweet will make it worse.
Hot and Cold foods according to a Trique boy from Sabana:
Hot goat meat beans squash chicken ? beef ?
Cold torts chile atole chayote bread sugar cane pop grease beer salt aguardiente fish candy turkey greens beef ? fruit chicken ?
Hot and Cold foods according to a Juxtlahuaca Mixtec woman:
Hot mango hot water chile red tomato egg
Cold fish cold water citrus fruit squash greens Torts are neutral.
One drinks hot water for diarrhea, and cold water for: cold, fever
A cold condition causes sterility and hot medicine is required. Cutting the umbilical cord with a metal object, which is cold, is believed to cause sterility in the mother.
A baby who gets a chill and cools off gets green diarrhea.
Appendix 2. Revelation and divination
787 -- Revelation and divination
To predict the climate for the new year, whether it will be good for crops or not, on New Year's eve, people go out at midnight and look for a cloud. If there is a cloud in the sky, or if it is raining, that means it will be a good year. (collected 6/88 from Santiago López Merino)
Divination by means of a candle (looking at candle)
The way a candle burns tells a brujo whether a sick person will die or recover.
Also, people burn candles to tell whether violent men are coming, or not.
Divination by “measuring”
The brujo “seeks the way”. He rubs his hands together and blows on them. Then he measures his left arm with his right hand by spans from his elbow toward his fingers (“takes the measure”). With pinky at elbow, he turns on thumb. If pinky “reaches” first joint of finger, people are delaying. If pinky “lowers” to knuckle or edge of palm, people are on the way. This is done to predict arrival of soldiers or of violent men.
Divination by feeling a woman’s belly to predict birth
A brujo feels the belly of a pregnant woman and then tells her whether the birth will be, soon or delayed.
Divination by means of cards
Some Triques use packs of cards to tell fortunes. This is a Spanish borrowing, of course. When a man heard that someone wanted to enter the house and kill them, he used the cards to see what would happen. (He had been away to work in cane country, and so he might have learned to do this there.) The cards are put on a blanket or huipil, never on the floor or ground. Cards are face up in four rows of 10 columns. The deck has 40 cards in four suites: sword, coin, club, dish. There are ace to 7 plus three picture cards (page, squire, king) in each suite.
This is not considered to be associated with black magic, but is morally neutral. Anyone can divine with cards; you don't have to be a curer.
Cards are not used for games, just for divining.
Divination by means of copal
Copal is put on the ground and fire is put on it. If fire leaves the heart of the copal, the person dies.
Put 7 (or 15) pieces of incense in a “jícara” of water. If there is no incense, then corn is used. Some float and some sink. Curers can interpret (read) the future from them. If the sickness “opens”, the person gets well.
Divination by means of fire
Brujos put the neck (cuu̱) of a broken pitcher on the fire and look to see what the fire does inside it. If the fire burns strongly inside it, then the sickness is strong. If the fire burns low, then the person will get better. The brujo also puts the fire out by spitting liquor over it, and then may repeat the ceremony. (Some speakers reject this.)
Divination by means of Datura or Brugmansia
A brujo or the owner of a lost object drinks a bit of leaf of either jimson weed or “floripondio” ground up and put in cold water. These hallucinogenic plants give him visions that tell him where to find lost objects. They take 8-9 seeds, or bits of leaf. Triques say the plant “lets him know”.
Divining by means of other hallucinogenic plants ?
Speakers say people in Copala do not use hallucinogenic mushrooms, morning glory seeds, or ololiuhqui.
Divination: other methods ?
Stones and glass (crystal) aren't used, nor are candles burned upside down, nor reflections in mirror or water. Nor is knotted string used.
Divination by means of birds
Triques frequent fortune tellers at fiestas. A common type is a man who has a bird which chooses a folded paper fortune for a person.
Prognostication through dreams
Bad dreams are warnings. Don’t leave home if you’ve had one, lest something happen to you. Both living and dead people who appear in dreams are said to cause the dream.
In dreams, dead people appear to speak to the living. They put pressure on people to die also. A woman dreamed that a man who had been murdered was embracing me. This meant that I would die violently as he did.
Related to people speaking through dreams is the namanj, an apparition of a child or ghost that comes during sleep and frightens a person. It forbodes evil. It grabs the person and he wants to cry out but he can’t, and he wants to move but he can’t. It comes to people who are going to die of a bad sickness or a weak sickness.
Prognostication through other means
There are many signs believed to be given by animals. These just happen, but are not sought through divination. See 825. Some Beliefs and Sayings of the Copala Triqui (trc) Barbara E. Hollenbach drafted April 2000, revised November 2020 (Murdoch 828 -- ethnopsychology)
********** The material in this file was collected during the 1960s and early 1979s. Much of it is in the cultural notes in the dictionary or in illustrative sentences, and much of it is in the Mundo Animal paper, both of which are in Spanish.
**********
WEATHER / TIEMPO
Morning mist is said to be the breath of the rainbow snake.
Signs about wind / Señas de aire
The wind bird (xtâj na̱na̱ -- curve-billed thrasher) calls the wind. When it cries out in the evening, it’s windy the next morning.
The drunk eagle (xtaa xno̱ -- northern harrier) calls the wind by descending rapidly.
Arboreal green crickets (xruu maree̱) call the wind when they sing in a special way between October and December: serrrrrr / rii³ rii³.
Signs about rain / Señas de lluvia
The large white morpho butterfly shows whether it will rain. The rain god sends it like a letter to tell people. If if stops in ditches, it will rain soon. If it flies everywhere, it will not rain. The water god and mountain god have clothes and utensils in ditches, and the rain god is telling them to get these things up out of the ditch so the water won’t carry them away.
The swallow scatters seeds and wants plants to sprout, and so it asks for rain as it flies. If swifts are out flying and crying out in the morning, it will rain all day. It they are out in the evening, it will clear up. Some say this is true of swallows too.; other say swallows fly only when it is clear.
The anolis lizard turns from gray to black just before the rainy season and announces its coming. Others say it just turns black during the rains. Some say that it calls the rain.
The large toad calls an all-day rain by crying out in the water like a calf.
The chorus frog calls the rain. When it says ts (clic), at dawn or noon, it will rain. But when it says ts (clic) at dusk, the rain will stop.
The cicada comes out in January or February and sings until April or May. It calls the rain. When the thunder god starts to cry out, the cicada’s head splits and it dies.
When tadpoles have hands and grow, that means it will rain soon. When some of them have hands and some do not, that means the rain will be sporadic. The heat bird send the rain to us. When it wants rain, it whistles. When it wants clear weather, it says tij tij tij. Another version says that if it cries out in the morning, it will rain, and if it cries out in the evening, it will clear up.
The American kestrel calls the rain and wind when it “dances” (hovers). When it dances facing the coast (= south), it calls the rain. When it dances facing Juxtlahuaca (= north), it is calling the wind.. Others say that it runs away from the rain.
When chickens move and extend their wings, it is going to rain.
Signs about weather clearing up / Señas de despejarse
When the lazy-person insect (a wasp) stings people, then the weather clears up.
Other signs / Otras señas
The nightingale thrush tells time. In the evening it cries out three times and says caꞌanj güii (the sun is setting). Or scaya̱a̱n se li̱j¹³ / scaya̱a̱n squilij³, or yâj ya̱a̱n.
ANIMALES CONNECTED WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF A PERSON
When a person is very stupid, they say he has a racúnj (millipede) in his ear.
When a child falls asleep sirtting up, people say, “ꞌNaꞌ nej rihaan tucuya a” (Sleep comes to the rabbit), because in a legend, the rabbit got sleepy.
When you raise your biceps, Triques say, “Nu̱u̱ tucuya xcóó so̱ꞌ a” (There is a rabbit in your arm). This is also said about thigh and calf nuscles when they jump / twitch, though not everyone agrees with this extension.
When you twist or stretch, and pull a neck or shoulder muscle, Triques say the rabbit is pulling their shoulder. Others say that if the rabbit is pulling, then you can’t open your hand -- a temporary paralysis that affects people now and then.
OTHER SAYINGS ABOUT ANIMALS / ANIMALES -- OTROS DICHOS
The vermilion flycatcher is said to be “wise”: he knows the morning.
The earwig carries letters; it used to be the town secretary, who became an earwig wwhen he died.
When a male turkey struts, people say he is dancing, and they say that this is caused by a large crop. He dances because he is happy.
THE WOODS / EL MONTE
If you steal money from the devil’s house (caves), the devil will grab you and make you crazy. PREGNANCY AND BIRTH / EMBARAZO Y PARTOS
A yaca̱a̱ (night-flying demon) will cause a pregnant woman to have a difficult delivery.
TABOOS / COSAS DELICADAS
Anything described as gue̱e̱ or yuꞌva̱ꞌ is something that should not be tampered with, or harm will come to you.
If you work on a holy / delicate day, you will get hurt. Holy days include Fridays of Lent.
If you eat turkey meat, your head gets confused -- not everyone agrees.
If you eat snake meat, you will get sick. When the thunder god cries out, you will get shakes, chills, and sores. Some people say that only violent people and thieves eat snake meat. The snake is believed to be the devil’s animal.
If you have a cold, you can’t eat the larva of the wasp called the cold animal. If you do, your cold will get worse.
It is taboo to kill a red-winged grasshopper because they take care of cornfields. If we kill one, we will have to take care of cornfields in another world.
If you kill a swallow or eat its meat, your children will be small.
If you throw a stone at a roadrunner, your food and money will get used up fast.
The work bird is on an errand for a god. If you kill and eat it, you will have a town office every year.
If you throw a rock at a kestrel, it will make you go to jail and stay there for a long time.
If you mimic a xtâj peroj³ (motmot), the fire will be “happy” (burn very lively) and your clothes will burn up.
If you mimic a toothache bird (says aaiꞌ, like a cry of pain), you will get a toothache.
If you mimic a raven, he will make your mouth crack at the corners.
If you mimic a heat bird (xtâj xcuu guaan³², prob. ash-throated flhycatcher), a fierce rain will hit (ambush) you before you get home, and you will get soaked. If you kill one, you will be struck by lightning, because it is the pet of the thunder god.
If you throw a rock at an inca dove, it is all right if you kill him on the first try. But if you miss and he flies away, he will gossip about you to the thunder god, and the thunder god will strike you (with lightning). The inca dove is the pet of the thunder god.
The inca dove eats corn and beans that fall on the ground, and then he goes and gossips to the thunder god and tells him that we threw away the corn. Then the thunder god will punish us by taking away the weight / substance of the next harvest. People say that inca doves are jealous because the male and female are always together.
If you kill an anolis lizard, you will get struck by lightning, because it belongs to the thunder god.
If you kill a brother snake (garter snake), its brothers will come and kill you, maybe a dozen of them. It is hard to kill them all. Its boss may come, and if you do not kill it, it will bite you.
If you grab a tadpole, your eye will explode.
If you step on a giant toad (Bufo marinus) or throw a stone at it, it sprays sap on you, and your flesh rots.
If you grab a bird spider -- tachré yaꞌa̱nj, it will hit you with its “sap”, and that will cause you to get a sore there. Also, its hairs are very poisonous if they get in your foot, and there is no medicine for it. Your foot will disintegrate. But it is okay to kill them.
If you grab a giant water bug, your eye will explode (= get a cataract). Still, people eat them. There is a circle of little bumps on their back that looks like a totopo (dry tortilla).
If you grab a blister beetle, you will get blisters.. They are blackish with a fat belly, and they walk in the grass. Yellow water comes out of their abdomen.
If you grab or kill a debt butterfly (= tiger moth) or question mark butterfly, you will end up owing money and never pay it back in this life. Others say that it flies into the fire and kills itself and leaves its debt for you to pay.
If a woman kills a spider, she will die, or she will have only daughters. Old women can kill them safely therefore, but not young women. The tachré yaꞌa̱nj is the one it is dangerous to kill, because your small children will die. OR you will have only daughters. OR lightning will strike you.
If you kill a cricket, it will eat your clothes. When they are singing in the dry leaves, people say they are saying mass and praying to God. People say that the world is in their hands. The mass they are singing protects the world from trouble, such as an earthquake. They keep the world from coming to an end.
The cricket fools you, and you can’t find him because he moves from place to place. People say there is a song in Trique that he sings, but I do not have the words.
Looms If you cross over (step over) a loom, then the loom snake (xcuáá rque xnáán -- garter snake) will scare you.
“CHARMS”
To make girls fall in love with him, a young man wraps the head of an Inca dove in a red silk handkerchief and puts it in his pocket.
To get away with stealing money, you put a snake tongue in your mouth. HELP FROM ANIMALS
The praying mantis will tell you where to find a wife. Youi ask it where, and it faces in the direction of the barrio in which the girl lives and places its front legs there. You can do this yourself, or ask a friend to do this for you.
LUCK / SUERTE
Good luck / Buena suerte
If you see a vermillion flycatcher, you will have good luck.
If you are cutting firewood, and a “shot-giving animal” (a kind of grasshopper) comes out, you can grab it, and the wood will get cut fast. This insect has a needle hanging from its chest and it injects itself, they say.
Bad luck / Mala suerte
If a walking stick gets on you, you will get as skinny as it is. You will sort of dry up.
If sleep animals (pupas, chrysalis of mourning cloak) hang from your house, you will get very sleepy. Other people say that sleep animals are tiny and look like bits of dry leaves, and they walk in the woods.
Tiger moths are caled debt animals. If one flies into your fire and dies, you will end up owing money. It leaves you a debt.
Neutral / Neutro
If a butterfly flies through a corredor, that means the person who lives in the house is going to travel.
LUCK SHOWN IN DREAMS / SUERTE EN LOS SUEÑOS
Good luck / Buena suerte If you dream of fish, you'll get money.
Bad luck / Mala suerte If you dream of greens, you will die.
If you dream about ants or other stinging insects, you will die.
If you dream that there are many buzzards, then soldiers will come.
People say that the rooster is jealous, and that it makes people dream. Cats cause people to dream. They spit and claw at you in the dream, which shows that a violent person is going to come and kill you.
A person dreamed that someone killed two rattlesnakes near his house, and he said it meant that some day he will kill two violent men near his house.
PORTENTS OF DEATH -- animals / SEÑAS DE MUERTE -- animales
When either a big or little “earth stinkbug” (chaꞌaj yoꞌo̱j caꞌnu̱ꞌ / chaꞌaj yoꞌo̱j na̱a̱n) shows itself to you, some relative is going to die, perhaps a baby. This insect is not edible.
When a solitary wasp shows itself to you with a worm in its mouth, your baby will die. Some say that if it has a worm, a male relative will die, but if it has a spider, a female relative will die.
When a velvet ant or cow killer (xcuaa duú shows itself to you on the trail, that means that you will dies a violent death. If it has a worm in its mouth, a man will die. It if has a cricket or spider, a woman will die.
When the green cricket cries out, it is giving a sign that your husband will die. The house plot will return to being woods again.
The giant toad is a sign animal. If it enters your house, someone will die.
If you keep seeing a cascabel (xcuáá gáá; rattlesnake), then a relative will die.
Some say that the coral snake is a sign animal, and if you meet one, someone will die or get sick.
When black vultures laugh h? h? h?, then you will have trouble: someone will die.
When the racuun (laughing falcon) laughs on a dead tree near a house, the owner will die.
Barn owls used to be people who held the office of police chief (vitaá chij) long ago, and now they hold this office in another world. They come back at night and call other people to die. They whistle in the house. When they want a man to die, they whistle loudly, but if they want a woman to die, they whistle softly. Another version is that a loud whistle means that a person will die a violent death, and a soft whistle means that a person will die a good (nonviolent) death.
Foxes were people who held the office of vitaá cuni̱j (assistant police chief) long ago, and now they hold this office in another world.
Owls stand on treetops near houses and give a sign. They actually cause people to die and take their souls. The tucutúnj (great horned owl) are the assistants of the barn owl. Owls used to be people. Now they are authorities in the other world, and they return as owls at night to give signs. Owls are said to be God’s animals, and they come to announce the death of bad people.
Soul animals that give a bad omen include: roadrunner chaꞌuu̱ -- mottled owl xtâj xre̱j -- screech owl tucutúnj -- great horned owl chuu̱mé -- barn owl chuu̱me riꞌiin³² -- pygmy owl racuun³ -- laughing falcon
SIGNS THAT MEAN BAD LUCK / SEÑAS DE MAL AGÜERO
If a turkey buzzard dips near you, you will go to jail.
When the racuun (laughing falcon) laughs in the woods, there will be a fight.
When there are lots of black buzzards flying around, it means that soldiers are coming.
I a cricket comes in your house, you need to run awy. It announces bad luck, that thieves or violent men are coming.
When a xtâj ruvii³² (unidentified) cries out tzi ri ri ri ri (descending tones), you will run into trouble and will go to jail. The xtâj ruvii and the tiguanj³² (squirrel cuckoo) are the devil’s animals. When they cry out, a sickness will get worse.
OTHER SIGNS / OTRAS SEÑAS
People sneeze because someone is thinking about them. Nuná nii mán so̱ꞌ, ne̱ atzínj so̱ꞌ a. Someone thinks of you, and you sneeze. When a person sneezes, people say: Naꞌnuj rá nica̱ so̱ꞌ mán so̱ꞌ a. Your husband is thinking about you.
The xcuu tucuáá, a black and white insect about 1 1/2 inches long, is used as a test for children. If you find one in the woods, you bring it home and put it on a child’s nape. If he is obedient, the insect does not bite him, but if he is rebellious, it does.
SIGNS THAT A VISITOR IS COMING / SEÑAS DE VISITAS
When the carpenter bee (tamaan) comes in your house and buzzes, he is telling you that a friend is coming to visit.
The brown-backed solitaire tells you when someone is coming. He says: Cu̱riha̱nj sij cuano̱ na̱nj á. A leader will show up right away for sure.
People say he knows Spanish. Some people say it is the xtâj sij (wren) who says this.
If an edible stinkbug comes out, that means someone is on the trail.
DECEPTIONS / ENGAÑOS
Devil fire. Sometimes a person will see a bright flash of light on a rock up on a mountain at dawn or dusk. This light is called yaꞌan yuvee³² (meteor light) or taꞌan Síí Chre̱e (devil’s fire). The fire means that there is money there. If you go at noon or midnight, you will see the money, but it belongs to the devil, and if you take it, the devil will grab you, and you will suffer within a few days.
Between Copala and Tilapa is a cave that is said to be the home of the devil -- tucuá Síí Chre̱e. There is a cliff with a crack in it. There is pop inside and eggs, and people go in to get them, but there are live snakes inside, and people see them, and they are afraid, and they die.
There are other such devil homes, some of them caves. They have money in them, but it you steal the money, the devils will grab you and eat out your innards, make you weak or crazy, or kill you. If you want to steal the money, you put a snake’s tongue in your mouth.
Devil houses look like a rich person’s house. People say there is one in Trique Agua Fría, in Ráá Itúú, near the river on the slope.
PUNISHMENTS / CASTIGOS
If you are lazy, the wasp called xcuu rmii̱ will sting you.
If you have a lover, the black snake will punish you. It will ambush you on the trail on the way to your paramour’s house to give a present, and hit you with its tail. It might even beat you to death. It is too fast for you to hit it with a machete. Some say this is really the devil in the form of a snake.
If you gather greens and throw some of them away, the next time you go out to gather, the greens snake will come out at the foot of the plant and scare you. Or it will come out as you walk on the trail and wrap itself around your foot to scare you.
If a child likes to play with fire, the coral snake xcuáá rii yaꞌan will scare them by ambushing them on the trail. It does not bite, just scares them.
AFTERLIFE / VIDA DESPUÉS DE LA MUERTE
Na̱raꞌaá ꞌu̱nj, ne̱ gunj yuvii̱ cavíꞌ ꞌu̱nj a. If I get married, I will become a person when I die.
Some butterflies that are around in October and November are the souls of dead people returning. One of these is the mourning cloak.
OTHER / OTROS
Magpie jays are gossipy. When people pass on the trail, they cry out, and people say they are gossiping about them. They also cry out when a hawk flies above, or when a fox passes in the woods.
When you see a black animal, especially a dog or cat, but also a chicken, goat, or a person dressed in black, like a priest, it is an apparition of the devil, or perhaps a ghost. Young women will not eat burnt eggs. It the egg sticks to the pan, then a baby will stick inside and not be born.
If a person dreams that a cow dies, then the person himself will die.
If a woman grabs a tiny toad called the piꞌ³, it is bad luck. She will have only girl babies.
Traditionally, the passing of time is marked by fiestas, rather than by day and month. I have been told that a child was born at the fiesta of San Miguel, and that marigolds should be sown at the fiesta of corpus.
Old rats turn into bats. Las ratas viejas se convierten en murciélagos.
As a putdown to a young and inexperienced man who speaks up in a town meeting, older men say that he has a squash flower on his bottom, comparing him to a tiny squash too small to eat, from which the flower has not yet fallen off. Squash is culturally important and native to Mesoamerica, and so this is surely not something imported from outside. There also seems to be a metaphorical connection between a small child and a tender squash in both Mixtec and Trique. Note, however, that this little allusion says the same thing as Spanish “está todavía en pañales” or English “he’s not dry behind the ears yet.”
Index to Copala anthropology files Murdoch numbers
10 INFORMATION
101 Identification 102 Maps 103 Place names 104 Glossary 105 Resume of the culture
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
111 Sources analyzed 112 Sources consulted 113 Complementary references 114 Observations 115 Informants 116 Original texts 117 Field notes
12 METHODOLOGY
121 Theoretical orientation 122 Practical preparation 123 Role and characteristics of the observer 124 Interviews 125 Psychological tests, inventories and questionnaires 126 Recording the data 127 Historical investigations 128 Preparation and display of the results
13 GEOGRAPHY
131 Location 132 Climate 133 Topography 134 Soil 135 Mineral resources 136 Fauna 137 Flora
14 HUMAN BIOLOGY 141 Anthropometry 142 Descriptive somatology 143 Genetics
1 144 Race and race relations 145 Ontogeny 146 Nutrition 147 Other physiological data
15 PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR
151 Sensation and perception 152 Instinctive tendencies and emotional states 153 Formation and modification of conduct 154 Adaptive processes 155 Personality development 156 Social personality 157 Personality traits 158 Personality disorders 159 Autobiographies and study of individuals
16 DEMOGRAPHY
161 Population 162 Composition of population 163 Birth rate 164 Sickness 165 Death rate 166 Internal migration 167 Immigration and emigration 168 Political demography
17 HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE
171 Significance of the distribution of elements 172 Archaeology 173 Traditional and legendary history 174 Historical reconstruction 175 Written history 176 Innovation 177 Acculturation 178 Sociocultural tendencies
18 THE CULTURE AS A WHOLE
181 Ethos 182 Function and integration 183 Norms and standards 184 Cultural participation 185 Goals of the culture 186 Ethnocentrism
2 19 LANGUAGE
191 Speech 192 Vocabulary 193 Grammar 194 Phonology 195 Stylistics 196 Semantics 197 Linguistics 198 Special forms of language
20 COMMUNICATION
201 Gestures and signs 202 Transmission of messages 203 Diffusion of news and information 204 Press 205 Mail service 206 Telephone and telegraph 207 Radio and television 208 Public opinion
21 RECORDS
211 Mnemotechnic methods 212 Writing 213 Printing 214 Publishing 215 Photography 216 Sound recording 217 Archives 218 Articles for writing and printing
22 FOOD GATHERING
221 Annual cycle 222 Collection 223 Hunting birds 224 Hunting and trapping 225 Marine hunting 226 Fishing 227 Fishing equipment 228 Marine industries
23 DOMESTIC ANIMALS
231 Domestic animals 232 Science applied to raising animals
3 233 Grazing 234 Milk and milk products 235 Fowl 236 Wool production 237 Secondary products obtained from animals
24 AGRICULTURE
241 Agriculture in general 242 Agricultural science 243 Grain cultivation 244 Horticulture 245 Tree cultivation 246 Forage cultivation 247 Flower cultivation 248 Cultivation of fiber-producing plants 249 Special cultivations
25 PRESERVATION AND PREPARATION OF FOOD
251 Preservation and storage of food 252 Preparation of foods 253 Meat industries 254 Refrigeration 255 Packing industries 256 Grain industries 257 Candy and related industries 258 Miscellaneous food preparations and packing industries
26 DIET
261 Satisfaction and control of hunger 262 Diet 263 Spices 264 Meals 265 Commercial provision of meals 266 Cannibalism
27 BEVERAGES, DRUGS AND STIMULANTS
271 Water and thirst 272 Non-alcoholic beverages 273 Alcoholic beverages 274 Beverage industries 275 Establishments selling beverages 276 Narcotics and stimulants 277 Tobacco industry 278 Pharmacology
28 LEATHER, WEAVING AND RELATED MANUFACTURES
4 281 Leather working 282 Tanning and manufacture of leather articles 283 Rope and string 284 Knots and tying 285 Mats and baskets 286 Weaving 287 Non-woven cloth 288 Textile industry 289 Paper industry
29 CLOTHING
291 Ordinary dress 292 Special dress 293 Accessories 294 Manufacture of clothing 295 Specialized clothing industries 296 Cleanliness and repair of clothing
30 ADORNMENT
301 Adornment and accessories 302 Grooming 303 Manufacture of toiletries 304 Mutilation and physical deformation 305 Beauty specialists 306 Manufacture of jewelry
31 USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
311 Utilization of soil 312 Provision of water 313 Lumber 314 Other forest products 315 Petroleum and natural gas 316 Mines and quarries 317 Other natural deposits
32 MANUFACTURE OF RAW MATERIALS
321 Bone, horn and shell work 322 Wood work 323 Ceramics 324 Stone work 325 Metallurgy 326 Metal crafts 327 Iron and steel industry 328 Other metals industries
5 33 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
331 Construction industry 332 Excavating 333 Masonry 334 Steel structures 335 Carpentry 336 Plumbing 337 Electrical installations 338 Other professions related to construction 339 Industries related to construction
34 BUILDINGS
341 Architecture 342 Dwellings 343 Non-residential buildings 344 Public buildings 345 Buildings for spectacles and sports 346 Buildings for religion and education 347 Commercial buildings 348 Industrial buildings 349 Other buildings
35 BUILDING EQUIPMENT AND CARE
351 Plots of land 352 Furniture 353 Interior decoration 354 Heating and illumination 355 Assorted equipment 356 Care of houses 357 Domestic service 358 Care of non-residential buildings
36 TOWNS
361 Types of towns 362 Dwelling conditions 363 Streets and traffic 364 Sanitary services 365 Public services 366 Commercial services 367 Public parks 368 Various urban services 369 Rural and urban life
37 ENERGY AND POWER
371 Principal sources of energy 372 Fire 373 Light
6 374 Heat 375 Thermal energy 376 Hydraulic energy 377 Electric energy 378 Atomic energy 379 Other sources of power
38 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
381 Chemical engineering 382 Petroleum, coal and derivatives 383 Rubber 384 Synthetic products 385 Industrial chemistry 386 Paints and dyes 387 Fertilizer 388 Soap 389 Explosives
40 MACHINES
401 Mechanics 402 Industrial machines 403 Electrical machines 404 Machines for domestic use 405 Machines for weighing, measuring, counting and others 406 Machines for moving heavy objects 407 Agricultural machines
41 TOOLS, INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
411 Arms 412 Tools and instruments of general use 413 Tools and instruments of special use 414 Hardware 415 Utensils 416 Special instruments and equipment 417 Various equipment
42 PROPERTY
421 Management of property 422 Movable property 423 Immovable property 424 Incorporeal property 425 Acquisition and loss of property 426 Loans 427 Renting and leasing 428 Inheritance 429 Administration
7 43 EXCHANGE
431 Donations - Gifts 432 Buying and selling 433 Production and distribution 434 Entry and demand 435 Price and value 436 Means of exchange 437 Transactions 438 Interior commerce 439 Exterior commerce
44 COMMERCE
441 Commerce in general 442 Wholesale commerce 443 Retail commerce 444 Specialized retail merchants 445 Public service businesses 446 Selling practices 447 Commercial advertising
45 FINANCES
451 Accounting 452 Credit 453 Banks 454 Savings and investments 455 Speculation 456 Insurance 457 Exterior finances 458 Economic cycles
46 WORK
461 Work and idleness 462 Division of labor by sex 463 Specialized occupations 464 Labor and employment 465 Salary 466 Relations between employer and employees 467 Organizations of laborers 468 Conflicts and collective bargaining
47 COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION
471 Property and control of capital 472 Private enterprise 473 Corporations 474 Cooperatives
8 475 State-owned businesses 476 Forms of mutual aid 477 Competition
48 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION
481 Human locomotion 482 Carrying - burden bearing 483 Carrying and lifting loads (too heavy for one person) 484 Trips 485 Services for travelers 486 Travel regulation 487 Routes 488 Storage - warehouses 489 Transportation in general
49 LAND TRANSPORTATION
491 Highways 492 Animal transport 493 Vehicles 494 Highway transportation 495 Auxiliary services for highway transportation 496 Railways 497 Railroad transportation 498 Stations 499 Construction of highways and railroads
50 -- missing from file
51 LEVEL OF LIFE AND DAILY ROUTINE
511 Level of life 512 Daily routine 513 Sleep 514 Elimination 515 Personal Hygiene 516 Postures 517 Concepts of recreation and amusement
52 PERSONAL RECREATION
521 Conversation 522 Humor 523 Individual hobbies 524 Games 525 Games of chance 526 Sports 527 Holidays and rest days 528 Vacations
9 529 Public recreation services
53 FINE ARTS
531 Decorative Arts 532 Plastic Arts 533 Music 534 Musical instruments 535 Dance 536 Theatre 537 Oratory 538 Literature 539 Literary texts
54 PUBLIC AMUSEMENT
541 Spectacles 542 Commercial sports 543 Expositions 544 Public lectures 545 Musical concerts and theatre 546 Film industry 547 Cabarets 548 Public vice 549 Manufacture of articles for art and recreation
55 INDIVIDUALITY AND SOCIAL MOBILITY
551 Personal names 552 Names of animals and objects 553 Manner of giving names 554 Status, role and privilege 555 Social mobility due to ability 556 Accumulation of wealth 557 Social mobility by intrigue 558 Loss of status, role and privilege
56 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
561 Age stratification 562 Sex status 563 Ethnic stratification 564 Castes 565 Classes 566 Servitude and peonage 567 Slavery
57 PERSONAL RELATIONS
571 Relations and social groups 572 Friendship
10 573 Clubs and gangs 574 Visits and hospitality 575 Voluntary organizations 576 Etiquette 577 Ethics 578 Antagonisms 579 Quarrels and riots
58 MARRIAGE
581 Concepts concerning marriage 582 Regulation of marriage 583 Marriage arrangements 584 Courtship and engagement 585 Wedding 586 Termination of marriage 587 Second marriages 588 Unusual marriage unions 589 Celibacy
59 FAMILY
591 Residence 592 Domestic group 593 Family relations 594 Nuclear family 595 Polygamy 596 Extended family 597 Adoption
60 KINSHIP
601 Kinship terminology 602 Relations among relatives 603 Grandparents and grandchildren 604 Aunts, Uncles, Nieces and Nephews 605 Cousins 606 Parents-in-law and children-in-law 607 Siblings-in-law 608 Artificial kinship 609 Conduct toward non-relatives
61 KIN GROUPS
611 Rules of descent 612 Kindreds 613 Lineages 614 Sibs 615 Phratries 616 Moiltries
11 617 Groups of bilateral relatives 618 Clans 619 Tribe and nation
62 COMMUNITY
621 Community structure 622 Local chiefs 623 Councils 624 Local officials 625 Police 626 Social control 627 Non-institutionalized justice within the group 628 Non-institutionalized justice among groups
63-69 missing from file
73 SOCIAL PROBLEMS
731 Natural catastrophes 732 Personal physical abnormalities 733 Alcoholism and dope addiction 734 Physical disability 735 Poverty 736 Desertion 737 Deserted old people 738 Delinquency
74 WELFARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
741 Philanthropic institutions 742 Medical research 743 Hospitals and clinics 744 Public health 745 Social security 746 Public welfare 747 Private institutions for public welfare 748 Social service
75 SICKNESS
751 Preventive medicine 752 Sores 753 Concepts concerning sickness 754 Witchcraft 755 Magical and mental therapy 756 Psychotherapy 757 Medical therapy 758 Medical attention 759 Medical personnel
12 76 DEATH 761 Life and death 762 Suicide 763 Death 764 Funerals 765 Mourning 766 Unusual mortuary practices 767 Morticians 768 Readjustments after death 769 Worship of the dead
77 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
771 General characteristics of religion 772 Cosmology 773 Mythology 774 Animism 775 Eschatology 776 Supernatural beings and Gods 777 Luck and chance 778 Sacred objects and places 779 Theological systems
78 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
781 Religious experiences 782 Propitiatory practices 783 Purification and expiation 784 Prohibitions and taboos 785 Asceticism 786 Orgiastic practices 787 Revelation and divination 788 Rituals 789 Magic
79 ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION
791 Sorcerers and diviners 792 Prophets, monks and others 793 Clergy and priesthood 794 Religious congregations 795 Sects 796 Ceremonies 797 Proselytism and missions 798 Religious persecution
80 NUMBERS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURE
13 801 Numerology 802 Numeration 803 Mathematics 804 Weights and measures 805 Measures of time
81 -- missing from file
82 IDEAS ABOUT MAN AND THE WORLD
821 Ethnometeorology (weather and astronomy) 822 Ethnophysics 823 Ethnogeography 824 Ethnobotany 825 Ethnozoology 826 Ethnoanatomy 827 Ethnophysiology 828 Ethnopsychology 829 Ethnosociology
83 SEX LIFE
831 Sexuality 832 Sex stimuli 833 Sex relations 834 General sex restrictions 835 Sex restrictions because of kinship 836 Premarital sex relations 837 Extramarital sex relations 838 Homosexuality 839 Other forms of sex behavior
84 REPRODUCTION
841 Menstruation 842 Conception 843 Pregnancy 844 Birth 845 Difficult and abnormal births 846 Postnatal care 847 Abortion and infanticide 848 Illegitimacy
85 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
851 Social dispositions 852 Ceremonies during infancy and childhood 853 Feeding of infants 854 Care of infants 855 Child care 856 Development and growth 857 Childhood activities
14 858 Status of children
86 SOCIALIZATION
861 Techniques of inculcation 862 Weaning 863 Habits of cleanliness 864 Sex habits 865 Control of aggression 866 Habits of independence 867 Transmission of social norms 868 Transmission of skills 869 Transmission of beliefs
87 EDUCATION
871 Educational system 872 Primary education 873 Liberal arts education 874 Technical education 875 Teachers 876 Theory and educational methods
88 ADOLESCENCE, ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
881 Puberty and initiation ceremonies 882 Status of adolescents 883 Activities of adolescents 884 Coming of Age 885 Adulthood 886 Old Age 887 Activities of old people 888 Status and treatment of old persons
89 -- no 89 in file; does this category exist?
90 Nothing in file; does this category exist?
15