International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) Butchering and Cooking of Birds in the Palaeolithic Site of Grotta Romanelli ()

PIER FRANCESCO CASSOLI1 AND ANTONIO TAGLIACOZZO2,{ 1Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia Umana, Roma, Italy; and 2Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnografico`L. Pigorini' ö Laboratorio di Paleontologia e Archeozoologia,Viale Lincoln 3-00144 Roma, Italy

ABSTRACT Grotta Romanelli is one of the most important sites of the Italian palaeolithic. It contains a lithic industry from the Final , examples of rock and mobiliary art and numerous bone remains, among which were abundant remains of birds. Approximately 32 000 bird bones from over 3650 individuals and 109 species were identi®ed. The most common species were bustards, Otis tetrax and O. tarda, and three species of goose, Anser fabalis, A. albifrons and Branta bernicla. Traces of butchering and burning were evident on numerous bones. The nature and location of the cut marks and burning is described here. The analysis has involved mostly the hind limbs and the shoulder girdle where traces are most numerous. The cut marks re¯ect a codi®ed sequence of actions of disarticulation and dismemberment. # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol., 7: 303±320 (1997) No. of Figures: 4. No. of Tables: 6. No. of References: 14.

Key words: bird bones; Italy; upper palaeolithic; butchering; cooking.

Introduction the lower±middle palaeolithic transition.5,6 The upper formation A±E (about 3 m thick) has Grotta Romanelli is located at the southernmost yielded an abundant lithic industry from the part of Apulia (Figure 1) and its opening is now Final Epigravettian, together with examples of at about 8 m above sea-level on a sea cliff. Early rock and mobiliary art. The palaeoecological exploration dates back to the beginning of the evidence, supported by two sets of 14C dates century.1 In 1914, research was resumed by G. A. (from 11 930‹520 years BP to 9050‹100 Blanc2,3 and the most recent excavation cam- years BP), links layer E to a damp, forest phase paigns (1954±1970) were carried out by the at the end of AlleroÈd, layers D±B to a dry cold Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia Umana under phase of Dryas III, and layer A is believed to the direction of L. Cardini. represent the ®nal, only slightly damp forest The deposits in the have already been environmental phase.4 Several different pal- described.2±4 The lower and middle palaeolithic aeoenvironments coexisted in the area: littoral, deposits from Level G, with fallow deer Dama with desert sands and marshy zones in the dama and pachyderms as the predominant fauna, coastal plain in front of the cave, a cliff and contain an archaic Mousterian industry related to coastal rock face zone with wooded areas, and a steppe-like plateau in the higher area further inland. {Correspondence to: A. Tagliacozzo, Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnogra®co `L. Pigorini' Ð Laboratorio di In the Epigravettian layers A±E a total of Paleontologia e Archeozoologia, Viale Lincoln 3-00144 52 238 bone remains of macromammals, birds Roma, Italy. and ®sh were identi®ed to the level of species.

CCC 1047±482X/97/040303±18$17.50 Received 1 October 1995 # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 6 November 1996 304 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo environment, white-fronted goose Anser albifrons and bean goose A. fabalis and from the Arctic environment, including lesser white-fronted goose Anser erythropus, pink-footed goose A. brachyrhynchus, barnacle goose Branta leucopsis, red-breasted goose B. ru®collis and brent goose B. bernicla. The presence of snowy owl Nyctea scandiaca, buzzard Buteo lagopus, and a crane identi®ed as Grus cf. leucogeranus, is signi®cant because these species are among the birds that best de®ne the sub-Arctic±Scandinavian type of Nordic environment, which extended to the extreme southern regions of Italy during Dryas III.8 Also present are birds of marine habitat with North Atlantic as well as sub- Figure 1. Map of Italy showing location of Grotta Romanelli Arctic ocean species, black-throated diver Gavia (Lecce, Apulia). arctica, red-throated diver G. stellata, great black- backed gull Larus marinus, kittiwake Rissa tridactyla Fish account for less than 1 per cent of the and an extinct Alcid, the great auk Alca impennis. sample. The mammal fauna comprises 19 788 The remains of this last species mark the limit of remains.7 The most frequent species are: red deer the southern expansion of this Atlantic±boreal Cervus elaphus (25.7 per cent), red fox Vulpes vulpes species.9 Although representing only 11 remains (25.1 per cent), wild ass Equus (Asinus) hydruntinus from seven individuals, two species of sand (21.7 per cent), and wild cattle Bos primigenius grouse, Pterocles alchata and P. orientalis, merit (19.1 per cent). The Artiodactyls also include particular attention due to the fact that they are wild pig Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus capreolus. strictly tied to arid±desert environments of hot There are also numerous remains of hare Lepus climates. europaeus (5.7 per cent). The carnivores are represented by wild cat Felis silvestris, badger Meles meles, wolf Canis lupus, marten Martes martes Economic aspects and Lynx sp., the latter two extremely rare. Marmota marmota is documented by only ®ve Not all the birds recovered at Grotta Romanelli remains; monk seal Monachus monachus and can be considered a product of human hunting. dolphin Delphinus delphis are also represented. Some species nest on the walls of the cliffs and the near the sea. It is possible that some of these birds died from natural causes and others The bird species may have been brought in by birds of prey or by carnivores that occasionally inhabited the caves. The bird bones make up the largest part (61 per However, the majority of birds were undoubt- cent) of the bone sample from Grotta Romanelli. edly brought to the cave as the result of hunting, The number of identi®ed specimens (NISP) is and butchering marks on the bones testify to 31 984 and the minimum number of individuals their consumption as food. (MNI) 3677 (Table 1). One hundred and nine Although over 100 species of birds were different species were identi®ed, representing identi®ed, many of these are represented by the largest osteological sample of birds of the very few remains or individuals (Tables 1 and 2). Italian palaeolithic. As many as 62 species are documented by less The upper palaeolithic layers are character- than six individuals, and 24 by only one bone. ized by two species of the Steppe: the little The capture of these birds appears to have been bustard Otis tetrax and the great bustard O. tarda. totally sporadic and does not demonstrate any In addition, there were species from the Nordic economic use by the human users of the cave.

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 305 ) out ed d rned 6.6 8.8 3.8 2.7 6.7 6.3 % ed 22.2 28.6 14.3 15.6 12.5 bu burne continu ( cent analys 2 2 2 1 5 1 2 5 t 26 49 30 ISP only per N cen and per d 7.7 9.0 6.6 6.7 6.3 % 11.1 13.1 42.9 28.6 15.4 35.1 21.9 and NISP 100 -burne and NISP 1 1 1 3 4 2 7 2 5 73 35 53 13 s, NISP marked burned humeru .3 .3 .3 .9 .3 .8 .3 .1 .8 .8 .5 .5 .5 .2 .3 .5 .0 .3 .3 and 0 0 0 0 % 33 14 33 76 35 47 14 57 48 30 59 37 12 18 23 16 50 33 33 the 10 10 10 10 marked For umerus 1 1 1 3 marked 1 8 4 1 2 7 2 1 3 1 1 2 d. 10 H 22 12 13 ISP 197 187 390 only N cent marke per cent % and 33.3 14.3 20.0 44.4 84.6 48.4 56.8 57.1 85.7 55.4 46.2 94.6 59.4 12.5 18.2 30.0 22.8 50.0 33.3 33.3 100 100 100 per ISP arked N 1 1 1 4 4 6 1 2 9 2 1 3 1 1 2 m and 11 12 35 19 18 270 222 443 ly, NISP ISP on N d ed, .6 .6 .3 .9 .3 .8 .8 .3 .8 .1 .2 .7 .8 .8 .1 .3 .5 .4 .6 .1 .4 .3 .6 .9 .3 .0 .6 0 % 28 17 33 26 14 14 22 63 43 67 45 71 44 63 56 33 19 34 25 33 15 14 19 42 33 50 28 marke ed 10 analys cent P 4 3 3 7 1 9 7 1 8 4 1 9 3 1 1 2 2 analys 13 14 13 37 32 11 30 79 cent 558 391 799 per NIS d per an d an 5 8 4 3 2 7 4. 3. 2. 6. 9. 7. % NISP 41.2 60.0 19.3 16.4 34.3 38.7 25.0 38.8 20.7 40.2 60.3 33.3 10.3 14.3 13.0 14.3 50.0 d 100 NISP d, , 7 2 1 3 4 6 1 2 2 1 6 1 1 2 marke 11 10 12 35 19 12 22 302 226 448 marke NISP NISP l cent tota per % bones wing 68.7 48.2 42.0 40.3 32.4 ed 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 and All sho i, 1 2 9 5 1 1 3 2 7 7 7 3 7 2 1 5 2 14 17 57 26 44 61 16 31 29 58 57 32 41 26 46 ISP analys 881 583 117 239 N 1114 NISP , omanell R l 4 7 9 1 2 9 5 1 1 3 2 7 7 7 3 7 2 1 5 2 shown 14 17 83 26 44 61 16 31 29 57 32 41 26 46 tta 14 11 23 is 1829 1388 3433 Tota NISP Gro ed at s o rax la ns analys s lis a hala is s carb nchos us is specie us chus ispus ocep nus uedul f®nus NISP clangu nyctico cr ata rea lope yrhy a l ca a cristatu nigricol orax orax fusca pera hyemal x Bird tadorna pu cyg albell leuc ferina nyroca fuligula leucopsi bernicla ru®coll cine anser stellata arctica erythrop caerulesce fabalis albifrons otelis tota 1. ru®n plath crec stre pene acut querq clype chyrhyn ea nta nta nta via via yura ecies diceps diceps ser f®nus alacroc lecanus alacroc ser ser ser ser ser as as as as as as as cephala ble dorna thya thya thya the ly. arist bra elanitta ergus ycticora ygnus etta langula Ta of on Sp Po Po N C An Ard Pu Ga Ga Ph Pe Ph An An An Bra Bra An An Bra Ta An An An An An An An N Ay Ay Ay M M Bu C Ox

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 306 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo ) .0 .3 3.7 5.0 % 20 10 inued rned bu cont ( P 1 1 2 only 355 NIS d 3.7 5.8 % 16.7 14.8 10.0 -burne 1 1 4 4 199 NISP marked d % 40.0 29.6 25.0 50.0 17.6 11.1 52.5 rus 100 marke 9 1 2 8 1 2 3 Hume 21 60 only NISP % 16.7 40.0 23.4 33.3 25.0 50.0 62.5 25.9 100 arked 8 1 1 2 9 1 2 7 m 25 80 NISP 0 6 7 6 3. 5. 6. 8. % 47.1 50.0 85.7 28.6 51.7 16.7 33.8 33.3 37.5 14.3 16.0 50.0 12.6 24.3 42.9 ed 1 2 1 1 6 6 1 5 1 6 4 4 1 9 8 analys 27 40 27 3453 NISP 6.1 3.6 8.1 % 25.0 16.7 36.4 20.0 14.3 33.3 13.6 13.8 24.1 12.0 12.6 33.3 d 1 4 3 4 3 1 1 1 3 9 1 marke 11 14 40 906 NISP s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % bone 30.6 56.7 ed 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 All 1 4 2 3 2 2 6 7 3 6 4 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 3 1 1 66 18 10 11 15 21 80 58 16 28 25 21 17 analys 318 111 6684 NISP 1 4 2 3 2 2 6 7 3 6 4 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 3 1 1 66 18 10 11 15 21 80 58 16 28 25 21 17 561 111 Total NISP 21829 s us lus ax s pus hus ta s tos illa lis cola È virgo tarola aria pugn ropus tor rnix s tinued ellus ogeranu yla us sa dicnem tatus orae morinel rourus sae uteo nculus arqua phaeo neus uginosu albic monac rusti pertinus oe egrinu chlo genti graeca rufa van x cotu Con squa apric s leuc serra s s x chus limo r oides ias da ius ius cya mac aer s s chry heliaca is is ix atra lagop us 1. tu marinu argen tridact per eleon subb ves tinnu us fulvus È gru cf. crex tetra tar Table Species Mergus Accipite Aquila Aquila Buteo Haliae Aegypiu Gyps Circus Circus Circus Falco Falco Falco Falco Falco Alector Alector Grus Grus Anthrop Coturn Crex Gallinula Fulica Otis Otis Numen Numen Limosa Scolopa Philoma Vanell Pluviali Pluviali Eudrom Burhin Larus Larus Rissa

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 307 8.2 2.1 % ned bur 5 1 2. only 489 NISP d 9 4 3 6. 6. % -burne 1 3 41 NISP marked 9.1 9.7 1.7 % 25.9 50.0 16.7 66.7 44.7 100 marked umerus 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 ly 21 H on 1550 NISP .8 .0 .7 .7 .1 0 9.1 1.7 9.7 % 32 50 16 66 51 10 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 marked 24 ISP 1961 N % 10.0 48.1 25.0 30.0 30.0 26.2 75.0 28.0 18.3 44.4 15.4 31.6 31.6 ed 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 P 1 4 1 4 6 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 2 76 analys 11 47 86 31 119 59 NIS 7.1 % 10.0 18.4 12.5 10.0 20.0 26.8 28.6 16.8 arked 1 2 2 2 3 m 45 28 63 2284 NISP % bones 38.8 ed 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 All 1 4 1 2 7 1 2 2 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 9 1 1 10 16 20 14 10 42 10 98 13 analys 168 470 376 NISP 12412 8 0 6 1 4 1 2 7 1 2 2 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 3 9 1 1 10 16 20 14 10 42 10 98 13 16 47 37 Total NISP 31984 culus la tur s s rus aca ula ata gra tur aris entalis ica x ne acte ontinued gilegus ctua irostra alch ori nnis onedu orax s dauma livia oena meus cristata pyrrh ps C rust vulg bo cora fru coro no m scandi orax orax viscivo iliacus pilaris pelia a ra es es progne 1. curv bu e s s s apus aga sco alba impe otus ¯am pica mba mba pyrrhoc rupestri caryocat Total Corvus Athen Corvus Corvus Bubo Nyctea Alca Colu Asio Asio Corvus Hirundo Zoothe Turdu Turdu Turdu Loxia Pyrrhula Sturnus Strepto Pterocl Pterocl Tyto Colu Otus Table Species Apus Galerid Pica Nucifr Pyrrhoc Pyrrhoc Ptyono

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 308 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo Table 2. Relationship between number of species and number Human modi®cations to the bird of bones, NISP and MNI. bones Species NISP N % MNI N % During the taxonomic analysis cut marks pro- duced by stone tools were detected on numerous 1 24 22.0 1±5 62 56.9 bones. Often too there were also clearly visible 2±10 41 37.6 6±10 20 18.3 11±100 33 30.3 11±50 20 18.3 traces of burning. Some of the bones display 100±500 6 5.5 51±100 3 2.8 traces of decoration (Figure 2, numbers 6 and 7). 501±5000 4 3.7 101±1000 3 2.8 A survey of the cut marks and traces of burning in 5001±2000 1 0.9 1001±2000 1 0.9 Total 109 Total 109 the entire sample of bird fauna at Grotta Romanelli was then undertaken with the aim of verifying if models of butchering similar or comparable with those identi®ed on the remains Another 40 species are represented by six to 50 of mammals of the same deposit really exist.7,11,12 individuals. Their capture cannot be considered The identi®cation of the traces was made as an economic or nutritional alternative to the using a magnifying glass and later con®rmed hunting of medium large mammals but, instead, with analysis using a binocular microscope. as a complement to the diet. It is also possible to Some cut marks were veri®ed using a scanning hypothesize an interest in the use of the feathers electron microscope (SEM) (Figure 3). The and down. For another ®ve species, however, it is analysis involved 12 412 bone remains (38.8 possible to speak of a true alternative to per cent of the total). For 102 species, the mammals as a source of meat, both because of analysis was performed on all the bones. For the quantity of the remains and individuals another seven species, the bones analysed varied recovered and for the size of the animal. These from 30.6 per cent for Otis tetrax to 68.7 per cent are Anser albifrons, A. fabalis, Branta bernicla and the for greylag goose, Anser anser (Table 1). For A. two bustards, Otis tarda and especially O. tetrax. albifrons, A. fabalis, Branta bernicla, B. leucopsis and O. Otis tetrax, with 21 829 bone remains (68 per tetrax the humeri of almost all the levels were cent) and 1865 individuals is the most common analysed as well as a sample of other anatomical species. In autumn it tends to become gregarious elements. and forms large ¯ocks. Otis tarda is present, with Butchering marks were present on 47 of the 561 remains of 59 individuals, and for its size 109 species (43.13 per cent). They are evident in (the male can reach a weight of over 15 kg) all the species that are numerically well repre- represents an economically important species. It sented. The only exception is the starling Sturnus lives on the ground but is able to take off on vulgaris of which none of the 470 remains shows short ¯ights. Of the three geese, most common cut marks (Table 1). The bones with traces of is Anser albifrons, represented by 3433 remains of butchering represent 18.4 per cent of the 12 412 511 individuals; A. fabalis is documented by 1388 remains analysed. Obviously the percentage remains of 175 individuals; and Branta bernicla by varies from species to species. 1829 remains of 280 individuals. As expected, butchering marks were present in The capture of these ®ve species is made almost all the geese, bustards, cranes and the possible both by their habits and behaviour, pigeons, species which are still exploited today which in some cases are repetitive and pre- for their meat. Unexpected were similar marks dictable, and by the fact that they form such on the bones of the Falconiformes, the owls large ¯ocks that it is easy even with simple Strigiformes and the Corvidae (Tables 1 and 3). weapons to hit and kill a number of birds. Geese Butchering marks are present on bones of both often form large ¯ocks that move daily along the front and hind limb, but predominate on the constant routes and during moulting, ducks, humerus and coracoid (Table 3 and Figure 2). geese and swans are unable to ¯y and thus are Traces were also relatively numerous on the easy to approach and kill using simple sticks or scapula (Figure 2, number 4) and femur (Figure 2, clubs.10 number 17) and more rare on the cubitus (ulna)

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 309

Figure 2. Modi®ed specimens from Grotta Romanelli. Bones with cut marks: 1 and 3, Anser fabalis, humeri; 2, Oxyura leucocephala, humerus; 4, Aquila heliaca, scapula; 5, Phalacrocorax carbo, coracoid; 9, Columba oenas, coracoid; 8 and 14, Asio ¯ammeus, coracoid and humerus; 10, Branta bernicla, humerus; 11 Asio otus, humerus (x1.5); 12, Anser anser, humerus; 13, Anas strepera, humerus; 16, Cygnus cygnus, cubitus; 17, Grus grus, femur. Burned hones: 15, Anser fabalis, humerus. Decorated bones: 6, Columba oenas, coracoid; 7, Phalacrocorax carbo, femur

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 310 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo Cut marks and burning on the humerus and coracoid

For the anatomical description of the humerus and coracoid we use here the terminology adopted by Milne-Edwards,13 who uses the terms anterior and posterior view. The humerus has been divided into six areas with regard to the location and morphology of the cut marks. In addition, areas A and B indicate areas on the proximal and distal joints where traces of burning are often found (Figure 4, Table 4).

Figure 3. View using SEM of cut marks in area 4 of the Humerus humerus of Phalacrocorax carbo. The cut marks present on the surface of the proximal epiphysis (area 1) are located predomi- nately on the head of the humerus and are generally clean and deep (Figure 2, number 2). (Figure 2, number 16) and tibia. Few traces Additionally, there are marks on the ligamental were found on the sternum, pelvis, radius, groove, the inside of the trochanter and in the metacarpal, and tarsometatarsus. The prevalence subtrochanteric fossa ( foramen pneumaticum). of marks on the humeri is certainly due partly These cut marks are related to the disarticulation to the fact that up to this stage they are the of the humerus from the scapula and coracoid most analysed anatomical element. However, it and the severing of the large and medium is important to note that even in the species in pectoral muscles. which all bones have been analysed, the The cut marks of various types (some short humerus is generally the element with the and deep, others long, oblique and super®cial) most numerous butchering marks. This is are present on both the anterior (area 2b) and particularly true of the Anseriformes: of the 11 posterior (2a) diaphysis of the humerus (Figure 2, remains of Anser anser with traces, all 11 are numbers 12, 13 and 15). On the posterior face humeri, of Branta ru®collis 19 of 19, in gadwall the cut marks are mostly on the proximal part of Anas strepera nine out of 12 and wigeon A. the diaphysis in correspondence with the penelope 18 of 22. This is also evident for Otis pectoral crest and on the surface where the tarda in which 21 humeri of 49 elements with deltoid muscle is attached. These cut marks cut marks have traces, kestrel Falco tinnunculus could be linked to the cutting of the posterior with nine out of 11, whimbrel Numenius phaeopus deltoid muscles, of the tensor ligament of the with seven of nine and short-eared owl Asio wing membrane and of the great anterior and ¯ammeus with 24 of 45 (Tables 1, 3 and 4). If posterior dorsal muscle. On the diaphysis of one excludes common crane, Grus grus (Figure 2, large-sized birds, repeated light slanted cut number 17) where the traces were well marks for ®lleting were present. distributed on various elements of the skeletons The cut marks on the distal epiphysis (area 3) recovered, there are only two species, rock are located mainly on the radial and cubitus dove Columba livia and stock dove C. oenas where condyles (Figure 2, number 3). They are traces on the coracoid were more numerous generally short, deep and transverse. Both the than those on the humerus (Figure 2, number position and typology point to disarticulation 9). from the radius and cubitus. For this reason analyses were continued on The cut marks on the anterior face of the the humerus and coracoid with the location of humerus (area 4) are located in the area between the cut marks on the different areas of the the pectoral crest and the bicipital surfaces and bones. often run along the bicipital groove (Figure 2,

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 311 ) ed 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.3 % 10.0 28.6 33.3 25.0 33.3 21.4 10.0 continu Other P ( 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 4 NIS 0.2 7.1 0.6 2.5 % Tibia 1 1 5 1 NISP 3 0. % 20.0 33.3 75.0 50.0 28.6 12.5 Femur 2 1 3 2 3 4 5 NISP 3 2 0.1 2.5 % 0. 0. 16.7 10.0 14.3 Ulna 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ISP N .3 2.0 0.2 % 8.3 4.5 9.1 7.5 0.9 14.3 14 33.3 25.0 2 Scapula 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 3 ISP N . cent r 7.3 1.3 0.2 9.1 8.6 2.5 % id 20.0 33.3 28.6 16.7 13.6 33.3 25.0 66.7 14.3 33.3 pe 100 100 d an 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 Coraco 22 78 ISP NISP N nes, .0 % bo 50 40.0 33.3 14.3 89.4 98.2 98.9 75.0 81.8 33.3 14.3 81.8 66.7 89.2 62.5 us 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 erent 0 2 3 8 4 1 1 1 4 6 1 9 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 9 1 1 2 12 11 35 19 18 25 Humer 27 22 44 diff 80 NISP on d 2 6 8 6 1 2 3 7 4 6 1 2 1 2 6 1 2 1 1 4 3 4 1 1 3 1 3 10 12 11 35 19 12 22 14 11 40 marks 30 22 44 90 NISP Marke cut of a s us carbo us e tos ephal s È scens e ilis uency pus x lus a hyncho a ta ca ora ca ollis r opsis is ons sae ncul ca nicla ina ranus pertinus gent x Freq rhynch s regrinus elis cygnu albel ocorax leucoc fer nyro leuc ber ru®c da chry helia atra stellat arcti anse caerulu fabal albifr erythro s 3. pe ves tinnu eleon fulvus crecca plathyr streper penelop acuta clypea crocora gru cf. ra ies r r r r r r us tar tetra piter o o o o aristot brachy leucoge Phalacr Gavia Spec Gavia Table Phala Cygnu Anse Branta Branta Anse Anse Anse Anse Branta Anse Anas Anas Anas Anas Anas Aythya Anas Oxyu Merg Aythya Acci Aquila Aquila Gyps Falc Falc Falc Falc Grus Fulica Grus Otis Otis

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 312 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo 1.6 1.0 % 33.3 r Othe 1 1 23 NISP % 0.4 Tibia 8 NISP 0.9 % mur 100 Fe 1 ISP 21 N 7.1 0.4 % Ulna 2 9 ISP N .1 1.6 1.2 % 11 ula Scap 1 1 ISP 28 N .7 .1 .1 .0 .7 .3 .2 % 93 11 82 50 46 33 10 coid 1 1 1 Cora 59 23 21 ISP 234 N .8 .7 .0 .3 .3 .9 3.2 % 77 10 50 53 33 85 rus 100 100 100 7 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 Hume 24 ISP 1961 N 9 2 1 2 3 2 1 63 28 45 2284 NISP Marked pus la tinued ne x phaeo ctua onedu oenas livia meus Con no m coro cora ius ba ba 3. marinus e otus ¯am Table Species Athen Numen Colum Colum Larus Asio Asio Corvus Corvus Corvus Total

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 313 3 1 2 ) 0. 7. 0. 0 % 10 inued 1 1 1 1 B cont d ( 9.1 Burne % 50.0 50.0 36.4 43.5 38.9 37.9 35.7 83.3 24.6 17.1 33.3 33.3 100 1 1 4 5 5 2 1 2 12 10 14 61 81 A 121 3 4. % 12.5 19.4 16.3 28.6 16.9 26.4 33.3 27.3 100 1 3 7 4 2 3 1 5 52 42 125 % 50.0 27.3 26.1 20.8 91.7 28.8 42.9 28.6 47.8 16.7 27.3 66.7 100 100 6 1 1 3 6 5 6 1 3 4 1 4 33 92 71 22 4. 9.1 8.7 3.8 7.1 % 11.1 10.1 15.0 gure Fi in 1 2 4 1 3 12 25 71 n marked show Humerus 4.3 8.3 6.6 2.3 0 % 11.1 21.4 33.3 10.5 27.3 are Cut 10 1 1 2 4 3 2 3 bone 21 26 11 2b the of % 50.0 63.6 43.5 50.0 50.0 54.2 19.4 35.7 21.4 50.0 25.0 12.1 83.3 27.3 16.7 100 100 100 100 100 areas e 1 1 1 1 2 7 1 1 3 7 3 3 5 3 1 10 13 62 57 Th 2a 114 . humeri 4.2 0.9 3.2 0.8 9.1 % 50.0 100 the 1 on 1 1 3 8 4 1 1 g burnin 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 16.7 33.3 29.1 36.7 18.2 25.0 33.3 50.0 75.0 97.3 57.2 85.7 63.4 59.2 46.2 33.3 84.6 66.7 14.3 10 10 10 10 10 10 ®ed and 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 6 6 1 1 6 1 23 11 24 36 14 11 Modi ISP 319 248 473 N marks ed cut 1 2 1 6 1 3 8 9 4 7 1 3 9 7 79 30 11 32 37 14 13 13 of ISP 558 391 799 N Analys tion s a x x a l ta n ca ca a is r e y- s h ina ca a lata c chy- Loca pus p os us s e orae ope fer nyro e us l ons helia c bra fabal anse stel ollis otelis s 4. u clypea streper crec plath acut crocora crocora o a a a ra r us r r r r r r c ya ya o e u Species a albell eleon penel rhynch ru®c leucopsi bernicla rhynch albifr erythro arist cygnus carbo e l c Merg Aquila Falc Anas Oxyu Anas Anas Anas Ayth Ayth Anas Anas Brant Brant Brant Anse Anse Anse Anse Anse Anse Phala Table Cygnu Phala Gavia

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 314 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo 0.4 % 33.3 100 100 1 1 1 7 B rned Bu % 30.0 37.8 22.2 57.1 60.0 16.7 29.9 3 6 4 3 4 A 207 547 % 50.0 10.0 15.7 66.7 55.6 66.7 20.0 16.7 19.2 1 1 2 1 4 2 5 86 15 352 0 0 0 % 50.0 90.0 28.7 25.9 20.0 79.2 35.6 10 10 10 1 9 2 7 2 1 1 4 19 157 652 2.0 4.2 7.2 % 11.1 3 1 3 11 131 marked Humerus 3 ut 7.4 % 10.2 C 7. 20.0 2 1 56 2b 133 3.7 % 71.4 33.3 18.8 22.3 100 100 100 1 1 5 1 1 1 2a 103 409 .0 .6 2.0 1.8 % 10 28 1 2 1 11 33 .0 .0 .0 .9 .8 .0 .5 .7 .7 .1 .0 .5 9.7 4.2 9.1 % 50 37 25 25 15 60 67 66 16 51 50 31 100 odi®ed 7 2 1 7 3 3 2 1 5 1 2 1 10 27 24 M 54 1832 NISP P 4 4 5 3 6 4 1 53 21 27 27 31 40 47 11 119 34 58 NIS ued Analysed o- ua livia ula Contin leuc pus noct corax nculus atra meus 4. nius s s s grus cf. anus ies otus tetrax tarda ne mbia mbia s s s s ble lco lica io io tal tinnu ger phaeo oenas moned ¯am corone Ta Spec Oti Fa Fu Gru Gru Colu Oti Nume Colu As Athe As Corvu Corvu Corvu To

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 315 numerous on the anterior face where there is the insertion of the anterior brachial muscle where it joins the humerus to the cubitus. On the posterior face they are found at the point where the lower portion of the triceps was cut. Traces of burning were located exclusively on the head of the proximal joint (area A) (Figure 2, number 15). They concerned principally the posterior face and were of varying degrees. In some cases exposure to ®re led to the complete combustion of the head of the humerus. Some traces of burning were also located on the distal condyles (area B).

Coracoid The coracoid was divided into three main areas (Figure 4). Area 1, the proximal portion, included the head of the coracoid and the facets of the scapula, clavicle and glenoid cavity. In this area the traces were associated with the dismembering of the coracoid from the humerus, scapula and furcula (Figure 2, numbers 8 and 9). Area 2 includes the body of the bone and the traces are generally located on the lateral edges of the anterior face. Area 3 includes the distal portion with the facets of the sternum and the sterno-coracoid process. The traces are located, in general, on the medial edges of the posterior face and sometimes at the edge of the sternal facet (Figure 2, number 5). These areas involved in exposure to ®re were the proximal (A) and distal (B) ends (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Humerus and coracoid showing areas where cut Results marks and burning were located. Often marks of butchering were located in more than one area on a single humerus and at times numbers 1, 2, 10, 11 and 14). These cut these were associated with traces of burning. marks presuppose the cutting of the most The area most widely affected by incisions was external muscle mass of the pectoral, biceps area 4, but there were also numerous traces in and triceps muscles and of the deeper anterior area 2a. Cut marks on the proximal and distal deltoid muscles. These are often repeated and epiphysis were rare, but traces in area 5 were the majority are long and longitudinal, but more frequent. there are also less frequent short, slanting Traces of burning were most prevalent on the cuts. head of the proximal joint (A), but only seven The cut marks in area 5 (short, mostly humerus remains had traces of ®re on the distal super®cial incisions) are located on the distal epiphysis. Often humeral remains show burning part of the diaphysis. They are generally more in area A but no signs of butchering. The traces

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 316 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo in area 4 were numerous not only in the humerus and the coracoid where the cut marks Anseriformes and the Otididae but also in Falco were found most frequently and their morphol- tinnunculus, Asio ¯ammeus, and long-eared owl Asio ogy allowed for the documentation of a otus (Figure 2, numbers 11 and 14) indicating that systematic repetition of actions performed on this type of operation involved birds of com- the carcasses of these. Additionally, it is evident pletely different sizes and morphology. The that similar traces are present on birds that today same can be said for the burning on the head of have no particular importance as food, such as the humerus that was detected also in small eagles, hawks, owls and ravens. birds, such as the jackdaw Corvus monedula, The recovery of bones of these latter Columba oenas and Falco tinnunculus. species has often been interpreted as the The various combinations of traces for the result of animals hunted for their feathers.10,14 humeri of the ®ve main species are reported in The analysis has still not allowed us to show Table 5. For Anser fabalis the most frequent are particular traces on the bones referable to the incisions associated with burning in areas 2a-A exploitation of the feathers, except perhaps and 4-A. This same combination was also for the coracoid of Asio ¯ammeus. The traces present in the humeri of Otis tetrax and Branta found on this species are similar to those bernicla, and for A. albifrons also the frequency of present on the coracoids of Columba livia and the combination 2a-4 was very high. C. oenas, the only ones that show a model of The analysis of the coracoid involved only a butchering different from those of the small sample of the most well-represented Anseriformes. species (235), however, it is possible to note In the humeri of the Anseriformes and the some details by examining the distribution of the bustards, traces of disarticulation are more traces (Table 6). In Branta bernicla and in Otis frequent than ®lleting marks. In fact, in addition tetrax, traces in area 3 predominate, perhaps to the typical signs of disarticulation found in related to the detachment of the meaty mass of areas 1, 3, and 5, deep transversal traces on the the breast from the trunk of the birds. On the proximal part of Area 2a are also considered to coracoid of Columba oenas, C. livia and Asio ¯ammeus be the result of disarticulation. These latter (Figure 2, numbers 8 and 9) the traces are very marks are related to the cutting of the scapular- numerous in area 1 below the articulation on the humeral ligaments and of the tensors of the wing lateral margins of the anterior face. Their membrane. Traces of ®lleting are generally location seems to suggest the detachment of visible along the humeral diaphysis of the larger the whole wing from the rest of the body. This sized animals. could partially justify the scarce number of The traces in areas 4 are more dif®cult to incised humeri for pigeons. attribute to a particular action, above all because they are longitudinal along the bone at the point of the insertion of the front deltoid Discussion muscle. One can suggest that these traces also were the product of a process of disarticulation At this stage of the research it is possible to to reduce the carcasses of large birds into reach several conclusions, but at the same time smaller portions and perhaps to recover the the results obtained bring up a series of questions wings and feathers of the latest species that which demand further investigation. In particular were of smaller size. The presence of numerous a comparison with data from other sites from the humeri with traces of burning on the head of same period is needed, although few sites of the the proximal joint in the species of major period show exploitation of birds on the scale importance as food, leads one to think that documented by Grotta Romanelli. these portions were cooked on the ®re or using The analysis proved that the species most burning embers which caused the bones not subject to butchering were above all those most protected by meat to be burnt. It remains to be important nutritionally: geese, ducks, swans and clari®ed why the traces of burning involve bustards. The identi®cation of the areas of the almost exclusively the proximal part of the

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 317

Table 5. Correspondence of cut marks and burning on the humeri of Anser fabalis, Anser albifrons, Branta bernicla, Otis tarda and Otis tetrax. Cut marked areas Burned areas Species 1 2a 2b 3 4 5 A B

Anser 3 fabalis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 41 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 12 12 21 2 2 23 1 1 55 12 12 39 1 1 26 Total 8 62 26 25 71 42 60 0 Anser 3 albifrons 1 1 22 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 20 4 4 4 7 7 4 2 2 2 2 2 57 1 1 9 9 1 1 151 3 3 40 40 30 Total 4 57 11 71 226 13 81 1 Branta 1 1 1 bernicla 1 1 1 1 1 1 68 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 3 35 35

(continued )

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 318 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo

Table 5. Continued Cut marked areas Burned areas Species 1 2a 2b 3 4 5 A B

Branta 12 bernicla (continued) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 55 1 1 1 26 26 43 2 2 45 1 Total 3 114 21 12 92 52 121 1 Otis tarda 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 12 2 Total 0 1 2 3 7 15 6 0 Otis tetrax 8 3 3 69 1 1 33 33 47 1 1 8 8 11 122 2 33 33 77 5 5 125 Total 11 103 11 56 157 84 207 0 humerus and are almost absent on other long cooking were used. Doubts remain about how bones such as the femur and the tibia. to interpret the rare burned humerus remains of The combination of traces of ®lleting on the the smallest species such as hawks, pigeons and same humerus on which the head is burned ravens. leads to the supposition that sometimes the The continued study of these traces on other portions were cooked before they were stripped skeletal elements of the most numerous species of the meat. However, the presence of and a programme of experimental butchering numerous humeri with cut marks only suggests will in the future help us to understand better the the hypothesis that different methods of butchering techniques and the food consump-

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Palaeolithic Bird Butchery 319

Table 6. Location of cut marks and burning traces on the coracoids. Coracoid Cut marked Burned Analysed Species NISP 1 % 2 % 3 % A % B %

Gavia arctica 2 2 100 Phalacrocorax 2 1 50.0 1 50.0 2 100 carbo Phalacrocorax 1 1 100 aristotelis Cygnus cygnus 2 1 50.0 1 50.0 Anser albifrons 1 1 100 Anser fabalis 3 1 33.3 2 66.7 1 33.3 Branta bernicla 22 2 9.1 5 22.7 16 72.7 4 18.2 2 9.1 Anas 1 1 100 plathyrhynchos Anas strepera 2 1 50.0 1 50.0 Anas penelope 3 1 33.3 2 66.7 Aythya ferina 2 2 100 Accipiter gentilis 1 1 100 Aquila chrysaeÈtos 1 1 100 Falco peregrinus 2 1 50.0 1 50.0 1 50.0 Falco vespertinus 1 1 100 Falco tinnunculus 1 1 100 Grus grus 2 1 50.0 1 50.0 Grus cf. 1 1 100 leucogeranus Otis tetrax 78 4 5.1 74 94.9 16 20.5 3 3.8 Otis tarda 1 1 100 1 100 Numenius 1 1 100 phaeopus Columbia livia 23 18 78.3 4 17.4 2 8.7 Columbia oenas 59 47 79.7 19 32.2 1 1.7 Athene noctua 1 1 100 1 100 Asio ¯ammeus 21 16 76.2 4 19.0 1 4.8 Corvus monedula 1 1 100 Total 235 90 38.3 47 20.0 108 46.0 26 11.1 5 2.1

tion of the palaeolithic people of Grotta Francesca Alhaique, Dr Antonio Curci and Dr Romanelli. Ivana Fiore for their help during different stages of this research.

Acknowledgements References The present work was possible with the important 1. Stasi, P. E. and Regalia, E. Grotta Romanelli contribution of Monica Gala who selected the (Castro, Terra d'Otranto) stazione con faune sample of modi®ed bones. We wish to thank the interglaciali e di steppa. Secretary of the Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia Archivio per l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia, 1904; 34(1): 17±33. Umana of Rome, Professor Amilcare Bietti. We are grateful to Dr Maria Antonietta Fugazzola, 2. Blanc, G. A. Grotta Romanelli, I. Stratigra®a dei Soprintendente al Museo Nazionale Preistorico depositi e natura e origine di essi. Archivio per Etnogra®co `L. Pigorini' di Roma who allowed this l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia, 1920; 50, 1±4: 65±103. research within the activities of the Palaeontology 3. Blanc, G. A. Grotta Romanelli, II. Dati ecologici e and Archaeozoology Laboratory of the Pigorini paletnologici. Archivio per l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia, Museum. Furthermore we wish to thank Dr 1928; 58: 365±411.

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) 320 P. F. Cassoli and A. Tagliacozzo 4. Cassoli, P. F., Segre, A. G. and Segre, E. Evolution 10. Mourer-ChauvireÂ, C. La chasse aux oiseaux morphologique et eÂcologique de la coÃte de Castro pendant la PreÂhistoire. La Recherche, 1979; 106, (Pouilles) dans le PleÂistoceÁne ®nal. In: La Fin des vol. 10: 1202±1210. Temps Glaciaires en Europe (edited by D. Sonneville- 11. Cassoli, P. F., Fiore, I. and Tagliacozzo, A. Bordes). Paris: Centre national de la recherche Butchering and Differentiated Introduction of scienti®que, 1979: 325±332. Main Mammals in the Epigravettian Levels of 5. Piperno, M. L'industria musteriana su calcare di the Romanelli Cave. Paper presented at the 7th Grotta Romanelli (Otranto). Memorie dell`Istituto Congress International Council for Archaeo- Italiano di Paleontologia Umana, 1974; II: 69±90. zoology, Konstanz, 1994. Anthropozoologica, 19, 6. Piperno, M. Il Paleolitico inferiore. In: Italia 1996. preistorica (edited by A. Guidi and M. Piperno). 12. Fiore, I. L'apporto dell'analisi tafonomica nella Laterza: Bari, 1992: 139±169. ricostruzione delle principali risorse animali di un 7. Tagliacozzo, A. Strategie di caccia ed economia di giacimento epigravettiano: Grotta Romanelli sussistenza nei livelli del Pleistocene ®nale di (LE). Tesi di Specializzazione in Archeologia Grotta Romanelli (LE). Tesi di Specializzazione in Preistorica e Protostorica (Anno Academico Archeologia Preistorica e Protostorica (Anno 1993/94), UniversitaÁ di Roma `La Sapienza', Accademico 1993/94), UniversitaÁ di Roma `La 1995. Sapienza', 1995. 8. Cassoli, P. F. Avifauna del Pleistocene superiore 13. Milne-Ewards, M. A. Recherches anatomiques et delle Arene Candide, Praia e Grotta Romanelli paleÂontologiques pour servir aÁ l'historie des (Italia). Quaternaria Nova, 1992; II: 239±246. oiseaux fossiles de la . Paris: Masson et 9. Blanc, G. A. Sulla presenza di Alca impennis Linn. Fils, 1869±71. nella formazione pleistocenica superiore di Grotta 14. Bouchud, J. Les PaleÂolithiques utilisaient-ils les Romanelli in Terra d'Otranto. Archivio per plumes? Bulletin de la SocieÂte PreÂhistorique de France, l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia, 1928; 58: 156±200. 1953; 9±10: 556±560.

INT. J. OSTEOARCHAEOL., Vol. 7: 303±320 (1997) # 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.