are ’h Jez O

A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATESmicronesia OF

Vision: The Federated States of Micronesia will have more extensive,

diverse and higher quality of marine, terrestrial and freshwater

ecosystems, which meet human needs and aspirations fairly, pre-

serve and utilize traditional knowledge and practices, and fulfill the

ecosystem functions necessary for all life on Earth funded and supported by contents

Executive Summary 8 1.0 Introduction 10 2.0 The Place and Its People 11 This plan was funded 2.1 Overview of the FSM Ecoregions 11 and supported, and 2.2 Ecological Context 11 2.3 Human Context 14 is owned by: the FSM 3.0 Building a Foundation for Conservation Design 17 National and State Gov- 3.1 Ecoregional Planning Framework 17 3.2 Planning Teams 17 ernments The Nature 3.3 The Planning Process 17 3.4 Conservation Targets 18 Conservancy, U.S. Forest 3.5 Target Occurrences and Viability 22 Service, UNDP-Global 3.6 Conservation Goals 24

Environment Fund, US 4.0 The FSM Conservation Blueprint: the Biological Portfolio 27 4.1 Portfolio Design and Selection 27 Department of the 4.2 The Ecoregional Portfolio 28 4.3 Priority Action Areas 29 Interior. 4.4 Success at Meeting Conservation Goals 30 5.0 Threats Assessment 32 5.1 Critical Threats 32 6.0 Taking Action: Multi-Area Conservation Strategies 36 6.1 Communtiy/Traditional Actions 37 6.2 Government Actions Public Policy 37 6.3 Conservation Plannning 38 6.4 Securing Public Funds 39 7.0 Addressing Data Gaps Looking Toward The Next Generation 40 7.1 Geographic Data Gaps 40 7.2 Conservation Target Data Gaps 40 7.3 Ecoregional Planning Process Gaps and Next Steps 41 This Page: 7. 4 Conclusion 41 Nan Madol ruins on Pohnpei Island 8.0 References 43 Cover Photo: APPENDICES Dausokele Estuary on the north side of Pohnpei Island Appendix A. Detailed Maps of Areas of Biodiversity Significance 48 Appendix B. Detailed List of Conservation Targets 55 Appendix C. Key Terms 71 Appendix D. List of Areas of Biodiversity Significance 72 Appendix E. Criteria for Prioritizing Areas of Biodiversity Significance 91 Appendix F. List of Priority Action Areas 92 Appendix G. Summarized Threats to Areas of Biodiversity Significance 98

2 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA CONTENTS 3 acknowledgements

This plan was a collaboration of many individuals and organizations. It was funded and SCIENCE TEAM supported by: The Nature Conservancy, U.S. Forest Service, UNDP-Global Simpson Abraham Development Review Commission, Kosrae Environment Facility, US Department of the Interior, and the Federated States of To ny Abraham Division of Marine Surveillance, Kosrae Micronesia and respective state governments. Many thanks to all whom gave generously Dr. Steve Amesbury University of Guam Marine Lab, Guam their time and expertise to help protect the extraordinary biodiversity within the Herson Anson Division of Forestry, Pohnpei Federated States of Micronesia. Donald David Division of Marine Development, Pohnpei Ahser Edward College of Micronesia-FSM As will be discussed further in Section 3.2, the contributors were organized into four Okean Ehmes FSM National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan "teams": Coordinator Coordinator, Pohnpei Marjorie Falanruw US Forest Service, Yap David Hinchley The Nature Conservancy TNC, Palau We gratefully ac- Ta rita Holm Palau National Office of Environmental Response and CORE TEAM Coordination, Palau knowledge all those Bill Raynor The Nature Conservancy FSM Country Program Francis Itimai FSM Fisheries Division, Pohnpei Wayne Ostlie The Nature Conservancy Worldwide Office Eugene Joseph Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Pohnpei who contributed pho- Karen Poiani The Nature Conservancy Hawaii Field Office Joe Konno Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk tos: Jez O'hare, Margie Stuart Sheppard The Nature Conservancy Worldwide Office Willy Kostka Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Pohnpei Audrey Newman The Nature Conservancy Hawaii Field Office Ishmael Lebehn FSM Department of Economic Affairs, Pohnpei Falanruw, Dave Vecella, Donna Shanefelter The Nature Conservancy Hawaii Field Office Patricia Leon The Nature Conservancy, Pohnpei Holly Copeland The Nature Conservancy Wyoming Field Office Steve Lindsay Micronesian Aquaculture and Marine Consultant Services, Pohnpei Pius Liyagel, Charles Dr. Harley Manner Department of Geography, University of Guam Chieng, Patricia Leon, Valentine Martin FSM Fisheries Division, Pohnpei NBSAP STEERING COMMITTEE Madison Nena Kosrae Conservation and Safety Organization, Kosrae and Holly Copeland. Francis Itimal NBSAP Chairman Romeo Osiena Department ofMarine Resources, Chuuk Simpson Abraham Kosrae Island Resource Mgmt. Program, Kosrae Innocente Penno Office of the Governor, Chuuk Yo user Anson Dept of Land & Natural Resources, Pohnpei Dr. Bob Richmond University of Guam Marine Lab Dr. Don Buden College of Micronesia, Pohnpei Andy Tafilicheg Yap Fisheries Division, Yap Jane Chigiyal Dept of Foreign Affairs, Pohnpei Mayoriko Victor The Nature Conservancy, Pohnpei OKean Ehmes NBSAP Project Manager Jane Elymore Dept of Health, Education & Social Affairs, Pohnpei Joseph Giliko Dept of Resources & Development, Yap LOCAL EXPERTS TEAM Edigar Isaac Dept of Finance & Administration, Pohnpei Rooston Abraham Fisheries Development Division, Kosrae Brett Kant Dept of Justice, Pohnpei Simpson Abraham Development Review Commission, Kosrae This Page: Sonia Kephas NBSAP Support Staff To ny Abraham Division of Marine Surveillance, Kosrae Native dances on Yap. Joe Konno Chuuk Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk Les Aidel Dept. of Division of Commerce and Industry, Kosrae Willy Kostka Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Pohnpei Jackson Albert College of Micronesia Land Grant, Kosrae Ishmael Lebehn Dept of Economic Affairs, Pohnpei Julita Albert Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk John Mooteb Dept of Economic Affairs, Pohnpei Andy J. Andrew Utwe Resource Management Committee, Kosrae Eugene Pangelinan National Oceanic Resource Management Authority, Pohnpei Sebastian Anefal Department of Economic Affairs, Yap Moses Pretrick Dept of Health Education & Social Affairs, Pohnpei Herson Anson Division of Forestry, Pohnpei Maderson Ramon Dept of Economic Affairs, Pohnpei Jocyleen Anson Division of Surveying & Mapping, Pohnpei Bill Raynor NBSAP Vice Chairman (NGO) Yo user Anson Dept of Land & Natural Resources, Pohnpei Bernard Billimont Municipal Affairs Coordinator, Chuuk Ethan Brown Division of Forestry, Pohnpei

Continued on page 6

4 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5 acknowledgements

LOCAL EXPERTS TEAM (CONTINUED) Ty ler McAdam Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Pohnpei Soichy Buliche Commission on Resources and Development, Satowan Len McKenzie Department of Primary Industries, Queensland, Australia Stuart Campbell Department Primary Industries, Cairns, Queensland, Australia Venantius Meryog Division of Marine Resources, Yap Blair P. Charley Development Review Commission, Kosrae Thomas A. Mooh Yap Kathy Chaston Yap Community Action Program, Yap John Mootmag Yap Evironmental Stewardship Consortium, Yap Charles Chieng Yap Community Action Program, Yap Toyo Mori Department of Transportation, Chuuk Eliot Cholymay Department of Education, Chuuk Cyprian Mugunbey Yap Madachiro Christlib State Legislature, Chuuk Dr. V.K. Murukesan Agricultural Experiment Station—Land Grant, College of Carlos Jose Cianchini Isla Caja de Muertos Natural Reserve, Department of Natural Micronesia, Yap Resources, Puerto Rico Madison Nena Kosrae Conservation and Safety Organization, Kosrae Rob Coles Queensland Department of Primary Industries Kosaky Niwwiano Resource Management Committee, Lelu,Kosrae Anne Cummings Development Review Commission, Kosrae Yo shiyuki "Alik" Oda Development Review Commission Rinson Edmond Division of Consumer Services, Department of Commerce Herbert Osawa Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk and Industry Romio A. Osiena Department of Marine Resources, Chuuk Largo Edwin Peace Corps, Pohnpei Kiupu K. Palik Kosrae Okean Ehmes FSM Department of Economic Affairs Innocente Penno Dept. of Education, Chuuk Konrad Englberger South Pacific Commission, Pohnpei Jackson A. Phillip College of Micronesia-Coop. Ext. Service, Pohnpei Andy George Development Review Commission, Kosrae John Pona Council of Pilung, Yap Singkitchy P. George Department of Commerce and Industry, Kosrae Ted Ratun Yap Yo siwo P. George State Court, Kosrae Ta nseny Reynold Governor's Office/Women Affairs Barb Gimlin Federal Emergency Management Agency, Wash., D.C. Jayson Robert Guide and Assist Through Awareness, Chuuk Kondios Gornelius Department of Land, Kosrae Marcus Rosario Nett District Government, Pohnpei Charlie Hallers Department of Public Affairs (Youth Division), Chuuk Francis Ruegorong Division of Marine Resources, Yap Florencio Harper State Legislature, Chuuk Rudolph Ruethin Division of Marine Resources, Yap John B. Ham Council of Pilung, Yap Nimos Salik Tafunsak Municipal Government, Kosrae Mary Jane Hartman Chuuk Stoner Sanney Resource Management Committee,Walung, Kosrae Bruce Howell Department of Public Works, Kosrae Valentine Santiago Conservation Society of Pohnpei, Pohnpei Peres Ioanis Environmental Protection Agency, Pohnpei Narciso Sebastian Department of Education, Chuuk Melissa Iwamoto Division of Marine Resources, Yap Aaron K. Sigrah Governor's Office, Kosrae Robert H. Jackson Development Review Commission, Kosrae Betty Sigrah Development Review Commission, Kosrae Rainer Jimmy Peace Corps, Pohnpei Kachusy Silander Housing Authority, Chuuk Amanisio Joseph Department of Agriculture, Chuuk Bumio Silbanuz Division of Tourism & Parks, Pohnpei Benisio Joseph Department of Education, Chuuk John Silbanuz Division of Forestry, Pohnpei Above: Person Joseph Department of Social Affairs, Pohnpei Joshua Simor U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Young Pohnpeian man Ta mdad Sunog Division of Agriculture and Forestry, Yap preparing sakau Kainid K. Kanto College of Micronesia-FSM, Chuuk (Piper methysticum) Martha Kanus Headstart Program, Chuuk Andy Tafileiching Division of Marine Resources, Yap Dylan Kesler Oregon State University Kaye Taylor Peace Corps, Chuuk Maheta T. Kilafwasru Malem Municipal Government, Kosrae Mason Timothy FSM National Aquaculture Center, Kosrae Joe Konno Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk Francis Tipeno Department of Education, Chuuk Mark Kostka College of Micronesia-Coop. Extension Service, Pohnpei John Tun Historic Preservation Office, Yap Cal Legdesog Department of Education, Yap James S. Ungin Yap Saimon Lihpai Division of Forestry. Pohnpei Imos (Mike) Urumai Department. of Marine Resources, Chuuk Steve Lindsay Micro Aquaculture & Marine Consultant Services, Pohnpei Mayoriko Victor The Nature Conservancy, Pohnpei Pius Liyagel Division of Agriculture and Forestry, Yap Matthew M. Yarofalmal Division of Marine Resources, Yap John A. Mangefel Yap Environmental Stewardship Consortium, Yap Elmund Yleizah Environmental Protection Agency, Chuuk Moses Marpa Division of Transportation, Yap

6 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 executive summary

and build on the current momentum for maps around groups of ecologically similar carried out by Core and Local Experts Team conservation. target occurrences. During ABS delineation, members from Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk The methods used to develop the FSM the team focused on areas where nesting and Yap during a series of workshops from Blueprint, or FSM Ecoregional Plan, have and co-occurrence of species and ecological June-October 2002. Five criteria were been developed by The Nature Conservancy, systems contributed to an area's ecological used to prioritize each ABS: biological a global non-profit conservation organiza- complexity and integrity. Where possible, value, feasibility, leverage, urgency of threat, tion dedicated to preserving biodiversity the teams extended boundaries to tie and cultural and historic value. Altogether, through the conservation of species, natural together terrestrial and marine ecological 24 "Priority Action Areas" were selected communities, ecosystems and the processes systems and define Areas of Biodiversity to focus conservation action in the most that support them. The key steps in the Significance that encompass entire ecosys- biologically important and threatened ecoregional planning process are: tems.The first iteration of the portfolio areas within the next three to five years. •Determine the region of interest of Areas of Biodiversity Significance for A threats analysis was conducted and (eco-region); the FSM Ecoregional Plan encompasses overfishing/overhunting was identified as •Define the representative ecological 130 sites. The combined sites encompass the most urgent and critical threat across systems, natural communities, and 291,753 ha (1,126.11 square miles), or 19% of marine and terrestrial ABS in all states, selected species that should be con the Federated States of Micronesia's entire followed by coastal erosion and sea-level served (conservation targets); terrestrial and inshore area (including rise, inadequate landfills and dumping, The oceanic islands of the Federated States •Delineate the healthiest examples of reefs and lagoon areas, but excluding the erosion/sedimentation from land-based of Micronesia (FSM), also known as the these ecological systems, natural nation's territorial waters, which consist activities, destructive harvesting, and Caroline Islands, are home to some of the communities, and species; mostly of open ocean). invasive species. Based on this threats most biologically diverse forests and coral •Determine how many examples of these Using the Conservancy’s methodology analysis, the single multi-area conservation reefs in the world. Many individuals, ecological systems, natural communities, for developing conservation goals, the strategy recommended by this plan is to communities, agencies and organizations and species need to be conserved planning team set quantitative goals for create a government framework that enables are acting to conserve the irreplaceable each conservation target that would "sup- local communities to establish and maintain The single multi-area (conservation goals); natural resources of the FSM. However, •Determine the areas that capture the port the evolutionary pathway of target conservation areas. Many actions will be for the most part conservation activities species in continually changing ecosystems, required to support this overarching conservation strate- most and best examples of these eco- have been small-scale and disconnected, and logical systems, natural communities, and looking into the future at least 100 years strategy, including community-coalition gy recommended by lacked comprehensive goals for conserva- species (Areas of Biodiversity Significance); or 10 generations". An assessment of the building, securing funds, and conservation tion success. A shared "blueprint" FSM's •Determine which of these areas are of Areas of Biodiversity Significance revealed planning. this plan is to create biological resources—a clear picture of the highest priority to conserve in the short that of 130 sites, goals were met or exceeded This conservation plan is by no means places in the nation where those resources term (priority action areas); for 20 out of the 53 selected conservation an exhaustive study on all that is known a government frame- reside and prioritization of conservation •Develop actions that will help to conserve targets (38%). Terrestrial habitats fared biologically about the islands and waters needs, is required in order to set and achieve many Areas of Biodiversity Significance especially poorly due to their smallness of the Federated States of Micronesia. work that enables conservation objectives. This conservation identified above (multi-area strategies). and direct impact of human actions, and However, as far as we know, it is the first plan articulates such a blueprint. restoration of terrestrial habitats may need effort to capture the collective biological local communities to This plan is the result of over two years During the planning process, the planning to be undertaken to meet the minimum knowledge of regional scientists and local This Page Top: of coordinated work by individuals within team identified fifty-three conservation target extent for these systems to assure experts and turn that knowledge into Pakin Atoll near Pohnpei establish and main- the governments of the Federated States targets (12 systems, 6 communities, 4 special their functionality and continued viability. mapped focal areas for biodiversity pro- Island of Micronesia, the U.S. Forest Service, The ecological features, and 29 species) selected In some cases, limited distribution and tection. There is much work to be done, tain conservation from the several hundred systems, com- This Page Bottom: Nature Conservancy, university scientists, viability data on species conservation target especially in understanding more about Yapese outer island munities, special ecological features and areas. and local experts. The impetus for this populations prevented the teams from the size, distribution, life history require- craftsman working on a effort was the development of the FSM's species identified in the FSM. During a identifying enough occurrences to meet ments and health of the FSM’s flora and traditional outrigger canoe National Biodiversity Strategy and Action series of six workshops held throughout the the goals. Many species conservation targets fauna. Hopefully, future iterations of this Plan (NBSAP). Completed in April 2002, FSM, experts employed existing vegetation will require further biological monitoring conservation plan will be enhanced by Opposite Page: maps, field reports, personal observations Traditional dancing in a a major goal of NBSAP is to protect and to determine their spatial distribution, new and on-going studies on the region’s Yapese village sustainably manage a full representation of and literature to delineate specific examples population, and overall viability. biodiversity. Perhaps most importantly, the FSM's marine, freshwater, and terrestrial of these targets, or "target occurrences". Due to limited human and financial this plan provides a place to start—where ecosystems. It is a goal of this conservation Areas of Biodiversity Significance (ABS) resources, a subset of priority ABS sites those concerned about the special places plan to contribute to the NBSAP objective were delineated by drawing boundaries on were selected through a ranking exercise in Micronesia can collectively focus their efforts. A place to begin.

8 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 1.0 introduction 2.0 the place and its people

Many individuals, communities, agencies 1. Planning at scales higher and broader 2.1 The proximity of Micronesia to the Indo- and organizations are acting to conserve than specific sites will more effectively OVERVIEW OF THE FSM Malay region and the relative nearness the irreplaceable natural resources of the conserve the full range of biodiversity ECOREGIONS between the islands themselves enabled Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and promote its persistence; the high islands and reefs to act as bridges This conservation plan addresses conser- (Raynor 2000; FSM 2002). Until now, 2. Many significant threats to biodiversity for the migration of terrestrial and marine conservation activities have been mostly operate at the scale of multiple sites; vation for two World Wildlife Fund species. The distance between islands also small-scale and disconnected, and lacking ecoregions--the Yap Tropical Dry Forest separated individual populations, causing comprehensive goals for conservation 3. Coordinated regional efforts can facilitate and Carolines Tropical Moist Forest in some cases, the creation of new species. success. A shared "blueprint" of FSM's the creation of new partnerships and Ecoregions (Figure 1). The Yap Tropical alliances and can help avoid redundancy The islands of the eastern Carolines are biological resources—a clear picture of the Dry Forest Ecoregion contains the four among groups working independently; more isolated from continental landmasses. places in the nation where those resources islands of Yap proper, in addition to the reside—and a list of priority conservation 4. This approach can more accurately As a result, the total number of species Ecoregional planning nearby atolls of Ulithi, Ngulu, Fais, and needs was required to set and achieve define an area for conservation, remedi- decreases from west to east within the more effective conservation objectives. Faraulep. The Carolines Tropical Moist FSM, but the proportion of endemic species is a comprehensive ation, or restoration than those primarily Forest Ecoregion contains the remaining This conservation plan, facilitated by the based on connecting sites or tailoring increases. This pattern is characteristic of outer islands of Yap, known as the process for identify- FSM Country Program of The Nature plans to political boundaries or agendas. the science of island biogeography (Wilson Conservancy in coordination with FSM Remetau group, west through Chuuk, 2000), of which the islands of Micronesia agencies, scientists, and local experts, Although this plan’s methodology origi- Pohnpei, and Kosrae. The boundaries of ing and prioritizing a nates from The Nature Conservancy, other are veritable case studies. articulates such a blueprint. these two ecoregions also conveniently Millions of years ago, volcanic activity set of places or areas The Nature Conservancy, a global non- conservation organizations such as World encompass the whole of the Federated Wildlife Fund use similar assumptions, created the islands and atolls of the FSM. profit conservation organization dedicated States of Micronesia. that, together, repre- to preserving biodiversity, suggested it’s underlying objectives, and planning To day, mountain peaks fringed by coral reefs methodologies (Dinerstein 2000). thrust up out of clear blue Pacific waters. ecoregional planning process as a frame- 2.2 sent the majority of work for this conservation plan (TNC On Pacific islands, where the abundance In other places, atolls are all that remain of 2000). Ecoregions are relatively large areas of rare and endemic species is matched by ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT islands that sunk beneath the surface, leaving species, natural com- a corresponding lack of data and resources delineated by biotic and environmental The oceanic islands of the Federated States rings of coral barrier reefs around coral for their preservation, ecoregional planning munities, and eco- factors that regulate the structure and of Micronesia, in the Caroline Islands, are and sand lagoons. Relatively high rainfall function of ecosystems within them. offers a practical, rational approach for (approximately 120 400 inches/year) and focusing and prioritizing conservation action. home to some of the most biologically logical systems found Ecoregional planning is comprehensive diverse forests and coral reefs in the world. a humid tropical climate dominate the process for identifying and prioritizing In response to this need, the Conservancy within a particular a set of places or areas that, together, identified ecoregional planning as a top represent the majority of species, natural priority for its Pacific Country Programs Figure 1. Map of Ecoregions region. communities, and ecological systems found in the summer of 2001. At the same within a particular region. Ecoregional time, the government of the Federated planning is based on four premises: States of Micronesia was poised to develop its National Biodiversity Strategy and This Page Top: Action Plan (NBSAP), an outline of the Breadfruit nation's biological resources and current (Artocarpus altilis) threats and a corresponding set of proposed actions. The government requested that This Page Bottom: Pohnpei Island airport the Conservancy lead a planning exercise and harbor as part of a process of national consultation. These circumstances allowed participants Opposite Page: to define mutual, obtainable conservation Young Pohnpeian women goals for conserving the biodiversity of preparing for a traditional the FSM. dance

10 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE PLACE AND ITS PEOPLE 11 2.0 the place and its people

FSM due to its location just north of the 2.2.1 Tw o endemic species or subspecies of Lowland vegetation on the high volcanic equator and in the Pacific's Intertropical Yap Tropical Dry Forest Ecoregion flying fox inhabit Yap State (Pteropus islands is dominated by mangrove and Convergence Zone (ICTZ). Rainfall mariannus yapensis and P.m. ulithiensis) swamp forests, though large portions of The Yap Tropical Dry Forest Ecoregion gradually decreases east to west. Kosrae in (Falanruw 1988). Both are listed under these forests are being disturbed by human contains the westernmost islands of Yap the easternmost Caroline Islands averages CITES (Convention on International activities. Healthy examples of these forests State (Figure 1). The dominant vegetation 252 inches/year, Pohnpei averages 200 Trade in Endangered Species), and are still exist, though, along isolated coasts of types are mixed broadleaf forest, swamp, inches/year in its lowlands (and up to 400 covered under the U.S. Endangered Species Pohnpei and Kosrae. Located at just 450 mangrove, savanna, and agroforests. inches/year in the mountainous interior), Act; they are also protected by Yap State meters on Pohnpei and Kosrae, montane Vegetation maps from 1976 aerial photos while Yap averages 120 inches/year and legislation. Hunting and typhoons (Hilton- cloud forests thrive on the unique combi- indicate that wild forests cover about 40% has a notable dry season. Taylor 2000), as well as drought and habitat nation of relatively high rainfall and elevation. of the land area of Yap (including mixed Typhoons are a dominant factor shaping disturbance, threaten Yap’s flying foxes. These cloud forests are a global rarity, as broadleaf forest, swamp, and mangrove) The marine systems biodiversity in Micronesia, however less so The marine systems of the FSM com- they are some of the lowest elevation cloud (Falanruw et. al 1987). Agroforests (tree than farther north in the Marianas Islands pose an enormous and largely unexplored forests in the world and are home to over of the FSM compose gardens) cover another 26% of the land and the Philippines, where typhoons are a resource, protecting some of the healthiest 30 species of tree snails, 24 species of birds, area, and about 22% of the vegetation is regular (nearly annual) occurrence. Most remaining populations of many globally and three species of endemic flying foxes an enormous and savanna. Scientists believe that prior to typhoons in the region tend to spawn in the threatened species. At least four of the (Raynor 1993). human habitation, broadleaf deciduous largely unexplored eastern Carolines (northeast of Pohnpei world’s seven species of sea turtles are Endemism is very high in this ecoregion, forests covered most islands within this and Kosrae) and then move off toward recorded in Yap State, including the hawks- a result of a unique combination of distance ecoregion. However, the introduction resource, protecting the northwest, allowing for taller forests in bill turtle (Erytomochelys imbricata) and and isolation. Plants and animals from of human-induced wildfires within the Pohnpei and Kosrae. Occasionally, how- the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). In fact, the biologically diverse Southeast Asia some of the healthiest Western Caroline Islands, a region naturally ever, typhoons do devastate the terrestrial the largest green turtle (Chelonia mydas ) mainland, although located thousands of prone to frequent droughts, has resulted and marine environments of the Caroline rookery remaining in the insular Pacific is miles to the west, were able to island hop remaining popula- in extensive savannas (in Yap, Guam, and Islands, with major typhoons occurring found on several small islands of the atoll through the Caroline Island archipelago, Palau). tions of many globally infrequently (25-50 year events). Overall, of Ulithi in Yap State. FSM’s remote outer since the greatest distance between any Yap's forests and savannas support a these factors combine to create a high islands, including several atolls in Yap State island from Palau to the Marshall Islands threatened species. number of endemic plant species, including diversity of plant and animal species in also host a number of important seabird is only 200-300 miles. As a result, over Drypetes yapensis, Drypetes carolenesis, the FSM within a relatively small land area. rookeries. The world’s deepest and largely 200 endemic species inhabit the Carolines Tr ichospermum ikutai, Hedyotis yapensis, unexplored ocean trench, the Mariannas Tr opical Moist Forest Ecoregion. Pohnpei Timonius albus, Myrtella bennigseniana, Tr ench, reaches its’ greatest depth between Island, in particular, contains a high number Casearia cauliflora, and Pentaphalangium Yap proper and the outer islands to the west. of endemic species from its unique com- volkensii. The large tree Serianthes kane- bination of size, soils, climate, geology, and hirae and the distinctive tree Garcinia 2.2.2 topography in addition to being the highest rumiyo, are endemic to Yap and Palau. Carolines Tropical Moist Forest geographic point for more than 2000 miles Yap’s mangroves are the most diverse in the This Page: in any direction creating a geography not FSM with as many species of mangrove Ecoregion Pohnpei tree fern found anywhere else in the world. (Cyathea nigricans) trees in Yap as in Palau. Bulldozing activities, The Carolines Tropical Moist Forest The list of endemic species for this ecore- wildfires, and agricultural burning endanger Opposite Page: Ecoregion contains the islands in Kosrae, gion includes four endemics with at least Yap’s native forests and endemic species. Pohnpei, Chuuk, and easternmost islets of Outer island family living one endemic genus of over twenty-four on Pohnpei Yap hosts at least three endemic bird Ya p State. Mixed broadleaf forests comprise species of native reptiles (Dahl 1980) and species a monarch (Monarcha godeffroyi) the dominant vegetation type on the high four flying foxes (P. molosinnus, P. insularis, and two white-eyes (Rukia oleaginea sp., volcanic islands. Historically, broadleaf P. phaeocephalus, P. mariannus ualnus). Zosterops hypolais )--as well as the forests almost completely covered these high Thirteen birds are endemic to the ecoregion, distinctive Yap Cicadabird and four islands, but people have since cleared or including the Truk monarch (Metabolus range-restricted birds (Stattersfield et al. disturbed much of the lowland vegetation. rugensis), the Pohnpei fantail (Rhipidura 1998, Pratt et al. 1987). A recent aerial survey of Pohnpei Island kubaryi), the Pohnpei mountain starling found two-thirds of the native forest to (Aplonis pelzeni), and the Pohnpei lory have been lost in the past twenty years.

12 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE PLACE AND ITS PEOPLE 13 2.0 the place and its people

(Trichoglossus rubiginosus). On the island 2.3 sustain the biological resources of the island of To l in Chuuk, one of the world’s most HUMAN CONTEXT through careful use. The pre-contact pop- endangered rainforests survives precariously ulation of Yap has been variously estimated Factors that led to high biological diversity on the peak of Mt. Winipot (and other at 273-530 people per sq. kilometer (709 in Micronesia also led to high cultural small mountaintops in the Chuuk lagoon). 1,378 people / sq. mile) (Falanruw 1995). diversity. Nine languages and numerous The islands of FSM exhibit a great While the impact of such a dense cultures exist over the 1,800-mile archi- diversity of marine ecosyste ms, from high human population probably contributed pelago. The FSM’s human population is volcanic islands with fringing and barrier to the elimination of forests and expan- currently 107,000. Most people live in the reefs to coral atolls, including Chuuk sion of savanna (which comprised some high volcanic island district centers of the lagoon, one of the world’s largest (823 22% of the island vegetation as seen from four main island groups: Kosrae, Pohnpei, mi2/3130 km2) and deepest (60m/200 1976 aerial photographs), the culture also Chuuk, and Yap. During the 1980’s, the ft). The heart of the world’s largest tuna developed a world-class tree garden taro population growth rate was three percent fishery, FSM’s offshore waters contain patch system of permiculture. In 1976, per year, one of the highest population rich stocks of yellowfin, bigeye, skipjack, these "agroforests" comprised some 26% growth rates in the world. Since 1996, and other species of fish. According to the of the island’s vegetation. Altogether, Yap’s emigration to the U.S. and it’s territories 2002 National Coral Reef Action Strategy system of food production incorporated (through provisions in the Compact of (NOAA), "Reefs support more species per landscape architecture from uplands into Free Association) has slowed population unit area than any other marine ecosystem, nearshore waters (Falanruw 1994) in a growth to just .3 percent annually. (FSM including about 4,000 documented traditional form of "ecosystem manage- 2002c) species of fish, 800 species of hard corals ment." While there are limits to an island’s Interestingly, the population on some resource management are limitless. and hundreds of other species. Scientists carrying capacity, and while the context islands may have been higher during the Building a healthy economic future for estimate that there may be another 1 to 8 for many traditional practices is no longer nineteenth century than it is today. On the FSM will necessitate sustainable million undiscovered coral reef species present, the precedent of traditional Pohnpei, for example, the population in management of the country’s biological (Reaka-Kudla 1997). In many ways, coral management and the practice of some 1820 was estimated at 15,000 (Ashby and natural resources. reefs rival and surpass tropical rainforests ecologically based technologies provides 1993), yet traditional cultures were able Tr emendous pressure for economic in their biological diversity and complexity." a framework for incorporating modern growth and changing cultural practices, science into an island-relevant system of combined with population growth and Figure 2. Population growth resource stewardship. changing demography in the FSM threaten Te nure over land and marine areas varies biological resources. Interior forests and FSM Population Since 1920 island to island and state to state, but the coral reefs are rapidly being lost or degraded majority of the nation's land and inshore 120,000 by bulldozing, deforestation, sedimentation, marine areas are privately or collectively pollution, dredging and destructive fishing owned. The nation’s people depend heavily 100,000 practices. Conventional western approaches This Page: on the natural environment for their sur- to conservation--government management Pohnpei elder teaching 80,000 vival as evidenced by the fact that median and enforcement of large-scale conservation breadfruit preparation to her grandchild annual household income in 2000 was areas--have been ineffective due to land 60,000 only US$4,618 (FSM 2002c). A healthy and marine ownership patterns, the diffi- Opposite Page: environment is profoundly linked with culties inherent to regulating activities in Traditional Pohnpeian OPULATION 40,000 advances in health and education, economic dancers

P extremely remote locations, and the limit- development, and good governance. While ed capacity of government natural 20,000 growth in the FSM is constrained by limited resource agencies (FSM 2002; SPREP natural resources, improvements in natural 0 1993; Micronesian Seminar 2002). 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 YEAR

14 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE PLACE AND ITS PEOPLE 15 2.0 the place and its people 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design

Annual grants will fund six government 3.1 stages in the planning process. Briefly sectors, including the environment. In ECOREGIONAL PLANNING summarized, the four teams assembled to 2004, the first year of Compact II, the FRAMEWORK complete this plan were: U.S. will give $76 million. 1. Steering Committee: NBSAP task force. The FSM has a limited history of con- The Nature Conservancy’s planning frame- 2. Core Team: Led by Bill Raynor and servation management at the national level. work as outlined in Designing a Geography composed of Conservancy conservation Until 1979, there was but one conservation of Hope (2000b) was selected as the science and GIS staff, this team facilitated officer for what is now the Federated guiding ecoregional planning process. the planning process and coordinated States of Micronesia, Republic of the Following this framework the key steps completion of the final plan. Marshall Islands, Republic of Palau, and the in the ecoregional planning process are: Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas. 3. Science Team: A team of experts on •Identify the species, natural communities, At the 1999 FSM Economic Summit, the the biology and natural resources of and ecological systems that represent the FSM’s Environment Sector Strategy was Micronesia, including resource manage- biodiversity of the Federated States of updated and improved for inclusion in the ment agency personnel from national Micronesia; country's on-going negotiations with the and state governments, biologists from United States (Raynor 2000). The strategy • Record the best remaining examples of the College of Micronesia and University calls for the establishment of a "network where these species, natural communities, of Guam, and regional agency staff of effective community-managed, ecologi- and ecological systems occur; (especially the US Forest Service). cally representative, and socially beneficial •Define and delineate "Areas of Bio- 4.Local Experts Teams: Composed of marine and forest protected areas in the diversity Significance"--clusters of high local landowners, business people, state nation to safeguard the country’s precious quality examples of species, natural and municipal government staff, and natural heritage." communities, and ecological systems; NGO staff, these critical teams worked In April 2002, through a collaboration 2.3.1 with the Core Team to review and approve of local, state, and national stakeholders, the •Prioritize Areas of Biodiversity Signifi- Political Context the portfolio design, develop viability National Biodiversity Strategy and Action cance for action within the next two specifications, and prioritize the final The Federated States of Micronesia has a Plan (NBSAP) was completed. A major to five years through a documented portfolio into action areas. long history of colonial government by the theme of the NBSAP is ecosystem man- consensus-based process; agement designed to protect and sustainably Spanish, Germans, Japanese, and the United •Identify threats common to many areas 3.3 States, which administered the country as manage a full representation of the FSM's of high biological significance and THE PLANNING PROCESS part of a United Nations Trust Territory marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosys- determine multi-area strategies to guide of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) from 1945 tems. While there is no established frame- conservation efforts; In October 2001, the Core Team and to 1979. Self-governing since 1979, the work for governing conservation in the selected Science Team members focused •Identify key data gaps. FSM entered into a Compact of Free FSM, or an established cadre of personnel on gathering data on potential conservation This Page Top: Association agreement with the United dedicated to pushing environmental issues 3.2 targets and devising a plan of action for Traditional cup made from States in 1986. The FSM is currently to the forefront today, it is a goal of this a coconut shell PLANNING TEAMS engaging scientists and local experts in the completing negotiations for a second conservation plan to contribute to the planning process (see Figure 3 for timeline). This Page Bottom: Compact agreement with new conditions NBSAP objective and build on the current In October 2001, a core conservation The Core Team hosted two experts work- Sea bird islands in FSM's to U.S. funding not in the original version. momentum for conservation. planning team led by Bill Raynor, the shops in Pohnpei on October 29-30, 2001 outer islands provide Conservancy’s FSM Country Program and January 8-9, 2002. Scientists and local breeding habitat for thousands of birds director was assembled. The Core Team experts from all over the FSM attended. then selected a diverse group of individuals Those attending actively participated in Opposite Page: representing The Nature Conservancy, the conservation planning process, sharing A beach in the outer islands of Yap. FSM federal and local state agencies, FSM- new conservation target occurrence and based universities, and local landowners location information, creating a draft and business people to participate at various ecoregional portfolio, and reviewing goals

16 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA BUILDING A FOUNDATION FOR CONSERVATION DESIGN 17 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design

for conservation targets. By the end of the Geography of Hope (2000b), a "coarse- second workshop, the participants had filter/fine-filter" approach, to guide accepted a final conservation targets list. conservation target selection. It is the In the summer of 2002, the Core Team combination of these coarse- and fine-scale met with the Local Experts Teams in all features that helps capture the full array four FSM States (Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, of biodiversity within the FSM. The principal purpose and Kosrae). The goal of these meetings The Core Team spent October 2001 was to determine the final ABS list and consulting the literature and working with of an ecoregional collect information about them, including selected members of the Science Team ownership, management, and contact to identify conservation targets. First, all plan is to provide a information. Finally, each was ranked by a terrestrial, freshwater, and near-shore method to sustain number of factors such as urgency of threat, marine ecological systems for the FSM cultural significance, and biodiversity value. the long-term viability Following the individual state workshops, members of the Core Team compiled of a region’s biodi- multi-site strategies based on input from TYPES OF CONSERVATION TARGETS versity. the summer workshops. This document • Ecological Systems - Dynamic spatial was written and the draft plan distributed assemblages of natural communities to selected Core, Science, and Local Experts tied together by similar ecological pro- Team members for review. cesses (e.g., hydrology, nutrient flows or cycling), underlying environmental 3.4 features (e.g., soils, geology) or envi- Conservation Targets ronmental gradients (e.g., elevation, The principal purpose of an ecoregional hydrological-related zones). plan is to provide a method to sustain the long-term viability of a region’s biodiversity. • Natural Communities - Finer-scale When addressing this task, one must ask: plant assemblages of definite floristic "What are the elements of biodiversity composition and similar habitat condi- (or "conservation targets") that the plan tions and physiognomy. should focus on?" Because it is impossible • Special Ecological Features - Unique, to develop a conservation plan based on irreplaceable features that are critical each individual species occurring in a large to the conservation of a certain species region, a more strategic tactic is necessary. Opposite Page Top: or suite of species. Major groupings Conservation planners generally use a A betel nut palm (Areca of species that share common natural catechu) overgrown with two-tiered approach to this problem—a Chromolaena odorata, an "coarse-filter/fine-filter" approach. The processes or conservation require- introduced invasive species. "coarse-filter/fine-filter" strategy stresses ments (e.g., freshwater mussels, and forest-interior birds). Opposite Page Bottom: the importance of conserving sufficient A mangrove channel on viable examples of all major ecological • Species - (1) Imperiled and endan- Yap island systems or communities (the coarse filter), gered native species; (2) Of special in addition to any rare or specialized species concern due to vulnerability, declining that have special requirements and may trends, disjunct distributions, or endemic not be adequately addressed through the coarse filter (Poiani 2000). For this plan, status; (3) Focal species (including eco- the Core Team chose the methods outlined logical keystone species, wide-ranging in The Nature Conservancy’s Designing a species, and umbrella species). Figure 3. Process and Timeline for FSMFigure 3. Process and Timeline Blueprint Development

18 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA BUILDING A FOUNDATION FOR CONSERVATION DESIGN 19 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design

Freshwater Streams and Rivers was added Table 1. Conservation Targets as a single conservation target to represent all freshwater systems due to a lack of TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS TERRESTRIAL SPECIES existing data on freshwater systems and the Atoll Forest-Beach Strand Complex Arno skink (Emoia arnoensis arnoensis) Fern-Sedge Savanna Caroline Island ground dove (Gallicolumba capacity to develop it. Had more data or Limestone Forest kubaryi) capacity been available, an attempt would Montane Cloud Forest Chuuk flying fox (Pteropus insularis) By the end of the have been made to classify freshwater sys- Riparian Forest Chuuk greater white-eye (Rukia rukia) tems into narrower categories. This remains Swamp Forest Chuuk monarch (Metabolus rugensis) workshop, the list as a major data gap to be addressed in Mixed Broadleaf Forest Chuuk poison tree (Semecarpus kraemeri) upcoming iterations of the plan. Cicadabird (Coracina tenuirostris) was refined to a final By October 2001, the Core Team had a TERRESTRIAL NATURAL COMMUNITIES Giant Micronesian gecko (Perochirus scutel- set of 53 conservation draft list of potential conservation targets. Atoll Inland Mangrove latus) At a workshop held on Pohnpei from Clinostigma Palm Forest Gray duck (Anas superciliosus) targets, which best October 29-30, 2001, this list was presented Coastal Freshwater Marsh Kosrae flying fox (Pteropus mariannus ualnus) to marine and terrestrial experts from Ivory Nut Palm Forest Long-billed white-eye (Rukia longirostra) captured all the bio- around the region. The experts reviewed Montane Perched Freshwater Marsh Micronesian pigeon (Ducula oceanica) Micronesian pigeon var. Truk (Ducula oceanica diversity of the FSM. the conservation targets list and suggested Te r minalia/Nypa Swamp Forest teraokai) possible additions and deletions. By the MARINE & COASTAL ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Micronesian swiftlet (Collocalia inquieta) end of the workshop, the list was refined Mortlocks flying fox (Pteropus phaeocephalus) to a final set of 53 conservation targets, Atoll Nearshore Marine Estuary Pohnpei flying fox (Pteropus molossinus) which best captured all the biodiversity were identified. (e.g., Mixed Broadleaf High Island Nearshore Marine Pohnpei Island skink (Emioa ponapea) Forest, Nearshore Marine Systems, Coastal of the FSM, including major ecological Mangrove Forest Pohnpei mountain starling (Aplonis pelzelni) Freshwater Swamp). Second, finer-scale systems (12), natural communities (6), Pohnpei short-eared owl (Asio flammeus ponapensis) natural communities (e.g., Ivory Nut Palm special ecological features (4), and rare FRESHWATER AQUATIC ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS and/or imperiled species (31) (Table 1, Pohnpei tree snail 1 (Partula emersoni) Forest, Terminalia/Nypa Swamp Forest) Freshwater Streams and Rivers were identified, which would not likely be Appendix B). Pohnpei tree snail 2 (Partula guamensis) sufficiently addressed by the ecological Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (Emballoneura SPECIAL ECOLOGICAL FEATURES semicaudata) systems. Finally, a long list of potential Giant Clam Concentration Areas Ulithi flying fox (Pteropus mariannus ulithi- target species were identified using criteria Tu rtle Nesting Beaches ansis) identified in Geography of Hope (i.e., Seabird Nesting Areas White-throated ground dove (Gallicolumba endemic, rare and imperiled, [including Grouper (Serranidae Family) Spawning xanthonura) those classified as imperiled by the U.S. Aggregation Areas Yap flying fox (Pteropus mariannus yapensis) Endangered Species Act and the IUCN Red Yap monarch (Monarcha godeffroyi) Opposite Page Top: List] and disjunct). This list of potential MARINE SPECIES Traditional stone path in a fine-filter species targets was refined to Coconut crab (Birgus latro) FRESHWATER AQUATIC SPECIES Yapese agroforest Manta ray (Manta birostris) a significantly smaller final targets list by Pohnpei river goby (Lentipes sp. A) Opposite Page Bottom: Napolean wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) determining which of these would not Pohnpei river goby (Sicyopterus eudentatus) Hibiscus flower be adequately captured within the broad (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) ecological systems identified above as targets. Finally, other critical ecological features (e.g., grouper spawning aggregation areas, sea turtle nesting beaches) were added to the list as potential conservation targets.

20 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA BUILDING A FOUNDATION FOR CONSERVATION DESIGN 21 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design Table 3. Sample, Viability Ranking Criteria CRITERIA FOR RANKING UPLAND BROADLEAF FOREST IN THE FSM

SIZE 3.5 et. al 1986, Whitesell et. al 1986). For Mixed Broadleaf Forests historically covered the high islands. Today, only patches of these TARGET OCCURRENCES AND marine ecological systems and special eco- forests remain due primarily to agricultural conversion. On Pohnpei, for example, 10,000 VIABILITY logical features team members delineated hectares of Mixed Broadleaf Forest were lost between 1975 and 1995; only 5,000 hectares of examples based on their field experience Mixed Broadleaf Forest remain. Once the final conservation targets were and local accounts. •Very Good — large, unbroken/contiguous patches >500 Ha in size; chosen, the Local Experts Team was assem- Data for species was based on previous •Good — relatively large, mostly contiguous patches 250 Ha - 500 Ha in size; bled to identify the best remaining examples inventories (where available) and comple- •Fair — medium-sized, broken patches from 100 Ha to 250 Ha in size; of these conservation targets. This was mented by expert knowledge. Collecting •Poor — small patches <100 Ha in size. accomplished principally during the two reliable species data was more problematic workshops held in October 2001 and CONDITION than for natural communities and ecological January 2002. Participants relied on systems. Ideally, ecoregional plans are based In a natural state, large storms (e.g. wind, rain) periodically prune and fell trees within Mixed personal observations and literature to Broadleaf Forests, but the forest recovers quickly and completely. The forest regeneration process Participants relied on on quantitative information such as field delineate specific examples of these con- has been especially altered due to forest bulldozing and burning for roads and agriculture, surveys of population size and condition. personal observa- servation targets, or "target occurrences". and the subsequent invasion of exotic species. The lower slopes on all islands are especially This data is not generally available in the For terrestrial ecological systems and natural altered, and in some places, totally converted. Intact areas remain, but only on ridges, very FSM, and is more qualitative or observa- tions and literature communities, they used existing vegetation steep slopes and valleys. Other unnatural processes impacting, or likely to impact the forest tional in nature. As scientists continue to maps (Falanruw et al. 1987a,b; MacLean are introduced fire and changing typhoon and drought patterns due to climate change. to delineate specific survey and record the flora and fauna of •Very Good — native forest intact with no disturbance; •Good — mostly intact (<10% disturbed), possibly some invasive weeds present; examples of these •Fair — moderate disturbance (10-25%), invasive species becoming established; •Poor — more than 25% disturbed forest, invasive weeds established. conservation targets, Table 2. Description of Size, Condition, and Landscape Context or "target occur- SIZE LANDSCAPE CONTEXT A measure of the area or abundance of the conservation target’s occurrence, relative to other Fragmentation and accessibility due to roads is the primary concern. In particular, access to rences". known, and/or presumed viable, examples. For ecological systems and natural communities, the forest through roads and trails has accelerated agricultural clearing in those areas. size is simply a measure of the occurrence’s patch size or geographic coverage. For animal •Very Good — no roads within 1 mile, no major trails to the area; and plant species, size takes into account the area of occupancy and number of individuals. •Good — no roads within 1/2 mile, some minor trails access area; Minimum dynamic area, or the area needed to ensure survival or re-establishment of a target •Fair — road in vicinity (<1/4 mile), and/or major forest trails access area; after natural disturbance, is another aspect of size. •Poor — road enters forest area, homesteading present.

CONDITION An integrated measure of the composition, structure, and biotic interactions that characterize the occurrence. This includes such factors as: •Reproduction, age structure, biological composition, e.g., presence of native versus exotic the FSM, future iterations of the plan can Broadleaf Forest (Table 3) shows how species or presence of characteristic patch types for ecological systems. improve in this area (see Section 7 for measurable, repeatable criteria for size, specifics on data gaps). condition, and landscape context were Above: •Structure, e.g., canopy, understory, and groundcover in a forested community; spatial With up to 200 inches of distribution and juxtaposition of patch types or seral stages in an ecological system. Based on planning guidelines outlined in established for each target. These three rainfall annually, waterfalls •Biotic interactions, e.g., levels of competition, predation, and disease. Designing a Geography of Hope (TNC factors combined to create a viability rating are common on the high 2000b), the quality or "viability" of each (Very Good, Good, Fair, Poor) for each islands of FSM LANDSCAPE CONTEXT (Kepirohi Falls on Pohnpei target occurrence is documented through target occurrence. Due to a lack of solid Island) An integrated measure of two factors: the dominant environmental regimes and processes estimates of size, condition, and landscape scientific data, the criteria above are best that establish and maintain the target occurrence, and connectivity. context (Table 2). estimates of the participants involved. In •Dominant environmental regimes and processes include herbivory, hydrologic and water Based upon best available data and expert future iterations of the plan, these numbers chemistry regimes (surface and groundwater), geomorphic processes, climatic regimes judgement, the teams estimated current will need to be revisited and updated by (temperature and precipitation), fire regimes, and many kinds of natural disturbances. size, condition, and landscape context for newly available data. Criteria for several •Connectivity includes such factors as species having access to habitats and resources needed for life cycle completion, fragmentation of natural communities and ecological viable occurrences—ones that had a high conservation target types (e.g., marine systems, and the ability to respond to environmental change through dispersal, migration, probability of continued existence over species) still need to be developed due or re-colonization. one hundred years. An example for Mixed to lack of available data, specific expertise on the planning team, and time.

22 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA BUILDING A FOUNDATION FOR CONSERVATION DESIGN 23 Figure 4. Examples of the Spatial Scale of Biodiversity in the FSM 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design BIODIVERSITY

REGIONAL PACIFIC GREEN TURTLE 3.6 DISTRIBUTION DEFINITIONS

Endemic conservation targets occur ALE CONSERVATION GOALS UPLAND BROADLEAF FOREST C exclusively within the ecoregion, but COARSE MANGROVE FOREST S Conservation goals determine the number can occur exclusively on an island, or and geographic distribution of viable target within a state IVORY NUT PALM FOREST occurrences required to maintain the INTERMEDIATE MONTANE CLOUD FOREST long-term viability of each conservation Limited conservation targets typically target. One of the most important and most occur within the ecoregion but also TURTLE NESTING occur within a few adjacent ecoregions EOGRAPHIC BEACHES

difficult steps in regional conservation G COCONUT planning is determining how many exam- Widespread conservation targets occur LOCAL CRAB ples of the ecological systems, natural within the ecoregion and are common communities, special features, and species in many other ecoregions of focus need to be conserved. Goals were set relatively high as a proportion of available Peripheral conservation targets occur rarely within the ecoregion - the core examples due to limited availability of data Step 3: of their range is in other ecoregions considered the minimum dynamic area on conservation targets, which prompted Set quantitative goals for each conservation needed to withstand potential large-scale the team to set conservative goals to avoid target. disturbance events such as typhoons and losing critical occurrences before their stratification units since they correlate closely drought, both of which are expected to relative importance can be established. with biogeographic distribution patterns 3.6.1 increase in frequency and severity due to The process of setting conservation and other dominant environmental features. Goals for regional and coarse- global climate change (Wilcox 1992). Goals goals is always difficult—scarcity of data (see Figure 1). scale ecological systems: for marine ecological systems were set at seems to be the rule, not the exception. Few 20%, based on current recommendations species have been studied well enough for Step 2: For coarse-scale terrestrial and marine from the National Coral Reef Action scientists to estimate population numbers Assign attributes of geographic scale and systems (Mixed Broadleaf Forest, Mangrove Strategy (National Oceanic and Atmospheric for long-term persistence (e.g., endangered distribution to each focal species, natural Forest, High Island Nearshore Marine), Administration, 2002) to designate and species recovery plans in the United States). community, and ecological system so goals goals were defined as a percent of their manage 20% of the area of a marine system Estimates of the necessary number or are adjusted based on ecological requirements historic distribution within each stratifi- as a "no-take zone" as a threshold for main- extent of ecological systems and natural that differ among the types. cation unit across the ecological planning taining healthy coral reefs and marine species communities are even fewer. The planning The geographic scale of a conservation unit (Table 4). Historic distribution was populations. It is likely that future research teams, of course, sought to use the best target refers to its spatial coverage. Scaled estimated based on topography, geology, will show that 20% is too small for particular available data. Unfortunately, in the FSM, to island geography local-scale targets occur and obvious patterns of land conversion. species and habitats, so this should be con- there is little quantitative information with at tens of hectares, intermediate-scale tar- Percentage goals were difficult to deter- sidered a minimum goal, and the complete which to set goals; out of necessity, goals gets occur at hundreds of hectares, and mine scientifically, but regional experts portfolio should include more, if possible. were therefore based primarily on expert coarse-scale targets occur at thousands to Opposite Page: opinion and intuition. tens of thousands of hectares (Figure 4). Ecotourism is a growing Table 4. Conservation Target Goals for Ecological Systems, Natural Communities, and Special Features industry in the FSM The planning team relied on the The distribution of a species, natural (Village Hotel, Pohnpei) Conservancy’s three-step methodology community, or ecological system defines in developing goals: the range-wide distribution relative to the Scale of Conservation goals expressed as number of occurrences per state Conservation (stratification unit), or as a percentage of historic distribution. planning unit. For example, endemic targets Target Step 1: are restricted solely to the planning unit, Endemic Limited Widespread Peripheral Stratify the FSM into finer-scale sub-units. while widespread targets are common in Stratification units are important to goal- many other ecoregions (see above for defi- Local 8 4 4 4 setting, ensuring that examples of the nitions). Intermediate 4 4 2 2 conservation targets are captured across the Understanding geographic scale and region’s geologic, climatic, and ecological Coarse 30% of historic 30% of historic 30% of historic 20-30% of historic distribution helps planners set conservation distribution distribution distribution distribution variability. For this conservation plan, FSM goals that incorporate the vast differences state boundaries (Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, in conservation targets and their unique re- Regional None exist 4 4 None exist and Yap) were determined to be excellent quirements for persisting over the long-term.

24 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA BUILDING A FOUNDATION FOR CONSERVATION DESIGN 25 3.0 building a foundation for conservation design 4.0 the fsm conservation blueprint: the biological portfolio

3.6.3 4.1 terrestrial and marine ecological systems and Goals for species targets Portfolio Design and Selection defined Areas of Biodiversity Significance that encompassed entire ecosystems. In all, For species targets, the team considered A key outcome of ecoregional planning is 87 Areas of Biodiversity Significance were habitat needs and migration patterns (if the identification of a suite of conservation delineated during a first mapping exercise. applicable) in setting conservation goals. areas, or "Areas of Biodiversity Significance" During the January 2002 workshop, 100 Based on the Conservancy’s ecoregional (ABS), that serves to capture the full array additional target occurrences were recorded planning guidelines, two populations per of biodiversity in an ecoregion (as detailed and 25 new ABS were delineated based state (stratification unit) was set as a min- by the established conservation goals). In on these new records. imum goal (The Nature Conservancy essence, it is a depiction of where conser- The FSM ecoregional planning effort 2000). The minimum goal was increased vation action is needed. This outcome is was identified to test an early version of for species that were: closely integrated with the development the Ecoregional Portfolio Assembly Tool a) more restricted in their distribution of conservation strategies to address the (EPAT) (Shoutis 2002). The tool was used (e.g., endemic and limited), occurrences identified for inclusion into 3.6.2 to: 1) prioritize the ABS' relative to each b) smaller in geographic scale (e.g., local the ecoregional portfolio. Goals for intermediate-scale other, using factors of number of targets, and intermediate), and The process for delineating ABS' occurred and local-scale ecological variety of targets, and ABS functionality; c) limited to one or two states (stratifi- through a series of workshops where the systems, natural communities, and 2) assemble a draft ecoregion portfolio. cation units) in the planning unit. planning teams drew boundaries on maps Results of the draft portfolio suggested and special ecological features As with ecological systems, natural that inclusion of most ABS' into the Conservation goals for local-scale endemic communities, and special features, more ecoregional portfolio was warranted. Very ecological systems, natural communities, restricted and smaller-scale species warrant- few conservation targets had available or special features were highest at eight ed higher conservation goals to capture occurrence numbers to actually exceed occurrences per state since there are more ecological variation and because By the end of October established goals. relatively few locations where these con- these species were often endemic to the Because of a need to gain additional servation targets can be conserved. A FSM (Table 5). 2002, the teams had buy-in, and understanding the outcome minimum goal of four occurrences per Goals for all conservation targets are of the draft portfolio assembly obtained a "final" portfolio that state was set for limited, widespread, and listed in Appendix B. All conservation through the use of EPAT, team leader peripheral local-scale ecological systems, goals in this plan reflect best estimates by included 130 Areas of Bill Raynor opted to more actively engage natural communities, and special features. the team and must be tested and refined local partners and experts in the assembly Conservation goals for intermediate-scale by monitoring the status and trends of Biodiversity Signifi- of the ecoregional portfolio. Between conservation targets ranged from four the conservation targets over time. June and October 2002, members of the cance. (endemic) to two (peripheral) (Table 4). Core Team consulted with the Local Expert

Teams at locally-held workshops to solicit This Page Left: recommendations for the final portfolio. Table 5. Conservation Target Goals for Species around groups of ecologically similar target The Nature Conservancy’s At these workshops, the Local Expert Teams Program Director occurrences in close proximity. For example, worked closely with the Core Team to Scale of Conservation goals expressed as number of occurrences an ABS was created to capture Pohnpei’s This Page Top Right: review and amend the data already gath- Conservation per stratification unit (state), or as a percentage of historic distribution. Mixed Broadleaf Forest and all embedded A male Yap Monarch Target ered, and to rank each ABS by ecological species and natural communities. During Endemic Limited Widespread Peripheral integrity, urgency of threat, cultural signif- This Page Bottom Right: ABS delineation, the team focused on areas Mantas icance, and feasibility. By the end of October Local6 (two states) or 4 (two states) or 2 2 where nesting and co-occurrence of species 2002, the teams had a "final" portfolio Opposite Page: 12 (one state) 8 (one state) and ecological systems at multiple spatial that included 130 Areas of Biodiversity FSM National Capitol complex Intermediate 4 (two states) 2 2 2 scales contributed to an area's ecological Significance. at Palikir, Pohnpei or 8 (one state) complexity and integrity. Where possible, the Coarse 2 2 2 2 team extended boundaries to tie together Regional 2 2 2 2

26 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE FSM CONSERVATION BLUEPRINT: THE BIOLOGICAL PORTFOLIO 27 4.0 the fsm conservation blueprint: the biological portfolio

4.2 Because the land area of FSM is very much larger marine systems surrounding ABS CRITERION THE ECOREGIONAL PORTFOLIO small, 50% of the ABS (64 sites) and a them. Coastal freshwater areas, primarily Biological value: majority of the total area (61% or 688 sq. coastal freshwater marshes, total just 3% The first iteration of the portfolio of Areas 1) the number of conservation targets mi.) are coastal marine sites connecting (31.4 sq. mi.) of the total ABS area. of Biodiversity Significance for the FSM within an ABS; terrestrial and coastal targets. Marine-only Ecoregional Plan encompasses 130 sites 2) an overall viability score was calcu- sites, largely lagoons and coral reefs, com- 4.3 (see Appendices A/D for maps and lists lated by combining individual viability prise the second largest area at 28% (319 PRIORITY ACTION AREAS of all sites). The combined sites encompass rankings for each conservation target sq. mi.) of the total ABS area. Terrestrial 291,753 ha (1,126.11 square miles), or 19% All Areas of Biodiversity Significance in sites, mainly upland native forests, make occurrence within the area. of the Federated States of Micronesia's this plan are important to the long-term up just 8% (87.4 sq. mi.) of total ABS area, Feasibility: The extent to which people, entire terrestrial and inshore area (including conservation of biodiversity in the FSM and but total 23 sites. This reflects the relatively reefs and lagoon areas, but excluding the justify conservation action. However, due money, and a supportive sociopolitical limited extent of natural terrestrial systems nation's territorial waters, which consist to limited human and financial resources, environment are present to successfully on small Pacific islands compared with the mostly of open ocean) (Table 6). the Core Team felt that a subset of priority implement conservation action. sites was needed to catalyze partners into Leverage: "Example Power," the potential Table 6. Number and size of Areas of Biodiversity Significance by type action and quickly make a conservation for work at one ABS to catalyze effective impact. These "Priority Action Areas" are ABS Site Type Number of Area Area conservation in other areas. ABS sites (Hectares) (Sq. Miles) intended to focus conservation action in the Urgency of threat: The degree to which TERRESTRIAL SITES most biologically important and threatened an urgent, critical threat exists and is Yap 3 651.94 2.52 areas within the next three to five years. All Areas of Biodiversity Significance likely to destroy or seriously degrade the Chuuk 9 4,328.06 16.71 were ranked by Core and Local Experts important species, natural communities, Pohnpei 9 12,833.28 49.53 Team members from Kosrae, Pohnpei, or ecological systems in the area. Kosrae 2 4,835.04 18.66 Chuuk, and Yap during a series of work- Cultural and historic value: Areas with TOTAL TERRESTRIAL 23 22,648.32 87.42 shops from June-October 2002. Five significance to the community, state or MARINE ONLY SITES criterion were used to prioritize each nation, including archeological sites, sacred Yap 6 49,471.10 190.95 ABS: biological value, feasibility, leverage, urgency of threat, and cultural and historic grounds, ceremonial grounds, areas for Chuuk 10 20,683.29 79.83 value (see sidebar for definitions). collection of traditional use plants, hunting Pohnpei 5 12,480.50 48.17 For each ABS, the criterion were scored ground or trails (Yap and Kosrae only). Kosrae 1 54.52 0.21 high, medium, or low. The scores were TOTAL MARINE 22 82,689.39 319.17 averaged (each criteria was weighted equally) COASTAL MARINE SITES and ranked from highest to lowest overall terrestrial portfolio and 49% of the total Above: Yap 21 24,007.43 92.66 (see Appendix E for definitions of high, coastal/marine portfolio, capturing at least medium, and low for all five criterion). one example of nearly all conservation targets: Rural family home on Pohnpei Chuuk 20 77,089.91 297.55 The results were presented and discussed Below: Pohnpei 18 75,695.26 • 100% (7 out of 7 total) terrestrial 292.17 among the team members, with the highest- Savanna fire on Yap Island Kosrae 5 1,466.07 5.66 ecological systems ranking ABSs designated Priority Action • 100% (4 out of 4 total) marine ecological TOTAL COASTAL MARINE 64 178,258.67 688.04 Areas. systems The 24 Priority Action Areas capture COASTAL FRESHWATER SITES • 100% (6 out of 6 total) terrestrial natural Yap 2 31.76 0.12 an array of ecological systems, natural communities community and species targets, including Chuuk 11 936.66 3.62 • 100% (4 out of 4 total) special ecological the largest and most biologically important Pohnpei 3 5,283.09 20.39 features forests, marine ecological systems and coral Kosrae 4 1,904.89 7.35 • 79% (19 out of 24 total) terrestrial species reefs remaining in Micronesia (see Appen- • 100% (3 out of 3 total) marine species TOTAL COASTAL FRESHWATER 20 8,156.39 31.48 dix F for a list of Priority Action Areas). • 100% (2 out of 2 total) freshwater/aquatic OVERALL TOTAL 130 291,752.77 1,126.11 To gether, they represent 48% of the total species

28 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE FSM CONSERVATION BLUEPRINT: THE BIOLOGICAL PORTFOLIO 29 4.0 the fsm conservation blueprint: the biological portfolio

Broadleaf Forest, Clinostigma Palm Forest, Table 7. Success at Meeting Conservation Goals: All Targets Ivory Nut Palm Forest, and Terminalia/ Progress Towards Meeting Conservation Target Goals Nypa Swamp Forest), goals were not met Target Type Total Targets 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Goals for any of them. This suggests a need Fully Met for restoration of terrestrial habitats in SYSTEMS all four states to assure their continued Terrestrial 7 0 2 2 3 3 (43%) viability. Marine and Coastal 4 0 0 0 4 3 (75%) Although many species targets are not Freshwater Aquatic 1 0 0 0 1 1 (100%) imminently endangered, distribution and Total Systems 12 1 2 2 8 7 (58%) viability data were so poor for some of COMMUNITIES them that the team could not identify 6 1 1 enough occurrences to meet the goals Terrestrial 3 1 1 (17%) (Table 8). These species will require further Total Communities 6 1 1 3 1 1( 17%) biological monitoring to determine their OTHER ECOLOGICAL FEATURES spatial distribution, population, and overall Other Ecological Features 4 0 0 1 3 3 (75%)

viability. A few other terrestrial species SPECIES are so rare and endangered, or have ranges Terrestrial 26 10 7 3 6 6 (19%) so limited that only one, or in some cases, Marine 3 0 0 0 3 3 (100%) no occurrences could be confidently iden- Freshwater Aquatic 2 1 0 0 1 1 (50%) tified. If these conservation targets are to survive 4.4 and remain viable in the FSM, immediate Total Species 31 11 7 3 10 10 (32%) SUCCESS AT MEETING research and monitoring on them is needed. TOTALS 53 13 10 9 21 20 This suggests a need CONSERVATION GOALS (38%) for restoration of An assessment of the Areas of Biodiversity Significance revealed that goals were met Table 8. Species with limited or no occurrences identified terrestrial habitats or exceeded for 20 out of the 53 selected conservation targets (38%) (Table 7). SPECIES WITH LIMITED OCCURRENCES SPECIES WITH NO OCCURRENCES in all four states Of the ecological system targets, the IDENTIFIED CONFIDENTLY IDENTIFIED to assure their con- goals for Fern-Sedge Savanna, Riparian Arno skink (Emoia arnoensis arnoensis) Caroline Island ground dove (Gallicolumba kubaryi) Forests (only in Yap), and Estuaries could Cicadabird (Coracina tenuirostris) Chuuk flying fox (Pteropus insularis) tinued viability. only be met by selecting non-viable occur- Kosrae flying fox (Pteropus ualnus) Chuuk greater white-eye (Rukia rukia) rences not currently in the portfolio. Some Micronesian swiftlet (Collocalia inquieta) Chuuk monarch (Metabolus rugensis) specialized targets, such as Montane Cloud Pohnpei flying fox (Pteropus molossinus) Chuuk poison tree (Semecarpus kraemeri) Oppostie Page Left: Pohnpei Island skink (Emioa ponapea) Giant Micronesian gecko (Perochirus scutellatus) Forest, Atoll Inland Mangrove, and Montane Traditional Yapese meeting Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (Emballoneura Gray duck (Anas superciliosus) house in rural Yap Island Perched Freshwater Marsh are so limited semicaudata) Micronesian pigeon (Ducula oceanica) naturally that goals could not be met even Pohnpei river goby (Sicyopterus eudentatus) Mortlocks flying fox (Pteropus phaeocephalus) Opposite Page Right: when including all occurrences. In addition, Sokehs Rock on Pohnpei Pohnpei mountain starling (Aplonis pelzelni) Island despite including all remaining viable Pohnpei short-eared owl (Asio flammeus ponapensis) occurrences of historically widespread Pohnpei tree snails (Partula guamensis and P. forest systems and communities (Mixed emersoni) Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (Emballoneura semi- caudata ssp. sulcata)

30 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THE FSM CONSERVATION BLUEPRINT: THE BIOLOGICAL PORTFOLIO 31 5.0 threats assessment

5.1 action, as described in Section 4.4. The Overfishing/overhunting was declining due to a changing context, growing CRITICAL THREATS top three threats across both ecoregions are identified as the most urgent and critical desire for western material goods, and a overfishing/overhunting, coastal erosion/ sea general lack of awareness about environ- During the third experts’ workshops held threat across marine and terrestrial ABS level rise, and water pollution (Table 9). Key mental problems. With the move away from in the four states, participants were asked in all states. For the last three decades, threats to ecological systems conservation traditional subsistence lifestyles towards a to assess the threats to each ABS. Threat population growth and a shifting economy targets are summarized in Table 10. A cash-based economy, most FSM citizens are assessments were combined with other from subsistence to cash, has put new complete list of threats to each ABS is unaware that the inshore fishery can only biological and non-biological criteria to pressure on FSM’s already declining natural provided in Appendix G. sustain a continuation of subsistence prac- prioritize the various ABS for conservation resources (see Section 2.3 for details on tices, with some small-scale commercial population growth). Over the last several fishing in certain localities (FSM 1999). Table 9. Major Threats summarized across all Areas of Biodiversity Significance years, a general slow-down of the local The result is that many finfish and shellfish Number of ABS sites affected by threat economy has been prompted by reduced populations are declining, and certain spe- Threat Yap Chuuk Pohnpei Kosrae Total U.S. funding to the FSM through the cies such as the giant clam (Tridacna gigas) No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Compact of Free Association. While FSM have been almost completely eliminated Overfishing/overhunting 28 88% 17 34% 9 26% 10 83% 64 50% added 1,800 new jobs/year from 1970 to in some parts of the FSM (FSM 1999). Coastal erosion/sea level rise 24 75% 4 8% 4 11% 1 8% 33 26% 1995, employment figures from 1996 to The following deficiencies in national Water pollution 16 50% 2 4% 0 0% 2 17% 20 16% 2001 showed virtually no growth, with legislation also contribute to overfishing and overhunting (Harding 1992): Destructive harvesting 5 16% 6 12% 2 6% 6 50% 19 15% a net gain of only 88 jobs (FSM DEA Burning 2 6% 9 18% 4 11% 3 25% 18 14% 2002a). The public reaction over the last •There is no specific national legislation Erosion/Sedimentation 5 16% 1 2% 5 14% 4 33% 15 12% five years has been two-fold. Since 1997, which considers the exploration of min- Incompatible commercial an estimated 2,000 FSM citizens per year erals or covers environmental problems development 3 9% 1 2% 5 14% 6 50% 15 12% arising from dredging or coral mining; Overfishing/over- have emigrated to Guam, Saipan, and the Invasive species 5 16% 1 2% 4 11% 2 17% 12 9% U.S. in search of jobs (Hezel 2002). At the •The current Endangered Species Act hunting was identi- Dredging 6 19% 0 0% 1 3% 3 25% 10 8% same time, citizens residing in Micronesia dates from the Trust Territory era and is Landfill/dumping 0 0% 5 10% 2 6% 2 17% 9 7% have become more exploitive of natural neither sufficiently specific nor inclusive; fied as the most •There is no provision for the establish- resources (terrestrial and marine) to ment of protected areas. urgent and critical survive—dynamiting coral reefs in Chuuk Table 10: Selected ecological systems and key threats for fish, clearing watersheds to plant sakau In addition, the government framework threat across marine for conservation is insufficient. Modeled ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THREATS on Pohnpei, and cutting mangroves in Kosrae for firewood. The people—who after the structure of the former Trust and terrestrial ABS Estuary Dredging; Filling; Erosion; "Reclamation"; Channelization/ Territory of the Pacific Islands, it provides have elected to remain in FSM when so levees; Oil spills; Clorox fishing; Sea level rise; Invasive just one conservation officer all of the in all states. species (e.g. Tilapia) many others have left—are by default the Above: FSM, Republic of Palau, Republic of the Clinostigma Palm Forest Mangrove Forest Incompatible coastal development & reclamation; Alteration guardians of the land, but they are also its Marshall Islands and Commonwealth of of Freshwater Regime; Dredging; Pollution (oil spills); (Clinostigma ponapensis) at main despoilers. the Northern Marianna Islands. mid-elevation on Pohnpei Acidification; Nutrification; Sea level rise The breakdown of traditional manage- Island High Island and Atoll Water Warming (bleaching); Nutrification; Siltation; Loss ment systems throughout Micronesia has Coastal Erosion and Sea-Level Nearshore Marine of Herbivores; Disease; Divers; Trawling; Blast, Clorox, and exacerbated the situation. Historically, Rise, including increases in storm surge Cyanide Fishing; Dredging resource use in the FSM was governed by and saltwater intrusion into freshwater Freshwater Rivers and Streams Clorox fishing; Pollution (human and animal waste); complex land and sea tenure systems and Sedimentation a variety of other methods including social ecosystems, are already being experienced Coastal Freshwater Marsh Filling in; Pollution; Nutrification; Redirecting streams; stratification, territorialism, resource across the FSM, especially in low coral atoll Changing patterns of water flow; Inundation by salt water; apportionment, harvest limitations, and islands (FSM 1999). Some scientists Quarrying; Trampling effective sanctions (Falanruw 1982). believe these events are a precursor of Montane Cloud Forest Sakau cultivation; Overhunting; Invasive plants/animals; Altered However, use of traditional practices is climate change. Humans have aggravated composition due to Climate Change; Recreational activities Fern-Sedge Savanna Burning; Invasive species

32 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THREAT ASSESSMENT 33 5.0 threats assessment

these effects by unwise construction of (Detay et. al. 1989; SPREP 1993). Outer Over the last two decades, Compact of makes them highly susceptible to invasive sea walls, jetties, and other poorly planned islands are particularly vulnerable as the Free Association funds for infrastructure plants and animals. Invasive species (e.g., coastal infrastructure, mostly from the presence of water lens makes it unwise to improvements greatly increased dredging, grasses, shrubs, vines, rats, cats, and parasitic mid-eighties through nineties, when the use septic systems for waste disposal. road construction and to a lesser extent, snails) are believed to have contributed Compact provided large amounts of money Inadequate disposal of solid waste and home-site and agricultural clearing—the to the decline in a number species and for infrastructure development. Anticipated lack of suitable landfill sites are also a major major causes of earthmoving and distur- communities currently in peril. In the last 150 years, bance. Fortunately, with a projected impacts from climate change include pollution issue in urban centers, and to a In the last 150 years, over 457 new plants reduction in funds under Compact II, we over 457 new plants (FSM 1999): growing extent, in rural areas. The adoption and animals have been introduced to the of western packaged food and beverages can expect reduced home construction islands of the FSM (Falanruw 2001). •Tendency towards more frequent and animals have and other products (refrigerators, cars, air and road building, and consequently less The South Pacific Regional Environment typhoons during local summer and fall conditioners, etc.) on all islands has created excavation and access to ecologically fragile Programme (SPREP) recently published been introduced to seasons; concentrations of solid waste that are major areas. Urban development resulting from Invasive species in the Pacific: a technical •Gradual increase in dry season in the eye-sores, sources of pollution, and breeding rapid large-scale economic growth, in the review and draft regional strategy, summa- the islands of the FSM western two-thirds on the FSM (Yap grounds for rats, flies, and mosquitoes. form of resort hotels, golf courses, and rizing the status of invasive species in (Falanruw 2001). and Chuuk), especially December-April, Existing dumpsites are not adequately garment factories, are also likely to decrease. Micronesia. In all, the report documented with concomitant fire hazards; maintained, nor do any sites, with the With the option to go abroad to earn a 10 "significant invasive land vertebrates" exception of Pohnpei, have specific areas living, economic development will seem •Projected accelerated sea level rise of 0.15 and 25 "dominant" and "moderate" invasive set aside for the disposal of hazardous less urgent than it once did (Hezel 2002). (minimum) to 0.95 meters (maximum) plants in FSM. The threat of invasive material. In rural areas, garbage is dumped by 2100. species remains very high with daily air along roads, in streams, and in lowland Destructive harvesting of all types and sea connections to neighboring island Under the higher estimates of sea level marsh areas. On some high islands, solid is significantly impacting FSM’s biodiversity, nations and territories with well-document- rise, many coral atoll islands in the FSM waste is dumped in the mangrove zone to primarily, the mangrove and broadleaf ed invasive species problems (e.g., the brown may become uninhabitable to humans and create land for community or private use, forests, freshwater and marine fish, and tree snake on Guam). natural terrestrial ecological systems. causing human health hazards from water coral reefs. The people of the FSM depend Climate change induced sea-level rise is pollution and reducing the health of the heavily on marine resources for subsistence Dredging of sand and coral, especially on likely to have significant impacts to mangrove forests and their function as and commercial sales. Nothing exemplifies the high islands in state centers, has seriously marine biodiversity (Buddemeier 1993; fish nurseries and nutrient regulators. this more than resort to dynamite fishing. impacted coastal environments and coral Wilkinson 1999) —effecting Turtle On Chuuk, and to a lesser extent other reefs. Besides physically destroying the coral Nesting Beaches, low-lying Seabird Erosion/Sedimentation from land- islands, dynamite and poisons are used at the dredging site, it induces siltation, Nesting Areas, and Mangrove Forests. based activities (incompatible commercial to harvest large quantities of fish at a increasing turbidity, and smothering coral development, agriculture, and other activ- Water Pollution time, especially where fish populations with a blanket of sediment deposits. These from the improper ities) has degraded freshwater, coastal, are low. Unfortunately, these practices sediment deposits reduce the amount of disposal of both solid and liquid wastes, and marine areas on all islands. Soils on Opposite Page: are endangering marine biodiversity. light reaching corals, upsetting their natural Rainbow over Yap Island mainly from domestic sources are a serious Micronesian islands vary from thin mantle Exploitation and unsustainable use of processes and possibly killing them. threat to coastal and marine inshore areas. overlying volcanic rock (often on very steep terrestrial resources is also a significant Unfortunately, urban development spurred This is especially true for population cen- slopes) through stony clays, clay silts, loam problem especially forests, which are by the first Compact of Free Association ters where people live in over-crowded and loamy sands, peat and swamp soils to cleared for sakau and other crops. agreement (largely during 1986-96), also conditions with only minimal sewage sand and coral rubble (Spengler et. al. 1992; fueled much of the coral and sand dredging. treatment. Existing sewage systems are Laird 1982; Laird 1983a&b; Smith 1983). Invasive species, especially in Reduced funding from Compact II may often poorly constructed and inadequate The high volcanic islands are especially terrestrial systems, are a growing threat decrease dredging as demand for home for the population in the fast-growing prone to erosion and landslides. Steep (Space & Falanruw 1999, Meyer 2000, construction and road-building decreases district centers; coliform contamination mountainous areas make up 70% of Kosrae, of surface and ground waters is common Cowie 2000, Atkinson & Atkinson 2000). (Hezel 2002). 61% of Pohnpei, and 73% of Chuuk. The isolation of the Micronesian islands

34 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA THREAT ASSESSMENT 35 6.0 taking action: multi-area conservation strategies

This ecoregional plan describes a network The highest priority multi-area strategy 6.1 of biologically significant areas that, if recommended by this plan to protect the COMMUNITY/TRADITIONAL conserved, would ensure the continued FSM biodiversity is to create a government ACTIONS viability of critical ecological systems, natural framework that enables local communities 6.1.1 communities, and species in Micronesia. to establish and maintain conservation areas. Enhance organizational capacity The planning teams believe a real oppor- Of course many actions will be required tunity exists to designate protected status to support this overarching strategy, such With few exceptions, limited institutional, (either legal or traditional) on some, if not as community-coalition building, securing technical, and financial resources hinder most, of the Areas of Biodiversity Signifi- funds, and conservation planning (Figure 5). local institutions engaged in biodiversity cance, and manage for sustainable uses there. conservation. The Conservancy and its partners will help organizations working in the 24 marine and coastal Priority Action Areas identified by this plan to Figure 5. Multi-area Strategy Diagram assure that scientifically and culturally viable management strategies are developed, COMMUNITY/TRADITIONAL ACTIONS implemented, and monitored. The main •Build and maintain partnerships between NGOs, government, and local community strategy to accomplish this will be the •Build locally-led coalitions that raise awareness of biodiversity conservation in the states Micronesia Leaders in Island Conservation •Engage local conservation leaders in peer conservation learning network Network (MLIC). Through MLIC, at least 40 leaders of Micronesian government developing state-level comprehensive and non-government resource management species protection acts focusing on inshore agencies and organizations will be engaged CONSERVATION PLANNING GOVERNMENT ACTIONS (PUBLIC POLICY) and forest biodiversity. Mutually supporting in an active peer learning network to •Train local leaders in conserva- •Enact enabling legislation for networks of state, municipal and traditional increase the effectiveness of conservation tion area planning and complete Conservation Areas village-level organizations will work together programs in at least five Micronesian CAPs for priority areas •Designate % of US Compact funds for to improve enforcement and compliance biodiversity conservation countries and territories (including the with all level of legislation. The private FSM, Palau, Republic of the Marshall •Improve enforcement and monitoring of sector will be engaged to help develop Conservation Areas Islands, Commonwealth of the Northern biodiversity-friendly community solutions Marianas, and Guam). to unsustainable activities.

6.2 6.2.2 CONSERVATION PLANNING GOVERNMENT ACTIONS Enact Enabling Legislation for SECURE FUNDING •Complete State Biodiversity (PUBLIC POLICY) Conservation Areas Above: •Secure funding to support new Strategy and Action Plans 6.2.1 Lowland sakau nursery on Conservation Area projects (SBSAPs) Enabling legislation is needed at state and Pohnpei Island (MCT, gov’t and others) Build Coalitions to work on municipal levels that support the establish- Improvements to Legislation Opposite Page Top: ment and management of conservation Pohnpeian man carrying a Coalitions of local partners are needed to areas in each state. For example, Pohnpei’s sakau plant improve public awareness of key threats 1999 Marine Sanctuary Law enables des- ignation of conservation areas that can be Opposite Page Bottom: COMMUNITY ESTABLISHED AND MANAGED CONSERVATION AREAS NETWORK and to recommend solutions to protect Nan Madol ruins on Pohnpei the FSM's biodiversity. These locally-led managed to sustain biodiversity. That law Island state coalitions can improve biodiversity has allowed communities on Pohnpei to protection legislation by updating the proactively designate new sanctuaries National Endangered Species Law and (MPAs) in marine and terrestrial envi- ronments.

36 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA TAKING ACTION: MULTI-AREA CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 37 6.0 taking action: multi-area conservation strategies

establishing baseline and desired forest partners and scientists, will undertake and states are under no obligation to allocate cover and coral reef health conditions, complete ecoregional planning for other U.S. Compact II funds to the environment. and by setting guidelines for monitoring. ecoregions in Micronesia. The Micronesian The primary strategy is to educate state Within five years, the Conservancy region covers an area of nearly 4.7 million representatives about the ongoing efforts and partners will begin to connect state square miles in the northeast central of biodiversity conservation in the FSM, Conservation Area Networks into a regional Pacific Ocean. It includes six countries including the Ecoregional Plan. Increased network. Conservation area planning will (Palau, FSM, Guam, Commonwealth of education will facilitate better understanding be completed in at least three sites in each the Northern Marianas, Republic of the about biodiversity conservation and its state, and will include the development of Marshall Islands, Kiribati, and Nauru), implications for the long-term health and shared standards for MPA selection, design, five terrestrial ecoregions (Palau Tropical well-being of FSM’s citizens, and will in and management, improvement of local and Moist Forest, Yap Tropical Dry Forest, turn encourage states to dedicate sufficient national policies on marine management Marianas Tropical Dry Forest, Eastern funds in their respective budgets to support (e.g., protection of spawning aggregation Caroline Tropical Moist Forest, and Eastern it. and turtle nesting areas, and improved Micronesia Tropical Moist Forest), and as compliance and decreased overharvest), yet an undetermined number of marine 6.4.2 and assessing connectivity between the ecoregions. Micronesia Conservation Trust FSM MPA network. The Conservancy proposes to add a full- The Conservancy will assist the Micronesia time Conservation Planner/GIS analyst Conservation Trust (MCT) to promote and 6.3.2 in the FSM Country Office the next 1-2 support effective biodiversity conservation 6.2.3. Complete State Biodiversity years for ecoregional database management. in FSM by maintaining a capable and Establish National and State This person could maintain and update Action Plans committed Board of Directors, developing Government Biodiversity tabular and spatial ecoregional databases, effective operating procedures, engaging Within five years, Management Agencies In April 2002, the FSM completed and integrate these data with ecoregional data skilled staff, implementing successful grant submitted their National Biodiversity from Palau, and work with local and regional A national government agency within the programs, and raising $20 million in capital the Conservancy Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) to partners to periodically update occurrence, Department of Economic Affairs is need- (including pledges) by 2023. The primary the Secretariat for the Convention on viability, and threat data. and partners will ed to oversee biodiversity preservation Biological Diversity to fulfill their obliga- focus is to raise $600,000 a year— and management, and to coordinate out- $300,000 of which would support the begin to connect tions to the international community 6.4 side assistance for this effort. State agen- creation of a $20,000,000 endowment, under the Convention. Currently, natural SECURING PUBLIC FUNDS state Conservation cies are also needed to coordinate and resource management authority is dele- and $300,000 of which would support support local biodiversity management. gated to state governments, but state 6.4.1 Secure funding from US biodiversity conservation activities of the Area Networks into governments have yet to develop their Compact II for the Environment trust each year. The Conservancy’s FSM 6.3 own State Biodiversity Strategy and Action Sector Office will assist the Board of MCT in a regional network. CONSERVATION PLANNING Plans (SBSAPs). The FSM Department building a sound financial institution, This Page: There are two primary tactics to this strategy: Kapingamarangi (Pohnpei of Economic Affairs needs to assist each including technical assistance in networking 6.3.1 1) Implement the FSM NBSAP by outer island) preparing a state in developing a SBSAP. Each plan (at all levels national, state, and local), mangrove wood fish carving Conservation Area Planning (fine- securing Compact Environment Sector should specify local objectives and actions fundraising, organizational management, for the local tourist trade scale conservation planning) funding for state-level biodiversity that ensure the long-term protection and and awarding grants. MCT funds will be To e n c o u rage and guide the development conservation programs. Opposite Page: management of biodiversity. channeled to support priority action areas of site-based management strategies for the 2)Mainstream biodiversity conservation Scientists visiting the identified by this plan. Clinostigma Palm Forest Priority Action Areas, the Conservancy 6.3.3. into all levels of government decision- (Clinostigma ponapensis) will introduce fine-scale Conservation making to complement other environ- on Pohnpei Island Ecoregional Planning: Area Planning (CAP) to a cadre of at least mental objectives. 20 experienced FSM-based conservation Replicating Success across Multiple Areas Develop effective coordination and professionals over the next five years. implementation of NBSAP, including This process will help conservationists Between 2004 and 2007, the Conservancy, securing funding from U.S. Compact II develop local strategies for the ABSs by with a suite of regional, national, and local for the Environment Sector. Currently, the

38 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA TAKING ACTION: MULTI-AREA CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 39 7.0 addressing data gaps looking toward the next iteration

The lack of comprehensive data on nearly target. This remains a significant data gap. Savanna/grasslands. The savannas all the conservation targets was a serious The FSM Planning Team will work with of western Micronesia contain a variety of constraint to developing an ecoregional the Conservancy's Freshwater Initiative to native and even endemic species. Further conservation plan that will ensure the develop a more comprehensive classification studies are needed to better understand long-term viability of the FSM's native and map the FSM's freshwater aquatic the origin, dynamics and role of fire in these ecological systems, natural communities, systems to inform the second iteration of systems in order to develop appropriate and species. The Nature Conservancy’s this ecoregional plan (currently anticipated conservation strategies. FSM Conservation Planner will work to begin in FY05). with partners to proactively address key Low-elevation broadleaf forests. data gaps encountered during the devel- Open ocean. The Pacific Ocean itself Previous botanical work on Pohnpei (Glass- opment of the first iteration of this plan. is the largest system in the FSM, and was man 1952) suggests the existence of a dis- not identified as a conservation target due 7. 1 crete form of low-elevation broadleaf forest to a serious lack of data. There are several separate from the Mixed Broadleaf Forest. GEOGRAPHIC DATA GAPS features of the territorial ocean waters of the Due to extensive human modification of Outer islands. The islands of FSM are FSM that make this system worth including the island's lowlands, only a few remnants dispersed over thousands of miles of ocean. in the plan. The Marianas Trench, the of this forest type remain. This plan does Tra n sportation and communication are world's deepest ocean trench at -35,000 not recognize the low-elevation broadleaf sporadic and unreliable, except on the main feet, is located within the FSM’s 200 mile forest as a separate target largely because islands. Because of this, the planning team Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)/territorial the planning teams lacked vegetation maps depended primarily on local knowledge waters. Numerous and extensive submerged to distinguish it from the higher-elevation or resource agency partner staff that had reefs, important to the nation's fishing fleets, broadleaf forest. Consequently, several recent personal experience with the outer native and endemic species limited to Chuuk broadleaf native forest. are located throughout Micronesia, but their islands. As a result, occurrences were lower elevations may not be protected by biological health is largely unknown. The Chuuk's remnant native forests are limited mapped very generally, and the viability this plan. Additional work is required to to a few ridges on four of the lagoon islands FSM government should work with regional data is questionable--use of this data should characterize, map, and protect this rare and are by far the most endangered eco- and international science community to be treated with caution. As opportunities forest type on Pohnpei. logical system that are identified by this arise, the team recommends biological improve our knowledge of the ocean and ecoregional plan. There is an urgent need inventories be conducted on all outer islands. its' biodiversity and this information, once Marine ecological systems. The for rapid fieldwork to assess the extent available, needs to be integrated into the Local Experts and Stakeholder Teams that and viability of these remnant patches. 7. 2 nation's biodiversity conservation actions. focused on marine ecological systems CONSERVATION TARGET DATA were continually confounded by a lack of Flying foxes. Six distinct endemic GAPS Terrestrial vegetation. biological data for lagoons, coral reefs, and species of flying fox (Genus Pteropus, Vegetation maps for the FSM are largely This Page: Freshwater aquatic systems. Due to the lack sea grass beds. To convey a sense of generality also known as fruit bats) are found within Traditional Pohnpei dancers outdated. Most terrestrial occurrences were of a freshwater expertise on the planning consistent with the lack of data, marine the FSM, but very little is known about performing mapped from vegetation data derived from team and amongst partners, only a few systems were classified into two categories their habitat needs or current population twenty year-old aerial photographs pro- Opposite Page Top: general freshwater aquatic conservation condition and trends. Since data on flying Kepirohi waterfall in Pohnpei duced by the Trust Territory Government High Island Nearshore Marine and Atoll targets, including Freshwater Streams and and the US Forest Service. The FSM Nearshore Marine. Nation-wide biological foxes is so sparse, the planning teams were Rivers, Swamp Forest, Coastal Freshwater Opposite Page Bottom: desperately needs updated vegetation surveys are needed to demarcate marine forced to rely on roosting sites within Young Micronesians at their Marsh, Montane Perched Freshwater Marsh, maps, similar to those produced from communities, understand their relationships healthy forest as a surrogate indicator for home in Pohnpei and Terminalia/Nypa Swamp Forest, were The Nature Conservancy's recent efforts and dynamics, and determine their health population occurrence and viability. Clearly, mapped and used in this analysis. All other in Pohnpei, where aerial photographs and viability. more research is needed on the biology, freshwater elements are grouped within the produced new vegetation maps for 1995 current status, and recommended actions Freshwater Rivers and Streams conservation and 2002. for these species.

40 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA ADDRESSING DATA GAPS LOOKING TOWARD THE NEXT ITERATION 41 7.0 addressing data gaps looking toward the next iteration

Pohnpei short-eared owl. Little is from similar ecoregions, and as such, we known about the very rare Pohnpei short- recognize the very tentative nature of the eared owl (Asio flammeus var. ponapensis), first iteration of this plan. In future itera- a Pohnpei endemic subspecies that inhabits tions of the plan, the viability assessments savannas. Lacking specific population data, and goals will need to be revisited and savanna was used as a surrogate indicator updated by newly available data. to map populations. Serious concerns 7.4 exist for the stability of the owl population CONCLUSION on Pohnpei. Immediate work is needed to understand the biology, population status, This conservation blueprint is by no means Hopefully, future itera- viability, and threats to this species. an exhaustive study on all that is known biologically about the islands and waters tions of this con- Arno skink (Emoia arnoensis). of the Federated States of Micronesia. However, as far as we know, it is the first servation blueprint Little is known about this species, thus far recorded only in the Marshall Islands, effort to capture the collective biological will be enhanced by Kosrae, and Nauru. knowledge of regional scientists and local experts and turn that knowledge into new and ongoing Giant Micronesian gecko. Thus mapped focal areas for biodiversity pro- tection. There is much work to be done, far, the giant Micronesian gecko (Perochirus studies on the region’s especially in understanding more about the scutellatus), believed endemic to the size, distribution, life history requirements biodiversity. FSM's outer islands, has been found on and health of the FSM’s flora and fauna. only two atolls at opposite ends of the Hopefully, future iterations of this con- country. More work needs to be done to servation blueprint will be enhanced by confirm species distribution and viability. new and ongoing studies on the region’s biodiversity. Perhaps most importantly, Other reptiles. Biological surveys this plan provides a place to start—where for reptiles are scarce on all islands except those concerned about the special places Pohnpei. There is a strong likelihood that in Micronesia can collectively focus their new endemic reptiles will be identified in efforts. A place to begin. ongoing work. Studies are needed to iden- tify species present, their distribution, life This Page: Stone money along a path in histories, and viability. a rural Yapese village 7.3 ECOREGIONAL PLANNING PROCESS GAPS Viability Assessment and Goal Setting. Determining a conservation target’s viability and conservation goals was a tremendous challenge to the planning teams. The general lack of data, especially for species, made it extremely challenging to determine viability and set meaningful conservation goals with confidence. The team had very little to draw on in terms of guidelines and examples

42 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA 43 8.0 references 8.0 references

Atkinson, I.A.E., and T.J. Atkinson (2000) Land vertebrates as invasive species on the Falanruw, M., T. Cole, A. Ambacher, K. McDuffie & J. Maka (1987). Vegetation Survey islands of the South Pacific. In; Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical of Moen, Dublon, Fefen and Eten, State of Truk, Federated States of Micronesia, review and draft regional strategy. (Ed.) G. Sherley, SPREP, 2000. USDA Forest Service, Resource Bull. PSW-20, 6pp+ 3 maps. Buddemeier, R.W. (1993) Corals, climate and conservation. Proc. 7th Inter. Coral Reef Falanruw, M. (1988) On the status, reproductive biology and management of fruit bats Symposium., 1: 3-10. of Ya p. Micronesia 21 (1-2), pp. 39-51. Buden, D. (2000) A Comparison of 1983 and 1994 Bird Surveys of Pohnpei, Federated Falanruw, M. (1995) The Yapese Agricultural System. PhD Dissertation, University of States of Micronesia. The Wilson Bulletin 112(3):403-410. the South Pacific. Buden, D. (2001) The Gobiid Fishes (Teleostei: Gobioidei Sicydiinae) of the headwater Falanruw, M (2001) Terrestrial Biodiversity of the FSM. Report prepared for the FSM streams of Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Islands, Federated States of Micronesia. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Unpublished. Micronesia 34(1): pp. 1-10. Federated States of Micronesia (1999) National Communication prepared under the Buden, D.W., D.B. Lynch, and G.R. Zug. 2001. Recent records of exotic reptiles on United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 90 pp. Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Islands, Micronesia. Pacific Science 55: (1) 65-70. Federated States of Micronesia (2002a) The Federated States of Micronesia National Buden, D.W., D.B. Lynch, and R.E. Watson, 2001. The gobiid fishes (Teleostei: Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. 66 pp. Gobioidei: Sicydiinae) of the headwater streams of Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Federated States of Micronesia (2002b) Economic Review. Department of Economic Islands, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesia 34: (1) 1-10. Affairs, Pohnpei, FSM. 89 pp. Buden, D.W., D.B. Lynch, J. Short, and T. Leberer, 2001. Decapod crustaceans of the Federated States of Micronesia (2002c) 2000 Population and Housing Census Report, headwater streams of Pohnpei, Eastern Caroline Islands, Federated States of Division of Statistics, Dept of Economic Affairs, FSM National Government, Micronesia. Pacific Science 55: (3) 257-265. Pohnpei, FSM. 163 pp. Cowie, R.H. (2000) Non-indigenous land and freshwater mollusks in the islands of the Glassman, S. (1952) The flora of Ponape. Bulletin 209. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Pacific: conservation impacts and threats. In; Invasive species in the Pacific: a technical review and draft regional strategy. (Ed.) G. Sherley, SPREP, 2000. Harding, E. (1992) Federated States of Micronesia Legal Review. . South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). Apia, Western Samoa. Dahl, A. (1980) Regional ecosystems survey of the South Pacific Area. IUCN/SPC technical paper no. 179. SPC, Noumea, New Caledonia. Hezel, F. (2002) Rough Seas Ahead: The FSM Economy During Compact II. Micronesian Counselor, Issue 44. 14 pp. Dahl, C. and B. Raynor (1996) Watershed planning and management: Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 37(3):235-253. Laird, W. (1982) Soil Survey of Island of Ponape, Federated States of Micronesia. US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 81 pp w/maps. Detay M., Alessandrello E., Come P. and Groom I. (1989). Groundwater contamination and pollution in Micronesia. J. Hydrol. 112: 149-170. Laird, W. (1983a) Soil Survey of Island of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia. US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 67 pp w/maps. Dinerstein, E., Powell, G., Olson, D., Wikramanayake, E., Abell, R., Loucks, C., Underwood, E., Allnutt, T., Wettengel, W., Ricketts, T., Strand, H., O'Connor, S., and N., Laird, W. (1983b) Soil Survey of Island of Truk, Federated States of Micronesia. US Burgess. (2000) A workbook for conducting biological assessments and developing Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 65 pp w/maps. biodiversity visions for ecoregion-based conservation. Conservation Science Lindsay, S. and A. Edward (2000) Coral Reef Status Report for the Federated States of Program, World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C. 249 pp. Retrieved from Micronesia. College of Micronesia publication. 29 pp. http://www.worldwildlife.org. MacLean, C., T. Cole, C. Whitesell, M. Falanruw, A. Ambacher (1986) Vegetation Engbring, J., F. Ramsey, and V. Wildman (1990) Micronesia Forest Bird Surveys. The Survey of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. USDA Forest Service, Res. Federated States: Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, Yap. US Fish and Wildlife Service. Bull. PSW 18. 19p. + 11 maps. Department of Interior, Washington, DC. Meyer, J.Y. (2000). Preliminary review of the invasive plants in the Pacific islands. Falanruw, M. (1982) People pressure and management of limited resources on Yap. (SPREP Member Countries). In; Invasive species in the Pacific: A technical Paper presented to the World Parks Congress, Bali, Indonesia. 22 pp. review and draft regional strategy. (Ed.) G. Sherley, SPREP, 2000. Falanruw, M., C. Whitesell, T. Cole, C. MacLean, A. Ambacher (1987). Vegetation Mickleburgh, S., A. Hutson, and P. Racey (1992) Old World Fruit Bats. An Action Plan Survey of Yap, Federated States of Micronesia, USDA Forest Service, Resource for their Conservation. IUCN/SSC Chiroptera Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland. Bull. PSW-21, 9pp+ 4 maps.

44 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA REFERENCES 45 8.0 references 8.0 references

Mueller-Dombois, D., and F. Fosberg (1998) Vegetation of Tropical Pacific Islands. Spengler S.R., Peterson F.L. & Mink J.F. (1992). Geology and hydrogeology of the Springer-Verlag, Inc., New York. island of Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. Tech. Rpt. 189, Water Resources Research Centre, Univ. of Hawaii, 79pp. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2002) National Coral Reef Action Strategy. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, Office of Response and The Nature Conservancy (1996) Pohnpei’s Watershed Management Strategy 1996-2000: Restoration, Silver Spring, MD. 156 pp. Retrieved from http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov. Building a Sustainable and Prosperous Future. Prepared by the Pohnpei Watershed Project Team. Funding and assistance provided by The Nature Conservancy, Asian OTA (1987) Integrated Renewable Resource Management for US Insular Areas. Office Development Bank, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.108 pp of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States. 441 pp. with maps. Polhemus, D., J. Maciolek, and J. Ford (1992) An Ecosystem Classification of Inland The Nature Conservancy (2000a) The Five-S Framework for Site Conservation: Waters for Tropical Pacific Islands. Micronesica 25(2): 155-173. A Practitioner’s Handbook for Site Conservation Planning and Measuring Poiani, K.A., Richter, B., Anderson, M., and Richter, H. (2000) Biodiversity Conservation Conservation Success, First Edition. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia. at Multiple Scales: Functional Sites, Landscapes, and Networks. Bioscience The Nature Conservancy (2000b) Designing a Geography of Hope: A Practitioner’s 50(2): 133-146. Handbook to Ecoregional Conservation Planning. The Nature Conservancy, Pratt, H., P. Bruner, and D. Berrett (1987) The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific. Arlington, Virginia. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. The Nature Conservancy (2002) Pacific Island Countries Operating Unit Pacific Action Raynor, B. (1993) Montane cloud forests in Micronesia: Status and future management. Plan FY 2003-2007. Auckland, New Zealand. 27 pp. In Tr opical Montane Cloud Forests: Proceedings of an International Symposium Trustrum, N. (1996) Pohnpei’s Watershed Spatial Plan and Management Guidelines. In at San Juan, Puerto Rico. L. Hamilton, J. Juvik, and F. Scatena, editors, East-West Consultants Reports. Prepared for the Asian Development Bank. TA FSM-1925. Center Program on the Environment, Honolulu, Hawaii. Watershed Management and Environment: i, ii,1-62. Raynor, B. (1996) Developing a Community Approach to Watershed Management United States Coral Reef Task Force (2000) The National Action Plan to Conserve Planning on Pohnpei. In Consultants Reports. Prepared for the Asian Development Coral Reefs. 34 pp. Retrieved from http://coralreef.gov. Bank. TA FSM-1925. Watershed Management and Environment. Pp. 1-28. USDA (1995) Pohnpei Island Resource Study. Natural Resources Conservation Service Raynor, B. (2000) A String of Pearls: Preserving the Federated States of Micronesia’s and Forest Service, U S Department of Agriculture. 112 pp. Globally Important Natural Heritage. DRAFT FSM Environment Sector Strategy. Unpublished. 10 pp. USDA (2001) Kosrae Island Resource Study. USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service. Pacific Basin Area. 40 pp. Shoutis, D. (2002) Beta version of the Ecoregional Portfolio Assembly Tool software. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. Available through Wayne Ostlie, Wilcox, B.A. (1992) Insular ecology and conservation. Pp. 95-118. In: Conservation contact: [email protected]. Biology: An Ecological-Evolutionary Perspective. M.E. Soule and B.A. Wilcox (eds.). Sinauer, Sunderland. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (1993) The Federated States of Micronesia: Nationwide Environmental Management Strategies. South Pacific Wilkinson, C.R. (1999) Global and local threats to coral reef functioning and existence: Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). Apia, Western Samoa. 154 pp. review and predictions. Marine and Freshwater Research, 50: 867-878. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (2000) Invasive species in the Pacific: Wilson, E.O., D. Perlman (2000) Conserving Earth’s Biodiversity [CDROM]. Island a technical review and draft regional strategy. (Ed.) G. Sherley. SPREP. Apia, Samoa. Press. Washington, D.C. Smith, C. (1983) Laird, W. (1983b) Soil Survey of Island of Yap, Federated States of Whitesell, C., C. MacLean, M. Falanruw, T. Cole, A. Ambacher (1986). Vegetation Micronesia. US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 90 pp Survey of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, USDA Forest Service, w/maps. Resource Bull. PSW-17, 8pp+map. Stattersfield, A., M. Crosby, A. Long, and D. Wege (1998) Endemic bird areas of the World Wildlife Fund (2001) Caroline tropical moist forests (OC0101). world: priorities for biodiversity conservation. BirdLife Conservation Series Unreviewed document. No. 7, BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. 846 pp. World Wildlife Fund (2001) Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life Space. J.C. and M. Falanruw (1999) Observations on invasive plant species in Micronesia. on Earth. Bioscience Vol. 51, No. 11. Report to the Pacific Islands Committee, Council of Western State Foresters, World Wildlife Fund (2001) Yap dry forests (OC0204). Unreviewed document. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, Honolulu, Hawaii.

46 A BLUEPRINT FOR CONSERVING THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESIA REFERENCES 47