Mojave National Preserve Management Plan for Developed

Home , Kelbaker Road, Kelso Mountains, Piute Range

Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Ponds and Reservoirs Wet playa – a terminal basin playa with near-surface groundwater that becomes an ephemeral lake following heavy precipitation. Example: Soda Dry Lake. Ephemeral pond – a natural depression for runoff, often modified by earthwork to hold more water. Example: Ford Dry Lake. Pit lake (groundwater) – open pit mining excavation into a perched aquifer. A pond is formed in the bottom of the open pit after termination of mining and dewatering. Example: Morningstar Mine. Pit lake (surface water) – precipitation collected in the bottom of an open pit mine forming an ephemeral pond, typically with poor water quality. Example: Vulcan Mine. Excavated pond – a pond constructed by excavating into shallow groundwater that may need regular refilling by pumping water. Distinguished from a groundwater pit lake by intent and purpose. Distinguished from a stock pond by permanence. Example: Lake Tuendae. Stock pond – a basin excavated in sediments usually for livestock watering. Typically, these take advantage of natural drainage features and hold water only intermittently. Example: Lecyr stock pond.

Ford Dry Lake following a rainy season Morningstar Mine groundwater pit lake

Mojave National Preserve 78 Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Guzzlers Big game guzzler – a water collection system consisting of a check dam in a natural drainage piped to one or more storage tanks that supply water to a small drinker. In the Preserve, these were built for bighorn sheep but may be used by other animals. Example: Kerr guzzler. Small game guzzler – also known as gallinaceous guzzlers as they are intended for gallinaceous bird species. These guzzlers consist of a concrete apron leading to a subsurface concrete or fiberglass storage tank. Birds and small animals enter the storage tank through a small opening.

Large tanks at a big game guzzler Small game guzzler with a concrete apron and underground tank

Combinations Features can occur in various combinations, such as a verdant seep with a tunnel, or a bog plus a well. Features may also vary seasonally and may be described by combinations of terms, such as ephemeral excavated flowing spring (e.g., Mail Spring following a rainy season). Many features exist somewhere between definitions. For example, Ivanpah Spring could be either a tunnel or an adit, while Cane Spring could be either a bog or a pond.

Mojave National Preserve 79 Figure 12 on the next page cannot be made 508 compliant. It is a map of Figure 12. Water Features in the Preserve. to Las Vegas

to Las Vegas

Kin Primm gsto E n S W E H G T G a I sh N G N A M Water Features in H R A L Y N R A I !( !(A A N ") H R Mojave National Preserve #T D N !( !( G # G !( U !( N R U U IO ") N A 95 O !( Y E Yates Well P O S !( A x N C C I L c M !( F IC G e U H IVANPAH R L l K A E Mojave National Preserve s IL L i R R U o # 15 O A !( LAKE !( C A r A Water Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment D

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Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Springs The most numerous water features in the Preserve are springs and seeps. A spring has visible flow, while a seep occurs where the ground surface is occasionally wet and riparian vegetation is often present (NPS 1999). For the purposes of this plan, both types of water features are referred to as “springs.” Springs in the Preserve can be broadly classified by their topographic location as either montane or valley basin springs (Dekker and Hughson 2014). There are 238 recorded locations of springs and seeps in the Preserve (see Table 12 and Figure 14) (NPS 2010b, 2013b). While some provide reliable surface water all the time, others are reduced to a small muddy patch or even disappear during dry years. The NPS does not have uniform monitoring of all criteria at all springs, particularly the presence of surface water, which is evaluated by citizen-scientist volunteers on a sporadic basis for some springs.

Table 12. Documented Springs in the Preserve

Spring Characteristics Documented % of Total Notes Total known springs 238 n/a Current inventory; actual number is uncertain Located in wilderness 182 76 N/A Historic 85 36 Based on NPS field evaluation Prehistoric 47 20 Based on NPS field evaluation Less than 500 meters to road 120 50 Proximity of access for potential management Water observed 218 92 Based on volunteer monitoring of water presence Montane springs are most common and are typically found in canyons, ravines, arroyos, or other drainage features at the base of mountain ranges between 4,000 and 6,000 feet (1,219 and 1,829 meters) in elevation. Most of these springs are fed by a mountain watershed catchment area with the sediment and fractured bedrock capacity to store precipitation in a shallow aquifer (see Figure 13). Surface water expressions occur where shallow bedrock is exposed, subsurface drainage channels are constricted, or a geologic structure Natural Springs such as a fault, a dike; or contacts of different rock types intercepts subsurface “Natural” springs are those that are physically flows (Dekker and Hughson 2014). unaltered and surface water expressions occur without human intervention or development. Natural Springs that are caused exclusively by springs are rare since most water sources have been geological structures, such as those on manipulated by humans at some time. There are Cima Dome or Mail Spring, are less many examples of “natural-looking” or undisturbed common and may have a perennial water seeps and springs in the Preserve. While some of the more remote examples may be truly untouched supply despite their small watershed. In by human intervention, most of these were many cases, multiple water expressions developed or manipulated at some time, and those occur in proximity, resulting in a group or interventions are no longer evident. complex of associated springs (Dekker and Hughson 2014). • Piute Spring and Soda Springs are the best Valley basin springs occur at the low point examples of springs that are reliable in the absence of human intervention—both are valley of large alluvial basins that are fed by basin springs fed in part by deep alluvial runoff from a large watershed area. The aquifers. two springs in the Preserve fed by deep • Arrowweed and Kessler Springs are two alluvial aquifers are Piute Spring, which is examples of springs that were highly developed believed to be fed at least in part by the in the past and now have a natural appearance Lanfair Valley aquifer, and Soda Springs, because the developed infrastructure has which are believed to be fed by a deteriorated or has been removed.

Mojave National Preserve 83 Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources combination of mountain front and deep alluvial aquifers. Piute Spring is an important perennial water resource that provides openly flowing water and supports riparian vegetation for about one mile downstream from its source (Lilburn Corporation 1997), while Soda Springs include Lake Tuendae and MC Spring, which provides habitat for the endangered Mohave tui chub. As surface expressions of deep alluvial aquifers, Piute Springs and Soda Springs are vulnerable to excessive groundwater extraction. While a few springs are known to occur as natural water expressions, about half of the springs have been modified, developed, or enhanced to facilitate human activity related to mining or ranching (see Figure 11). Typical water developments include excavations, tunnels, springboxes, adits, check dams, pipes, tanks, and troughs, which were intended to create or improve surface water expressions. In many cases, water discharge depends on developments (such as tunnels and pipes) (Dekker and Hughson 2014). When those developments are removed or are in disrepair, the discharge is diminished or ceases altogether.

Figure 13. Montane Spring Schematic

Source: Dekker and Hughson 2014.

Mojave National Preserve 84 to Las Vegas

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King Primm ston E W E S H G G a T I sh N G N Springs and Wells A M H R A L Y N R A I !( !(A A N

H #T R D N !( !( G # G !( U U !( N R IO U N A 95 O !( Yates Well Y E P O S !( A N x C C M I L c !( F IC G e H U IVANPAH R L l K A E Mojave National Preserve s IL L i R R U o # 15 O A !( LAKE A C r A Water Resources Management Plan and Environmental Assessment D

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Sea G N h E E s N R Y a A A # R # W L s L E S NPS water supply well ng A H V ri C IL ES L L p M N A S 127 ll L L # u CIMA ROAD # Ivanpah Road I Well L B A !( A E V # V Y S T National Park Service wilderness A T # # N !( S # L M !( !( # U !( Halloran Springs # N # L !( I Paved road # # !( ## H # O E # # h #! A #(# s #### W !( A Y !( # T a H i # M !( CASTLE ## P l sh !(# l a N # o W W Unpaved 2-wheel drive road A w MOUNTAINS N Willow e U SILVER # P NATIONAL t A u Spring O 15 N MONUMENT i LAKE # V !( P Unpaved 4-wheel drive road I A !(# # # M (dry) !( Vakkey View Ranch ### Morning Star Mine Road V !( Kessler Spring I !( E Cal Nev Ari # L Kessler Mojave Road 4-wheel drive road #!(# T Kessler Springs Ranch # ### Spring K !(### ine S CIMA R !(# M Ro !( !( !( t a # A ( !( !( O # ar d Desert wash #!(#! !( Y C h DOME !(( !( H # s Deer !( !( W !( a E !(!( Mail Spring Spring #!( N !( P W## !( Keystone Baker k !( I NEVADA Kelbaker Rd n ! CALIFORNIA a !((! (! U T !(!( # ! !( Spring ck Cottonwood Spring MH ##( ### a # T l !( # # !(!(!(!( B # ## !( !( # # E Cima# !( !(!( # rk Mo # # w Yo untain s R !(!(!(!( !( Ne# Road # !( # !( # A # !( !(# PINTO # # Ivanpah Rd Palm CINDER CONE !(!( # # OX Ranch # !( VALLEY N Gardens 163 # LAVA BEDS VE ROAD !( Z A !( G zy OJ !( LANFAIR z SODA M x # !( E

R LAKE !( # Rock Spring !( h HILLS !( # VALLEY o s GROTTO D Marl a # #!( # a (dry) # 95 # A Aiken Mine Rd # d O MARL W !(!( HILLS VE R Spring # # OJA o ## Rock #!(# !(Zzyzx M MOUNTAINS ls sh !( # # # MOJAVE ROAD e Wa # !(##Spring Rasor R #!(!(Spring K Cedar ROUND# # !( Cedar Canyon Road Piute Spring o !( Midhills # # a MC Spring !( # d Zzyzx !( # #VALLEY # # MOJAVE ROAD # !( # # !( MID # !(# !( Zzyzx Desert Studies Center !( !( # ## Piute !( K Bullock Spring ## Spring # E M !( Alkaline Spring L A !( ! # N S C ( O O E Gold Valley Spring Y D O # P # # N Kelbaker Road N N # A M IA C NYO # !(# I C O A # SS # # Rocking L Hackberry U KA U # W VONTRIGGER JAC N !( # # GOLD O !( !( HILLS T !( !( O !(!( Spring ### T A VALLEY# D !( # !(# I N S !( # Vontrigger # E S # M !( D # # O Spring Kelso Cima Road !( # U E N V !( Hole in the Wall # !( # T W I !( A I a F L N t s E !( S V S o N Lanfair Road Kelso Depot n # Kelso Depot # N A ## # Information Center #!( # W E P R L B a L !( !( !( l L D !( a s V A c h A O k A E ILR # IC RA # C L F Y Y CI # a PA L # n E G UNION MOUNTAINS C y o !(!( Y t ( o R to n Cornﬁeld n O w !( Kels Spring W o Wash o U a o # s d !( h N Black Canyon Road 95 W !( # D a Desert Spring s !( !( h !( !( MountainGoffs Springs Rd S D E !(!(!( !( e N !(!( Foshay v U ## Y E il D Spring#!( s

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I !( H !(!( L E GRANITE !( L o !( S m !( P !(!( Fenner y !( P wa e !( r I h g MOUNTAINS i W !( Y H S L !( !(!( !( !( # A ils !( !(!( W a a L r N O !( # C I T I s L A al h D !( R n io A D E t !( F A !( a T D N !( ## A M !( T N !( N O !(# !(!( !( !( !( A U S U N !( !(!( T !( A Budweiser 40 O I N S N R Spring E M Budweiser Spring H RT O E N Essex T # N Kelbaker Road CLIPPER MOUNTAINS O T U Ludlow # G IN I L R P U 40 B Na MIDDLE tio na HILLS l T N rai ls H ig hw 012345 a Miles y

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Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Wells The installation of wells was an important component of the original ranching and railroad development in what is now the Preserve. There are 73 documented wells in the Preserve, of which 8 are used for NPS water supply and 15 are used to support grazing permits (Figure 14). Wells are vertical excavations to access water, which is mechanically lifted to the surface. While some shallow hand-dug wells exist in the Preserve, most are drilled wells that range in depth from several feet to about 1,400 feet (427 meters) below the surface (Table 13). There is currently a plan to add a new water supply well in the Hole in the Wall area of the Preserve to support NPS operations. Other known wells in the Preserve are used for water quality monitoring, or are not in use (Table 13). Another 19 private wells are located on private land within inholdings or adjacent to the Preserve. About 49 additional wells in the Preserve have been destroyed in the past (NPS 2008, 2010b). The exact number and status of wells in the Preserve is not known. Historic hand-dug wells are listed and described separately under “Springs.”

Table 13. Water Supply Wells in the Preserve

Well Characteristics Notes Kelso Depot 1,400ʹ depth Drilled during renovation of depot Kessler Springs Ranch Unknown Water supply for ranch house; good production Mid Hills area 123ʹ depth Supplies Mid Hills campground Well and windmill; supplies ranch headquarters; OX Ranch 700–800ʹ depth (est.) believed to have caved in Rockin’ L Unknown Supplies campground and fire center Hole in the Wall Unknown Valley View Ranch 200ʹ depth (est.) Supplies ranch house and corrals Zzyzx Desert Studies Center (DSC) 50ʹ depth Water supply for DSC and fire suppression According to State of California regulations, a well is considered “abandoned” or permanently inactive if it has not been used for one year, unless the owner demonstrates the intention to use the well again (Water Well Standards, Section 115700 of the California Health and Safety Code). All abandoned wells should be destroyed (Section 22, General Requirements of the California Health and Safety Code).

Guzzlers Throughout the southwestern United States, wildlife managers and conservation groups have constructed water development structures to enhance wildlife habitat by providing reliable water sources. These wildlife water developments are referred to as “guzzlers.” Most guzzlers in the Mojave Desert region have been constructed to promote populations of game birds (such as quail and chukar) and ungulates (such as desert bighorn sheep) (Rosenstock et al. 1999). The two main types of guzzlers in the Preserve are big game guzzlers and small game guzzlers, described as follows.

Big Game Guzzlers In the Preserve, there are six big game guzzlers, which are all built and maintained to support desert bighorn sheep populations but may be used by other animals (Figure 15). Big game guzzlers in the Preserve typically consist of a water collection system with a check dam or impermeable apron in a natural drainage to collect surface water runoff, which is then piped to

Mojave National Preserve 87 Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources one or more large storage tanks. From the storage tanks, a pipe supplies water to a small drinker box for wildlife use. A float valve in the drinker box controls the water flow. The six big game guzzlers are: • Kerr – Old Dad Mountains, south of Jackass Canyon

• Kelso – Kelso Mountains near Kelso Peak (a.k.a. John Doll)

• Vermin – Old Dad Mountains

• Old Dad – Old Dad Mountains

• Piute – Piute Range, north of Piute Spring

• Clark – Clark Mountains Kerr guzzler, Mojave National Preserve (NPS photo) (a.k.a. Bickett-Landell). All of the big game guzzlers are in wilderness designated by the 1994 CDPA. This has proven to be a challenge for the maintenance, monitoring, and water replenishment necessary for the guzzlers to function. Many of these activities require motorized vehicle access to bring in materials, tools, and equipment. In cases where replenishment is needed, proximate access by large (300- to 500-gallon) water tank trucks with motorized pumps and hoses is needed to refill depleted storage tanks. The NPS has allowed these activities under special use (NPS 2008). Most of the maintenance and replenishment activities are conducted by volunteers.

Small Game Guzzlers In the Preserve, numerous small game guzzlers are located in diverse types of habitat and in various stages of function. A total of 131 small game guzzlers are documented to exist in the Preserve, of which 71 are located outside of wilderness and 26 are in desert tortoise critical habitat (see Table 14 and Figure 17). Small game guzzlers are also known as game bird guzzlers and gallinaceous guzzlers, as they are intended for gallinaceous bird species. Small game guzzlers typically consist of a concrete apron leading to a subsurface concrete or fiberglass storage tank. Birds and small animals enter the storage tank through a small opening. Most guzzlers are close to roads or broad washes (Whitaker et al. 2004).

Table 14. Small Game Guzzler Status

Status Documented Number (% of Total) Total small game guzzlers 131 Located in wilderness 60 (42) Located outside of wilderness 71 (54) Repaired 2006–2013 64 (49) In desert tortoise critical habitat 26 (20) Source: NPS 2013a.

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Kin Primm gsto E n S W E H G T G a I sh N G N A M Big Game Guzzlers H R A L Y N R A I A A N Clark Mountain H T R D N G U G N R U U IO ") N A 95 O Y E Yates Well P O S A x N C C I L c M F IC G e U H IVANPAH R L l K A E Mojave National Preserve s IL L i R R U o A 15 LAKE O

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Sea G N h E s N E R Y a A A W R L E s L S ng A H V National Park Service wilderness ri C IL ES L L p M N A S 127 ll L L CIMA ROAD Ivanpah Road I u L B A Paved road A E V Y V S T T A N Unpaved 2-wheel drive road S L M Halloran Springs Morning U N L I

H Star Mine O E A h Unpaved 4-wheel drive road s A W Y T CASTLE a H i M P l sh lo a N MOUNTAINS W A w W N Willow e U Mojave Road 4-wheel drive road P NATIONAL t SILVER A u Spring O i 15 N MONUMENT LAKE V P I A M Desert wash (dry) Morning Star Mine Road V I E Cal Nev Ari L

Kessler T K S Spring R Mine Ro CIMA t a A O ar d DOME Y H C sh Deer W a E Spring N P W Keystone I NEVADA Baker Kelbaker Rd nk CALIFORNIA a U T Spring ck la T B E Cima rk M Lava Tube Yo ountain w s R Ne Road PINTO Piute A CINDER CONE Ivanpah Rd Palm VALLEY N ") 163 LAVA BEDS VE ROAD Gardens Zz JA G y O LANFAIR z SODA M Government x E

R LAKE h HILLS Holes VALLEY o D s GROTTO a (dry) Marl a 95 A Aiken Mine Rd d O W HILLS VE R MARL Spring OJA o Rock Zzyzx M MOUNTAINS ls sh MOJAVE ROAD Vermin e Wa MidHills Rasor Spring K dar Spring Cedar Canyon Road Fort Piute Ro Ce Campground ROUND a ") (site) d Zzyzx VALLEY MOJAVE ROAD MID Old Dad ") Piute K ") E M Spring L A N S Kelso C O O E Y D P N Kelbaker Road ON A N M IA YO I C CAN S O Hackberry KAS U W U JAC N GOLD O VONTRIGGERHILLS O Spring T T A D VALLEY S Vontrigger E ") I N M D S Kelso Cima Road O Spring E U Hole-in-the-Wall N KerrV T W I Campground A I a L N t F Hole-in-the-Wall s E S V S Kelso Depot o N Lanfair Road InformationCenter n N A

Information Center W E P R L B a L l L D a s V A c h A A E ILRO k C RA C L FI PROVIDENCE Y Y CI a PA L MOUNTAINS STATE n G UNION MOUNTAINS E Co y Y t RECREATION AREA o R to n Cornﬁeld n O w Kel Spring W so Wash o U a o MITCHELL CAVERNS s d h N Black Canyon Road W NATURAL PRESERVE 95 D a Goffs Schoolhouse s h Vulcan MountainGoffs Springs Rd D S Mine e E Foshay

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to Barstow Figure 15 on the previous page cannot be made 508 compliant. It is a map of Figure 15. Big Game Guzzlers in the Preserve. Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Most small game guzzlers have ramps installed made from wire mesh or other coarse material that allows wildlife that enter the water to escape. These were installed because of concerns about mortality of desert tortoise drowning in guzzlers (Hoover 1995; Bleich et al. 2005). A schematic of a typical small game guzzler is shown in Figure 16. Between 2006 and 2013, volunteers repaired or rebuilt 60 guzzlers in non-wilderness locations. While about four wilderness guzzlers were repaired at some point, none of the wilderness guzzlers Small game guzzler, Mojave National Preserve (NPS photo) have been repaired in at least the past decade. Small game guzzlers that were repaired or rebuilt between 2006 and 2013 are not expected to require additional major repairs within the 20-year life of this plan. Eight non-wilderness guzzlers have not been recently rebuilt and could be subject to major repairs or rebuilds during the life of this plan. However, only two of these are adjacent to existing roads. The remaining six would require non-motorized access for equipment, materials, and personnel.

Figure 16. Typical Small Game Guzzler Cross-Section

Source: Whittaker et al. 2004.

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Kin Primm gsto E n S W E H G T G a I sh N G N A M Small Game Guzzlers H R A L Y N R A I A A N H T R D N G U G N R U U IO N A 95 O Y E Yates Well P O S A x N C C I L c M F IC G e U H IVANPAH R L l K A E Mojave National Preserve s IL L i R R U o A 15 LAKE O

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M Small game guzzler – in wilderness E I T

Sea G N h E s N E R Y a A A W R L E s L S Small game guzzler – not in wilderness ng A H V ri C IL ES L L p M N A S 127 ll L L CIMA ROAD Ivanpah Road I Guzzler rebuilt 2006-2013 u L B A A E V V Y S T Guzzler not rebuilt; adjacent to road T A N S L M Halloran Springs Morning U N L I Guzzler not rebuilt; no road access H Star Mine O E A h s A W Y T a H i M CASTLE P l sh lo a N W A w W MOUNTAINS Desert tortoise critical habitat N Willow e U P NATIONAL t SILVER A u Spring O i 15 N MONUMENT LAKE V P National Park Service wilderness I A M (dry) Morning Star Mine Road V I E Cal Nev Ari L Paved road Kessler T Spring K S CIMA R Mine Ro rt a A O a d Unpaved 2-wheel drive road DOME Y H C sh Deer W a E Spring N P W Keystone I NEVADA Baker Kelbaker Rd nk CALIFORNIA Unpaved 4-wheel drive road a U T Spring ck la T B Mojave Road 4-wheel drive road E Lava Tube Cima R Desert wash York Mounta i A PINTO New ns Ro CINDER CONE ad Ivanpah Rd Palm VALLEY N 163 LAVA BEDS VE ROAD Gardens Zz JA G y O Government LANFAIR z SODA M x Holes E

R LAKE h HILLS VALLEY o D s GROTTO a (dry) Marl a 95 A Aiken Mine Rd d O W HILLS VE R MARL Spring OJA o Rock Zzyzx M MOUNTAINS ls sh MOJAVE ROAD e Wa Rasor Spring K dar Spring Ro Ce ROUND Cedar Canyon Road Fort Piute a (site) d Zzyzx Mid Hills VALLEY MOJAVE ROAD CampgroundMID Piute K E M Spring L A N S C O O E Y D P N Kelbaker Road ON A N M IA YO I C CAN S O Hackberry KAS U W U JAC N GOLD O VONTRIGGERHILLS O Spring T T A D I N VALLEY S Vontrigger E S M D O Spring Kelso Cima Road U E N V T W I Hole-in-the-Wall A IN a F L Campground t E S s V S Kelso Depot Hole-in-the-Wall o N Lanfair Road n N A

Information Center Information Center W E P R L B a L PROVIDENCE l L D a s V A c h A A E ILRO MOUNTAINS STATE k C RA C L I Y Y IF AC RECREATION AREA a L P n G UNION MOUNTAINS E Co y Y t o R to n Cornﬁeld n O w Kel Spring W so Wash o U a o MITCHELL CAVERNS s d h N Black Canyon Road W NATURAL PRESERVE 95 D a Goffs Schoolhouse s h Vulcan MountainGoffs Springs Rd D S Mine e E Foshay

N Y v U E il D Spring s s P O E s layg ELS e rou K L x nd S R L L W o L ash I a A d H

R V

B N 40 L

N I

PROVIDENCE N

Quail E F D

H Goffs Rd

Spring R

H L

E GRANITE L

o S

m P Fenner y P a e w r I h g MOUNTAINS i W Y H S L A ls W i a L a N O C I r T I s L A l h D R na o A D E ti F a A N T D A T N M N

to Barstow

Mojave National Preserve—Management Plan for Developed Water Resources

Wildlife Desert Bighorn Sheep Desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) inhabit desert mountain ranges throughout the Sonoran, Mojave, and Great Basin Deserts. Their habitat is typically rough, rocky, and broken by canyons and washes (Hansen 1982), with vegetative communities ranging from upland pinyon-juniper to desert scrub (Browning and Monson 1980). Forage, water, and escape terrain are considered crucial components of desert bighorn habitat (Risenhoover and Bailey 1985; Turner 1973; Krausman et al. 1989). Bighorn sheep favor open terrain and generally avoid dense vegetation that blocks their visibility of predators. Their diet includes cacti, grasses, herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees. Bighorn sheep diet varies by season because new plant growth is most nutritious. Compared with populations in higher mountain ranges, lower- elevation bighorn populations typically have poorer forage quality and are subject to higher temperatures and less precipitation (Epps et al. 2004). The availability of forage close to water is an important component of bighorn sheep habitat (Leslie and Douglas 1979). Population Status Desert bighorn sheep are found in most of the Preserve’s mountainous terrain, with the largest populations occurring in the Old Dad Mountain, Kelso Peak, and Clark Mountain areas. Currently, six desert bighorn sheep populations occur in the Preserve. These populations are generally considered to occur in the Old Dad/Kelso/Indian, Clark, Granite, Providence, Woods/Hackberry, and Piute/Castle habitat patches. Potential habitat also occurs in the Mescal/Ivanpah Range, which is currently unoccupied by bighorn sheep. The current population of desert bighorn sheep in the Preserve is estimated to be between 680 and 1,075 individuals. Throughout the region, bighorn populations have become increasingly isolated and vulnerable to loss of habitat and genetic diversity, due primarily to a combination of habitat fragmentation and climate change (Epps et al. 2005; Longshore et al. 2009; Creech et al. 2014). Desert bighorn sheep are classified by the State of California as a Fully Protected species (California Fish and Game Code 4902; see http://www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/nongame/t_e_spp/fully_pro.html). Movement and Persistence of Populations Desert bighorn sheep are most active during daylight and move to steeper terrain at night. During summer, bighorn typically rest in the shade during the hottest part of the day. Desert bighorn habitat areas are often small and isolated. Flat sparsely vegetated desert valleys between rugged mountain ranges results in a naturally fragmented distribution (Bleich et al. 1990) and typically populations number fewer than 100 individuals (Torres et al. 1994). These conditions leave desert bighorn populations vulnerable to detrimental changes in habitat availability because of low female dispersal rates and the long distances between populations (Epps et al. 2004; Epps et al. 2007). Epps et al. (2004) found that elevation, precipitation, presence of reliable natural springs, and absence of domestic sheep allotments positively correlated with persistence of desert bighorn sheep populations. In addition, genetic and demographic connectivity are important for bighorn sheep metapopulation dynamics and the recolonization of habitat patches that have become extirpated, and maintaining intact habitat patches and corridors between patches is vital to metapopulation viability (Creech et al. 2014). Regarding connectivity and fragmentation between bighorn populations, Creech et al. (2014) described the importance of demographic and genetic connectivity of bighorn metapopulations,

Mojave National Preserve 95