Master of Arts in Sanskrit (MASK)
MSK-03 History of Vedic Literature
Block -01 Samhita Literature
UNIT- 1 RGVEDA SAMHITA
UNIT-2 YAJURVEDA
UNIT-3 SAMAVEDA
Unit-4 ATHARVAVEDA
MASK PROGRAMME EXPERTS COMMITTEE
Prof. Prafulla Kumar Mishra, Former Vice-Chancellor, North Odisha University
Prof. Gopal Krishna Dash, Retd. Prof. ,Utkal University
Prof. Prativa Manjari Rath ,Retd. Prof, Utkal University
Dr. Madhusudan Mishra, Associate Prof. , BJB Auto. College, BBSR
Dr. Subash Chandra Dash , Associate Prof. , Utkal University
Dr. Kadambini Dash , Reader in Sanskrit, SB Women’s College, Cuttack
Dr. Narayana Prasad Dash ,Retd. Reader in Sanskrit , S.V.M Autonomous College , Jagatsinghpur
Dr. Paramba Shree Yogamaya, Assistant Prof. , Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Puri
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Odisha State Open University
CONVENOR
Dr. Dillip Kumar Nayak , Reader in Odia , Former Officer in Charge, Regional Centre, B.J.B Auto. College Bhubaneswar
COURSE WRITER
Dr. Paramba Shree Yogamaya , Assistant Prof. , Shri Jagannath Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya , Puri
COURSE EDITOR
Dr. Nirmal Sundar Mishra, Associate Prof. , S.V.M Autonomous College , Jagatsingpur
PROGRAMME COORDINATOR
Dr. SareetaPujari , Senior Academic Consultant, OSOU , Sambalpur
Mr. Pratap Kumar Meher , Academic Consultant , Sanskrit , OSOU, Sambalpur
MATERIAL PRODUCTION Dr. Manas Ranjan Pujari Registrar Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur (cc) OSOU, 2020. Samhita Literature is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-sa/4.0 Printed by :
UNIT- I: RGVEDA SAMHITA
1.1. Learning Objectives. 1.2. Introduction to Vedic Literature. 1.2.1. Meaning of the Word ‘Veda’. 1.2.2. Definition of Veda. 1.2.3. The Literature of Veda. 1.3. Samhita Literature. 1.3.1. Divisions of Samhita Literature. 1.3.2. Recensions of Vedas. 1.3.3. Number of Vedas. (वेदत्रयी/ चत्वारः वेदाः।)
1.4. Rgveda (ऋक्संहिता) 1.4.1. Rgveda: Definition and Meaning. 1.4.2. Date of Composition of Rgveda. 1.4.3. Arrangement of Rgveda. 1.4.4. Number of Mantras in Rgveda. 1.4.5. Subject-matter of Rgveda. 1.4.6. Family Books. 1.4.4. Significance of Rgved 1.5. Model Question. 1.5.1 अहतदीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः ।
1.5.2 दीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः ।
1.5.3 संहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः ।
1.5.4 अहतसंहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 1.6. Further Reading.
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1.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about- The Meaning & Definition of the word ‘Veda’. The Origin and Recensions of Samhita Literature. The Arrangement & Contents of Rgveda. The significance of Rgveda.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO VEDIC LITERATURE
The meaning of the word ‘वेद’is knowledge, in general. Veda is not pronounced by any man. Therefore, it is अपौ셁षेय .It is said by the sage Parasara that –
न कश्चि饍वेदकर्त्तास्यत饍वेदस्मर्त्ता ितुमखुा ः।
वेदो नतरतयणः सतक्षतत्सस्वयम्भरू रततशश्रु मू ।।(परतशरस्मतृ तः)
It is eternal (नित्य).It is mystic and symbolic. Symbolic Vedic theories are exposed in इनिहासs and परु ाणs to the fullest with so many आख्यािs and उपाख्यािs. It is the flash of supramental consciousness in this material world. It is beyond space and time. It is not for any particular sect or religion rather there are the noble and high moral prayers and thoughts of the world prosperity. It uplifts the worldly man towardsdivine grace.
There is a prayer for a harmonious, prosperous and blissful living–
समतनी व आकू ततः समतनत दयततन वः। समतनमस्तु वो मनो यथत वः ससु हतसतत। (ऋक् 10.191.4)
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o worshipping men! be your intention the same, your hearts be the same, be your mind the same, that it may be a good company for you. ्[देविा is संज्ञाि and छन्द is अि ु ु प ,ﴃis अ敍गिरस ﴃHere, the ऋषष]
वेद is the soul's march on the path of Truth. According to the
वेदा敍ि煍योनिषम–् (वेदाहहयज्ञार्मथ भिप्रवत्तृ ा) the Vedas are indeed intended to serve the purpose of sacrifice and the importance of sacrifice is that it can lead an individual soul to heaven according to the injuction स्विथकामो यजेि।
1.2.1. MEANING OF THE WORD ‘VEDA’
The word वेद is derived from the root षव饍.पाणणनि indicates three senses to the root षव饍 according to three conjugations (िण). i. The root षव饍 in the fourth conjugation (हदवाहद)means ‘to be or to exist'. (षव饍सत्तायाम)् ii. In the second conjugation (अदाहद), it means to know or to be conscious or aware of. (षव饍ज्ञािे). iii. In the sixth conjugation (िुदाहद), it means to gain or to attain. (षव饍ललृ ाि)े The word वेद is derived from षव饍, to be or to exist, would mean Being or Existence, i.e. the Sat (सि)् of Vedanta. When it is derived fromषव饍to be conscious, it would mean the cit (गिि)् or consciousness and again derived from षव饍, to gain or attain, it would mean the highest gain or attainment i.e. the bliss or आिन्द. Since bliss is the highest gain, the highest thing worth means there is no gain…" ﴃstriving for, it is rightly said “आिन्दान्िपरोलाि greater than the bliss. Thus, the word वेद combines in itself all the three
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senses of the root in three of its conjugations and connotes सच्चिदािन्द. Therefore, etymologically वेद is that eternal knowledge which reveals to us the essential self-nature of सच्चिदािन्दand the nature of this manifested creation, the evolutionary world nature and world action.
1.2.2. DEFINITION OF VEDA.
सामानि जज्ञज्ञरे। ﴃऋि ﴃi) िस्मा饍यज्ञात्सवहथ ुि) (10.90.9 ﴃछन्दांभस यज्ञज्ञरे िस्माि ् यजुस्िस्मादजायि।।(ऋग्वेद (ii) सत्तायां षव饍यिे ज्ञािे वेषत्त षवन्िे षविारणे।
षवन्दिे षवन्दनि प्राप्तौ श्यन्लक्श्ु नम्शच्े ववदं क्रमाि।् । (वैयाकरणभसद्धान्िकौमद्ु ा ं िरु ाहदप्रकरणे)
करणे घञ)् ।) ﴃित्त्वाहदकं श्रे प셁ु षार्ं वेषत्त जािानि अिेि इनि वेद-- अगिकरणे घञ)् ।) ﴃित्त्वाहदकं षवद्िे (अच्स्ि) यच्स्मि ् स वेद-- करणे घञ)् ।) ﴃित्त्वाहदकं षवन्िे षविारयनि येि इनि वेद-- --ित्त्वाहदकं षवन्दनि (परोपकारार्ं)षवन्दिेि (स्वोपकारार्थ祍ि ) करणे अपादािे वा घञ)् ।) ﴃवा येि यस्माि ् वा स वेद-- ।ﴃयद्वा ित्त्वाहदकं वेदयिीनि षव饍+णणि ्+ अि ् कत्तथरीनि वेद- -
(iii) ....षव饍 षविारणे षव饍सत्तायां षव饍 ज्ञािे षवदल ृ लािे एिेषां िािूिा ं षवषये ( । (सित्सजु ािीयेﴃविथन्िे यस्मात्तिो वेदा इत्य啍ु ा
।ﴃiv).....इ प्राप्त्यनि पररहारयोरलौकककमपु ाय ं यो ग्रन्र्ो वेदयनि स वेद) ( कृ वणयजुवेदिावयोप ािे,ﴃसायण)
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(v) ... अलौकककं प셁ु षार्ोपायं वेत्त्यिेिेनि वेदशब्दनिविथ िम।्
िर्ािो啍म–् प्रत्यक्षेणािुभमत्या वा यस्िूपायो ि बुध्यिे। एिं षवदच्न्ि वेदेि िस्मा饍 वेदस्य वेदिा।।
(ऋग्वेदिावयिूभमकायाम ् । ,ﴃसायण)
िैषत्तरीयसंहहिािावयोपो ािे) । ,ﴃ। (सायणﴃvi) मन्रब्रा णात्मको वेद)
(vii) मन्रब्रा णयोवेदिामिेयम।् (आपसिम्ब-यज्ञपररिाषायाम)् ।
।ﴃि िु केवलं शब्दनि ﴃशब्दार्ोियनि ﴃviii) वेदत्वं िाम िमथ)
।ﴃयैस्िे वेदा ﴃix) षवद्न्िे ज्ञायन्िे लभ्यन्िे वािमाथहदपु셁षार्ाथ) (ऋक्श्प्रानिशाख्यिावये,ﴃउवट)
।ﴃआहदत्यात्सामवेद ﴃवायोयजथ ुवेद ﴃऋग्वेद ﴃx) रयो वेदा अजायन्ि अग्िे) अच्ग्िवायरु षवभ्यस्ि ु रयं ब्र सिाििम।् (23-1 ﴃसामलक्षणम॥् (मिुस्मनृ ि ﴃददु ोह यज्ञभस饍ध्यर्मथ ग्ृ यजु
(xi) िोदिा हह िूिं िवन्िं िषववयन्िं सूक्ष्मं व्यवहहिं षवप्रकृ भमत्येवं जािीयकमर्ं शक्श्िोनि अविमनयिुम।् (शबरस्वामी, शाबरिावयम1् -1-2)
।ﴃxii) षवदन्त्यिन्यप्रमाणवेद्ं िमथलक्षणमर्थमस्माहदनिवेद)
(मिुस्मनििावयेृ । ,ﴃमेिानिगर्) ।ﴃxiii) सोsयं िद्पद्िािलक्षणिया रयीसंज्ञज्ञिो वेद)
संहहिासु षवि啍ा षवषयिेदाि।्ﴃसामार्वेनि ििुﴃऋग्यजु ( जैभमिीयन्यायमालाषवस्िरे ,ﴃमािवािायथ)
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(xiv) ये षवदच्न्ि जािच्न्ि षवद्न्िे िवच्न्ि षवन्दच्न्ि लिन्िे िर्ा षवन्दन्िे
िवच्न्ि िे ﴃसत्यषवद्ां ययै ेष ु वा िर्ा षवद्वांस ﴃषविारयच्न्ि सवे मिवु या ।ﴃवेदा
्(ऋग्वेदाहदिावयिभू मकायाम ,ﴃस्वामीदयािन्द)
(xv) The word Veda means ‘knowledge’ and then ‘the knowledge par excellence’ i.e. the sacred,the religious knowledge’, and it does not denote any one single literary work like perhaps the word 'Koran’, or any compact collection of a definite number of books, completed at any particular time, like the word ''bible” (the ‘book par excellence’) or like the word "Tripitaka’, the Bible of the Buddhists, but a large extent of literature that came into being in the course of many millennia and was transmitted centuries long from generation to generation by until at last by a later generation - of course in the hoary past - it was declared as 'sacred knowledge’as‘divine revelation’ on account of its age as well as its content. (Winternitz, A. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, p. 47 (
1.2.3. THE LITERATURE OF VEDA.
It is believed that in its original state, theवेद was one andकृ ष्णद्वैपायन divided it into four parts. This is the reason for which he is known as वेद핍यास.‘वेदान्वव핍यासयस्मा配सवेद핍यासइन्िस्मिृ ः’।(महाभारिम)् He arranged the four सन्ं हिाs as per the requirements of the processes of symbolic sacrifice and transmitted the ऋ嵍वेद to पैल, the यजुवेदtoवैश륍पायन, the सामवेदtoजैन्मन्नand the अथवववेदtoसमु विु .
तत्र ऋग्वेदधरः पैलः सतमगो जैममतनः कववः।
वैशम्पतयन एवैको तनष्णततो यजुषतमतु ।। अथवता敍गगरसमतसीत्ससमु ꅍतुदता셁णो मतु नः। इततहतसपरु तणतनत 車 वपतत मे रोमहषाणः॥(श्रीमद्भतगवतमहतपुरतणम,् XII.6.50-51)
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In course of time, they transmitted them to their pupils and thereafter they developed the tradition of oral transmission from teacher to pupil. वेद is
means hearingbecause the revealed texts were not written ﴃknown as श्रनु ि were supposed to ﴃand read, but only spoken and heard. Not only the संहहिा , ﴃhave been breathed out by Brahman and ‘seen’ or‘visualized’ by the ऋषष but also every word in the उपनिष饍, the latest products of the Vedic Literature were considered as indisputable truth coming from Brahman, which is testified by the whole history of Indian Philosophy. Through oral developed. A detailed description ﴃtransmission, various recensions or शाखा
& of वेदs is found in श्रीम饍िािविमहापरु ाणम ्(XII/6/50-80 ﴃabout the शाखा XII/7/1-25). Asimilar description is also found in the शाच्न्िपवथ (ch. 342) of isﴃthe महािारिम.् Further, organized information on the शाखाs on the वेद found in िरणव्यहू . There are three notable books of the िरणव्यहू . It isattributed to शौिक, कात्यायि and व्यास. According to पिञजभलऋग्वेद has
21 recensions, यजुवेद has 101,सामवेद has 1000 and अर्वथवेद has 09 recensions.
1.3. SAMHITA LITERATURE
1.3.1. DIVISIONS OF SAMHITA LITERATURE.
is called संहहिा. The word वेद is applicable toﴃThe entire collection of मन्र inevitable expression of poetic inspiration and) ﴃboth the collection of मन्र are supposed to be a detailed ﴃrevelation) and the ब्रा णs. The ब्रा ण are divided into three ﴃThe ब्रा ण .ﴃanalysis and commentary on the संहहिा parts –
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ﴃi. ब्रा ण
and ﴃii. आरण्यक iii. उपनिषि ्
there is a detailed statement and explanation of various kinds ﴃIn the ब्रा ण of sacrifices and their ceremonies and rituals. The आरण्यकs are much more esoteric and the उपनिषिs् expound the knowledge contained in the वेदs. The उपनिषिs् are also called वेदान्ि. At a later period, वादरायणव्यास composed the ब्र सरू or शारीरकसरू in order to present the उपनिषिs् in an organized form. At a still later period, the ििव ीिा was composed as a part of the महािारि and it is considered to be the quintessence of the उपनिषिs् . So, Vedic literature mainly consists of मन्रसंहहिा, ब्रा णs, आरण्यकs and
उपनिषिs् . All are considered to be essential. Further the study of the ब्र सरू and ििव ीिा is also considered to be necessary. Vedic literature also included six additional works which are supposed to be aids in understanding the वेद. They are
i. भशक्षा
ﴃii. क쥍प iii. व्याकरणम ्
iv. नि셁啍म ्
ﴃv. छन्द
vi. 煍योनिषम।्
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1.3.2. RECENSIONS OF VEDAS
Through oral tradition, there came about a development of various recensions or शाखाs of various वेदs. The total number of शाखाs are believed
-शाखाs-101+सामशाखाs-1000+अर्वथशाखाsﴃto be 1,131 (ऋक्श्शाखाs-21+यजु 09). But at present, only 10 शाखाs remain alive. The recensions related to ऋग्वेद and the names available are–
i. शाकल
ii. वावकल iii. आश्वलायि
iv. शांखायि
v. माण्डूकायि
But one शाखा named शाकलशाखा remains alive now out of these five names and broadly of the 21 शाखाs which existed at one time. वावकलशाखा is available partly. There is a claim that शांखायिशाखा is still known to a few वेदपाठीs in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, but this is not certain. The ऋच्त्वक् or priest of ऋग्वेद is known as होिा.
यजुवेदशाखा- The यजुवेदis classified broadly into शक्श्ु लयजुवेद and कृ वणयजुवेद. शक्श्ु लयजवु ेद is known as वाजसिेनयसंहहिा.There are two extant
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शाखाs of शक्श्ु लयजुवेद or वाजसिेनयसंहहिा, namely काण्वसंहहिा and माध्यच्न्दिसंहहिा .
The कृ वणयजुवेदसंहहिा has 05 extant शाखाs, namely
i. िैषत्तरीय
ii. कषप ल iii. कठ
iv. काठक
v. कालाप or मैरायणी
Incomplete versions of कषप ल and कठ are available. The ऋच्त्वक्or priest of यजुवेद is known as अध्वय.ुथ
सतमवेदशतखत The सामवेद has 03 existing शाखाs, namely कौर्मु , शणायिीय and जैभमिीय. The सामवेद is musical in character and it contains those ऋक्swhich can be appropriately sung. The ऋच्त्वक् or Priest of सामवेद is known as उ饍िािा.
अथवावेदशतखत The 09 शाखाs of अर्वथवेद as indicated by पि祍जभल are पैपलाद, शौिक,
स्िौद, मौद, जाजल, ज쥍द, देवदशथ, िरणव्यहू , ब्र वेद .But today we have only
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two शाखाs, namely पैपलाद and शौिक. The ऋच्त्वक orpriest of अर्वथवेद is known as ब्र ा.
1.3.3. NUMBER OF VEDAS. (वेदत्रयी/ ित्सवतरः वेदतः)
From the very beginning the वेद was one. वेदव्यास has divided it according to the different forms of the मन्रs. Those which are poetical, composed with meters and quarters known as ऋक् (िेषामग्ृ यरार्थवशेिपादव्यवस्र्ा – जैभमनिसरू म ्2.9.35). The मन्रs which are musical in character are known as साम (िीनिषसामाु ख्या- जैभमनिसरू म ् 2.1.36 .(The मन्रs excluding ऋक्and जैभमनिसरू म2् .1.37). On the basis of this -ﴃशेषेयजु) ﴃसामare known as यजु division, the वेद is known as रयी. On the basis of the division of their subject matter, वेदs are four. A verse is found in this context as follows –
ऋग्यजुःसतमतथावतख्यतन ्वेदतन ् पवताू ददमभमखुा ःै । शस्त्रममजयत車 स्तुततस्तोम車 प्रतयश्ित車 व्यधतत्सरमतत॥् (श्रीम饍िािविम ्3/12/37)
(i) The subject matter of ऋक् is शस्त्र. The मन्रs which are not sung, but ् शस्रमﴃrecited by the होिा are known as शस्त्र(अप्रिीि-मन्र-साध्यास्िनु ि ii) The subject matter of यजुषis् इ煍या or यज्ञकमथ .It is said that the form of by the priest(ﴃthe यज्ञ is created from the यजुवेद (यज्ञस्यमारांषवभममीिउत्व थुﴃअध्वय
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which means those ऋक्s ﴃiii) The subject matter of सामis स्िुनिसोम which are used for eulogization or the ऋक्श्मन्रs which are sung by the उ ािा are known as स्िोमs.
(iv)The subject matterofअर्वथ is atonement (प्रायच्िि). According to श्रीिरस्वामी the aim of atonement is ब्रा कमथ which means these actions are instituted by the priest ब्र ा. To rectify the faults of other priests and to advise the atonement of the duty of the priest ब्र ा. So, due to different subject matters on sacrificial basis and Priest's works, वेदs are four or
ििु यी.Therefore, according to the requirements of the priests (ऋच्त्वक्) the compilation of मन्रs are known as four संहहिाs. This is described in the
ज्ञािस啍ू म ्of ऋग्वेद. ऋित車 त्सवः पोषमतस्ते पपु ष्ु वतन ् गतयत्र車 त्सवो गतयतत शक्वरीष।ु ब्रह्मत त्सवो वदतत जतत-ववद्त車 यज्ञस्य मतत्रत車 ववमममीत उ त्सवः।। (X.71.11ﴃऋग्वेद)
One priest nourishes the ऋक्s.This priest is called होिा. Another priest has to sing the िायर (साम) as his function at the sacrifice (and is known as उ ािा). The duty of another priest is to measure out the whole structure of the sacrifice. This priest is called अध्वय.ुथ ब्र ा alone is responsible for the success and efficacy of the यज्ञ,its execution in accordance with its inherent purpose and spirit. Thus, the मन्रs which are later classified into four संहहिाs are inspired by the needs of prayer and worship in the form of performance of यज्ञs.
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The knowledge of a मन्र means the knowledge of its five particulars, viz.
to whom the मन्र is ascribed (ii) the छन्दs (metre) of the ﴃi) the ऋषष)
iii) देविा (the deity) to whom it is addressed, (iv) the purpose or) ,ﴃमन्र and (v) the meaning of its ,(ﴃceremony for which it is applied (षवनियोि as well as the philosophy behind it (ﴃwords(शब्दार्थ .(ﴃअ饃 ार्थ )
1.4 RGVEDA / RKSAMHITA (ऋक्स車दहतत)
Among the four वेदs, the ऋग्वेद occupies a prominent place. The oldest layers of the ऋग्वेदसंहहिा are the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language. This text is respected most while describing any शास्त्रs in India. Not only the name is taken first, rather the sacrificial performances instituted with ऋग्मन्रs are strongin comparisonto साम/यजमथन्रु . It is described in िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा –
यद्वै यज्ञस्य साम्िा यजुषा कक्रयिे भशगर्लं िि ् ,य饍ऋिा ित्饃ढभमनि। (िैषत्तरीयसंहहिाVI.5.10.3 ). It is depicted in प셁ु षस啍ू that the ऋग्मन्रs are created from the षवरा絍प셁ु ष in the मािसयाि named प셁षु मेि.
तस्मत饍 यज्ञतत ् सवाहुतऋि : सतमततनजज्ञज्ञरे। ( X.90.9ﴃछꅍदत車मस जज्ञज्ञरे तस्मतत ् यजुस्तस्मतदजतयत।। (ऋग्वेद
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From that great general sacrifice, the ऋक्s and सामs were created. Therefrom, were spells and charms produced; the यजुषs had its birth from it. (Trans. R.T. H. Griffith).
1.4.1 Rgveda: Definition and Meaning
ऋचयिेस्िुयिेअियाइनिऋक्.By which (deities) are eulogized are known as ् fromऋि ,ﴃऋक्s. ऋि ्(स्िुिौ/ to praise) is the root here. The core text ऋग्वेद (to praise) and वेद (knowledge) is the ancient text.The definition of ऋक्is
‘िेषामग्ृ यरार्वथ शिे पादव्यवस्र्ा’ (जैभमनिसरू म2/1/् 35). Those which are poetical, composed with metres and quarters are known as ऋक्.The शस्त्रम”् whichﴃऋग्मन्रs are also known asशस्त्रs .“अप्रिीि -मन्र-साध्यास्िनु ि means the मन्रs which are not sung but recited are known as
शस्त्रम.्शंस्यिेस्िुयिेइनिशस्त्रम.्The meaning of मन्र or ऋक् described in a ऋक्श्मन्र is as follows –
ऋिो अक्षरे परमे व्योमꅍयश्स्मन ् देवत अगध ववश्वे तनषेदःु । यस्तꅍन वेद ककमिृ तकररष्यतत य इर्त्दिदस्ु त इमे समतसते।। (1.164.39 ﴃऋग्वेद)
In this मन्र two original questions namely what the वेद is and what it contains are answered.The स啍ू s(hymns) and the मन्रs (verses) abide there परब्र ि,्the supreme and eternal God head whose sound body is ऒम.्All the gods abide there. What can one do with the ऋक्s who knows not that
ब्र ि?् If one is ignorant of the Supreme and the Ultimate
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Reality, that is affirmed in these मन्रs, of what use to Him are the empty words there in? On the contrary, those who have grasped that Reality, who are united with it and constantly abide in it, are established or समासिे (meaning by Jagannath Velankara).
1.4.2 Rgveda: Date of composition
The antiquity of theवेद has been a subject of discussion and dispute. According to Indian tradition it is impossible to determine the period of composition of वेद. Because it is eternal (नित्य) and not written by human beings (अपौ셁षेय). According to महािावयकारपि祍जभल— 'िहहछन्दांभसकक्रयन्िे।नित्यानिछन्दांभस' (महािावयमIV.3् .101). The मन्रs are not written. They are eternal. Further, it is said by ििहथृ रर in वाक्श्यपदीयम ् that ‘ऋषषणामषपय煍ज्ञािंिदप्यािमपवू कथ म'्. The knowledge of the ऋषषs are prior to the वेदs. As the seers are not the composers; rather they have visualized the मन्रs; it is difficult to fix a time of the वेदs as per the Indian tradition.
But the western scholars and modern Indian scholars have tried their best to fix an approximate date of the वेदs. They have followed the historical method in this regard.The ऋग्वेद is far more archaic than any other Indo - Aryan text. For this reason, it was the centre of attention of western scholarship from the time of Max Müller and Rudolf Roth.
(1) According to Max Müller The first attempt was taken by Prof. Max Müller in 1859 to fix a time of the वेदs. He has divided the time of Vedic composition in four categories in his book‘Ancient Sanskrit Literature’. It is definite that the वेदs are practised in
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this land before Buddhism. Buddhism mentions the Vedic practices which is of 500 B.C.
The four divisions of Vedic period according to Max Müller are –
.B. C. to 1000 B. C 1200 -ﴃa. छꕍदकाल .B.C. to 800 B.C 1000 – ﴃb. मन्रकाल .B.C. to 6oo B.C 800 – ﴃc. ब्रा णकाल
.B.C. to 400 B.C 600- ﴃd. सरू काल
So, as per the time divisions by Max Müller the वेदs are of 3300 years old composition.
(2) According to Jacobi The German scholar Jacobi fixes the time of Veda during 4500 B.C. to 2500 B.C. His time division is quite nearer to the timings fixed by Bal GangadharTilak.
(3) According to Winternitz M. Winternitz has fixed two ranges of time periods for Vedic composition. 1) 2000 -2500 B.C.– beginning 2) 750 -500 B.C.-ending.
(4) According to A.C. Woolner and Hugo Winckler– A. C. Woolner and Hugo Winckler had fixed the time in between 2000 B. C. to 1200 B.C.
(5) According to Pt. Shankar Balkrishna Dixit According to the eminent astrologer Pandit Shankar Balkrishna Dixit, there are some descriptions of stars in Vedic literature especially in
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शिपर्ब्रा णम.् The stars indicate the weather cycle. There is a line in
शिपर्ब्राहमणम ्where the कृ षत्तका star rises just in the east point - "एकं द्वे रीणण ित्वारीनि वा अन्यानि िक्षराणण अर्ैिा एव िनय ाू यि ् कृ षत्तकास्ि饍 िमािमेू व एिदपु निै िस्माि ् कृ षत्तकास्वादिीि। एिा ह वै प्राचयै हदशो ि चयवन्िे, सवाथणण ह वा अन्यानि िक्षराणण प्राचयै हदशश्च्यवन्िे”। (शिपर्ब्रा णम2् .1.2) .
Now a days that east point has moved a little bit to north. So, as per the calculation of Shankar Balakrishna Dixit, the above star position hasoccurred before 3000 years back. It may be the time of शिपर्ब्रा णम.्
The िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा where also the description of this कृ षत्तका star is found, is prior to शिपर्ब्रा णम.् The ऋग्वेद is still prior to िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा .If 250 years’ gap is kept for each era, then the ऋग्वेद’s time will be 3500 B.C.So, according to Shankar Balakrishna Dixit the ऋग्वेद is a 5500 years old composition.
(6) According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak this time is still prior to the कृ षत्तका based time. He has deeply observed the Rgvedic verses and found out the there. It is described in िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा that the ﴃdescription of वसन्ि-सम्पाि
फा쥍िुिीपणू णमथ ा is the face of the year. If the moon is in the फा쥍िुिी star, This type of .ﴃthen the sun will be in मिृ भशरा star. That is वसन्िसम्पाि description is also found in the legends of ऋग्वेद. The position of मिृ भशरा is The description of वसन्िसम्पािin the .ﴃfound in some verses of the ऋग्वेद
मिृ भशराstar would be 2000 years back description. Because there are two more stars in between मिृ भशरा and कृ षत्तका (972 x 2 = 1944). So, the मन्रs
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.in मिृ भशरा are of (2500+1944) about 4500 B.C ﴃabout the वसन्िसम्पाि ﴃand मिृ भशरा star ऋग्वेद ﴃTilak further states that prior to this वसन्िसम्पाि ﴃअहदनि.ﴃstar is अहदनि ुﴃ star. The deity of this पिु वसथ ुﴃ has मन्रs about पिु वसथ then the ुﴃ happens in पिु वसथ ﴃis called as देवजििी. When the वसन्िसम्पाि was the first stat in star series. When ुﴃ देवयािtime starts. At that time पिु वसथ star the auspicious time or देवयाि or ुﴃ the Sun enters into the पिु वसथ उत्तरायण starts. As this happened before two stars from मिृ भशरा the अहदनिकाल would be 2ooo years before the मिृ भशरा time. अहदनियिु is the oldest time of Indian culture. It was situated in between 6ooo - 4ooo B. C. No other culture was found prior to this; neither the Greek civilization nor the Persian civilization.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak also has divided the time for the वेदs into four parts-
1) अहदनिकाल: (6ooo-4ooo B.C.) - In remote past some prose and poetical निषवदमन्रs describing the name, qualities and actions of main deities were revealed.
B.C.) - This is prime era of the आयथs where 2500-4000)ﴃमिृ भशराकाल (2 most of the Rgvedicमन्रs were revealed.
,1400B.C.) – In this period the िैषत्तरीयसंहहिा-2500) ﴃकृ षत्तकाकाल (3 theशिपर्ब्रा ण and the other ब्रा णs are composed. वेदा敍ि煍योनिषम ्is also composed in this period. Because the turn around of sun and moon towards the north ofश्रषव ा star, is described there. On the basis of this calculation, the time of वेदा敍ि煍योनिषमis् about 1400 B.C.
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4) अच्न्िमकाल: (1400 - 500 B.C.) – Theश्रौिसरू s, ि ृ सरू s and the दशिथ सरू s are written within one thousand years. Further, the rise of Buddhism is the last part and result of Vedic era.
7) According to Bogazkoy Inscription –
In1907 Dr. Hugo Winckler had conducted a research on the basis of the Inscription at Bogazkoy, a place situated on Asia minor or modern Turkey to fix the dates for Vedic composition. In west Asia there were two tribes, namely Hittite and Mitanni. The heads of these two tribes had a fight and they had their prayers for protection. The Mitanni tribe had mentioned the names of Vedic deities, namely भमर, व셁ण, इन्र, and िासत्या) अच्श्विौ .( Later these two tribes had marital relationship. All these are found recorded in the Bogazkoy or Bogaz-kai Inscription. The time of this inscription is 1400 B.C.
The mention of the Vedic deities shows that one branch of the Vedic people might have migrated to the west Asia and in course of time they had developed a mixed culture there where they had not forgotten the major Vedic deities. As the time of this Inscription is 1400B.C., definitely the Vedic civilization is much older than this. It is viewed by the Western Scholars that it may of the time range around 2500 B.C. to 2000 B.C.
(8) According to Geographical Changes On the basis of some geographical descriptions inऋग्वेद , the time of its composition is fixed. On the belt of the भसन्ि ु riverthe ऋषषs had their sacrificial alters. The description of सरस्विी river is significant one where it is said that having its origin from the high mountains and the pious river meets the sea in estuary.
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एकत िेतत ् सरस्वती नदीनतम।् (VII.95.2ﴃशगु ियता ी गगररभ्य आ समद्रु तत।् । (ऋग्वेद
Further, in another मन्र it is described that both the rivers सरस्विी and
शिु ुहर fall in the ocean (ऋग्वेद:III.33.4). Thorough study of the ऋग्वेद suggests that there was a sea in the west of the nation where there is the desert of Rajasthan now. Due to any severe earthquake the big water space became vanished and there came up the dry desert land. The river सरस्विी which was falling in that sea would have lost its bed within the sands of that desert. In िाण््यब्रा ण (25.10.6), it is clearly mentioned that सरस्विी became vanished in ‘षविशि’ and re-appeared in प्लक्ष-प्रस्रवण which indicates that सरस्विी has lost its bed within the sands of Thar desert in Rajasthan. This is one view.
From the ऋग्वेद it is observed that Vedic civilization was established in the area of सप्तभसन्ि ु and there were four seas around. The मन्र (X.136.5) of ऋग्वेद describes that there were two seas in the east and west of सप्तभसन्ि.ु Another two मन्रs describe that there were four seas.
1- रतयःसमद्रु ॉितुरोsस्मभ्य車 सोम ववश्वतः। (IX.33.6ﴃआ पवस्व सहमिणः।। (ऋग्वेद
Here the सोम is eulogised to bring the wealth related to the four seas and to grant our thousand wishes.
(X.47.2ﴃस्वतयधु 車 स्ववस車 सनु ीथ車 ितःु समद्रु 車 ध셁ण車 रयीणतम।् । (ऋग्वेद - 1
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Due to great changes in the geography within these thousands of years, we now see this land Bhārata today. At that time, it was a land which had seas in its four directions, where the Vedic civilization had grown up. In those days, the Gangetic plains, the areas near the foot of mountains Himalayas and the mountain places of Assam were underneath the sea.In a later period, some of the rivers originating from the Himalayas , runs to fall in the sea of X.75). At) ﴃeast. A very little description of the Ganges is found in ऋग्वेद that time there was sea water in the east and south of प祍िाव area; therefore, the land of South India seems to be a separate one. North India was a severely cold area. A reference is there in the ऋग्वेद where the name I.64.14/ II.1.2/ VI.10.7). These geographicalﴃof the year is हहम (ऋग्वेद descriptions indicate the Pleistocene or pre-Pleistocene era. It might be of 50,000 B. C. to 25,000 B.C. The geologists have accepted it that because of the geographical change in the Rajputana area and because of the changes in the Himalayan region, the climate of North India picked warmth. The Rajputana sea and the glaciers became disappeared. Due to lack of rains gradually the bed of सरस्विी river dried up and vanished under the sand bed of Rajputana desert.
According to these geographical and geological changes the composition of ऋग्वेद may be of 25,000 B. C. Dr. Avinash Chandra Das has proved this in his book 'Rgvedic India’.
(9) According to Pt. Dinanath Shastri Chulet
Pandit Dinanath Shastri Chulet has calculated the time of the वेदs on the He has tried to prove the .’ﴃbasis of 煍योनिषम ् in his book ‘वेदकालनिणथय time of वेदs in a very remote past, i.e. three lakh years back. " These two above proofs of Indians are opposed by the western scholars. Among all the
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above discussions, the view of Bal Gangadhar Tilak seems more logical in arguments.
1.4.3 ARRANGEMENT OF RGVEDA
'The whole text of ऋग्वेद is organized in ten ‘books - ﴃमण्डलक्रम (10मण्डलs) of varying age and length. So that in Nirukta etc. RV is designated as दशतयी. The text clearly originates as oral literature; so the English translation of मण्डलs as ‘book’ may be a misleading term. The individual मण्डलs are collections of hymns that were intended to be memorised by the members of various groups of priests.
The western scholars have named मण्डलs 2 to 7 as 'family books’ which .It accounts 38 percent of the entire text .ﴃform the oldest part of the ऋग्वेद They are called’ family books’ because each of them is attributed to an individual ऋषष and was transmitted within the lineage of the same ऋषषs' family or of his students.The hymns within each of the मण्डलs are arranged in collections of the स啍ू s dealing with a particular deity (देविा). For example - The first मण्डल deals with अच्ग्िस啍ू s, the second मण्डल deals with इन्रस啍ू s. The second to seventh मण्डलs have a uniform format.
The eighth and ninth मण्डलs, comprising स啍ू s of mixed age, account for 15 percent and 09 percent respectively. The ninth मण्डल is entirely dedicated Therefore, it is known as ‘पवमािमण्डलम’.् The first .ﴃand सोमयज्ञ ﴃto सोम and the tenth मणडलs are the youngest and they are also the longest मण्डलs.
They have 191 स啍ू s each accounting for 37 percent of the text. Nevertheless, some of the स啍ू s in मण्डलs eight, one and ten may still
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belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the text in the family books. The first मण्डल has a unique arrangement not found in the other nine
मण्डलs. The first 84 स啍ू s of the tenth मण्डल from have a structure different the remaining स啍ू s in it. Each मण्डल consists of स啍ू s or hymns (स+ु उ啍, literally ‘well recited or eulogized') intended for various rituals. The स啍ू s in turn consist of individual stanzas called ऋक् which are further analysed into units of verse called पाद (foot or step).The छन्दs (metres) most used in the
स啍ू s are िायरी (03 पादs of 08 letters each), अि ु ु प ् (04 पादs of 08 letters each), त्रर ु प ् (04पादs of 11 letters each) and जििी (04पादs 12 letters each). dominate in the ऋग्वेद. For (%25) ﴃand िायरीछन्द (%40) ्ﴃThe त्रर ु पछन्द pedagogical convenience, each मण्डल is divided into roughly equal sections of sever स啍ू s called अिवु ाक (recitation), which modern publishers often omit.
1.4.3 NUMBERS OF MANTRAS IN RGVEDA
There are 85 अिवु ाकs, 1017 स啍ू s, 11 वालणख쥍य-स啍ू s and 10580 and ¼ - Theस啍ू arrangement as per the मण्डलs is as follows .ﴃमन्रs in ऋग्वेद मण्डल 1 191 मण्डल 2 43 मण्डल 3 62 मण्डल 4 58 मण्डल 5 87 मण्डल 6 75 मण्डल 7 104
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मण्डल 8 92 मण्डल 9 114 मण्डल 10 191 11 बालणख쥍यस啍ू = 1028
These णखलस啍ू s are found in the eighth मण्डल starting from स啍ू 49 to 59 and there are 80 मन्रs.‘णखल’means appendix. In अिवु ाकािक्रु मणी (an auxiliary text) the total number of मन्रs is read as (+10580 & 1/4).
ऋित車 दश सहितणण ऋित車 प祍िशतततन ि। ऋितमशीततः पतदि पतरण車 स車प्रकीततातम।् । (अिवु ाकािक्रु मणी, 43)
as 1,53, 826 ﴃIt also describes the total number of words in ऋग्वेद
शतक쥍य饃ष्ेः पदलक्षमेक車 सतधं ि वेदे त्रत्रसहियक्तु म।् शतततन ितष्ौ दशकिय車 ि पदततन ष絍िेतत दह िगिातततन।। (अिवु ाकािक्रु मणी 45)
as it is depicted in अिवु ाकािक्रु मणी of ﴃThere are 4,32,000 letters in ऋग्वेद ﴃशिपर्ब्रा णम ् स ऋिो व्यौहि।् द्वादश वहृ िीसहस्राणण। एिावत्यौ िी । या . ﴃ। (श.ब्रा--X.4.2.2.23)There were also 36 letters in बहृ िीछन्दﴃप्रजापनिस ृ ा So , 12 (द्वादश) Nos. of Brhati is equal to 12x36= 432 again it is to be multiplied by 1,000 (सहस्राणण) = 4,32,000 or ित्वाररशिसहस्राणण
द्वात्ररंशचिाक्षरसहस्राणण।( last line of अिवु ाकािक्रु मणी)
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ﴃii) अ कक्रम) So, there are .ﴃThere are 08 अ कs and each अ क has 08 chapters in ऋग्वेद Each chapter is subdivided into विथs. Inविथsthere are .ﴃchapters in ऋग्वेद 64 मन्रs.ऋग्वेद has 2006 विथs. Sripada Damodara Satavallkar is a renouned vedic scholar. He has prerared a bhasya on the RV. He, quoting another famous vedic scholar Pandit Narayan Bhatta of Malvar , has cited an interesting sanskrit verse on the numbers of अ क, मण्डल, अिुवाक, वि,थ ऋक्, शब्द, अक्षर, etc. have been depicted like this-
जानन्नपि पिषा मोदं सयज्ञः िातना नरः । रसं पिन्नाय मांसदो नरस्तस्य जलापििः ।। which means – अ कं ------जािि ------8 मण्डलं ------अषप ------10 हद्वषा ------64 ------ﴃअध्याय
मोदं ------85 ------ﴃअिुवाक पा 1017ﴃसू啍ं ------सयज्ञ 2006 ----- ﴃििािार ------ﴃविथ ऋक् ------रसं भिन्िाय --- 10472 20875 ----- ﴃअिथिथ ------मांसादे िर 1,53,816 ---- ﴃिस्य जलागिप ------ﴃशब्द 3,94,221 ------ﴃअक्षर
The बालणख쥍य सू啍s are not counted here. If those are taken into account ( 11 Suktas , 80 ऋिा , 18 विथ and 3044 letters) then the total number comes as – 1028 सू啍s , 2024 विथs , 10552 ऋक्s and 3,97,265 letters.
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or मण्डल division ﴃAmong these two types of arrangements, the मण्डलक्रम is more significant, historical and scientific.
1.4.5 SUBJECT MATTER
मण्डल-01 comprises of 191 सक्श्िू s .1.1is addressed to अच्ग्िand his name is The remaining स啍ू s are mainly addressed to .ﴃthe first word of the ऋग्वेद ,उषा, सयू ,थ ऋििु ण ,ﴃअच्ग्ि and इन्र, as well as व셁ण, भमर, अच्श्विौ, म셁 ण 셁र, वाय,ु बहृ स्पनि, षववण,ु द्ावापगृ र्वीिर्ा all the deities. This मण्डल is dated to have been added to ऋग्वेद after मण्डल 2 through 9 and includes the
Philosophical Riddle Hymn (अश्ववामीयस啍ू म1् .164), which inspires chapters in later उपनिष饍 such as मण्डकु .
मण्डल-02 comprises of 43स啍ू s, mainly अच्ग्ि and इन्र. Itis chiefly attributed to the ऋषषित्ृ समदशौिहोर.
.ﴃमण्डल-03 comprises of 62 स啍ू s, mainly toअच्ग्ि andइन्र and toषवश्वदेवा Theverse-III. 62.10 has great importance in Hinduism as the िायरीमन्र.
Most स啍ू s in this book are attributedtoषवश्वाभमर-िागर्ि.
मण्डल -04 comprises of 58 स啍ू s, mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र as well as the ऋििु णs, अच्श्विौ, बहृ स्पनि, वाय,ु उषा etc.. Most स啍ू s in this book are attributed to वामदेव-िौिम.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 26
,ﴃमण्डल-05 comprises of 87 स啍ू s mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र, षवश्वदेवा the twin deitiesभमराव셁णौand अच्श्विौ. Two स啍ू s each are dedicated ,ﴃम셁 ण to उषा and to सषविा. Most स啍ू s in this book are attributed to the अत्ररclan.
्,पषू ि ,ﴃमण्डल-06 comprises 75 स啍ू s,mainly to अच्ग्ि and इन्र, षवश्वदेवा अच्श्विौ, उषाetc. Most स啍ू s in this मण्डल are attributed to िरद्वाज, the बाहथस्पत्य family ofअ敍गिरसs.
,ﴃमण्डल-07 comprises 104 स啍ू s, mainly to अच्ग्ि, इन्र, षवश्वदेवा two each , ुﴃवाय ,ﴃभमराव셁णौ, अच्श्विौ, उषा, इन्रव셁णौ, व셁ण,ﴃम셁 ण and toﴃtoसरस्विी (ancient river and the deity of speech) and षववणु .ﴃothers.Most off the सू啍s in thisमण्डलare attributed to वभश
मण्डल-08 comprises 103 स啍ू s to various gods. स啍ू s 8/49 to 8/59are the apocryphal (बालणख쥍यs). स啍ू s 1/48 and 60- 66are attributed to the काण्व clan.The rest to अ敍गिरस poet.
.ﴃमण्डल -09 comprises 114 स啍ू s, entirely devoted to सोमपवमाि
मण्डल-10 comprises 191 स啍ू s, frequently in later language, addressed to अच्ग्ि, इन्र and various other deities. It contains the िदीस्िनु ि which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization. The प셁ु षस啍ू (X.90) is important in studies of Vedic sociology. The philosophical Hymns (दाशथनिक -स啍ू ानि (are found in this th 10 मण्डल only. There are Philosophical स啍ू s, namely प셁ु षसू啍म ् (X.9) ,
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हहरण्यििथस啍ू म ् (X.121), वाक्श्स啍ू म ् (X.125), िासदीयस啍ू म ् (X.129), िाववत्तृ म ् or अघमषणथ स啍ू म ् (X.190) which deal withmultiple speculations about the creation of the universe.
The ज्ञािस啍ू म ् (X.71) and the श्रद्धास啍ू म ् (X.151) are significant in dealing with intelligence and devotion respectively. The marriage hymns (षववाहस啍ू म-् X.85) and the death hymns (मत्ृ यसु 啍ू म ् -X.10-18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding ि ृ rituals.
In Rgveda Samhita the highest ऋक्श्मन्रs are found for the eulogization of Deefive 200 सू啍s are exclusively found in the name of and his eulogization is also found in 50 more सू啍s with other deities. The most eulogized deity of $eÝiJeso is Indra as 250 are exclusively meant for him. His eulogization is also found in 50 more megÊkeÀs with other deities. G oMececeC[ue The subject matters of (oeMee|vekeÀmeg efve) i) The philosophical Hymns 啍ा ii) oevemlegefleë iii) संवादसू啍 iv) लौकककसू啍 v) मिोवैज्ञानिकसू啍 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 28 i) The philosophical Hymns Heg© took their forms. All the four वेदs all the deities, all the animals of sacrificial help are created in this process. The space and parts of time are deschibed as the sacrificial objects in this symbolic sacrifice of creation. efnjC³eieYe&/ÒepeeHeeflemeg ced ($eÝiJesod : ÒepeeHeefle (b) 啍 x/121) - The met啍 x/121, in which is praised as the creator and preserves of the world and in the burnden of the song “Which god should we honour by sacrifice ?” Though the Heeo literally tronslates this, still the word keÀmcew is addressed to the named keÀ. The thought lies hidden that there is nothing in the pluratity of gods and that only one and the only one is the creator ÒepeeHeefle. Finally this scepticism has found its most powerful expression in the profound . veemeoer³emeg ced poem of creation, i.e 啍 . JeekedÀmeg ced/osJeermet ced ($eÝiJeso: JeekedÀ ye´ïeved (c) 啍 啍 x/125) - The self identification of with the and the feeling of all-pervadingness is described in this metÊkeÀ. The daughter of the $eÝef iJesoë (d) veemeoer³emeg啍ced (ऋ x/129) It begins with the description of the time before creation. The very begining word denies the existence of any thing before the creation, even the time and space. Only very timidly does the poet attempt to Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 29 give an answer to the question of the origin of the world. He imagines the situation before the creation as darkness shrouded by darkness. The creation begins with ‘tapas’ i.e. heat perhaps a kind of brooding-heat. Only one was there who is the consciousness breathing without the air (Deeveerle Jeeleb mJeOe³ee lesokeÀ ...). meg म ् The 啍 ends with question which has the answer in hidden ‘who knows the creator of this world and how does the creation come up ? He / That may know; if not, then who else knows’ which nobody knows the secret of this creation without the ccreator. YeeJeJe=Êeced / DeOece They call it Indra, Varana and Mitra, Agni, the beautiful-winged bird of the heaven i.e. Garuda, Many names to the only one give the poets, They call it Agni, Yama, Matarisva. ($eÝiJesoë I/164/46) These philosophical hyms build a bridge to the philosophical speculation of the उपनिषदs. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 30 (ii) oevemlegefle : õ A kind of intermediary role between religious and secular poetry are s the oevemlegefle. These are the songs of praising generosity, namely of princes and lords of sacrifices for whom the poems were composed. ($eÝiJeso There are about forty such meg啍s. Only one meg啍 : I/126) is wholly a oevemlegefleë . In all other cases it is usually only 3 to 5 मन्रs at the end of the meg oevemlegefleë. 啍 which contain the Some of them are victory - songs in which Fvê is praised. With the praise of God, the glorification of the king is connected. At the end, the singers praised for his long life who has presented him the cattle, horses and also beautiful women as slaves from the spoils of war. Very extensive sacrificied songs which are mostly addressed to Fvê were obriously composed for some specific occassions on the orders of a prince or a rich man and were sung at the time of sacrifice. Some verses are there in which the song of sacrifice is browsed for giving to the singer rich priestly rewards. The oevemlegefle undoubtedly refer to historical events or in any case to red happenings. Therefore, these are important.Another hywn of oevemlegefle ($eÝiJesoë x/117) also deserves to be mentioned because in it a quite strange and moralising note is struck that is not found any where else. meg The last stanza of this 啍 is an example of riddle-poetry which was very popular among ancient Indians as with other ancient folks. meceew ef®e×mleew ve meceb efJeefJeäë meceeleje ef®e meceb ogneles ~ न्ि ³ece³ees mecee Jeer³ee&efCe च्िन्ि %eeleer ef®elmevleew ve meceb He=Ceerleë ~~ ($eÝiJesoë x/117/9) Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 31 mecyeeomeg efve õ (iii) क्तत The dialogue-hymns of the $eÝiJeso are of frequent occurances in Indian literature. We find similar semi-epic and semi-dramatic poems, consisting chiefly or entirely of dialogues or conversations. The same ceneYeejleced, style is found in the in the परु ाणs and in Buddhist literature. These are aniant ballads of the same kind. The Rgvedic ballad poetry is the source for both epic and drama. These ancient सम्वादs or ballads were not always composed entirely in verse form, but sometimes introducing or a concluding story was told in prose and occcasionally the verses were linked together by short explanation in prose. The mecyeeo meg - 啍s are — ³ece³eceer - mecyeeomeg ced ($eÝiJesoë jeef$e (a) 啍 x/10) - An old myth on the origin of is meg ced supposed in this 啍 . Some western scholars are of the view that its the myth on the origin of the human beings from the first pair of twins. Yami seeks to seduce her brother in order that the human rece may go extinct. Yama rejects the tempting words of his sister. He pointed to the eternal laws that forbids the union of blood-relations. The dialogues are though and unalease are still full of dramatic power. Heg© -GJe&Meer-mecyeeo ced ($eÝiJesoë (b) रवा स啍ू x/95) mecyeeo ced Heg© -GJe&Meer-mecyeeo ced The most famous स啍ू is रवा स啍ू . This is a poem of 18 GJe&Meer Heg© stanzas, consisting of the dialogue between प셁ु रवा and . रवा is a (DeHedmeje mortal being and उवथशी is a celestial lady ). They stayed together in the earth for four years and after giving birth to a son, GJe&Meer Heg© disappeared as per the condition of contract. रवा went out in search of her in grief. He found her in a lake with other water nymphs. Then the dialogue starts. This ancient story of love of a mortal king for a daughter of the gods is also preserved else where in Indian literature. MeleHeLeye´eïeCeced Heg© GJe&Meer. The (xI/5/1) describes the saga of रवा and Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 32 The reunion of Heg©Kee with his beloved is not very clear either in $eÝiJesomebneflee or MeleHeLeye´eïeCecedin . It appears that he changes into a ievOeJe& and reaches heaven where he experiences the happiness of reunion. The story is shortly hinted in keÀeþkeÀmebefnlee, in the nefjJeMeb, an appendix to the ceneYeejleced, in the efJe mejceeHeefCe-mecyeeomeg ced ($eÝiJesoë (c) 啍 x/108) Fvê This स啍ू is a dialogue between the messanger of named mejcee and , पणणs the misers. The पणणs are the evil charactors who had stolen the Fvê. cows or the rays or the glory of The mejcee, the dog messanger has approached them to return back the cow, being sent by Fvê. On this Fvê base, the dialogues go on. have defeated the पणणs and taken back the cows and glories at the end. efJeéeeefce$e-veoer-mecyeeomeg ced ($eÝiJesoë (d) 啍 III/33) — $eÝef So many dialogues are found in the depiction of स啍ू s though not the whole स啍ू . Some scholars enumerate them as 20. Besides, the mecyeeo ueewefkeÀkeÀ स啍ू स啍ू s are there which deal with very worldly behaviours and actions etc. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 33 (e) Wordly Hymns (लौकककसूक्तततन) Eventhough everybody knows that the Atharva Veda is famous for accommodating the hymns related to wordly affairs more , still there are such types of hymns available in Rgveda also . In 10.163 of Rgveda the scientific description of the different limbs of human body and the remedies for the diseases like T.B. etc. are available. In 10.161 the description of the returning back of a dying person from the death is also available. Equally in 10.162 which is called as रक्षोहा सू啍, so many description related to the demons who are the dangerious obstacles for the noble deeds and the ways of their removal also are available. In 10.145 there is a mantra where a wife prays to protect her husband from the co-wives. इमां खिाम्योषगि ं वी셁ि ं बलवत्तमम ् । यया सपत्ीं बििे यया संषवदिे पनिम ् ।। ( RV. 10.145) Another example can be taken where there is the prayer to dispell the enimies away (10.166) ऋषिं मां समािािां सपत्ािां षवषासहहम ् । हन्िारं शरणु ां कृ गि षवराजं िोपनि ं िवाम ् ।। In RV (10.58) there is another interesting सू啍 which can arrect the mind which is flying for away due to its fickleness. This sukta is called as and its presiding deity is , मि आविथि . The last (12no.) mantra is – यत्ते िूिं ि िव्यं ि मिो जिाम दरू कम ् । ित्त आ विथयामसीह क्षयाय जीवसे ।। In R.V there is a hymn known as ओषगिसू啍 (10.97).The classification of plants and trees are made from the Ayurvedic point of view. For example – । ﴃफभलिीयाथ अफला अपुवपा याि पुच्वपणी ﴃया Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 34 ।। ﴃबहृ स्पनि-प्रसूिास्िा िो मुिन्त्वंहस Another two सू啍s can be quoted here , where the subjects of a kingdom pray their king (RV.10.173 & 174) । ﴃध्रवु ं िे राजा व셁णो ध्रवु ं देवो बहृ स्पनि ध्रवु ं ि इन्रिाच्ग्िि राष्ट्रं िारयिां ध्रवु म ् । (RV.10.173.5) सषविाभि सोमो अवीविृ ि ् । ﴃअभि त्वा देव अभि त्वा षवश्वा िूिान्यभिविो यर्ासभस ।। (RV.10.174.3) In this way so many story references in connection with the ordinary worldly transactions are there in different hymns . Hence , one can not disqualify the R.V to be only a fashion for the elevated souls and the general public can not be gained by going it through . 1.4.6 Family Books (JebMeceC[ueced)- The text is organized in ten ‘books’ or मण्डलs or varying age and lenght. The text clearly originates as oral literature and ‘books’ may be a misleading term. The individual मण्डलs are much rather, stand alone as collections of hymns that were intended to be memorized by the members of various groups of priests. nd th This is particularly true for the ‘family bocks’ From 2 to 7 मण्डल, which form the oldest part of the $eÝiJesoë and account 38% of the entire text, are called ‘family books’; because each of them is attributed to an $eÝef The name of the ऋषषs are mentioned partly in the ब्रा णs and partly in the independent list of the authors (Dee Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 35 ie= ceoë ceC[ueced त्सस - 2nd efJeéeeefce$eë - 3rd ceC[ueced JeeceosJeë ceC[ueced JebMece ueced - 4th ण्ड Deef$eë - 5th ceC[ueced YejÜepeë - 6th ceC[ueced JeefMeä - 7th ceC[ueced The 8th ceC[ueced contains hymns that are attributed to the entire family of Deef²jme Deveg ce the कण्वs and that of the . The क्र पीs give us the names of the ऋषषs of every single hymn of the remaining books or मण्डलs (I, IX, X). It is noteworthy that among them, there are women seers also. 1.4.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF RGVEDA s The Jeso as a whole are classed as Þegefleë in Hindu tradition. This has been compared to the concept of divine revelation in western religious tradition. Þegefleë simply means “that what is heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from teacher to pupil from $eÝiJesomebefnlee generation”. The or other वेदs do not assent anywhere that they DeHeew© ³e are षे and this revential term appears oly centuries after the end of the vedic period in the texts of the ceerceebmee school of Hindu philosophy. By the period of Puranic Hinduism, in the medieval period, the language of the hymns had been almost entirely unintelligible and their interpretation mustly hinged of mystical ideas and sound symbolism.A number of commentaries are found upon the text. ³eemkeÀ was an early commentator of the ऋग्वेद and became famous by discussing the difficult words. mee³eCeë wrote an exhaustive commentary on it in 14th century. Commentaries are also found of mkeÀvetmJeeceer (pre- mee³eCeë, roughly of mee³eCeë), Jes¹ìceeOeJeë mee³eCeë the Gupta Period), GoieerLeë (pre- of (pre- , 10th to 12th Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 36 mee³eCeë, mee³eCe centry A.D.) and cegodieue (after an abbrevoated version of commentry.) 1.5. MODEL QUESTIONS. Group - A - 01 mark questions (answer in one word / one sentence). 1. $eÝiJeso keÀefle ceC[ueeefve meefvle ? 2. $eÝiJesom³e cev$emebK³ee ...... ~ 3. veemeoer³e m³e ceC[uemebK³ee ceC[uem³e $eÝef Group - B - 05 marks questions (short type) to be answered in 50 words. keÀeefve keÀeefve ceC[ueeefve JebMe ce ueeefve ? $eÝ Group - C - 10 marks questions (medium type) to be answered in 200 words. 1. $eÝiJesom³e efJeYeepeveb keÀefleefJeOeced ? meefJe Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 37 3. $eÝiJesom³e mecyeeo veeb efJeJejCeb सूक्तत दत्त्वत महत्त्व車 प्रततपतदयत । . $eÝiJesos ueewefkeÀkeÀ veeb efJeJejCeb ÒeoÊe ~ ४ सूक्तत Group - D - 15 marks (essay type) question to be answered in 250 words. 1. $eÝiJesom³e oeMe&efvekeÀ veeceJee&®eervelJeb ÒeefleHeeo³ele ~ सूक्तत 2. $eÝiJesom³e efJe 1.5 Further Readings सहायकग्रꅍाः 1. वपै दकसापहत्यऔरसस्कं ृ पत, आचायबय लदवे उिाध्याय, शारदासंस्थान, 37 बी., रवीन्द्रिरु ी, 饁셍ाकय ु赍ड, वाराणसी 221005 । 2. वपै दकवाङ्मयस्यपे तहासः, आचायजय 셍दीशचन्द्रपमश्रः, चौखम्बासरु िारतीप्रकाशन, वाराणसी। 3. वपै दकसापहत्यऔरसस्कं ृ पत, वाचस्पपत셍रै ोला, चौखम्बासस्कं ृ तप्रपतष्ठान, 38 य.ू ए.,जवाहरन셍र, बं셍ालोरोड, पदल्ली 110007 । 4. वदे िपरचय, कृ ष्णलाल, पहन्दीमाध्यमकायान्वय यपनदशे ालय, पदल्लीपवश्वपवद्यालय, ई.ए./6, मडले टाउन, पदल्ली 110 009 । 5. A History of Indian Literature, ed. by Jan Gonda, Vol.I, Fasc. 1, Vedic Literature [Fasc. 1 : J. Gonda – Vedic Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 38 Literature P. Rolland – Ritual Sūtras J. Varenne – Upaniṣads] Originally published at Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, Germany. 6. “Vedic Literature” (Occasional Paper), Kireet Joshi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, New Delhi. 7. वदे काअर् य (Meaning of the Veda) [both in Hindi and English], Jagannath Vedalankar, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, New Delhi. 8. Vedic Mythology, A. A. Macdonell, MLBD, Delhi. 9. वपै दकमाइर्ौलोजी (वपै दकिरु ाकर्ाशास्त्र), पहन्दीअनवु ादक –रामकुमारराय, चौखम्बापवद्यािवन, वाराणसी 221001 । 10. Vedic Mythology, Vol. I & II, Alfred Hilebrandt, (Eng.) S. Rajeswar Sharma, MLBD, Delhi. 11. Rgvedic Legends through Ages, H. L. Hariyappa, Deccan C ollege, Poona. 12. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, M. Winternitz, (Eng. Trans.) V. Srinivasa Sarma, MLBD, Delhi. 13. A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature (Brāhmaṇa Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 39 and Āraṇayaka Works), Satya Shrava, Pranava Prakashan, 1/28, Panjabi Bagh, New Delhi 110026. 14. वपै दकवाङ्ममयकाइपतहास (तीनिा셍), िसं त्यश्रवा। 15. िारतवषकय ाबहृ दइ् पतहास (प्रर्मतर्ापितीयिा셍), सिं ादक – सत्यश्रवा, प्रणवप्रकाशन, मकानन ं 1, मा셍 य 28, िवू ीिजं ाबीबा셍, नईपदल्ली 110026 । 16. अमतृ सन्दोह (सम्पापदतिस्तु क), मानपसहं , पनमलय िपिकेशन, पदल्ली 110094 । 17. कल्याण-वदे -कर्ाङ्क, 셍ीताप्रसे , 셍ोरखिरु । 18. वपै दकसपं हताओमं ᴂनारी, डा. मालतीशमा,य सम्पणू ानय न्दसस्कं ृ तपवश्वपवद्यालय, वाराणसी। 19. Vedic Heritage, Ram Gopal, Spellbound Publications Pvt. Ltd., 177/28, Medical Mor, Model Town, Rohtak, Haryana 124001. 20. The Vedic Language and Exegesis, Ram Gopal, Spellbound Publications Pvt. Ltd., 177/28, Medical Mor, Model Town, Rohtak, Haryana 124001. 21. The Religion of the Ṛgveda, H. D. Grisworld, MLBD, 41 U. A., Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110007. 22. The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upaniṣads (Vol. 31 & 32), A. B. Keith, MLBD, Delhi. 23. The Rig Veda and the History of India (Rig Veda Bharata Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 40 Itihas), David Frawley (Vamadeva Shastri), Aditya Prakashan, 2/18, Ansari Road, New Delhi 110002. 24. Vedic Symbolism, Prof. Satya Prakash Singh, Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 36, Tugalakabad Institutional Area, New Delhi 110062. 25. Vedic Studies in India and Abroad, Chief Editor – Prof. Sriniwas Rath, Editor – Prof. Vachaspati Upadhyaya, Maharshi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, Ujjain. 26. Vedas: Traditional and Modern Perspectives, ed. by V. Kameswari, The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Mylapore, Chennai 600004. 27. The Wonder that was India, A. L. Basham, Picador, London, printed in India by Replika Press Pvt. Ltd., Delhi. 28 ବ ୈଦିକସାହି鍍ୟ ଓ ସଂସ୍କୃ鍍ି, ଡଃଅଭିନ୍ନଚନ୍ଦ୍ରଦାଶ, ଗ୍ର ମ ିର, ିବ ାଦ ିହାରୀ, କଟକ । Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 41 UNIT II: YAJURVEDA 2.1. Learning Objectives. 2.2. Introduction on Yajurveda. 2.3. Yajus: Definition &Meaning. 2.3.1. Date of composition. 2.3.2. Arrangement & Number of Mantras. 2.4. A – Recensions. B - Sukla-Yajurveda. C – Krsna-Yajurveda. D – Organization. 2.4. Subject matter of Yajurveda. 2.5. Significance of Yajurveda. 2.6. Model Question. 2.6.1 अहतदीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 2.6.2. दीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 2.6.3. संहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 2.6.4. अहतसंहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 2.7. Further Reading. 2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about- The definition & meaning of the word ‘Yajus’. The Date, Arrangement & Recensions of Yajurveda. The Divisions & Subject Matter of Yajurveda. The Significance of Yajurveda. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 42 2.2 INTRODUCTION ON YAJURVEDA The Yajurveda (yajurveda, from yaj meaning "worship") is the Veda primarily of mantras in prosaic for worship form rituals. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were pronounced by a priest while an individual performes ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of the scriptures of Hinduism.The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is unknown, and estimated by scholars to be around 1200 to 1000 BC, contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda. The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the "black" or "dark" (Krishna) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" (Shukla) Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda. According to some scholars the portion of YU written prosaic form is called as कृ वणयजुवेद. They says that िद्त्वं हह यजुवेदस्य कृ वणत्वम ् । Because at that time a composition different from the poetic form was not generally accepted as a good sign. The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times. The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda Samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda. The middle layer includes the Satapatha Brahmana, one of the largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection.[8] The youngest layer of Yajurveda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Indian philosophy. These include the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, the Isa Upanisad, the Taittiriya Upanisad, the Katha Upanisad, the Svetasvatara Upanisad and the Maitri Upanisad. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 43 2.3 Yajus: Definition and Meaning Yajurveda is a compound Sanskrit word, composed of yajus (यजुस)् and veda (वेद). Monier-Williams translates yajus as "religious reverence, veneration, worship, sacrifice, a sacrificial prayer, formula, particularly mantras muttered in a peculiar manner at a sacrifice". Veda means "knowledge". Johnson states yajus means "(mostly) prose formulae or mantras, contained in the Yajur Veda, which are muttered". Michael Witzel interprets Yajurveda to mean a "knowledge text of prose mantras" used in Vedic rituals. Ralph Griffith interprets the name to mean "knowledge of sacrifice or sacrificial texts and formulas". Carl Olson states that Yajurveda is a text of "mantras (sacred formulas) that are repeated and used in rituals". 2.3.1 Date of Composition The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - younger than the Rgveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda. The scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, c. 1200 or 1000 BC, corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom. The Vedas are notoriously hard to date accurately as they are compilations and were traditionally preserved through oral tradition leaving virtually no archaeological evidence. Scholars such as Georg Feuerstein and others suggest that the dates given to most of these texts is far too late. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 44 2.3.2 Arrangement and number of Mantras 2.4 A - Recensions The Yajurveda text includes Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16 recensions are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions. Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly the same, except for a few differences. In contrast to Sukla Yajurveda, the four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions. B- Shukla Yajurveda The Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The name Vajasaneyi is derived from Vajasaneya, patronymic of sage Yajnavalkya, and the founder of the Vajasaneyi branch. There are two (nearly identical) surviving recensions of the Vajasaneyi Samhita (VS): Vajasaneyi Madhyandina and Vajasaneyi Kanva. The lost recensions of White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India, include Jabala, Baudhya, Sapeyi, Tapaniya, Kapola, Paundravatsa, Avati,P aramavatika, Parasara, Vaineya, Vaidheya, Katyayana and Vaijayavapa. Recensions of the White Yajurveda Recension Anuvak No.of Adhyayas Regional presence Name as Verses Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Madhyandina 40 303 1975 Gujarat, North India Maharashtra,Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Kanva 40 328 2086 Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 45 C- Krishna Yajurveda There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittirīya saṃhitā, Maitrayani saṃhitā, Kaṭha saṃhitā and Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā. A total of eighty six recensions are mentioned to exist in Vayu Purana, however vast majority of them are believed to be lost. The Katha schoolis referred to as a sub-school of Carakas (wanderers) in some ancient texts of India, because they did their scholarship as they wandered from place to place. Recensions of the Black Yajurveda Recension No. of Sub- No. of Regional Kanda Prapathaka Name recensions Mantras presence Taittiriya 2 7 42 South India Western Maitrayani 6 4 54 India Kashmir, Kāṭhaka 12 5 40 3093 North India, (Caraka) East India Haryana, Kapiṣṭhala 5 6 48 Rajasthan The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the Taittirīya saṃhitā. Some attribute it to Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska and mentioned by Panini. The text is associated with the Taittiriya school of the Yajurveda, and attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally, partridge birds). The Maitrayani saṃhitā is the oldest Yajurveda Samhita that has survived, and it differs largely in content from the Taittiriyas, as well as in some different arrangement of chapters, but is much more detailed. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 46 The Kāṭhaka saṃhitā or the Caraka-Kaṭha saṃhitā, according to tradition was compiled by Katha, a disciple of Vaisampayana. Like the Maitrayani Samhita, it offers much more detailed discussion of some rituals than the younger Taittiriya samhita that frequently summarizes such accounts. The Kapiṣṭhala saṃhitā or theKapiṣṭhala-Kaṭha saṃhitā, named after the sage Kapisthala is extant only in some large fragments and edited without accent marks. This text is practically a variant of the Kāṭhaka saṃhitā. D- Organization Eachregional edition (recension) of Yajurveda had Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyakas, Upanisads as part of the text, with Srautasutras, Grhyasutras and Pratisakhya attached to the text. In Sukla Yajurveda, the text organization is same for both Madhayndina and Kanva shakhas. The texts attached to Sukla Yajurveda include the Katyayana Shrautasutra, Paraskara Grhyasutra and Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya. In Krishna Yajurveda, each of the recensions has or had their Brahmana text mixed into the Samhita text, thus creating a motley of the prose and verses, and making it unclear, disorganized. 2.4 SUBJECT MATTER OF YAJURVEDA The Vajasaneyi Samhita has forty chapters or adhyayas, containing the formulas used with the following rituals: Chapter Ritual Name Days Nature of Ritual No. 1-2 Darsapurnamasa 2 Offering cow milk to fire. Separating Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 47 (Full and new calves from the cows. moon rituals) Offer butter and milk to fire. 3 Agnihotra 1 Welcome three chief seasons: Spring, Rains and Autumn. Taking Bath in river. Offering milk and soma to fire. Offerings to deities 4-8 Somayajna of thought, speech. Prayer to Vishnu to harm no crop, guard the cattle, expel demons. Cup of Victory, Installation of a Vajapeya and 9-10 King. Offering of butter and Sura (a Rajasuya kind of beer or wine) to fire. Formulas and rituals for building altars and hearths for Agni yajna, 11-18 Agnicayana 360 with largest in the shape of outspread eagle or falcon. Offerings of Masara (rice-barley liquor plus boiled millet) to fire. Expiate evil indulgences in soma- 19-21 Sautramani drinking. For dethroned king, for soldiers going to war for victory, for regulars to acquire cattle and wealth. Only by King. A horse is released, followed by armed soldiers, where in anyone who stops or harms the 180 wandering horse is declared enemy 22-25 Ashvamedha or of state. The horse is returned to the 360 capital and is ceremoniously slaughtered by the soldiers. Eulogy to the departed horse. Prayers to deities. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 48 Supplementary formulas for above 26-29 sacrifices Symbolic sacrifice of Purusha (Cosmic Man). Nominal victim played the part, but released uninjured after the ceremony, 30-31 Purusamedha according to Max Muller and others. A substitute for Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The ritual plays out the cosmic creation. Stated to be more important than Purushamedha above. This ritual is a sacrifice for Universal Success and Prosperity. Ritual for 32-34 Sarvamedha 10 one to be wished well, or someone leaving the home, particularly for solitude and moksha, who is offered "curd and ghee (clarified butter)". Ritual funeral-related formulas 35 Pitriyajna for cremation. Sacrifice to the Fathers and Ancestors. According to Griffith, the ritual is for long life, unimpaired faculties, health, strength, prosperity, security, 36-39 Pravargya tranquillity and contentment. Offerings of cow milk and grains to yajna fire. This chapter is not sacrifice which is ritual-related. It is Isha Upanishad, a philosophical treatise about inner 40 Self (Atman, Soul). The verse 40.6 states, "The man who in his Self beholds all creatures and all things Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 49 that be, And in all beings sees his own Self, then he doubts no longer, ponders not. The various ritual related mantras in the Yajurveda Samhita are typically set in a meter, and call on Vedic deities such as the Savita (Sun), Indra, Agni, Prajapati, Rudra and others. The Taittiriya Samhita in Book 4, for example, includes the following verses for the Agnicayana ritual recitation (abridged),[50]First harnessing the mind, Savita; creating thoughts and perceiving light, brought Agni from the earth. Harnessing the gods with mind; they who go with thought to the sky, to heaven, Savita instigates those who will make great light. With the mind harnessed, we are instigated by god Savita, for strength to goto heaven.Whose journey the other gods follow, praising the power of the god, who measured the radiant regions of the earth, he is the great god Savita.God Savita, impels the ritual, impels for good fortune the lord of ritual !Divine Gandharva, purifier of thought, purifies our thoughts ! May the lord of speech make our words sweet ! God Savita, impel for us this ritual, Honoring the gods, gaining friends, always victorious, winning wealth, winning heaven ! — Taittiriya Samhita 4.1.1, Translated by Frits Staal 2.5 Importance / Significance of Yajurveda The text is a useful source of information about the agriculture, economic and social life during the Vedic era. The verses, for example, list the types of crops considered important in ancient India. May my plants and my barley, and my beans and my sesame, and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and my sorghum and my wild rice, prosper by sacrifice. — White Yajurveda 18.12 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 50 2.6. MODEL QUESTION: । 15X2 ﴃअनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना 2.6.1 1. यजुवेदस्य षविाजिस्य सषवस्िरं पररियं दत्त । 2. ‘िद्त्वं हह यजुवदथ स्य कृ वणत्वम’् – अस्य आशयं स्प ीकु 셁ि । 3. यजुवेदस्य कालं षववेियि । । X10 4 ﴃदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .2.6.2 1. यजुवेदस्य संस्करणािां षववरणं भलखि । 2. यजुवेदस्य महत्वं प्रनिपादयि । 3. यजुवेदस्य प्रनिपाद्ं षवषयमालोियि । 4. यजुवेदीय-यज्ञािां स्व셂पं महत्व祍ि वणथयि । 5. यजुवेदस्य िठिप्रकारमालोियि । । X05 4 ﴃसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .2.6.3 ? यजुष’्-शब्दस्य कमर्ं प्रददानि‘ ﴃमोनिअर ् षवभलयम्स?् स ﴃक .1 पररियं प्रदत्त । ﴃवाजसिेयी-संहहिाया .2 3. यजुवेदीयािां यज्ञािां िामानि भलखि । 4. यजुवेदस्य शाखािां पररियं दत्त । पररियं देयम ् । ﴃमैरायणी-संहहिाया .5 6. यजुवेदीयािां ब्रा णग्रन्र्ािां वणिथ ं कु 셁ि । पररियं दत्त । ﴃकृ वणयजुवेदीय-उपनिषद .7 8. वेदेषु यजुवेदस्य वैभशष्ट्यं ककम?् । X02 5 ﴃअनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .2.6.4 1. ‘यजुष’्-शब्दस्य निविथ िं कु 셁ि । 2. यजुवेदस्य आिुमानिक-रििाकालं सूियि । 3. यजुवेदे उच्쥍लणखिािां मन्राणां संख्यां निहदथशि । ?ﴃकृ वण-शुक्श्ल-वणथिाम्िा िाभमि ﴃकर् ं यजुवेद .4 5. यजुवेद-मन्रषे ु के षां शस्यािां िामानि प्रदत्तानि? Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 51 6. सवमथ ेिस-् यज्ञस्य वैभशष्ट्यं ककम?् 7. सोमयज्ञे ककं कक्रयिे? ?मेध्यिे ﴃपु셁षमेि-यज्ञे ककं पु셁ष .8 9. दशपौणमथ ासयज्ञे ककमिु ीयिे? 10. कृ वणयजुवेदस्य कनि संस्करणानि सच्न्ि? 2.7. FURTHER READING: 1. वपै दकसापहत्यऔरसस्कं ृ पत, वाचस्पपत셍ैरोला, चौखम्बासस्कं ृ तप्रपतष्ठान, 38 य.ू ए.,जवाहरन셍र, ब셍ं ालोरोड, पदल्ली 110007 । 2. वैपदकवाङ्ममयकाइपतहास (तीनिा셍), िसं त्यश्रवा। 3. Vedic Mythology, Vol. I & II, Alfred Hilebrandt, (Eng.) S. Rajeswar Sharma, MLBD, Delhi. 4. िारतवषकय ाबहृ दइ् पतहास (प्रर्मतर्ापितीयिा셍), सिं ादक – सत्यश्रवा, प्रणवप्रकाशन, मकानन ं 1, मा셍 य 28, िवू ीिजं ाबीबा셍, नईपदल्ली 110026 । Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 52 UNIT III: SAMAVEDA 3.1. Learning Objectives. 3.2. Introduction on Samaveda. 3.3. Saman: Definition, Meaning & Types. 3.4. Recensions of Samaveda. 3.5. Date, Arrangement and Number of Mantras: 3.5.1. Date of composition of Samaveda. 3.5.2. Arrangement of Samaveda. 3.5.3. Number of Mantras in Samaveda. 3.6. Subject-matter of Samaveda. 3.7. Indian Music and Samaveda. 3.8. Model Question. । ﴃअनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .3.8.1 । ﴃदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .3.8.2 । ﴃसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .3.8.3 । ﴃअनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .3.8.4 3.9. Further Reading. 3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about- The Definition, Meaning & Types of Samaveda. The different Recensions of Samaveda. The Arrangement & Contents of Samaveda. The contribution of Samaveda to Indian Music. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 53 3.2. INTRODUCTION ON SAMAVEDA The Samaveda (सामवेद, sāmaveda,from sāman "song"and veda "knowledg e"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text which consists of 1,549 verses. All but 75 verses have been taken from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda have survived, and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts of India. While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rgvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rgvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, c. 1200 or 1000 BCE, roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda. Embedded inside the Samaveda is the widely studied Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad, considered as primary Upanishads and as influential on the six schools of Indian philosophy, particularly the Vedanta school. The classical Indian music and dance tradition considers the chants and melodies in Samaveda as one of its roots. It is also referred to as Sama Veda. 3.3. SAMAN: DEFINITION, MEANING & TYPES The Samaveda is the Veda of Chants, or "storehouse of knowledge of chants". According to Frits Staal, it is "the Rigveda set to music". It is a fusion of older melodies (sāman) and the Rig verses. It has far fewer verses than Rigveda, but Samaveda is textually larger because it lists all the chant- and rituals-related score modifications of the verses. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 54 The Samaveda text contains notated melodies, and these are probably the world's oldest surviving ones. The musical notation is written usually immediately above, sometimes within, the line of Samaveda text, either in syllabic or a numerical form depending on the Samavedic Sakha (school). 3.4. RECENSIONS OF SAMAVEDA R. T. H. Griffith says that there are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda Samhita: The Kauthuma recension is current in Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and since a few decades in Darbhanga, Bihar, The Rāṇāyanīya in the Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gokarna, few parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and the Jaiminiya in the Karnatac, Tamil Nadu and Kerala 3.5. DATE, ARRANGEMENT AND NUMBER OF MANTRAS: 3.5.1. DATE OF COMPOSITION OF SAMAVEDA Michael Witzel states that there is no absolute dating for Samaveda and other Vedic texts. He estimates the composition of the Samhita layer of the text chronologically after the Rgveda, and in the likely range of 1200 to 1000 BCE, roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda. There were about a dozen styles of Samavedic chanting. Of the three surviving versions, the Jaiminiya preserves the oldest surviving tradition of Samavedic chanting. Manuscripts and translations The Kauthuma recension has been published (Samhita, Brahmana, Shrautasutra and ancillary Sutras, mainly by B.R. Sharma), parts of the Jaiminiya tradition remain unpublished. There is an edition of the first part of the Samhita by W. Caland and of the Brahmana by Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra, as well as the neglected Upanisad, but only parts of the Srautasutra. The song books remain unpublished. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 55 A German edition of Samaveda was published in 1848 by Theodor Benfey, and Satyavrata Samashrami published an edited Sanskrit version in 1873. An English translation was published by Ralph Griffith in 1893. A translation in Hindi by Mridul Kirti called "Samveda Ka Hindi Padyanuvad" has also been published recently. The Samaveda text has not received as much attention as the Rgveda, because outside of the musical novelty and melodic creativity, the substance of all but 75 verses of the text have predominantly been derived from the Rigveda. A study of Rigveda suffices. 3.5.2. ARRANGEMENT OF SAMAVEDA The Samaveda comprises two major parts. The first part include four melody collections (gāna, िाि) and the second part three verse "books" (ārcika, आगिथक). A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. The Gana collection is subdivided into Gramageya and Aranyageya, while the Arcika portion is subdivided into Purvarcika and Uttararcika portions. The Purvarcika portion of the text has 585 single stanza verses and is organized in order of deities, while Uttararcika text is ordered by rituals. The Gramageya melodies are those for public recitations, while Aranyageya melodies are for personal meditative use such as in the solitude of a forest. Typically, the Purvarcika collection were sung to melodies described in the Gramageya-Gānas index, and the rules of how the verses mapped to verses is described in the Sanskrit texts such as the Puspasutra. Just like Rgveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with Agni and Indra hymns but shift to abstract speculations and philosophy, and their metres too shifts in a descending order. The later sections of the Samaveda, states Witzel, have least deviation from substance of hymns they derive from Rgveda into songs. The purpose of Samaveda was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 56 The Samaveda, like other Vedas, contains several layers of text, with Samhita being the oldest and the Upanisads the youngest layer. 3.5.3. NUMBER OF MANTRAS IN SAMAVEDA Samaveda Vedic Brahmana Upanisads Shrauta Sutras School Kauthuma- Pancavimsa Chandogya Latyayana Ranayaniya Sadvimsa Upanishad Drahyayana Kena Upanisad Jaiminiya or Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Talavakara Upanishad The Samaveda consists of 1,549 unique verses, taken almost entirely from Rgveda, except for 75 verses. The largest number of verse come from Books 9 and 8 of the Rig Veda. Some of the Rgvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including these repetitions, there are a total of 1,875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith. 3.6 SUBJECT MATTER OF SAMAVEDA Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard. Staal states that the melodies likely existed before the verses in ancient India, and the words of the Rigveda verses were Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 57 mapped into those pre-existing melodies, because some early words fit and flow, while later words do not quite fit the melody in the same verse. The text uses creative structures, called Stobha, to help embellish, transform or play with the words so that they better fit into a desired musical harmony. Some verses add in meaningless sounds of a lullaby, for probably the same reason, remarks Staal. Thus the contents of the Samaveda represent a tradition and a creative synthesis of music, sounds, meaning and spirituality, the text was not entirely a sudden inspiration. The portion of the first song of Samaveda illustrates the link and mapping of Rgvedic verses into a melodic chant: अग्ि आ याहह वीिये – Rigveda 6.16.10 Agna ā yāhi vītaye Samaveda transformation (Jaiminiya manuscript): o gnā i / ā yā hi vā i / tā yā i tā yā i / Translation: O Agni, come to the feast. — Samaveda 1.1.1, Translated by Frits Staal 3.7 INDIAN MUSIC AND SAMAVEDA The Indian classical music and dance, states Guy Beck, is rooted in the sonic and musical dimensions of the Sama Veda, along with the Upanisads and Agamas. The Samaveda, in addition to singing and chanting, mentions instruments. The rules and suggestions for playing various instruments form a separate compilation, called the Gandharva-Veda, and this Upaveda is attached to the Samaveda. The structure and theory of chants in the Samaveda have inspired the organizing principle for Indian classical arts Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 58 and performances, and this root has been widely acknowledged by musicologists dealing with the history of Indian music. Our music tradition [Indian] in the North as well as in the South, remembers and cherishes its origin in the Samaveda... the musical version of the Rgveda. — V. Raghavan 3.8. MODEL QUESTION: 3.8.1. अहतदीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 15X2 1. सामवेदय वैहि ्यं प्रहतपादयत । 2. सामवेदय कालं हिर्णयत । 3. “The Rgveda set to music”- इहत के िोक्तम?् कथ祍चोक्तं ? -सप्रमार्मपु थापयत । 3.8.2. दीर्घोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 10X4 1. सामवेदय गठिप्रकारं हविदयत । 2. सामवेदय ब्राह्मर्ाहद-सिायकग्रन्थािां पररचयं दत्त । 3. सामवेदय संकरर्ािां िाखािा祍च हववरर्ं हलखत । 4. वेदषे ु सामवेदय थािं हि셂पयत । 5. ऋग्वेद-सामवेदयोः सा륍य ं वैष륍य祍च हवचारयत । 3.8.3. संहिप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रश्ाः । 05X4 1. रार्ायर्ीय-िाखा हकम?् 2. कः ग्रीहिथ?् तयािसु ारं सामवेदय कहत संकरर्ाहि सहन्त? 3. छान्दोग्योपहिषदः पररचयं दत्त । Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 59 4. ऋग्वेदीय-मन्त्रः सामवेदे कथं प्रय煍ु यते - एकेिोदािरर्ेि प्रकाियत । 5. कः Theodor Benfey (1809- 1881)? Ref: He wrote ‘The Hymns of Sama-Veda’, in 1848. 6. हकं ग्रा륍यगेयम?् हक祍च अरण्यगेयम?् 7. सामवेदय पाश्चात्य-अिवु ादकािां िामाहि हलखत। 8. लाटायि-श्रौतसत्रू ं हकम?् तय िाखा ं च सचू यत । 3.8.4. अहतसंहिप्तोत्तरमलू क-प्रश्ाः । 02X5 1. सामि-् ि녍दय अथं हलखत। 2. सामवेदे कहत संख्यकाः मन्त्राः सहन्त? 3. Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith (1826-1906) कहमन्वषण “Hymns of the Samaveda” पु तकं रहचतवाि?् Ans. – 1893. 4. सामवेदय परु ोहितय िाम हकम?् 5. आहचणकेत्यय कोSथणः? 6. कयां िाखायां प्राचीितमं सामगािं प्राꥍयते? 7. सामवेदे कहत संख्यकाः मन्त्राः मौहलका हत हन्त? 8. सामवेदे कहत अध्यायाः हवद्यन्ते? 9. याकय मतािसु त्ृ य ‘सामि’् ि녍दय अथं प्रकाियत । 10. ‘कौथमु े’हत ि녍देि हकं बध्ु यते ? Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 60 3.9. FURTHER READING: 1. वपै दकसापहत्यऔरसस्कं ृ पत, आचायबय लदवे उिाध्याय, शारदासस्थं ान, 37 बी., रवीन्द्रिरु ी, 饁셍ाकय ु赍ड, वाराणसी 221005 । 2. वदे िपरचय, कृ ष्णलाल, पहन्दीमाध्यमकायान्वय यपनदशे ालय, पदल्लीपवश्वपवद्यालय, ई.ए./6, मडले टाउन, पदल्ली 110 009 । Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 61 UNIT IV: ATHARVAVEDA 4.1. Learning Objectives. 4.2. Introduction on Atharva Veda. 4.2.1. Definition, Meaning & Types of Atharva Veda. 4.2.2. Date of composition. 4.2.3. Arrangement of Atharva Veda. 4.2.4. Recensions of Atharva Veda. 4.3. Subject-matter of Atharva Veda. 4.3.1. Surgical and Medical treatment. 4.3.2. Charms against fever, jaundice and other diseases. 4.3.3. Remedy by Medicinal Herbs. 4.3.4. Spells and prayers to gain love. 4.3.5. Speculations on the nature of man /life/good & evil. 4.3.6. The Wonderful structure of man. 4.3.7. Prayer for peace. 4.4. Manuscripts and Translations. 4.5. Indian Medicine, Magic & Atharva Veda. 4.6 Model Question. । ﴃअनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.1 । ﴃदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.2 । ﴃसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.3 । ﴃअनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.4 4.7. Further Reading. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 62 4.1 : LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this book learners can acquire the knowledge about - The Meaning of Atharva Veda. The Recensions, Arrangement and Types of Atharva Samhita. The Date of Atharva Veda. The Scientific Elements in the prayers of Atharva Veda. 4.2: INTRODUCTION ON ATHARVA VEDA The Atharva Veda (अर्वथवेद, Atharvaveda from atharvāṇas and veda, meaning "knowledge") is the "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the procedures for everyday life".The text is the fourth Veda, but has been a late addition to the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism. The Atharvaveda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and it is a collection of 730 with about 6,000 mantras, divided into 20 books. About a sixth of the Atharvaveda texts adpts verses from the Rgveda, and except for Books 15 and 16, the text is in poetic form deploying a diversity of Vedic matters. Two different recensions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into modern times. Reliable manuscripts of the Paippalada edition were believed to have been lost, but a well-preserved version was discovered among a collection of palm leaf manuscripts in Odisha in 1957. The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars. In contrast to the 'hieratic religion' of the other three Vedas, the Atharvaveda is said to represent a 'popular religion', incorporating not only formulas for magic, but also the daily rituals for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and the duties of the court priests are also included in the Atharvaveda. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 63 The Atharvaveda was likely compiled as a Veda contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, or about 1200 BC - 1000 BC. Along with the Samhita layer of text, the Atharvaveda includes a Brahmana text, and a final layer of the text that covers philosophical speculations. The latter layer of Atharvaveda text includes three primary Upanisads, influential to various schools of Indian philosophy. These include the Mundaka Upanisad, the Mandukya Upanisad and the Prashna Upanisad. 4.2.1 ATHARVAN : DEFINITION, MEANING AND TYPES The Veda may be named, states Monier Williams, after the mythical priest named Atharvan who was first to develop prayers to fire, offer Soma, and who composed "formulas and spells intended to counteract diseases and calamities". Monier Williams notes that the now obsolete term for fire used to be Athar. The name Atharvaveda, states Laurie Patton, is for the text being "Veda of the Atharvāṇas". The oldest name of the text, according to its own verse 10.7.20, was Atharvangirasah, a compound of "Atharvan" and "Angiras", both Vedic scholars. Each school called the text after itself, such as Saunakiya Samhita, meaning the "compiled text of Saunakiya".The "Atharvan" and "Angiras" names, states Maurice Bloomfield, imply different things, with the former considered auspicious while the latter implying hostile sorcery practices. Over time, the positive auspicious side came to be celebrated and the name Atharva Veda became widespread. The latter name Angiras which is linked to Agni and priests in the Vedas, states George Brown, may also be related to Indo-European Angirôs found in an Aramaic text from Nippur. Michael Witzel states Atharvan roots may be *atharwan or "[ancient] priest, sorcerer", with links to Avestan āθrauuan "priest" and Tocharian <*athr, "superior force".The Atharvaveda is also occasionally referred to as Bhrgvangirasah and Brahmaveda, after Bhrigu and Brahma respectively. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 64 4.2.2. DATE OF COMPOSITION The ancient Indian tradition initially recognized only three Vedas. The Rgveda, the verse 3.12.9.1 of Taittiriya Brahmana, the verse 5.32-33 of Aitareya Brahmana and other Vedic era texts mention only three Vedas. The acceptance of the Atharvanas hymns and traditional folk practices was slow, and it was accepted as another Veda much later than the first three, by both orthodox and heterodox traditions of Indian philosophies. The early Buddhist Nikaya texts, for example, do not recognize Atharvaveda as the fourth Veda, and make references to only three Vedas. Olson states that the ultimate acceptance of Atharvaveda as the fourth Veda probably came in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE. However, notes Max Muller, the hymns of Atharvaveda existed by the time Chandogya Upanishad was completed (~700 BCE), but were then referred to as "hymns of Atharvangirasah". Frits Staal states that the text may be a compilation of poetry and knowledge that developed in two different regions of ancient India, the Kuru region in northern India and the Pancalas region of eastern India. The former was home to Paippalāda, whose name was derived from the sacred fig tree named Pippala (षपप्पल). This school's compositions were in the Rgvedic style. The Pancalas region contributions came from composer- priests Angirasas and Bhargavas, whose style was unlike the metric Rgvedic composition, and their content included forms of medical sorcery. The Atharvaveda editions now known are a combination of their compositions. The core text of the Atharvaveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, during the 2nd millennium BC - younger than the Rgveda, and roughly contemporary with theYajurveda mantras, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda. There is no absolute dating of any Vedic text including the Atharvaveda. The dating for Atharvaveda is derived from the new metals and items mentioned therein; it, for example, mentions iron (as krsna ayas, literally "black metal"), and such mentions Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 65 have led the scholars to the estimate that the Atharvaveda hymns were compiled in the early Indian Iron Age, c. 1200 to 1000 BC, corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom. 4.2.3. ARRANGEMENT OF ATHARVA VEDA. The Atharvaveda is a collection of 20 books, with a total of 730 hymns of about 6,000 stanzas. The text is, state Patrick Olivelle and other scholars, a historical collection of beliefs and rituals addressing practical issues of daily life of the Vedic society, and it is not a liturgical Yajurveda-style collection. 4.2.4. RECENSIONS OF ATHARVA VEDA. The Caraṇavyuha, a later era Sanskrit text, states that the Atharvaveda had nine shakhas,schools: paippalāda, stauda, mauda, śaunakīya,jājala, jalada, brahmavada , devadarśa and cāraṇavaidyā. Of these, only the Shaunakiya recension, and the more recently discovered manuscripts of Paippalāda recension have survived. The Paippalāda edition is more ancient. The two recensions differ in how they are organized, as well as content. For example, the Book 10 of Paippalada recension is more detailed and observed carefully not doing a single mistake, more developed and more conspicuous in describing monism, the concept of "oneness of Brahman, all life forms and the world".The Atharvaveda Samhita originally was organized into 18 books (Kāṇḍas), and the last two were added later. These books are arranged neither by subject nor by authors (as is the case with the other Vedas), but by the length of the hymns. Each book generally has hymns of about a similar number of verses, and the surviving manuscripts label the book with the shortest hymns as Book 1, and then in an increasing order (a few manuscripts do the opposite). Most of the hymns are poetic and set to different metres, but about a sixth of the book is prose. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 66 Most of the hymns of Atharvaveda are unique to it, except for the one sixth of its hymns that it borrows from the Rgveda, primarily from its 10th mandala. The 19th book was a supplement of a similar nature, likely of new compositions and was added later. The 143 hymns of the 20th book of Atharvaveda Samhita is almost entirely borrowed from the Rgveda. The hymns of Atharvaveda cover a motley of topics, across its twenty books. Roughly, the first seven books focus primarily on magical poems for all sorts of healing and sorcery, and Michael Witzel states these are reminiscent of Germanic and Hittite sorcery stanzas, and may likely be the oldest section. Books 8 to 12 are speculations of a variety of topics, while Books 13 to 18 tend to be about life cycle rites of passage rituals. The Srautasutra texts, Vaitāna Sūtra and the Kauśika Sūtra are attached to the Atharvaveda Shaunaka edition, as are a supplement of Atharvan Prayascitthas, two Pratishakhyas, and a collection of Parisisthas. For the Paippalada edition of Atharvaveda, corresponding texts were Agastya and Paithinasi Sutras but these are lost or yet to be discovered. 4.3 SUBJECT MATTER OF ATHARVAVEDA The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas", an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars. The Samhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine. Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic and to theosophy. The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of the oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity". Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 67 The Atharvaveda Samhita contains hymns many of which were charms, magic spells and incantations meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf. The most frequent goal of these hymns charms and spells were long life of a loved one or recovery from some illness. In these cases, the affected would be given substances such as a plant (leaf, seed, root) and an amulet. Some magic spells were for soldiers going to war with the goal of defeating the enemy, others for anxious lovers seeking to remove rivals or to attract the lover who is less than interested, some for success at a sporting event, in economic activity, for bounty of cattle and crops, or removal of petty pest bothering a household. Some hymns were not about magic spells and charms, but prayer qua prayer and philosophical speculations. The contents of the Atharvaveda contrasts with the other Vedas. The 19th century Indologist Weber summarized the contrast as follows, The spirit of the two collections [Rgveda, Atharvaveda] is indeed widely different. In the Rgveda there breathes a lively natural feeling, a warm love for nature; while in the Atharva there prevails, on the contrary, only an anxious dread of her evil spirits and their magical powers. In the Rgveda we find the people in a state of free activity and independence; in the Atharva we see it bound in the fetters of the hierarchy and superstition. — Albrecht Weber Jan Gonda cautions that it would be incorrect to label Atharvaveda Samhita as mere compilation of magical formulas, witchcraft and sorcery. While such verses are indeed present in the Samhita layer, a significant portion of the Samhita text are hymns for domestic rituals without magic or spells, and some are theosophical speculations such as "all Vedic gods are One". Additionally, the non-Samhita layers of Atharvaveda text include a Brahmana and several influential Upanisads. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 68 4.3.1 SURGICAL AND MEDICAL TREATMENT The Atharvaveda includes mantras and verses for treating a variety of ailments. For example, the verses in hymn 4.15 of the recently discovered Paippalada version of the Atharvaveda, discuss how to deal with an open fracture, and how to wrap the wound with Rohini plant (Ficus Infectoria, Native to India) Let marrow be put together with marrow, and joint together with joint, together what of the flesh fallen apart, together sinew and together your bone. Let marrow come together with marrow, let bone grow over together with bone.We put together your sinew with sinew, let skin grow with skin. — Atharvaveda 4.15, Paippalada Edition 4.3.2 CHARMS AGAINST FEVER, JAUNDICE AND DISEASES Numerous hymns of the Atharvaveda are prayers and incantations wishing a child or loved one to get over some sickness and become healthy again, along with comforting the family members. The Vedic era assumption was that diseases are caused by evil spirits, external beings or demonic forces who enter the body of a victim to cause sickness. Hymn 5.21 of the Paippalāda edition of the text, for example, states, ‘Heaven our father, and Earth our mother, Agni the men-watcher, let them send the ten days fever far away from us. O fever, these snowy mountains with Soma on their back have made the wind, the messenger, the healer for us, Disappear from here to the Maratas. Neither the women desire you, nor the men whosoever, Neither a small one, nor a grown-up weeps here from desire of fever. Do not harm our grown-up men, do not harm our grown-up women, Do not harm our boys, do not harm our girls. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 69 You who simultaneously discharge the balasa, cough, udraja, terrible are your missiles,O fever, avoid us with them. — Atharvaveda 5.21, Paippalada Edition, Translated by Alexander Lubotsky 4.3.3 REMEDY FROM MEDICINAL HERBS Several hymns in the Atharvaveda such as hymn 8.7, just like the Rigveda's hymn 10.97, is a praise of medicinal herbs and plants, suggesting that speculations about the medical and health value of plants and herbs was an emerging field of knowledge in ancient India. The Atharvavedic hymn states (abridged), The tawny colored, and the pale, the variegated and the red, the dusky tinted, and the black – all Plants we summon hitherward. I speak to Healing Herbs spreading, and bushy, to creepers, and to those whose sheath is single, I call for thee the fibrous, and the reed like, and branching plants, dear to Visva Devas, powerful, giving life to men. The conquering strength, the power and might, which ye, victorious plantspossess, Therewith deliver this man here from this consumption, O ye Plants: so I prepare the remedy. — Atharvaveda 8.7, Shaunakiya Edition 4.3.4 SPELLS AND PRAYERS TO GAIN A LOVE The contents of Atharvaveda have been studied to glean information about the social and cultural mores in Vedic era of India. A number of verses relate to spells for gaining a husband, or a wife, or love of a woman, or to prevent any rivals from winning over one's "love interest".May O Agni !, a Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 70 suitor after our own heart come to us, may he come to this maiden with fortune! May she be agreeable to suitors, charming at festivals, promptly obtain happiness through a husband! As this comfortable cave, O Indra !, furnishing a safe abode hath become pleasing to all life,thus may this woman be a favourite of fortune, beloved, not at odds with her husband!Do thou ascend the full, inexhaustible ship of fortune; upon this bring, hither the suitor who shall be agreeable to thee! Bring hither by thy shouts, O lord of wealth, the suitor, bend his mind towards her; turn thou the attention of every agreeable suitor towards her! — Atharvaveda 2.36 4.3.5 SPECULATIONS ON THE NATURE OF MAN, LIFE, GOOD AND EVIL The Atharvaveda Samhita, as with the other Vedas, includes some hymns such as 4.1, 5.6, 10.7, 13.4, 17.1, 19.53-54, with metaphysical questions on the nature of existence, man, heaven and hell, good and evil. Hymn 10.7 of Atharvaveda, for example, asks questions such as "what is the source of cosmic order? what and where is planted this notion of faith, holy duty, truth? How is earth and sky held? is there space beyond the sky? what are seasons and where do they go? does Skambha (literally "cosmic pillar",synonym forBrahman) penetrate everything or just somethings? does Skambha know the future? is Skambha the basis of Law, Devotion and Belief? who or what is Skambha?"[53] 4.3.6 THE WONDERFUL STRUCTURE OF MAN (...) How many gods and which were they, who gathered the breast, the neck bones of man? how many disposed the two teats? who the two collar bones? Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 71 how many gathered the shoulder bones? how many the ribs? Who brought together his two arms, saying, "he must perform heroism?" (...) Which was the god who produced his brain, his forehead, his hindhead?(...) Whence now in man come mishap, ruin, perdition, misery? accomplishment, success, non-failure? whence thought? What one god set sacrifice in man here? who set in him truth? who untruth? whence death? whence the immortal? — Atharvaveda 10.2.4 - 10.2.14, Paippalāda Edition (Abridged) The Atharvaveda, like other Vedic texts, states William Norman Brown, goes beyond the duality of heaven and hell, and speculates on the idea of Skambha or Brahman as the all pervasive monism. Good and evil, Sat and Asat (truth and untruth) are conceptualized differently in these hymns of Atharvaveda, and the Vedic thought, wherein these are not dualistic explanation of nature of creation, universe or man, rather the text transcends these and the duality therein. Order is established out of chaos, truth is established out of untruth, by a process and universal principles that transcend good and evil.[51][55] 4.3.7 PRAYER FOR PEACE Some hymns are prayer qua prayer, desiring harmony and peace. For example,Give us agreement with our own; with strangers give us unity Do ye, O Asvins, in this place join us in sympathy and love. May we agree in mind, agree in purpose; let us not fight against the heavenly spiritAround us rise no din of frequent slaughter, nor Indra's arrow fly, for day is present ! — Atharvaveda 7.52 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 72 4.4 MANUSCRIPTS AND TRANSLATIONS The Shaunakiya text was published by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight Whitney in 1856, by Shankar Pandurang Pandit in the 1890s, and by Vishva Bandhu in 1960–1962. Ralph Griffith translated some chapters into English in 1897, while Maurice Bloomfield published one of the most relied upon translations of the Shaunakiya recension of Atharvaveda in 1899. A corrupted and badly damaged version of the Paippalāda text was edited by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 from a single Kashmirian Śāradā manuscript (now in Tübingen). Durgamohan Bhattacharyya discovered palm leaf manuscripts of the Paippalada recension in Odisha in 1957. His son Dipak Bhattacharya has published the manuscripts. Thomas Zehnder translated Book 2 of the Paippalada recension into German in 1999, and Arlo Griffiths, Alexander Lubotsky and Carlos Lopez have separately published English translations of its Books 5 through 15. 4.5 INDIAN MEDICINE, MAGIC AND ATHARVAVEDA Kenneth Zysk states that the "magico-religious medicine had given way to a medical system based on empirical and rational ideas" in ancient India by around the start of Christian era, still the texts and people of India continued to revere the ancient Vedic texts. Rishi Sushruta, remembered for his contributions to surgical studies, credits Atharvaveda as a foundation. Similarly, the verse 30.21 of the Caraka Samhita, states it reverence for the Atharvaveda as follows,Therefore, the physician who has inquired [in verse 30.20] about [which Veda], devotion to the Atharvaveda is ordered from among the four: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. — Sutrasthara 30.21, Atharvaveda Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 73 The roots of Ayurveda – a traditional medical and health care practice in India—states Dominik Wujastyk, are in Hindu texts of Caraka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, both of which claim their allegiance and inspiration to be the Vedas, especially Atharvaveda. Khare and Katiyar state that the Indian tradition directly links Ayurveda to Atharvaveda. Wujastyk clarifies that the Vedic texts are more a religious discourse, and while herbal health care traditions can be found in Atharvaveda, the purely medical literature of ancient India are actually Caraka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, these two are the real roots of Ayurveda. Kenneth Zysk adds Bhela Samhita to this list. The verse 11.7.24 of Atharvaveda contains the oldest known mention of the Indic literary genre the Puranas. The 1st millennium AD Buddhist literature included books of magico- religious mantras and spells for protection from evil influences of non- human beings such as demons and ghosts. These were called Pirita (Pali: Paritta) and Rakkhamanta ("mantra for protection"), and they share premises and style of hymns found in Atharvaveda. 4.6: MODEL QUESTION: । 15X2 ﴃअनिदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.1 1. अर्ववथ ेदस्य षवषयवस्िु वैशद्ेिालोियि । 2. अर्वथवेदस्य िठिप्रकारं षवशदयि । 3. अर्वथवेदस्य कालं नि셂पयि । । 10X4 ﴃदीघोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.2 1. अर्वथवेदे रोिोपशमि-प्रकक्रया कर्ं प्रनिपाहदिा – आलोियि । 2. अर्वथवेदस्य शाखािां पररियं दत्त । षविारयि । – ﴃककम ् अर्ववथ ेद आयुवेदस्य आिार .3 Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 74 4. िारण-मारण-उचिाटिम ् अर्ववथ ेदस्य मूलभमनि प्रमाणीकु 셁ि । साम्यासाम्यं षववेियि । ﴃऋग्वेद-अर्वथवेदयो .5 । 05X4 ﴃसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.3 1. अर्वथवेदस्य िाम्ि अर्ं प्रकाशयि। 2. अर्वथवेदस्य सवथप्रािीि-प्रकाशिं के ि कदा ि कृ िम?् 3. अर्ववथ ेदस्य साहहत्यमुपरर संक्षेपेणालोियि । पररियं प्रदत्त । ﴃअर्वथवेदस्योपनिषद .4 प्रािीि-िारिीय-षवज्ञािस्य मूलािारेनि प्रमाणं दशयथ ि । ﴃअर्वथवेद .5 6. अर्वथवेदस्य दाशथनिक-षविारिारां प्रकटयि । 7. अर्वथवेदस्य यज्ञप्रयोिोपरर आलोििं कु 셁ि । 8. ककम ् अर्ववथ ेदे ऋषष-परम्परा वत्तथिे? । 02x5 ﴃअनिसंज्ञक्षप्तोत्तरमूलक-प्रना .4.6.4 ?सच्न्ि ﴃअर्वथवेदे कनि अध्याया .1 ? कि ब्र ा ?ﴃपैपलाद ﴃक .2 3. अर्ववथ ेदस्य अन्यिाम ककम?् ? ् कदा आसीि ﴃिारिीय-लौहयुिस्य समय .4 5. अर्ववथ ेदस्य सू啍संख्यां निहदथशि । ?सच्न्ि ﴃअर्वथवेदे कनि शाखा .6 ?सच्न्ि ﴃिािा ﴃअर्ववथ ेदे ककं िद्ात्मका .7 8. अर्वथवेदे प्रर्म-सप्त-काण्डषे ु ककं वणणिथ मच्स्ि? ?कु र कक्रयिे ﴃअर्ववथ ेदािुसारं रोहहणी-वक्षृ स्य प्रयोि .9 10. अर्ववथ ेदे प्रयु啍- ‘स्कम्ि’-इत्यस्य शब्दस्य अर्ं भलखि । 4.7. FURTHER READING: 1. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.I, M. Winternitz, (Eng. Trans.) V. Srinivasa Sarma, MLBD, Delhi. Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 75