REPORT ON

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH NETWORK FOR WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA

TRANSNATIONAL RESEARCH ON DECENTRALIZATION IN WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA:

LEARNING FROM LOCAL AND INTERSECTORAL EXPERIENCES -

THE CASE OF GHANA.

By

James A. Opare (University of Cape Coast, Ghana)

Godwin R. K. Egbenya (University of Cape Coast, Ghana)

Margaret Kaba (Ministry of Education, Ghana)

ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The study aimed at finding out manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the areas under study, as well as whether human and material resources have been transferred from the national to the district and local levels, and whether these resources have been put to use effectively. Another aim was to find out the level of integration / synergy among the four sectors (education, health, water and electricity) at the national, district and local levels. It also aimed at finding out the extent to which social services delivery policies have led to the reduction of gender disparities and promotion of leadership among females. Finally the study aimed at finding out the factors that led government to adopt the decentralization policy.

Decentralization which could be political, administrative, fiscal or market focused is vital for improving national and local governance. Although decentralization can play very important roles in broadening participation in political, economic and social activities in developing countries, it may not unless it entails a mixture of all the three types: political, fiscal and administrative (Manor, 1999). Decentralization has the potential of reducing bottlenecks in bureaucracy, enhancing public accountability and tailoring development plans to particular needs.

Case studies on decentralization in some developing countries such as Nicaragua, Senegal among others, show that decentralization has made it possible for local government actors to be involved in key features of development. Additionally, the history of decentralization in some African countries shows that until the mid 1980’s, there was not any clear cut distinction between the state and its political structures.

However, the 1990’s saw the end of a centralized state model, and the emergence of decentralized structures.

Attempts at local administration in Ghana started during the colonial era when the native authorities were involved in local governance. This system of indirect rule was designed to enable the British colonial government to be less and less directly involved in local administration.

Realizing the importance of decentralization in governance, the government of Ghana in 1988 put in place a decentralized programme based on governance values such as empowerment, equity, accountability among others. In much the same way, the 1992 constitution also prescribed among other things, that functions, powers, responsibilities and resources should be transferred from the central government to the local government units to facilitate local governance.. What is critical to explore is whether or not decentralization has been able to reduce congestion and over concentration of power in the nation’s capital. It is imperative, therefore, to evaluate the formulation and implementation of the policy as related to the education, health, water and electricity sectors of the country.

This research hopes to make a modest contribution to the literature on decentralization in Africa and as well present the current state of affairs in Ghana. To this end the case study approach was adopted using questionnaires, interview guides and focused group discussions as instruments for gathering data. All stakeholders of decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors constituted the target group. Two districts from each of the following regions were selected as sites for the study: Northern region, Ashanti region and Greater Accra region. The purposive sampling technique was used. This report is presented in 5 chapters. Chapter one is the introduction, the review of the literature is treated in chapters 2 while chapter 3 is devoted to the methodology employed.

Chapter 4 presents the results and discussion, while the summary of findings, conclusions drawn and recommendations made are presented in chapter 5.

Summary of findings and Conclusion

From the data some manifestations or indications of the effectiveness of the decentralization exercise have been noticed. Data from the headquarters of all the sectors

(Ministry of Education and Ghana Education Service, Ministry of Water and Housing and Ghana

Water Company, Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Health), indicate an established framework

(written or unwritten) for the implementation of the decentralization process premised on national laws and Policies (1992 Constitution; Ghana Republic 1988: 1994). However, a stark reality is that not enough power has devolved on the districts; financial resources and human resources in their right quantitative and qualitative relationships are still inadequate. There is also a disappointingly slow process of human resource and infrastructural development. All these lapses prevent the effective implementation of the decentralization policy.

It is evident that decisions in the education, water, health and electricity sectors are made at the national and district levels. In the case of the water and electricity sectors decisions are additionally made at the local community levels. Decisions in the education and health sectors made involve posting of teachers, formulation of work place policies, building of school blocks, transfer of teachers and administrative staff. The decisions also involve monitoring the effectiveness of teaching/learning, health care accessibility, the conduct of health education, siting of health posts, and posting of nurses to the rural areas. Others are provision of water resources, management of potable drinking water, distribution of water facilities and distribution of electricity to the places where it is needed. The only attempt to decentralize electricity services has been through the self-help electricity programmes in the communities.

On the whole it appears that decentralization of decision making in the regions and districts has been far more effective in administrative decentralization but far less effective in fiscal decentralization. It is thus an indication of dispersal of decision making to the substructures of government without the needed corresponding dispersal of financial resources and infrastructure.

It is evident that efforts have been made to transfer experts: teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians to render services in the districts and local communities. There is also some evidence that the decentralization policy is being pursued in the districts through the provision of educational, health, water and electricity facilities. Nonetheless, the pace of provision of adequate and good quality facilities in all the communities is somewhat slow.

Many communities have schools and kindergartens but hardly any libraries. There are more clinics and health posts than hospitals in all the communities studied. The communities have water facilities like pipe borne water, boreholes and wells. They have electricity in the communities but the remote parts of the districts are not connected to the national grid. Children pay for the use of some facilities in the school: these include fees for printing examination papers, fees for building projects, and textbooks user fee. However, the capitation grant or the abolition of school fees absorbs virtually all payments. Those who are not covered by the NHIS pay for the health services offered them. They also pay for the use of water and electricity.

As to the specific positive changes that have occurred in their lives as a result of the introduction of NHIS respondents are of the feeling that the pressure on them to get money before they are treated at the hospital has reduced and as a result, money for paying hospital bills are now used for other purposes. Now they can access health regardless of whether they have money or not.

As to the specific positive changes that have occurred in their lives as a result of the introduction of free maternal health care most of the respondents feel that mothers go to the hospital free of charge, and so do not suffer so much during pregnancy. As a result more pregnant women can now access health care, with the result that maternal deaths have reduced.

The specific positive changes that have occurred in their lives as a result of the provision of water in the community include not going far away for water and prevention of the guinea worm disease.

The provision of electricity in the communities has also enabled them to use electrical gadgets such as radio, television and fridges. It has also enabled them preserve their drinks and food items. They can go about their business even at night. Above all they can study even at night.

One important observation is that human and some non-human resources have been posted to the communities to provide services. However, it was noted that there is widespread dissatisfaction with salary levels, accommodation and some basic social amenities. Unless or until these problems are tackled in some way, the experts may go away leaving the decentralization efforts checkmated.

On the degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricity policies it is evident that programmes in the four sectors are drawn through joint planning at the national and districts level. Besides, chiefs, elders, women’s groups, government officials, non-natives and youth groups are all involved in the planning and implementation of education, health, water and electricity projects in the districts. This situation allows for a successful implementation of projects in the education, health, water and electricity sectors. There is therefore synergy of action between management structures aimed at producing equitable access to social services.

Women in the districts are also involved in the decision making process, with regard to the provision of social services. To some extent women are part of the planning, execution and monitoring of developments in the education, water, health and electricity sectors. These developments eventually contribute to reducing gender disparities in decision making at the district level. They also promote leadership among women.

Ghana inherited the decentralization policy as a legacy of British Policy of the Indirect

Rule. In addition the 1992 Constitution of Ghana provides that power and decision making should devolve on the decentralized authorities. The global system of today also calls for increased decentralization as a guarantee of democratic governance. Besides, decentralization has been enshrined in all the constitutions of the country since independence.

Challenges/ Problems

As observed and as the data indicate, the barriers to effective implementation of the decentralization policy are the tendency for the national level holding on to power, inadequate finance, low capacity of human resource, and inadequate logistics at the regional and district levels.

In the education, health, water and electricity sectors there is the problem of inadequate finance and lateness in the distribution of this resource to the districts. There is also the challenge of inadequate professional teachers, poor infrastructure and poor communication flow. Problems of accommodation and delays in the payment of salaries are some of the factors that undermine not only morale and commitment, but also the success of the decentralization effort.

Although the majority of the local people reported improvement in their lives as a result of the interventions discussed above, those in remote communities within the districts still lack good schools, libraries, hospitals, potable water and electricity. In a situation in which the majority of the people are not touched by the developments taking place in the education, and especially health, water and electricity sectors owing to lack of funding, limited managerial skills and too much interference from the national level, then one cannot declare that the decentralization process in Ghana has been effective.

Recommendations

On the basis of what has been found through this study, the recommendations that follow are made:

1. It was found that strenuous efforts have been made to transfer expertise to the districts

and local communities. However it is reported that the matching financial resources have

never been adequate. It is therefore recommended to the Ministry of local Government

and Rural Development to increase its budgetary allocation to the Districts so that they

would have the wherewithal to do things for themselves.

2. Findings emerging from the study suggest that there is still too much power lodged above.

It is recommended to the Ministry of local Government and Rural Development to insist

that powerful officials at the national level cede some of their powers to their

subordinates in the regions and districts. To this end incentives such as accommodation, vehicles and special allowances should be made available to attract and motivate qualified

personnel to accept posting to the districts and local communities.

3. It was also found that human resource development in the administrative, fiscal and

democratic/political spheres is not well balanced. Manor (1999) is of the opinion that the

three must take place together. It is therefore recommended that capacity building

especially in revenue mobilization skills be embarked upon. Management expertise should

also be improved.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Table of Contents i List of Tables ii List of Figures iv Acronyms v CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study 1 Statement of the problem 8 Objectives of the Study 9 Research Questions 10 Significance of the study 11 Organization of the Report 11

CHAPTER TWO 13 LITERATURE REVIEW Some Case Studies of Decentralization in Some Developing Countries 13 Evolution of Decentralization in Some African countries 16 Decentralization in Ghana 18 CHAPTER THREE 27 METHODOLOGY Research Design 27 Population 28 Sample and Sampling Technique 29 Data Collection Instruments 34 Data Collection Procedure 35 Problems Encountered 36

CHAPTER FOUR 38 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER FIVE 81 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Pages

Table 1:Types of decisions in the educational sector made at the 41

district level

Table 2: Types of decisions in the health sector made at the district 42

level

Table 3: Types of decisions in the water sector made at the district 43 Level

Table 4: Respondents who agreed that they had schools in their 45 communities

Table 5: Reasons for wards not paying school fees 48

Table 6: Responses on whether respondents used electricity 50 or not

Table 7: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives 51

of respondents as a result of the abolition of school

fees and the introduction of the Capitation grant

Table 8: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the 53

lives of the people as a result of the introduction of NHIS.

Table 9: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of 54 respondents as a result of the provision of water in the communities.

Table 10: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of 55 respondents as a result of the provision of electricity in the communities.

Table 11: Reasons for teachers not residing in the communities 60

Table 12: Reasons for apparent lack of effectiveness of the work 63

of the technicians and supervisors

Table 13: The extent of female involvement in the execution of 75

education projects in the communities.

Table 14: The extent of female involvement in the execution of 76

health projects in the communities.

Table 15: The extent of female involvement in the execution of 77 water projectsin the communities.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Pages

Fig. 1: Structure of the New Local Government System 21

(Decentralization)

Fig. 2 Sub Metropolitan District Councils under Respective 22 Metropolitan Assemblies

Fig 3: The distribution of District Assemblies 26

ACRONYMS

TKD =Tolon/Kumbugu District

NSD = Nanumba South Distict

KD = Kwabre District

AND = Atwima Nwabiagya District

DWD = Dangme West District

GWD = Ga West District

N/R = Northern Region

A/R = Ashanti Region

G/R = Greater Accra Region

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

The concept, governance is referred to as the manner in which political power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development (World Bank, 1992). Governance has gained much importance in the literature on Africa’s development due to the fact that the World Bank identifies it as the root of the African crisis.

Decentralization, on the other hand is referred to as the transfer of authority or the dispersal of power in public planning, management and decision-making from the national level to subnational or local levels -- from higher to lower levels of government

(Rondinelli, 1981). It is also referred to as any act in which a central government formally cedes powers to actors and institutions at lower levels in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy (Agrawal&Ribot, 2007). The two concepts, governance and decentralization, are closely related in that the latter is one of the very important ways of improving national and local governance.

Decentralization can be political, administrative, fiscal, or market focused. There are clear overlaps in defining these terms, so the precise definitions are not as important as the comprehensive approach in applying them in our countries. Political decentralization gives the citizens or their elected representatives more power in public decision-making and more influence in the formulation and implementation of policies

(http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09).

Administrative decentralization deals with the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing and management of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government. The three major forms of administrative decentralization are deconcentration, delegation, and devolution. While deconcentration is the redistribution of decision making authority and financial management responsibilities among different levels of the central government, delegation, is a more extensive form of decentralization in which the central government transfers responsibility for decision-making and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to the government.

Devolution is a situation in which the government transfers responsibilities for services to municipalities that elect their own mayors and councils, raise their own revenues, and have independent authority to make investment decisions

(http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09) . Decentralization in reality involves the devolution of responsibilities and resources to independent and autonomous sub-national authorities that are accountable to both the central government and their communities (Rosenbaum, 2000).

It would be necessary at this point to mention the confusion within many countries, particularly African countries over the issues of decentralization, devolution and deconcentration. Many efforts meant to encourage decentralization failed because efforts were focused on deconcentration rather than on decentralization i.e. the central governments devolved power not to independent, autonomous local governments; rather they created administrative structures through which they maintained control at the local level.

Fiscal decentralization is the situation in which decisions about expenditures of revenues raised locally or transferred from the central government are done by the local authority. In many developing countries local governments or administrative units possess the legal authority to impose taxes, but the tax base is so weak. Economic or Market

Decentralization is the most complete form of decentralization from a government's perspective as there is a shift of responsibility for functions from the public to the private sector. Its two main types are privatization and deregulation. Privatization is the provision of goods and services entirely to the free operation of the market to public-private partnerships in which government and the private sector cooperate to provide services or infrastructure. Deregulation, on the other hand allows competition among private suppliers for services that in the past had been provided by the government or by regulated monopolies. Ghana’s form of decentralization has the characteristics of all the types described (Owusu,Owusu-Bonsu, Oppong, &Dogoli, 2005).

Under appropriate conditions, all of these forms of decentralization can play important roles in broadening participation in political, economic and social activities in developing countries. Where it works effectively, decentralization helps alleviate the bottlenecks in decision making that are often caused by central government planning and contro*-l of important economic and social activities. Decentralization may not always be efficient, especially for standardized, routine, network-based services. It can result in the loss of economies of scale and control over scarce financial resources by the central government. Weak administrative or technical capacity at local levels may result in services being delivered less efficiently and effectively in some areas of the country.

Administrative responsibilities may be transferred to local levels without adequate financial resources and make equitable distribution or provision of services more difficult.

Centralization and decentralization are not "either-or" conditions. In most countries an appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization is essential to the effective and efficient functioning of government. The success of decentralization frequently depends heavily on training for both national and local officials in decentralized administration.

Technical assistance is often required for local governments, private enterprises and local non-governmental groups in the planning, financing, and management of decentralized functions (http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09).

For decentralization to be significant it is argued that it must entail a mixture of all three types: democratic/political, fiscal, and administrative. The three types must be implemented together (Manor, 1999). According to Agrawal&Ribot, (2007) the three distinct dimensions that underlie all acts of decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. In their view the political and administrative domains of decentralization are characterized by the mix of these three underlying analytical dimensions - the actors, powers and accountability. Actors are positioned at different levels of social action. Indeed, since decentralization is about changes in how actors at different levels of political authority exercise their power, by definition the actors involved must be located at different levels of action.

The four broad powers of decision-making which are crucial to understanding decentralization are the power to create rules or modify old ones, the power to make decisions about how a particular resource or opportunity is to be used, the power to implement and ensure compliance to the new or altered rules, and the power to adjudicate disputes that arise in the effort to create rules and ensure compliance.

The effectiveness of decentralization hinges on a third dimension: accountability. It is downward accountability that broadens participation. Actors can be held downwardly accountable to local constituencies in numerous ways. So in analyzing decentralization in any country one needs to consider these three dimensions - the actors, powers and accountability.

Four governance values have often been associated with decentralization. First, by placing government closer to the people, decentralization results in a closer congruence between public preferences and public policy (Rondinelli, 1981). Second, decentralization promotes diversity in public polices. Policy diversity promotes innovation, since it provides opportunity for experimentation by subnational units.

Third, decentralization promotes political participation, education and leadership development. By devolving real decision making to local levels, higher levels of intersectoral participation in local government results from decentralization thus anchoring citizens in the political system and enhancing democracy (Cheema&Rondinelli,

1993)

Fourth, decentralization promotes policy diversity and therefore provides the necessary conditions for the public choice mechanism since it ensures that the citizens have a tax and service packages to consider when deciding where to reside. So despite a common citizenship, individuals will receive differing levels of services depending on where they live.

In addition, decentralization creates numerous training grounds for the development of democratic skills and practices. Decentralization provides a stepping stone to higher offices.

In effect decentralization seeks to transfer functions, powers means and competence from the centre to the grassroots. District Assemblies are the pivots around which the decentralization programme revolves. Decentralized departments have been established to perform functions previously performed by Central Government and all communication must now be addressed to the District Chief Executive (Ministry of Local

Government, 1994).

It is plausible from the foregoing that decentralization has the potential of contributing to improvement in governance as it

Reduces the bureaucracy associated with planning and coordination at the central

level

Fosters a greater ability of officials familiar with local-level problems to tailor

development plans to particular needs
Enhances public accountability as it gets all political, religious, ethnic and tribal

groups involved in the formulation of development plans. In this case development is

based on expressed need, rather than just felt need.

On the other hand there are also some dangers inherent in decentralization. The actions of local political leaders can either be supportive of or create major impediments to civil society development. The danger of irresponsibility is particularly great if local governments do not have the responsibility for raising their own revenue but rather depend on revenue passed on from a higher level (Rosenbaum, 2000).

Another danger in a decentralized system is the possibility of the various local units of government being captured by highly organized local elites. Efforts to implement public policy can be let down by the local government authorities when the policies are not in the interest of the local government. It is also on record that there is the tendency of the national government to devolve responsibilities to local governments without providing the necessary resources. (Rosenbaum, 2000).

Statement of the problem

Any evaluation of the decentralization program must be based on the objectives for which it was established. In this connection, one may ask about the extent to which the decentralization program did or has empowered people through popular participation, accountability, equity, effective and efficient provision of goods/services.

The program really did revive the support of voluntarism and community efforts.

Projects such as rural electrification, construction of markets, provision of classroom blocks, construction of boreholes, clinics and feeder roads were all undertaken by various

DAs. It must be pointed out however, that most of the local initiatives were undertaken with governmental and Non-governmental organization support (e.g. World Vision

International, ADRA and PAMSCAD. This is because the majority of the DAs lacked the financial resources to undertake development of local infrastructures. Most DAs were unable to realize their revenue targets. Lack of revenue thus meant that in practice expenditure decision were often made temporary or adhoc. Whatsmore, despite the modest gains in promoting socio economic development in rural areas it is doubtful whether it has been able to achieve its objectives of popular participation, accountability, efficiency, effectiveness and reduction in the rural-urban drift (Aryee 1994)

Apart from these most of the DAs did not have qualified accountants to handle the large sums of money involved, a situation, which could give rise to embezzlement and misappropriation. The Auditor- General reports for 1992, 1993, and 1994 revealed widespread embezzlement and other financial improprieties and irregularities within the

DAs.

The extent to which decentralization was able to reduce congestion and over concentration of power in the nations capital is also debatable. Despite decentralization, most if not all Regional Ministers and DCEs visit the nation’s capital about twice a month to either run after funds or solicit for favours, which they cannot get if they stayed in their local areas.

If we go by the statement that the objectives of the decentralization policy are long- term oriented, then it is pertinent to find out what the situation is like after 19 yrs of its introduction. It will therefore be necessary to evaluate the formulation and implementation of the policy and relate them to the education, health and water sectors of the country.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are to find out

1. Whether there are manifestations or indications of the effectiveness of decentralization in education, health, water and electricity sectors in the areas under study. 2. The extent human and material resources were transferred from the national level to the local levels. 3. How effectively the human and material resources transferred to the local levelsare utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactory

4. The degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricity policy at the communitylevel

5. Whether the level of integration of local structures allow for a successful implementation of policies in the education, health, water and electricity sectors 6. Whether thereis any synergy of action between management structures

aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social services

7.The extent to which social services delivery policies favour the reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular.

8. The factors that led governments to adopt decentralization

Research Questions

Based on the above objectives the study was guided by the following research questions.

1. What are the manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the

education, health, water and electricity sectors?

2. To what extent are human and material resources transferred from the national

level to the local levels?

3. How effectively are the human and material resources transferred to the local

levels utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactory

4. What is the degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the

implementation of education, health, water and electricity policy at the

community level?

5. Does the level of integration of local structures allow for a successful

implementation of policies in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?

6. Is there any synergy of action between management structures aimed at

promoting equitable access to basic social services?

7. To what extent do social services delivery policies favour the reduction of gender

disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular.

8. What factors led governments to adopt decentralization?

Significance of the study This research aims at presenting the current state of affairs concerning decentralization in the country. The outcome of the study will enable actors at the national, district and local levels to have insight into the success or lack thereof of the decentralization programme. At the regional level the information obtained will enable other African countries in similar circumstances to determine what is possible in their respective cases. Finally, it will add to the literature on decentralization in Africa.

Organization of the Report

This report is presented under fiver chapters. Chapter one, the introduction, is devoted to the background information of the study, the statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study and organization of the report. .Chapter two covers the literature review on some case studies of decentralization in some developing countries, evolution of decentralization in some

African countries, decentralization in Ghana and the structure of the new local government system (decentralization). Chapter three which deals with the methodology used covers the research design adopted for the study, the population from which the samples were selected, and the sampling method used, the data collection instruments, methods of data collection, as well as the key problems encountered in the course of undertaking the study. Chapter four is devoted to the presentation of the results and discussion of answers for the eight research questions. Finally the chapter five deals with the summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the findings, challenges and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter covers the literature review on some case studies of decentralization in some developing countries, evolution of decentralization in some African countries, decentralization in Ghana and the structure of the new local government system

(decentralization).

Some Case Studies of Decentralization in Some Developing Countries

According to Bardhan (2002), hard qualitative evidence of the impact of decentralization on governance of some developing countries is scarce though decentralization experiments are going on in many developing countries. The successful case of decentralization in Brazil seemed to indicate a substantial impact on the pattern of resource allocation across localities, particularly to the poor ones, and in the lessening of the misappropriation of resources compared to the past. Similarly in Bolivia in 1994 the share of tax revenue allocation to the municipalities doubled alongside with the devolution of administrative authority. According to Faguet (2001), there was massive shift of public resources to the smaller and poorer municipalities. Public investment in education, water and sanitation rose significantly and investments were made in local needs.

In the 1990’s, Nicaragua started transferring key management tasks in public schools to the local councils involving parents from the central authorities. This situation contributed to significant positive effect on student performance (Bardhan, 2002). In developing countries where road maintenance was decentralized it was found out that road backlogs were lower. Additionally an evaluation of completed rural water supply projects financed by various agencies showed that projects with high local participation in project selection and design were much more likely to have the water supply maintained in good condition than would be the case with more centralized decision-making.

According to Bardhan (2002), the studies considered in this section of the review suggest generally positive effects of decentralization, but it is hard to draw conclusive lessons as many of the studies are largely descriptive, not analytical, and often suggest correlations rather than causal processes. In Senegal, the new dimension of decentralization in the forestry law is the inclusion of local government actors in forest exploitation to whom production permits may be allocated. The plans specify when, where and how much wood can be cut, along with methods to be used and reforestation measures that must follow. After the plan is drafted the rural council can assign individuals, cooperatives or corporations exploitation plots within their zones.

The rural council had the power to request permission to exploit, and to allocate the right to exploit to individuals or any legally recognized group. Local populations were given the right to engage in forest exploitation under the guidance of their rural councils.

Before these laws were enacted, urban merchants with licenses and permits would come into a zone with their own migrant labourers and conduct the exploitation without engaging the local population.

The right to transport and sell wood products was not granted to local populations or rural councils. It is in this upstream part of forest-product marketing that most of the profits are made. There was no attempt to decentralize power to grant access to distribution or retail outlets. Therefore, local producers were still obligated to sell to urban merchants at very low producers’ prices (Agrawal&Ribot, 2007).

At the central level in Mali, the Mission of Decentralization determines the territorial extent of the forested domain of local governments. The Ministry for Forests, in conjunction with the Director of the Forest Service, is charged with the development of forestry laws that allocate powers to the local governments. Within the local arena, decentralization primarily involves the Forest Service from whom powers are devolved, and the newly elected local governments in whom devolved powers are vested. According to the new laws, any individual or group wishing to engage in commercial wood fuel cutting will be required to form a Wood fuel Management Structure (WMS) which can be any kind of organization (cooperative, corporation, or association) recognized by the state. These are groups of private individuals interested in commercial exploitation.

In Mali powers of the elected council of the local government include the ability to reserve part or all of any forests in their domain for any purposes they see fit, the right to develop or to reject forest management plans presented by the Forest Service, and the right to a ‘portion’ of the forestry tax. The process of allocation of the forested domain is not accountable to local populations or any of their representatives. In addition the portion of the tax to be devolved and the mode by which disputes will be resolved are determined by ministerial decree (Agrawal&Ribot, 2007).

So in the cases of Senegal and Mali, decentralization in the forestry law allows the inclusion of local government actors in forest exploitation; it also gives them powers to exploit the forest. However, it does not make them accountable to their constituencies in that they do not have the right to transport and sell the wood products. Besides the portion of the tax to be devolved and the mode by which disputes will be resolved are determined by ministerial decree.

Evolution of Decentralization in Some African countries

In Africa, until the mid 1980s, there was not any clear cut distinction between the

State (the various sectors that constitute it) and its political structure. The deterioration of public utilities especially in the areas of health, water, education and transport exposed the limitations of the centralized form of government. The major beneficiaries of the paternalistic or the centralized state were the urban areas and especially civil servants in the capitals. The redistribution of public monies was done in the urban centres to the neglect of the rural areas which were deprived of the national resources and foreign support (Adamolekun, Olowu,&Laleye, 1988).

The 1990s saw the end of a centralized state model (a typical example is the case of

Nigeria) which experienced numerous geo–political upheavals and was therefore incapable of transforming political speeches on development into real action and concrete results. The actions of social pressure groups expressing the aspirations of the urban populace for a better redistribution of resources and for more freedom led to political pluralism first in the francophone countries and later in the Anglophone and

Luxophone zones (Adamolekun, et al., 1988).

Foreign donors therefore expressed their dissatisfaction with the inefficient implementation of sector– based policies and their implementation at the administrative level. International NGOs supported by national NGOs replaced the state in the provision of basic social services. Community participation approaches developed in the areas of health, water and education incited the creation of numerous civil associations which championed grassroots initiative. Villages began to constitute territorial and socio– economic labour units. External partners invested at the local level and the most popular discourse dwelt on direct development at the grassroots without passing through the

State. A typical example is the rapid development of community schools with support from external partners (Bossert, 2002). Social transformations of tates bring into sharp focus the limitations of centralized government as the only tool for the implementation of sector – based policies. The monolithic and centralized western model of administration and its African reinterpretation characterized by paternalism seem impotent in meeting the development needs and in adapting itself to an extremely dynamic environment.

The proliferation of initiatives at the grassroots again calls for review of the position of the State and its role in ensuring inter and intra sector equilibrium at the national level. The state is forced to reduce its powers and transfer part of its functions to the local level because, with the presence of a civil society that is becoming autonomous, it can no longer claim monopoly of initiatives. The reforms that the autonomy of stakeholders initiates are in fact, the effect of policy failures at the central level and that of centralized administrative mechanisms that govern it.

Administrative decentralization appears not as an alternative but rather as a necessity in a context marked by a delegitimization of administration and a new central political system level as well as varied dynamics according to forms regarding the countries of denationalization. Today, the institution of local political government makes is possible for the leaders of central government, few of whom politically or individually suffered failures in the past, to lessen the pressure on the Centre and to ascribe to the local level, the political responsibility of its development.

Decentralization in Ghana

Historical Development of Local Government Attempts at local administration in Ghana started during the colonial era with the native authorities. It was centered on a chief or some unit of local royalty. The native authorities were not democratic but were mere representatives as they were hand – picked. Their main interests were to help the British colonial government with limited involvement in local administration, to administer law and order (Ministry of Local

Government, 1994).

Municipalities were established by the Municipal Ordinance of 1859 in the coastal towns of Ghana. In 1943, a new Ordinance set up elected town councils for Accra, Kumasi,

Secondi–Tarkoradi and Cape Coast. In 1953, the Municipal Councils Ordinance as passed.

This was followed, after independence in 1957, by the Local Government Act, 1961, Act

54. In all these pieces of legislation, the distinction between Central and Local government institutions was maintained. The Central government bodies had better qualified personnel in terms of management skills and professional expertise.

The Local Government bodies were set up and vested with authority especially for local matters. They grew side by side with Central Government agencies that operated at the local level. They were required to provide municipal services and amenities in their localities without regard to whether or not they had the resources to deliver. These bodies lacked personnel with the requisite skills and professional expertise. The local authorities were unable to raise funds to meet their obligations and attract able and competent officers (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).

Problems that developed as a result of this dual central and local administration included the encroachment on the rights and responsibilities of the weaker local government bodies because areas and limits of responsibility between the two had not been clearly defined. Hence resources were duplicated by local government agencies and central government bodies.

Against this background of duplication and confusion, of ineffectiveness and slow development at the local level, together with disorientation in the popular mind and the resulting dichotomy in the administrative system, an attempt was made in 1971 to introduce a new structure of local administration. In spite of the far reaching nature of the recommendations most of which were accepted, attempts at decentralization could not materialize until 1974.

The 1974 Local Government structure described as the “Single Hierarchy Model” sought to abolish the distinction between local and central government at the local level and create one common monolithic structure (District councils) to which was assigned the responsibilities of the totality of government at the local level.

So the shortcomings in the pre– and immediate post– independence local government systems led to a shift from the Dual Hierarchy Model of Administration to the

Single Hierarchy Model in 1974. Between 1974 and 1988, practical experimentation with the Single Hierarchy Model revealed even more serious flaws than its predecessor Model.

The reforms of 1988 aimed at combining the better of the two Models and also giving effective meaning to decentralization (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).

Structure of the New Local Government System (Decentralization)

The new local government system is the four–tier Metropolitan and three–tier

Municipal / District Assemblies structure as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Structure of the New Local Government System (Decentralization)

Metropolitan Municipal District Assemblies

Sub Metropolitan District Councils

Zonal Councils Urban/ Town/Area Town Councils Councils

Unit Committees

The District Assemblies in Ghana are either Metropolitan (population over

250,000), Municipal (one–town Assemblies with population over 95,000) or District (Population 75,000 and over). There are three (3) Metropolitan Assemblies four (4)

Municipal Assemblies and one Hundred and three (103) District Assemblies (1988). A metropolitan / municipal/ district assembly is created as the pivot of administrative and developmental decision–making in the District and the therefore the basic unit of government administration.

The Sub Metropolitan District Councils are immediately below the Metropolitan

Assemblies. There are thirteen (13) of these structures established by Law (1988) as shown in Fig 2.

Figure 2: Sub Metropolitan District Councils under Respective Metropolitan Assemblies

Accra Metropolitan Kumasi Metropolitan ShamaAhanta East

Assembly Assembly Metropolitan Assembly

1. Ablekuma 1. Asokwa 1. Sekondi

2. AshieduKeteke 2. Bantama 2. Shama

3. Ayawaso 3. Manhyia 3. Tarkoradi

4. Okaikwei 4. Subin

5. Kpeshie

6. OsuClottey

The Urban Councils are peculiar to settlements of “ordinary” District Assemblies.

They were created for settlements with population above 15,000 and which are cosmopolitan in character, with urbanization and management problems, though not of the scale associated with the metropolises. Thirty–four (34) of such councils were created/ established by Law (1988). All the 34 urban councils except Prestea, Madina,

Akwatia, Anloga, Aflao, Agogo and Nkawkaw, are District capitals (Ministry of Local

Government, 1994).

The Zonal Councils are in the “one– town” Municipal Assemblies of Cape Coast,

New Juaben, Tamale and Tema, for which the establishment of Town/ Area Councils raise problems of parallel administrative structures. There are one hundred and eight (108) of such Councils for the four (4) Municipal Assemblies.

The Town/Area Councils are found in the Metropolitan and district Assemblies. In the District Assemblies, Town Councils are established for settlements with population between 5,000 and 15,000. They are essentially rallying points of local enthusiasm in support of the development objectives of the District Assembly.

The Unit Committees form the base structure of the new Local Government System.

A unit is normally a settlement or a group of settlements with a population of between

500–1,000 in the rural areas, and higher a population (1,500) for the urban areas. Unit committees being in close touch with the people, have the important roles of education, organization of communal labour, revenue raising and ensuring environmental cleanliness, registration of births and deaths and implementation and monitoring of self – help projects to play.

The Regional Co–ordinating councils are established as part of the new arrangement for local government in Ghana (section 113 of PNDCL 207). There are ten (10) Regional co–ordinating councils. They are to co-ordinate and formulate the integrated plans and programmes of the District Assemblies in the Region and harmonize these plans and programmes with National development policies and priorities for approval by the government.

Realizing the importance of decentralization in governance, the government of

Ghana in 1988 put in place a decentralization programme based on such governance values as empowerment, equity, accountability, stability and checking of the rural-urban drift often associated with decentralization (Aryee, 1994). Specifically the decentralization program was designed to

1. accelerate growth in the rural economies and the development of rural communities

2. ensure that development is equitably spread throughout the country and is pursued

in a cost-effective manner

3. ensure that development reflects the felt and expressed needs and priorities of the

communities, and

4. empower communities to effectively participate in the decision-making that relates

to the overall management of development of the district (Republic of Ghana, 1993)

The 1992 constitution recognized the need to decentralize the machinery of government by providing that

1. functions, powers, responsibilities and resources should be transferred from the

central government to local government units. 2. measures are taken to enhance the capacity of local government authorities to

plan initiative, coordinate, manage and execute policies in respect of matters

affecting the local people.

3. local government units have sound financial bases with reliable sources of

revenue

4. local government staff are controlled by local authorities, and

5. there is popular local participation in local decision making.

The constitution also makes provision for the establishment of the District

Assemblies Common Fund into which not less than 5% of the total national revenue is paid in quarterly installments to the District Assemblies (DAs) for their development.

The moneys accruing from the Common Fund are distributed among all the District

Assemblies on a formula approved by Parliament based on (1) need 35% (2) equalisation 30% (3) responsiveness 20% (4) service pressure 15% and (5) contingency 5% (Aryee, 1994).

The structure of the Ghana local government system has been adjusted over the years As at 2008, there were six (6) metropolitan assemblies, forty (40) municipal assemblies and one hundred and twenty-four(124) district assemblies. This gave a grand total number of assemblies as one hundred and seventy (170) in the country.

Fig.3 presents the distribution of the district assemblies (both new and old ones).

Fig.3: The distribution of district assemblies

Region Number of Number of Total Number

Old New of Assemblies

Assemblies Assemblies

Greater Accra 6 4 10

Volta 15 3 18

Central 13 4 17

Eastern 17 4 21

Western 13 4 17

Ashanti 21 6 27

BrongAhafo 19 3 22

Northern 18 2 20

Upper West 8 1 9 Upper East 8 1 9

Total 138 32 170

Source: The Structure of the Ghana Local Government System. (2008). AFS 01.Poster 2008 Edition .

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY

In this section the research design adopted for the study, the population from which the samples were selected, and the sampling method are described. The data collection instruments, methods of data collection, as well as the key problems encountered in the data collection are also discussed.

Research Design

The research design found most suitable and adopted for this national case study was the descriptive or normative survey method. The scientist who adopts this method aims at gathering sufficient data that can be used to describe and interpret what exists at a particular time. The scientist attempts to investigate into the conditions that exist, practices that prevail, points of view that are held, processes that are going on, influences being felt, and trends that are developing. The purpose of such a social investigation is to gather relatively limited data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time so that information about the status quo can be arrived at (Lamnek, 2005).

Descriptive surveys are not free from shortcomings. As pointed out by Seifert

&Hoffnung, (1994), it is sometimes difficult to ensure the clarity of the questions to be answered, unless pains are taken to clearly word the questions. This shortcoming was addressed using feedback from the pilot study. Another shortcoming pointed out by the authors motioned above is that unless the respondents are people who can articulate their thoughts well and sometimes even put such thoughts in writing, the descriptive survey cannot be relied upon. This shortcoming was addressed by using the questionnaire to collect data exclusively from the very well educated samples.

In spite of the few problems inherent in the use of the descriptive survey method, it was found to be the most appropriate for this national case study. In the first place, it was adopted because our objective was to collect original data to describe a population too large to observe directly (Rubin & Babbie, 2001). Another reason, as pointed out by

Creswell (2002), was that it has the potential to provide a lot of information from quite a large sample of individuals within a short period.

Population

The target population was all stake holders (policy makers, policy implementors at all levels, and beneficiaries) of decentralization in the education, health and water sectors in the country. The accessible population comprised stakeholders selected from two districts in each of the three ecological zones of the country. The three ecological zones are the northern belt, made up of the Upper West Region, the Upper East Region, and the

Northern Region, and the middle belt made up of the BrongAhafo Region, the Ashanti

Region, the Western Region, the Central Region, the Eastern Region and parts of the Volta

Region. The third is the southern belt made up of the Greater Accra Region and the southern parts of the Volta and Central Regions.

The division of the country into three belts is based on the fact that climatically, ecologically, culturally, linguistically, and in terms of vegetation, areas within each belt tend to exhibit similar characteristics that make them quite distinct from those of the other belts. Given the similarities within each of the belts, one region was purposively selected from each of them. The Northern Region was purposively selected to represent the northern belt because it is the most centrally placed in that belt. Besides, the language of widest circulation in that region is mutually intelligible among many of the various linguistic groups in the northern belt.

The Ashanti Region was purposively selected to represent the middle belt because it appears to portray characteristics that represent those of the various ethnic groups within the belt. Finally Greater Accra Region was purposively selected to represent the southern belt because ecologically, culturally, linguistically and in terms of vegetation it is the most representative of the characteristics of all the other areas within that belt.

Sample and Sampling Technique Two districts were selected from each of the three regions. In the northern belt, represented by the Northern Region, the two districts purposively selected were the

Tolon-Kumbungu district, and the Nanumba South district. In the middle belt represented by the Ashanti Region, the two districts purposively selected were the Kwabre and

AtwimaNwabiagya districts. In the southern belt, Ga West and Dangme West districts were purposively selected.

Between 1998 and 1999 the country was divided into administrative districts in order to bring the task of governance down to the people through decentralization.

Further to this in 2003/2004 some of the districts were split, while new ones were created. So since the time this study was conducted, there have been in existence, old districts, and new districts. The description of the districts and the rationale for their selection are presented below.

A. Tolon-Kumbungu District

This is one of the Old Districts. It came into being when the division of Dagbon in the Northern Region into Western Dagomba and Eastern Dagomba Districts was abolished. The TolonKumbungu District then rose out of the ashes of the status quo prior to 1998.

The district shares borders with the West Mamprusi District to the north, the West

Gonja District to the west and south, and the Savelugu-Nanton District and Tamale

Metropolitan Area to the east. A lot of interventions have been made in the education, health and water sectors, and in local government and rural electrification in the district.

This district was purposively selected first, because it is one of the earliest districts to be established (http:// tolonkumbungu.ghanadistricts. gov.gh/ retrieved 26/03/09), and second because of its proximity to Tamale, the capital of the region.

B. The Nanumba South District

This is a New district. It is one of the twenty eight new districts created out of the original 110 Municipal and District Assemblies of the country. The creation of districts became necessary when it was realized that some of the then existing 110 Municipal and

District Assemblies (MDSs) were too large for realistic decentralization and effective governance. Wulensi is the capital of this district (http: // nanumbasouth.ghanadistricts.gov,gh/retrieved 26/03/09).

C. Kwabre District

The Kwabre District, carved out of the former Kwabre-Sekyere District in 1988, is located almost in the Central portion of the Ashanti Region. The district shares common boundaries with the Afigya-Sekyere District to the north, the Kumasi Metropolitan Area to the south, the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality to the southeast, the Atwima-Nwabiagya

Municipality to the West, and Offinso Municipality to the northwest. The district capital

Mamponten, is about 14.5 Kilometres northeast of Kumasi. The selection of this district was based, first, on its proximity to Kumasi, and second on the fact that it is an Old district

(http: www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/? News & r=2&=23) retrieved 28/03/09.

D. AtwimaNwabiagya District

AtwimaNwabiagya is one of the largest districts in the Ashanti Region. It is one of the New districts carved out of the then Atwima District in 2003. It is situated in the

Western part of the region and shares common boundaries with the AhafoAno and AtwimaMponua Districts to the west, Offinso Municipal to the north, Amansie West and

Bosomtwe-Atwima-Kwanwoma Districts to the south, and the Kumasi Metropolis and

Kwabre District to the east. The district was selected, first because it is close to the regional capital, Kumasi, and second because it is one of the newly established districts.

(http:// www.ghanadistricts.com/news/?d=818) retrieved 26/03/09. The district capital is

Nkawie.

E. Dangme West District

The Dangme West District is situated in the south-eastern part of Ghana. It is an

Old district which came into being when the then Dangme District was split into two as part of a national re-demarcation exercise carried out under the local government reforms of 1988. The district shares boundaries with the YiloKrobo District to the north- west, North Tongu District to the north-east, Akuapem North District to the West, Tema

District to the south west, and Dangme East District to the East. The selection of this district was based on it proximity to Accra, as well as the fact that it is one of the earliest- established districts (http://dangmewest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/) retrieved on 26/03/09.

The capital of the Dangme West District is Dodowa.

F. Ga West District

The capital of the Ga West District is Amasaman. The district is a New one, carved out of the erstwhile Ga Municipal. The process was part of the government’s decentralization and local government reforms of 2004. The Ga West District is the second largest of the six Municipalities and Districts in the Greater Accra Region. The Municipality shares common boundaries with Ga East

Municipality and Accra Metropolitan Assembly to the east, Akuapem South, Suhum-

Kraboa-Coaltar and West Akim Municipal to the north, Awutu-Efutu-Senya District to the west, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south.

The development focus of the Ga West Municipal Assembly for the next decade is

“ to achieve accelerated poverty reduction, shared growth through the creation of an enabling environment and empowerment of vulnerable groups within the context of good governance and decentralization. This relies on infrastructural development with particular emphasis on education and health, sanitation, water supply, improved agricultural production and marketing, all with the ultimate objective of promoting growth”. (http:// gawest.ghanadistricts. gov.gh/retrieved 28-03-09).

Selection of the Sample

The sample, which was purposively selected, included the Chief Director of the

Ministry of Education, and the Director General of the Ghana Education Service. It also included the Chief Directors of the Ministries of Health and Works and Housing and Water

Resources, as well as the Director General of the Ghana Health Service and the Managing

Director of the Ghana Water Company. Thus, in all, six officials were selected from the centre. At each of the six districts, the District Chief Executive, the District Coordinating

Director, and two members of the Social Services Committee of the District Assembly were selected. So at the district level a total of twenty four respondents were selected.

Included in the sample in each district were five assembly members randomly selected, five opinion leaders randomly selected, and ten other members or beneficiaries at the grassroots level randomly selected. These produced a total of one hundred and twenty respondents. In all a total of one hundred and fifty respondents were selected and used as the sample. In addition, Focus Group Discussions were held with 8-10 members in each of the six districts. There were two of such groups in each district.

Data Collection Instruments

The questionnaire was used as the main tool for data collection. This instrument was used to elicit information from policy makers and policy implementers. These were busy people who could not have been subjected to about an hour of interview. Besides, they were men and women well educated enough to offer information without interference from the researchers and research assistants. (Sarantakos, 1997).

Other reasons why the questionnaire was found the most appropriate tool were that besides its potential to produce information from many respondents within a short time, it is quite inexpensive in terms of time. It can also be completed at the respondent’s convenience. Hence this instrument was administered to Chief Directors of Ministries,

Managing Directors of state institutions, Directors General of state institutions, District, and Municipal Chief Executives, District-and Municipal Coordinating Directors, and well educated assembly members.

The questionnaire, according to Creswell (2002) has certain disadvantages. The first is that it does not allow for probing, prompting and clarification of answers given.

The second is that it does not provide opportunity to collect additional information from the respondent. These limitations were addressed by providing open-ended items to enable the respondents to explain, opine, and make elaborations.

Another tool used to collect data was the interview guide. At the grassroots level most of the beneficiaries of projects were found not literate enough to independently respond to questionnaires, so data were collected from them through the face-to-face interview mode.

Focus group discussions and documentary sources were also used to gather information. Focus group discussions were held with opinion leaders and grassroots beneficiaries. Documents accessed included those on the internet. All the information on district and municipal assemblies were gleaned from the internet.

Data Collection Procedure

At different times prior appointments with the Chief Directors and other policy- makers in the education, health and water sectors were secured. At the meeting with each official the purpose of the project was explained, and all questions in this regard were answered. The questionnaire was then hand-delivered to the official. The same was done with the District and Municipal Chief Executives and the other consequential actors. In all cases it was agreed that the questionnaires would be completed and collected back in a week. The one-week completion time, however, could not be adhered to since on several occasions the researchers could not meet the official in office. It took about 2 months for each official to complete their questionnaires.

Focus group discussions were also held with opinion leaders and grassroots beneficiaries in the communities. The opinion leaders were mainly retired people, headteachers, and other “traditional respectables”. They usually met in the late afternoons after the day’s work. They agreed on the time and venue for their meetings.

The facilitator, guided by a detailed outline, initiated, guided and moderated the discussion, prompting, asking for clarifications, and tape-recording. At the end of each discussion schedule the tape was played back for the group to hear.

The non-opinion leaders were mainly farmers, housewives, food vendors, and operators of very small scale businesses. Meeting with these groups was challenging since they could not adhere to the meeting times agreed upon.

Problems Encountered

Several formidable problems were encountered in the process of data collection.

First, it was found extremely difficult to reach officials at the national, district and municipal offices to arrange for appointment. When appointments were eventually secured, it became very difficult to reach the officials for discussion. Sometimes interruptions were so numerous that precious discussions had to be cut short and then postponed. Second, the task of constituting focus groups for discussion was found challenging.

This was especially so with the grassroots focus groups. Getting them to assemble was a problem; getting them to report on time was another.

The third was fear and suspicion. In the rural areas potential respondents suspected that the researchers and research assistants were out to elicit information from them for purposes they the people did not know. They suspected that they would be betrayed one day if they expressed negative feelings about politicians. Others suspected that the research assistants were agents of a political party who were out there to elicit information for political purposes. Still others were not sure of the usefulness of the exercise because, according to them they had previously been involved in similar exercises which had yielded no obvious fruits. Such potential respondents were very unwilling to be involved in the exercise. In some cases such people refused altogether to participate in the exercise.

The fourth was demands for payment. Some of the respondents demanded payment before consenting to participate in the exercise. The tokens given to them were obviously not enough to satisfy them.

Finally the weather was not friendly at all. In the Ashanti Region especially, the data collection exercise was on several occasions disrupted for several days by torrential rains. On such occasions rivulets, streams and other water bodies blocked roads and paths, making it impossible for movement around to be made. Whatsmore, in the Ga West District frequent encounters with snakes put a lot of fear in the research assistant. Such encounters and fear could stall the exercise for days.

To alleviate the fear protective boots had to be bought for the research assistant.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter deals with the results and discussion of the findings emanating from the eight research questions.

Research Question 1 What are the manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?

This first section of the chapter examines the manifestations or indications of the effectiveness of decentralization in the study areas. The data available indicate that decisions in connection with decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors are taken at the national, district and the local community levels.

Decisions taken at the national level focus on planning, budgeting and resource allocation.

The other is concerned with human resource management issues. Although respondents could not provide consensus about the existence of a written policy in the education sector, the literature tends to suggest that the decisions and efforts aimed at decentralizing educational service delivery reflect Ghana’s decentralization reform, i.e. districts should be empowered to implement policy decisions effectively (1992 Constitution; Ghana Republic, 1994). Indeed researchers, as for example,

Rondinelli, (1981) clearly articulate that the transfer of authority or the dispersal of power in public planning, management and decision-making from the national level to sub- national or local levels are the basic tenets of decentralization.

The education sector is inching toward full-blown decentralization but it is beset with problems such as inadequate or lack of the necessary financial, human and infrastructural resources. These bottlenecks give credence to Rosenbaum’s (2000) assertion that national governments have the tendency to devolve responsibilities to local government without providing the necessary resources.

The key objectives of the decentralization policy in the health sector are to achieve probity and accountability and give authority to the regional heads. The rationale behind this is the conviction that when power and authority are transferred to the regions and when probity and accountability are in place resource fairness in resource allocation as well as project monitoring and evaluation would be improved.

As pointed out by Agrawal and Ribot, (2007), the three distinct dimensions that underlie decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. The data suggest that developments in the health sector have improved monitoring and evaluation of its programmes. Still, however, the problems of inadequate human and financial resources still remain. Whatsmore effective devolution of power on the regional and district heads has not been achieved Thus there seems to be concentration of power still at the national level.

The objectives or key tenets of decentralization in the water sector are to reach out to the most remote communities or areas with water. The stated policy has been that the communities should be enabled to support themselves in water provision and community sanitation. Respondents indicated that budgetary allocations for the water sector, though inadequate, have always been made.

The objectives of the decentralization policy in the energy sector are to make energy available to the local communities and encourage the local communities to contribute to project funding. Through rural self-help electricity programmes, there has been considerable success in the extension of electricity to the rural areas. Some minimal budgetary allocations have always also been made at the national and district levels.

As observed the self-help electrification programme by which roles are shared by the national and local people has enhanced the supply of electricity to rural areas. What draws back this deconcentration and delegation, however, has been inadequate funding.

Decisions in the education sector made at the district level in the Northern Region include decisions concerning posting of teachers, work place policies and enacting of by- laws to monitor the performance of teaching/learning. In Ashanti Region these include decisions concerning posting of teachers and enacted by-laws to monitor the teaching and learning, as well as transfer of teachers and administrative staff. It also include the building of school blocks. In the Greater Accra Region the main decision concerns posting of teachers and the building of school blocks. The distributions of these responses are

presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of decisions in the educational sector made at the district level

Region Types of decision

Decisions Workplace Decisions on Make Transfere No Total concernin Policies building byelaws of response g posting school to teaching of blocks monitor staff and teachers teachin administra g and tive staff learning Norther 5 1 0 1 0 1 8 n (N/R) (62.5%) (12.5%) (.0%) (12.5%) (.0%) (12.5%) (100.0%) Ashanti 1 0 4 1 1 1 8 (A/R) (12.5%) (.0%) (50.0%) (12.5%) (12.5%) (12.5%) (100.0%) Greater 5 0 1 0 0 2 8 Accra (62.5%) (.0%) (12.5%) (.0%) (.0%) (25.0%) (100.0%) (A/R) 11 1 5 2 1 4 24 Total (45.8%) (4.2%) (20.8%) (8.3%) (4.2%) (16.7%) (100.0%)

These findings made in the communities give support to the accounts made at the

national and district levels to the effect that decisions on education are taken at both the

national and district levels: the latter focuses on posting of teachers, building of new

school blocks and monitoring of teaching and learning, while the former focuses on policy

and financial issues. This picture is an indication of dispersal of decision making to the

substructures of government at the regional and district levels, a process which is

consistent with the New Local Government system.

Respondents were asked if decisions in the health sector were made at the

national level. In the Northern Region it was reported that decisions in the health sector are made at the national level, and to some extent, at the district level. Thus decisions are made at both the national and district levels. In Ashanti Region it was it was reported that decisions in the health sector are made at both the national and district levels. The same is the case in the Greater Accra Region.

In all the regions it was reported that decisions that devolve on the districts are posting of nurses and essential health workers, as well as provision of health education.Others are decisions on work place policies and where to site health posts. The distribution of the responses by region is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Types of decisions in the health sector made at the district level

These data also establish that decisions in the health sector are taken at both the

central government and district levels. Decisions by the districts involve the deployment

of nurses, building of new health posts and efforts at making health facilities accessible to

the local people. These corroborate the information provided at the national and district

headquarters. This situation reflects some elements of decentralization referred to as

deconcentration and delegation where according to its proponent’s decision making

Region Types of decision

Provision Posting Workpla How Where Educatin Recrui Decisi No Total of health of ce to to site g clients tment on on res facilities nurses policies make health on health of bye- pon to rural healt post bits comm laws se areas hcare or unity on acces clinics health person sible worke al rs and hygien nursin e and g sanitat assista ion nts Northern 2 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 8 (N/R) (25.0%) (12.5%) (12.5%) (12.5 (25.0% (12.5%) (.0%) (.0%) (.0 (100. %) ) %) 0%) Ashanti 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 8 (A/R) (25.0%) (12.5%) (.0%) (.0%) (12.5% (12.5%) (12.5% (12.5% (12. (100. ) ) ) 5%) 0%) Greater 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 3 8 Accra (25.0%) (12.5%) (12.5%) (12.5 (.0%) (.0%) (.0%) (.0%) (37. (100. (A/R) %) 5%) 0%) 6 3 2 2 3 2 1 1 4 24 Total (25.0%) (12.5%) (8.3%) (8.3% (12.5% (8.3%) (4.2%) (4.2%) (16. (100. ) ) 7%) 0%) authority and financial management responsibilities are distributed among different levels of the central government but ultimately accountable to the government (www ciesin. org)).

The loci of decision making in the water sector do not differ from those of the education and health sectors. The data is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Types of decisions in the water sector made at the district level

Obviously, in the Water sector decisions are taken at all three levels: national, district and local, though the kinds of decisions vary from level to level. For instance all the regions report that decisions taken at the district level include only those concerning the distribution of water facilities and construction of boreholes. Just as the case is in education and health sectors, some elements of deconcentration and delegation are present though not in a comprehensive form.

Region Types of decision

Decisions Manage Distribut mechani No Total concernin ment of ion of zed response g potable water borehol

provision drinking facilities e to of water water many

resources commun ities

Norther 4 2 1 0 1 8 n (N/R) (50.0%) (25.0%) (12.5%) (.0%) (12.5%) (100.

0%) Ashanti 0 0 3 5 0 8

(A/R) (.0%) (.0%) (37.5%) (62.5%) (.0%) (100. 0%)

Greater 2 0 3 1 2 8 Accra (25.0%) (.0%) (37.5%) (12.5%) (25.0%) (100.

(A/R) 0%) 6 2 7 6 3 24

Total (25.0%) (8.3%) (29.2%) (25.0%) (37.5%) (100. 0%) The communities also indicated that decisions about electricity were made at the

National and District levels. Like the other sectors discussed above, fiscal decentralization was not evident. There is however an element of deconcertration and delegation of decision making. Overall, it appears decentralization of decision making in the regions and districts has been far more effective in administrative decentralization and far less effective in fiscal decentralization.

Regarding the existence of educational facilities in the communities it was discovered that virtually respondents in all the communities indicated that there were schools in their communities. This is overwhelming evidence that schools do exist in all the districts. However, it is worth noting that the number of respondents who confirmed that schools existed tend to dwindle as one moves away from the districts near the national capital (Dangbe West and Ga West Districts). The districts in the Northern region

(Nanumba South and TolonKumbugu) have the lowest. It is concluded here that the greater the physical proximity of a community is to a centre of urban life the more the number of schools it tends to have. The distribution of responses is presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Respondents who agreed that they had schools in their communities

Frequency Percentage Districts

Tolon/Kumbugu 14 70.0 District (TKD) Nanumba South 13 65,0 Distict (NSD) Kwabre District 18 90.0 (KD) AtwimaNwabia 19 95.0 gya District (AND) Dangme West 20 100.0 District (DWD) Ga West District 20 100.0 (GWD) In the case of libraries, the reverse was the case: the Northern Regional Districts

(TolonKumbugu and Nanumba South Districts) had more libraries in their communities than the Ashanti (Atwima and Kwabre) and Greater Accra Regional Districts (Dangbe and

Ga West Districts). Ga West has none at all. These revelations were confirmed through the focus group discussions. Respondents in the Greater Accra and Ashanti Region districts, especially complained about the lack of or inadequacy of library facilities. For instance, an elderly man in the AtwimaNwabiagya District lamented that: “In addition to the poor state of their classrooms there is no library for safe keeping of the inadequate books”

In the health sector respondents indicated that for the past 5 to 20 years only a few (not more than 20%) of communities in the study districts had hospitals constructed.

Districts that did not have hospitals at all wereNanumba South, TolonKumbugu, Ga West and Dangbme West. This is in stark contrast with the case of education where over 80% of the respondents in the districts reported having had schools and kindergartens for the past 5 to 20 years.

In districts where hospitals were not available, it was realized that there were clinics and/or health posts to take care of their health needs. The clinics and health posts were however not able to deal with complicated health cases. For example in the

NanumbaSouth and TolonKumbuguDistricts, some of the respondents had this to say. ‘’ because there is no hospital, we always have to rush the sick to the district capital or in extreme cases the Tamale Hospital. Suchdelays invariably lead to deaths’’.

The respondents were asked if water facilities had been provided for the past 5 to

20 years. In all the six districts those who indicated that they had pipe borne water were fewer than those who indicated otherwise. For instance in three districts (Dangme West,

TolonKumbugu and Atwima Districts) over 60% of the respondents did not have pipe borne water.

Communities that did not have pipe borne water, depended on bore holes and wells as their sources of drinking water. It was further observed that while Dangme West had no bore holes, TolonKumbugu and Kwabre districts depended heavily on bore holes, wells and other water bodies. Similar findings came from the focus group discussions. The following concerns expressed during one focus group discussion in the Kwabre District illustrate the point. ‘’ River Offin is our major source of water, the only borehole is still under construction and we are not sure when it will be completed. Therefore without the river our lives will be unbearable. Hmm … the sad story is that during the dry season, the Offin dries up and we have to move from house to house to draw water from wells. We end up drinking bad water which frequently results in diseases”.

The views of respondents regarding payment of money towards the schooling of their wards were divided in all the six districts. While some declared that payments have ceased following the abolition of fees and introduction of the capitation grant others disagreed, claiming that payments still existed in the form of examination fees, fees for school projects and in a few cases for textbooks fees. Apparently the latter groups of respondents interpret free education as an absolutely free service. Responses on payment of school fees are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Reasons for wards not paying school fees

Districts Reasons Not too No Capitation Abolitio Capitati sure of respons grant n of fees on grant what to e And say Abolitio Total n of fees Tolon/Kumbu 12 4 0 4 0 20 gu District 60.0% 20.0% 0% 20.0% 0% 100.0% (TKD) Nanumba 14 3 1 2 0 20 South Distict 70.0% 15.0 % 5.0% 10.0 % 0% 100.0% (NSD) Kwabre 16 0 0 4 0 20 District (KD) 80.0% 0% 0% 20.0% 0% 100.0% AtwimaNwabi 9 0 0 9 2 20 agya District 45.0% 0% 0% 45.0% 10.0% 100.0% (AND) Dangme West 6 0 0 5 9 20 District 30.0% 0% 0% 25.0% 45.0% 100.0% (DWD) Ga West 8 0 0 5 3 20 District 40.0% 0% 0% 25.0% 15.0% 100.0% (GWD) Total Count 65 7 1 33 14 120 % within 54.2% 5.8% .8% 27.5% 11.7% 100.0% Numbers

Again, opinions were divided on the payment for health care in all the districts except Dangme West District. While others stated that they did not pay for health services, others insisted that they paid for their medical services. Those who paid were largely those who were not registered under the National Health Insurance Scheme

(NHIS). Such individuals had to pay for drugs, consultation and other services.

Interestingly, the premium for the NHIS registration was said to be unbearable, especially in the Atwima Nwabiagya and Kwabre districts where the respondents complained bitterly about the cost of medical services.

In all the six districts the people paid for the use of pipe borne water. It is evident from the data that electricity usage is paid for in all districts. The few respondents who stated that they did not pay for electricity in the NanumbaSouth, AtwimaNwabiagya and

Dangme West Districts for instance are likely to be in communities not connected to electricity in their homes.

The local level responses confirm the results of the district level where it was observed that access to schools and kindergarten, was higher than the availability and use libraries in the various districts.

As a reflection of the lack or inadequate number of health facilities, particularly hospitals, in all the districts the proportion of the people in the communities who reported to have access to modern health care facilities is low. The use of health facilities is remarkably low in TolonKubumgu and Nanumba South Districts. During the focus group discussions it was observed that quite a significant number of the local people still patronized traditional medicine in the districts in the Northern Region due to first, the lack of health care facilities, second inability to pay for the NHIS premium and third the high cost of modern health care.

Apart from DangmeWest District, the picture is that of poor access to pipe borne water. The use of boreholes and wells is higher in the remaining districts. When asked why they did not use pipe- borne water, all the respondents indicated that either the facility was not available in the community or that the wells and boreholes are more patronized because their use does not attract any fees.

In all the Districts it was found that large proportions of the population had access to electricity. The distribution of people who enjoyed electricity in the districts is shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Responses on whether respondents used electricity or not

Yes No Districts

Tolon/Kumbugu 18(94.7%) 1(5.3%) District (TKD) Nanumba South 16(80%) 4(20%) Distict (NSD) Kwabre District 20(100%) 0 (0.0%) (KD) AtwimaNwabia 19(95%) 1(5%) gya District (AND) Dangme West 13(65%) 7(35%) District (DWD) Ga West District 19(95%) 1(5%) (GWD)

Positive effects of services provided

Respondents were asked to indicate the positive effects of developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors on their lives. The responses are provided in Tables 7, 8 and 9. Table 7 displays the specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of the respondents as a result of the abolition of school fees and the introduction of the Capitation grant. According to them the money which could have been used to pay school fees are used for other things. Theythus can send more of their children to school.

Table 7: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of respondents as a result of the abolition of school fees and the introduction of the Capitation grant

Specific Positive Changes

Money used to To send more pay school fees of my children No response Total are used for to school other things Tolon/Kumbugu 17 2 0 19 District (TKD) 89.5% 10.5% 0% 100.0%

Nanumba South 17 2 1 20 Distict (ND) 85.0% 10.5% 5.0% 100.0%

Kwabre District 8 12 0 20 (KD) 40.0% 60.0% 0% 100.0%

AtwimaNwabiagya 5 2 13 20 District (AD) 25.0% 10.0% 65.0% 100.0%

Dangme West 0 0 20 20 District (DD) 0% 0% 100.0% 100.0%

Ga West District 4 3 13 20 (GWD) 20.0% 15.0% 65.0% 100.0% Total 51 21 47 119 42.9% 17.6% 39.5% 100.0%

Table 8 also shows the specific positive changes that have occurred in the people’s lives as a result of the introduction of NHIS. The respondents indicated that the pressure for them getting money before they are treated was no more, h ospital bills were now

used for other purposes and that they now visit hospital regularly.

Table 8: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of the people as a result of the introduction of NHIS.

Specific Positive Changes

The Hospital I now Frequent No Total pressure bill is visit death in response the for me now Can my hospita getting used for access familyis a l health money other regularl thing of regardles District before purpose y the past s (money lam withou or no treated t money) is gone spendi ng money Tolon/Ku 13 2 2 2 0 0 19 mbugu 68.4% 10.5% 10.5% 10.5% 0% 0% District 100.0 (TKD) Nanumba 18 0 0 2 0 0 20 South 90.0% 0% 0% 10.0% 0% 0% 100.0 Distict (ND) Kwabre 17 3 0 0 0 0 20 District 85.0% 15.0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100.0 (KD) AtwimaNw 12 7 0 1 0 0 20 abiagya 60.0% 35.0% 0% 5.0% 0% 0% 100. District (AD) Dangme 15 5 0 0 0 0 20 West 75.0% 25.0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100.0 District (DD) Ga West 9 9 0 0 1 1 20 District 45.0% 45.0% 0% 0% 5.0% 5.0% 100.0 (GWD) 84 26 2 5 1 1 119 Total 70.6% 21.8% 1.7% 4.2% 8% 8% 100.0

Table 9 also shows the specific positive changes that have occurred in people’s

lives as a result of the provision of water in the communities.

Table 9: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of respondents as a result of the provision of water in the communities. Specific Positive Changes

We no Guinea No Total We now longer worm have response

walk infection access to Not too long is gone good certain District distances drinking for water water Tolon/Kumbugu 12 5 2 0 0 19 District (TKD) 63.2% 26.3% 10.5% 0% 0% 100.0

Nanumba South 18 0 2 0 0 20 Distict (ND) 90.0% 0% 10.0% 0% 0% 100.0

Kwabre District 7 0 9 4 0 20 (KD) 35.0% 0% 45.0% 20.0% 0% 100.0%

AtwimaNwabiagya 6 5 4 1 4 20 District (AD) 30.0% 25.0% 20.0% 5.0% 20.0% 100.0

Dangme West 0 5 0 0 15 20 District (DD) 0% 25.0% 0% 0% 75.0% 100.0

Ga West District 5 4 4 1 6 20 (GWD) 25.0% 20.0% 20.0% 5.0% 30.0% 100.0

Total 48 19 21 6 26 119 40.3% 16.0% 17.6% 5.0% 21.0% 100.0%

Table 10 also depicts the specific positive changes that have occurred in people’s

lives as a result of the provision of electricity in the communities.

Table 10: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of respondents as a result of the provision of electricity in the communities. Specific Positive Changes

Now It Not Brighten Gives me No Total able to helps Helps spend s the an response use me to to money commun improve electrical sell study on ity d District gadgets soft at buying standard night batterie like TVs drinks of living s Tolon/Kum 8 3 2 1 4 0 1 19 bugu 42.1% 15.8% 10.5% 5.3% 21.1% 0% 5.3% District 100.0% (TKD) Nanumba 13 0 0 0 0 2 5 20 South 65.0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 10.0% 20.0% 100.0% Distict (ND) Kwabre 11 6 0 0 3 0 0 20 District (KD) 55.0% 30.0% 0% 0% 15.0% 0% 0% 100.0%

AtwimaNwa 2 2 5 0 1 1 9 20 biagya 10.0% 10.0% 20.0% 0% 5.0% 5.0% 45.0% 100.0% District (AD) Dangme 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 West 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 100.0% 100.0% District (DD) Ga West 4 1 3 2 1 0 9 20 District 20.0% 5.0% 15.0% 0% 10.0% 5.0% 45.0% 100.0% (GWD)

Total 38 12 10 3 9 3 44 119 31.9% 10.1% 6.4% 2.5% 7.6% 2,5% 37.0% 100.0%

Considerable proportions of respondents in TolonKumbugu,,NanumbaSouth and

KwabreDistricts indicated that the abolition of school fees and introduction of the

capitation grant had resulted in tremendous positive changes in their lives as well as in

the lives of other community members. Explaining some of the positive changes that had

occurred in their lives during a focus group discussion a man said: ‘’I could not have

afforded to send more of my children to school, but with this abolition of school fees I am

able to do so”.

A woman declared: ‘’Sometimes in the past, when my child came home from school

or when she was on holidays, I used to engage her in selling some petty things to raise

money for school fees or any other expenditure, but now with the abolition of school

fees, I no longer engage her in such activities’’.

On the contrary most respondents in AtwimaNwabiagya, Dangme and Ga West

Districts could not express any positive effects of the capitation grant and abolition of

school fees. In the focus group discussion in GaWest District, a man said: ‘’ because whenever the capitation grant does not come early, the whole academic programme of the school is jeopardized throughout the year’.

As can be observed from the data available in all of the six districts studied, majority of the local level respondents agreed that the NHIS and the Free Maternal Health

Care (FMHC) programmes had had positive consequences on their personal lives and the lives of other members of the community. During focus group discussion the respondents recounted some of the benefits in their lives; ‘’ there is easy access to health care, “even when you do not have money”, “you can go to the hospital”, “it has improved our health status’’. In NanumbaSouth District, a man added that; ‘’whenever my wife is pregnant, the

Free Maternal Health Care relieves me of some burden, because the little money that I have will be used for other things like baby clothing, soap and preparation for the naming ceremony. I wish the government could extend it to the period when the child is three years old”.

The data show that majority of the local respondents in the districts concur that the provision of facilities like pipe borne water and bore holes has impacted positively on their lives as well as the lives of other members of the community. The most appreciated benefits include the fact that the provision of water has saved them a lot of time, prevented guinea worm infection, and provided them good drinking water. In short they have economic, social and health benefits. Similar sentiments were expressed at the focus group discussion. In TolonKumbuguDistrict for instance, a respondent had this to share; ‘’I am now free from guinea worm; this has improved my health status’’. Another added:

‘’for me, every morning I used to walk a long distance for water before I could do anything else but now pipe borne water is near me. So now I can get water within a short time’’.

With the exception of a respondent in DangmeWest District all respondents reported remarkable positive changes in their lives and in the lives of other members of the community. The following comments from the focus group discussions illustrate the point: ‘’the provision of electricity here has encouraged some experts like nurses, teachers, and assembly workers to stay here and discharge their duties effectively’’.

(NanumbaSouth District) ‘’ Now electricity has provided security for all of us, people used to commit crimes in the night without being caught, but now such things are past things in this town’’. (TolonKumbuguDistrict) ‘’ Yes we have benefits, we use it for ironing and watching TV, but frequent light–outs destroy our appliances and food stuffs’’. (GaWest

District),

The answer for research question one can now be summarized to the effect that manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the education, healthand water sectors are that decisions in all the four sectors are taken at both national and districts levels. More people now have access to school, healthcare, water and electricity. This has impacted positively on the lives of people. Decentralization of the health sector has enhanced monitoring and evaluation in that sector. Budgetary allocations to the health sector, though inadequate has always been made. Through rural electrification programmes of the District Assemblies considerable successes have been made in the extension of electricity to rural areas. Districts Assemblies make bye –laws to monitor the performance of teaching and learning. e.g. the functions of Parent Teacher Associations and School Management Committees. Regarding power to actors, sometimes national level authorities still hold on to power which should have been transferred to the lower structures of government. The implication of this is that the decentralized authorities sometimes have inadequate authority to implement their programmesor meet their responsibilities.

Research Question 2 To what extent are human and material resources transferred from the national level to the local levels?

This section focuses on the extent to which human and material resources have been transferred from the national level to the district and local levels to promote the decentralization process. The human resources in question are teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians in the water and electricity sectors. The non human resources are infrastructure, equipment and finance. Others are materials such as books, drugs and machinery. These transfers are important because effective decentralization requires that functions, powers expertise and resources are made available at the various implementation levels (Ministry of Local Government, 1994: Rondinelli, 1981).

The findings indicate that a substantial number of teachers have constantly been posted to the schools through the District Education Directorate. The respondents indicated that apart from the directors and supervisors, teaches have been posted to schools in the community. In spite of these postings the discussions revealed that there are still not enough trained teachers in all the communities. An overwhelming majority (90.0%) of the respondents were of the view that the teachers are contributing quite effectively to learning in the schools. The few who did not think so attributed the

Reasons

teachers’ inability to deliver more effectively to inadequate textbooks and stationery as well as inadequate and unsuitable classrooms and furniture. Others were frustrations arising out of poor salary and lack of decent accommodation and modern social amenities, especially in the rural areas. The respondents indicated further that in some cases teachers do not live in the community due to inadequate accommodation. Some of the teachers do not live in the communities because either they dislike living in the village or they don’t feel comfortable living in the village owing to ethnic differences as indicated in Table 11.

Table 11: Reasons for teachers not residing in the communities

Don’t feel comfortable Lack of Dislike living living in the accomm in the village village due to No response odation ethnicity Tolon/Kumbugu 12 7 0 0 19 District (TKD) 63.2% 36.8% 0% 0% 100.0% Nanumba South 11 0 7 2 20 Distict (NSD) 55.0% 0% 35.0% 10.0% 100.0% Kwabre District 10 1 1 8 20 (KD) 50.0% 5.0% 5.0% 40.0% 100.0% AtwimaNwabiagya 12 6 0 2 20 District (AND) 60.0% 30.0% 0% 10.0% 100.0% Dangme West 15 5 0 0 20 District (DWD) 75.0% 25.0% 0% 0% 100.0% Ga West District 13 4 0 3 20 (GWD) 65.0% 20.0% 0% 15.0% 100.0% Total 73 23 8 15 119 61.0% 19.3% 6.7% 12.6% 100.0%

So in conclusion the data indicate that the majority of the beneficiaries perceive teachers to be contributing to effective learning in the schools.

Even though doctors, nurses and other health workers posted to these communities are trained, they are found to be inadequate in numbers. The case of doctors was found to be even more serious. In the NanumbaSouth District for example, where modern social amenities were inadequate, it was reported that there was no single doctor at the time of the study. Responses from 77.5% of the respondents indicate that to a large extent the doctors, nurses and other health workers were contributing to effective health delivery in the communities. However, factors that inhibit their full enhanced performance as in the case of teachers were frustrations due to delay in salary payments, inadequate decent accommodation, inadequate equipment and uncooperative attitude of patients.

Responses from the respondents indicated that enough technicians had been selected and offered training to maintain the machinery in the water sector. Supervisors also visit the communities regularly to oversee the work the technicians do. In the

TolonKumbugu, NanumbaSouth and KwabreDistricts, 9(47.4%), 13(65%) and 18(90%) respondents respectively indicated that the supervisors or technicians were available to ensure the running of water from pipes/boreholes in the community. In the

AtwimaNwabiagya, DangmeWest and GaWest Districts; 11(55%), 0(0%) and 10(50%) indicated that there were technicians to the ensure the safety of the machines.

We therefore conclude that in the communities there are supervisors in the water sector who visit the technicians to ensure the running of water from the pipes and bore- holes. With regard to the effectiveness of the work of the supervisors and technicians in ensuring the availability of running water in the communities, opinions were divided.

About half of the respondents (50.7%) were of the view that the technicians and the supervisors have been so far effective. The other half expressed a contrary view. The later group attributed the apparent lack of effectiveness to the fact that some of the supervisors do not live in the communities, that the job is not a daily activity or the pipe borne water provision was still in the hands of the contractors and that the supervisors disliked living in the villages as shown in Table 12. Besides there was low morale due to inadequate decent accommodation and dissatisfaction with their salaries. We may conclude therefore that whenever there are pipes and bore-holes workers in the water sector are quite effective in ensuring that water is running as required.

Table 12: Reason for apparent lack of effectiveness of the work of the technicians and supervisors

Reasons

The pipe The job is not a borne Lack of daily activity No response water is accomm which demands Dislikes living Dissatisfacti still in odation them there in village on with Total constructi always their salaries on Tolon/ 9 1 2 2 2 3 19 Kumbu 47.4% 5.3% 10.5% 10.5% 16.0% 15.8% 100.0% gu District (TKD) Nanum 16 0 0 0 0 4 20 ba 80.0% 0% 0% 10.0% 0% 20.0% 100.0% South Distict (NSD) Kwabre 2 1 3 0 3 11 20 District 10.0% 5.0% 15.0% 0% 55.0% 100.0% (KD) 15.0% Atwima 4 0 7 0 5 4 20 Nwabia 20.0% 0% 35.0% 0% 25.0% 20.0% 100.0% gya District (AND) Dangm 15 0 0 0 5 0 20 e West 75.0% 0% 0% 0% 25.0% 0% 100.0% District (DWD) Ga 4 1 4 0 4 7 20 West 20.0% 5.0% 20.0% 0% 20.0% 35.0% 100.0% District (GWD) Count 50 3 16 2 19 29 119 % 42.0% 2.5% 13.4% 1.7% 16.0% within 24.4% 100.0% Numbe rs

The data available also indicate that in the electricity sector experts had been transferred. However, they are not adequate for all the communities. For example in the

AtwimaNwabiagyaDistrict, some problems connected with electricity supply have to be reported at Kumasi, the regional capital To some extent the electricity experts can be said to be not all that effective since complaints made to them are either not always attended to at all or the attention is not prompt.

The answer for research question two, therefore, is that to a large extent human and non-human resources have been transferred from the centre to the districts. The sector most favoured in terms of human resources transferred to the district is the education sector. In the case of the health sector, however, in many cases the numbers of doctors and nurses posted to the districts have invariably been inadequate. Specifically, central government appoints 30% of District/Municipal Assembly members. This is done mainly to fill skilled manpower gaps. Personnel orexperts (teachers, nurses, doctors, technicians and extension officers) are transferred into the Districts to fill vacancies.

Teachers who serve in the rural areas have some incentives. e.g. they qualify for study leave with pay within shorter periods. The District Education Directorate each year post newly trained teachers and teachers seeking transfers. Five percent to 7% of the national budget is reserved in a fund called the District Assemblies Common Fund. This is distributed according to a formula to all the decentralized authorities Equipment and other capital items are also transferred to the District by the central government. The challenges are the lack of social amenities in the rural areas which sometimes de-motivate personnel posted and transferred to the countryside as well as adequacy and the late arrival of funds from the central government.

Research Question 3 How effectively are the human and material resources transferred to the local levels utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactory

In this section we discuss the issue of whether material resources were transferred to the districts or local levels and whether they have been effectively used in those areas.

Devolution of resources has been recognized as a key pre-requisite for effective implementation of decentralization policy. Rosenbaum (2000) states that decentralization in reality involves the devolution of responsibilities and resources to independent and autonomous sub-national authorities which are accountable to both the central government and their communities. “And there shall be established for each local government unit a sound financial base with adequate and reliable sources of revenue”

(1992 Constitution p, 150).

It is evident from the data that though funds have been made available for education, health, water and electricity projects in almost all communities they are not adequate in all cases. As illustrated by Faguet, (2001) and Bardhan, (2002), case studies of successful decentralizationin Brazil and Boliva were as a result of substantial resources allocated across localities especially from the central government to poor areas. Therefore, as found in this study since funds have not been enough for all the sectors, the realization of the decentralization goal is far from being achieved.

A recurring revelation from all the Focus Group Discussions carried out was that the District Assembly Common Fund is the main source of funding from the government.

However, this fund is not only inadequate but also it does not arrive on time. In addition the Assemblies lack personnel who are well versed in revenue mobilization. Hence funding constraints retard the effective working of the decentralization process. Funds transferred to the districts according to most of the respondents have to a large extent been accessible. Besides, funds allocated to the districts though inadequate are effectively used.

A government of Ghana policy is that every child in the Basic School should have copies of the textbooks in the three core subjects (English, Mathematics and Science). The majority of the respondents in all the communities indicated that textbooks had been supplied to the schools. However, in some cases the problems lie in delays in supply and in the refusal of some headteachers to allow the children to take the textbooks home. The supply of supplementary books has not been adequate. In almost all the districts the responses indicated that the supply of stationery has not been adequate in terms of quantity. The supply of textbooks, supplementary books and stationery havealso been erratic and therefore cannot be put to effective use.

The majority of the respondents in the communities indicated that they had classrooms and furniture. The gloomy side of it is that in all the districts, school libraries are either woefully inadequate or are nonexistent. In most of the public schools the textbooks and supplementary readers are largely obsolete and mutilated. The libraries, even if they exist, are not put to effective use.

Concerning the health sector, the majority of the respondents indicated that medicine, vehicles, office equipment, and accommodation have been supplied to the clinics and hospitals in their communities and are being put to effective use.

The findings above are indications of specific kinds of concrete interventions at the district level that lend substance and give meaning to the devolution of resources, roles and powers to government sub-structures. According to most perspectives on decentralization, effectiveness hinges on the availability, adequacy and the effective use of resources. It also hinges on accountability (Rosenbaum, 2000: Agrawal&Ribot 2007)).

In the spirit of decentralization enough technicians have been selected and offered training to maintain the machinery in the water sector. In the communities there are supervisors in the water sector who visit the technicians to ensure the running of water from the pipes and bore-holes. With regard to the effectiveness of the work of the supervisors and technicians in ensuring the availability of running water in the communities we may conclude therefore that whenever there are pipes and bore-holes, workers in the water sector are quite effective in ensuring that water is running as required.

As pointed out above, medicine, office equipment, vehicles and accommodation have been supplied to the clinics and hospitals in the communities and have effectively been put to use though not to the same degree of effectiveness as is the case in the education sector. It is probably due to the limited number of health facilities and doctors in the communities. The experiences reported give support to the conclusions of Agrawal and Ribot (2007) which state that the three key factors that underlie all acts of decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. The authors highlight accountability since according to them it broadens participation and allows actors to be held downwardly accountable to their constituencies.

Based on the data discussed so far, the answer for research question three is that human and material resources have been transferred to the local communities. The human resources such as teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians have not always been adequate in numbers. Funds have also been made available but this resource has been perennially inadequate. Efforts are in place to put all these resources to effective use, but their inadequacy makes output less satisfactory than expected.

Additionally, assembly members are put on committees according to their competencies. Competent assembly members prepare budgets for their decentralized authorities. They also monitor the implementation of the budget.

Personnel transferred from the national level are posted to sectors of their specialization. Central government programmes in the Districts are implemented and monitored by specialists sent into the decentralized government areas. With regard to the level of satisfaction with the effective use of transferred human and material resources transferred to the local levels, the information available suggests that the experts render satisfactory service; the challenge, however, is that it is difficult to retain such experts due to frustrations that are characteristic of rural areas.

Research Question 4 What is the degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricitypolicy at the community level?

The provisions of the 1988 local government structure outline a framework that promotes the integration of plans and programmes of the districts. The provisions also lead to harmonization of district plans and programmeswith national development policies and priorities, Therefore an important feature of the Local Government System in

Ghana is that the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs) are expected to coordinate and ensure that development plans and programmes of the District Assemblies are integrated and harmonized with national development plans and programmes (Section 113 of PNDCL

207).

The respondents were asked of the mechanisms put in place to ensure that development in education, health, water and electricity sectors take place together. In the

Northern Region, Ashanti Region and Greater Accra Region; 46.2%, 75%and89.7% respectively indicated that programmes are drawn through joint planning at the district level; 12.8%, 7.5% and 2.6% indicated that this is done through joint implementation at both the district level and national level. Twenty eight percent, 10% and0% respectively indicated that joint evaluation is done at the district level.

The respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which mechanisms for integrating thefour sectors are in place according to policy guidelines. In all the regions the responses suggest that the mechanisms for integration are consistent with policy.

It is evident that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation at the district level are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors at the district levels. The mechanisms for integration of the four sectors are done to some extent in the districts. Chiefs, elders, women, government employees, non- natives and the youth are involved in the planning, and implementation of education, health and water projects to be undertaken in the districts.

Thus in line with the concept of delegation and pluralistic way of governance, roles are shared by more than one body, involving all key stakeholders of development in the districts,one of the key reasons why the decentralization programme of 1988 was designed (Aryee, 1994).

On the basis of the revelations recounted above, we conclude as the answer for research question fourthatprogrammes in the four sectors are drawn through joint planning at the districts level. This is so at the national level also. Besides, chiefs, elders, women’s groups, government officials, non-natives and youth groups are all involved in the planning and implementation of education, health and water projects in the districts.

Additionally, it must be noted that the decentralized authorities address social issues through the social services committee of the Assembly to which all sectors under review belong. To that extent the same committee plans for all the sectors taking account of the resources available. The implementations of the plans are thereafter left to the specialists in the various sectors. The social services committee in its planning is always guided by the national policies on the sectors under review. Through the instrumentality of the assembly members there always appears to be a level of synergy between the assembly’s developmental aspirations and local level development programmes. .

Research Question 5

Does the level of integration of local structures allow for a successful implementation of projects in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?

The data indicate that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation by district officials responsible for the various sectors are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure that developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors are integrated. Additionally, chiefs, elders and assemblymen are also involved. In some cases especially at the grassroot level women, youth groups and religious bodies are also involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of projects, Developments in one sector are therefore interlinked with developments in the other sectors.

In effect, decentralization seeks to transfer functions, power, means and competence to the grassroots. District Assemblies are the pivots around which the decentralization programme revolves. Decentralized departments have been established to perform functions previously performed by the Central Government and all communication is now addressed to the District Chief Executive.

The level of integration of local structures allow for a successful implementation of policies in the education, health and water sectors. This is done through the Regional Co ordinatingCouncils whose responsibility it is to co ordinate and ensure that development plans and programmes of the District Assemblies are integrated and harmonized with

National Development Plans and Programmes ( Section 113 of PNDC Law 207). Local level plans are in line with national plans and programmes because local plans and progrmmes are derived from national plans. Budget allocation is made by central government to District Assemblies ( about 5% to 7% of national budget). However, the distribution of this vote to the various sectors is determined according to the priorities of the District

Assembly where all local level sectoral plans are made. The needs and requests from the local areas within the District are channelled through their representatives in the

Assembly. The data indicate that implementation of government policies has largelybeen successful.

In summary the answer for research question five therefore, is that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation at the district level are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors in the districts. We can thus conclude that the level of integration of local structures to a large extent allows for a successful implementation of projects in the education, health,water and electricity sectors.

Research Question 6

Is there any synergy of action between management structures aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social services?

In line with the concept of delegation as a tenet of good governance, roles are shared by more than one body, involving all key stakeholders of development in the districts. The results of the analyses show that in all the communities there is a major attempt to meet the demands of the 1992 Constitution. The constitution emphasizes that there should be popular local participation in local decision-making so that communities will be empowered to effectively participate in the decision–making that relates to the overall management of development at all levels (Republic of Ghana, 1993).

There was an effort to integrate the various sectors through joint planning, implementation and Monitoring and Evaluation of educational, health, water and electricity sectors. And this was done by a number of stake holders including chiefs and elders, the youth, non-natives living in the communities, religious groups, NGOs, women and government personnel.

The answer to research question six therefore is that there is synergy of action between management structures aimed at producing equitable access to social services in that all management personnel are ex-officio members of the social services Committee of the Assembly This Committee plans and monitors delivery of social services in the

District. The managers regularly report to both the social services committee, and the

Assembly takes comments as feedback.

Research Question 7 To what extent have social services delivery policies promoted the reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular.

This section focuses on the extent to which decentralization in the delivery of social services such as education, health, water and electricity has promoted a reduction in gender disparities and promoted leadership among females.

Decentralization promotes political participation, education and leadership development. By devolving real decision making to local levels, higher levels of intersectoral participation in local government results, thereby anchoring citizens in the political system and enhancing democracy (Cheema&Rondinelli, 1993). It is plausible from this argument that decentralization ought to empower women and men equitably. More so, the decentralization concept in Ghana is forthright in its desire to ensure that development reflects the aspirations of the people as expressed in their priorities and expressed needs (Ghana 1993). Therefore the extent to which women who form 51 % of the Ghanaian population participate in the planning and execution of social services is crucial.

The respondents were asked the extent to which females are involved in the execution of education projects in their communities. Responses from all the regions except Dangme West indicate that to a large extent social services delivery policies and patterns tend to promote a reduction in gender disparities. The reason is what both males and females are involved in the planning and execution of educationprojects. These responses are presented in Table 13.

Table 13: The extent of female involvement in the execution of education projects in the communities.

Extent of female involvement

To a very large extent To some To a large extent extent No response Total Tolon/Kumbugu 0 11 8 0 19 District (TKD) 0% 57.9% 42.1% 0% 100.0% Nanumba South 0 13 7 0 20 Distict (NSD) 0% 65.0% 35.0% 0% 100.0% Kwabre District 3 9 8 0 20 (KD) 15.0% 45.0% 40.0% 0% 100.0% AtwimaNwabiagya 4 13 3 0 20 District (AND) 20.0% 65.0% 15.0% 0% 100.0% Dangme West 15 5 0 0 20 District (DWD) 75.0% 25.0% 0% 0% 100.0% Ga West District 6 11 2 1 20 (GWD) 30.0% 65.0% 10.0% 5.0% 100.0% Total 28 62 28 1 119 23.5% 52.1% 23.5% .8% 100.0% The case of the health sector is presented in Table 14. The data in Table 14 indicate that with the exception of responses from AtwimaNwabiagya District, those from all the other districts suggest that to a large extent females are involved in the planning and execution of projects in the health sector.

Table 14: The extent of female involvement in the execution of health projects in the communities.

Districts Extent of female involvement

To no To some To a To a No Total extent extent large very respons extent large e extent Tolon/Kumbu 2 2 11 4 0 19 gu District 10.5% 10.5% 57.9% 21.1% 0% 100.0% (TKD) Nanumba 7 0 11 2 0 20 South Distict 35.0% .0 % 55.0% 10.0 % 0% 100.0% (NSD) Kwabre 0 0 5 15 0 20 District (KD) 0% 0% 25.0% 75.0% 0% 100.0% AtwimaNwab 10 4 2 4 0 20 iagya District 50.0% 20.0% 10.0% 20.0% 0% 100.0% (AND) Dangme 5 15 0 0 0 20 West District 25.0% 75.0% 0% 0% 0% 100.0% (DWD) Ga West 6 5 4 4 1 20 District 30.0% 25.0% 20.0% 20.0% 5.0% 100.0% (GWD) Total 30 26 33 29 1 119 25.2% 21.8% 27.7% 24.4% .8% 100.0% Districts Extent of female involvement

To no To To a To a No

extent some large very respons Total extent extent large e

extent

Tolon/Kumbu 0 1 7 11 0 19 gu District 57.9% 0% 5.3% 36.8% 0% 100.0% (TKD)

Nanumba 0 5 7 8 0 20 South Distict 0% 25.0 % 35.0% 40.0 % 0% 100.0% (NSD)

Kwabre 0 0 5 15 0 20 District (KD) 75.0% 0% 0% 25.0% 0% 100.0%

AtwimaNwabi 4 0 13 3 0 20 agya District 15.0% 20.0% 0% 65.0% 0% 100.0% (AND)

Dangme West 15 0 5 0 0 20 District 75.0% 0% 25.0% 0% 0% 100.0% (DWD)

Ga West 5 3 7 4 1 20 District 25.0% 15.0% 35.0% 20.0% 5.0% 100.0% (GWD)

Total 24 9 44 41 1 119 20.2% 7.6% 37.7% 34.5% .8% 100.0%

Responses on the extent to which females are involved in the planning and execution of projects in the water sector are presented in Table 15. The data in Table 15 suggest that in all the regions, except Dangme West, the respondents tend to perceive females to be actively involved in the planning and execution of projects in the water sector.

Table 15: The extent of female involvement in the execution of water projects in the communities.

This is however, not the case as presented by participants in the focus group discussion held in the districts. Some women were not happy with the extent of women’s involvement. The following illustrate the point:

Ques: To what extent are females involved in the planning and execution of

education, water and health projects?

Res: There is nothing like that, they don’t involve them at all (GWD)

Res: They don’t call women but if you are an assembly member you will be

called (DWD)

Res: To some extent because it is only when our husbands are not around that

we represent them at PTA meetings. (TKD)

From the discussion above, there is the suggestion that women in most of the districts are to some extent involved in making decisions on the provision of social services. In the Greater Accra Region, however, the perception is that they are minimally involved in the planning, execution and monitoring of education, water, health and electricity projects. It is rather interesting that the perception in the Greater Accra Region is so negative. But that should not sound strange since that is the region that hosts the regional capital city. It is therefore the hotbed of the women’s emancipation movement.

As a cosmopolitan community it is not strange that the women are so articulate on women’s rights and empowerment issues.

The answer for research question seven then is that there are efforts at reducing gender disparities in decision making at the district level and at promoting leadership among women. In the view of some women’s groupshowever, these efforts have not adequately reduced gender disparities. They have not promoted enough of women’s empowerment and leadership either. The specific realities, however, are that the capitation grant makes schooling free for all. So parents no longer pay fees. It has thus made it possible for girls to participate in schooling, thereby reducing gender disparities in schooling. The school feeding prograrmme also has resulted in parents not having to spend money on children’s feeding. This has led to more girls’ involvement in schooling.

The policy on Maternal Health and National Health Insurance has enabled families to save money for other purposes. Gender disparities in access to healthcare have also been reduced. .Women’s active role in the water sector has got some of them in leadership positions. Availability of electricity has enabled women to engage in economic ventures that make them quite economically independent. Women are thus empowered. In each

District, girl child education officers have been appointed to monitor girls’ education.

Such officers who serve as leaders are all women.

Research Question 8

What factors led governments to adopt decentralization?

This section focuses on the factors which led governments to adopt decentralization. It is stated as the answer for research question eight that decentralization has been a legacy of British Policy of Indirect Rule. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana provides that power and decision making should devolve on the decentralized authorities. The global system of today also calls for increased decentralization system as a guarantee of democratic governance. Besides, decentralization has been enshrined in all the constitutions of the country since independence.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS

This final chapter deals with the summary of the study, conclusions drawn and recommendations for policy.

Summary

This study was designed to find out what the situation is like after 19 years of the introduction of the decentralization policy in Ghana. The evaluation focuses on decentralization in the education, health, water, and electricity sectors of the country.

The accessible population for the study comprised stakeholders selected from two districts in each of the three ecological zones (the northern, middle and southern belts) of the country. The six districts selected are the Tolon Kumbungu, Nanumba South, Kwabre,

AtwimaNwabiagya, GaWest and Dangme West districts. The sample, which was purposively selected, included the Chief Director of the Ministry of Education, and the

Director General of the Ghana Education Service. It also included the Chief Directors of the Ministries of Health and Works and Housing and Water Resources, as well as the

Director General of the Ghana Health Service and the Managing Director of the Ghana

Water Company. Thus, in all, six officials were selected from the Centre. The District Chief

Executive, the District Coordinating Director, and two members of the Social Services

Committee of the District Assembly were selected in each of the six districts. So at the district level a total of twenty four respondents were selected. In all a total of one hundred and fifty respondents were selected and used as the sample for the study. The questionnaire was used as the main tool for data collection. Another tool used to collect data was the interview guide. At the grassroots level most of the beneficiaries of projects were found not literate enough to independently respond to questionnaires, so data were collected from them through the face-to-face interview mode. Focus group discussions and documentary sources were also used to gather information.

Data analyses in this study were based on the questionnaires given to the respondents and the interviews recorded. Data in the questionnaires were analyzed through the quantitative approach, while those from the interviews and discussions were analyzed qualitatively.

Summary of Main findings

Research question one was meant to look for indications of the effectiveness of the decentralization process in the education, health, water and electricity sectors. The answer is that but for inadequacy of funding and the tendency of actors at the centre to hold onto too much power, the decentralization process has been quite effective, as major decisions on developments in the four sectors are taken at the assembly and grassroots levels.

Research question two is about the extent to which human and material resources have been transferred from the national level to the local levels. The answer is that experts such as doctors, teachers, nurses, technicians and so on have been posted to the districts to render services. Government has also nominated experts to represent its interests in the assemblies. Materials such as drugs, books, machinery and so on have also been transferred to the districts. Research question three was designed to find whether or not the human and non human resources transferred to the local levels are being put to effective use. The answer is yes. The experts render very useful services in the committeeson which they serve at the assemblies. Doctors, teachers and nurses also work beyond their schedules, especially in the rural areas. The snag is that some of the experts are difficult to retain because of the frustrations that are characteristic of rural areas.

Research question four is meant to find out the degree of synergy among structures put in place for the implementation of programmes in the four sectors. The answer is that there is a large degree of synergy, in that at the assembly level, project and programme planning, implementation and evaluation are done together at the social services committee of the assembly where experts in the four sectors work jointly.

Research question five is about whether the level of integration allows for a successful implementation of projects in the four sectors. In this case too, joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation of projects in the four sectors are done at the assembly level. These joint actions to a large extent make successfulimplementation of projects possible.

Synergy of action is a key condition for successful decentralization. Therefore research question six was meant to measure the degree of synergy of action among management structures aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social services. The answer is that there is a large degree of synergy. That is, all management personnel are ex-officio members of the social services committee of the assembly. These management members regularly report to the social services committee and the assembly. In that case problems of access to social services are dealt with at the management and assembly levels.

Research question seven has to do with the extent to which social services delivery policies promote reduction of gender disparities and promote leadership among women.

Gender disparities in access to education have been reduced as a result of the introduction of the capitation grant which has enabled more girls to go to school. Gender disparities in access to health care have also reduced following the introduction of the national health insurance and maternal health care schemes. Availability of electricity has also enabled women to engage in economic ventures. Women also hold leadership positions in the water and girls education sectors.

Research question eight seeks to find out factors that stimulated the government to adopt the decentralization policy. The answer is that an interplay of historical and contemporary factors, such as the colonial policy of indirect rule,constitutional mandates, and membership of the global system, has motivated the government to adopt decentralization.

Challenges/ Problems

As observed and as the data indicate, the barriers to effective implementation of the decentralization policy are the tendency for the national level holding on to authority, inadequate finance and low capacity of human resource and logistics at the regional and district levels. In the education, health and energy sectors there is the problem of inadequate finance and lateness in the distribution of this resource to the district level. There is also the challenge of inadequate professional teachers, poor infrastructure and poor communication flow. Problems of accommodation and delays in the payment of salaries are some of the factors that undermine not only morale and commitment, but also the success of the decentralization efforts.

Although the majority of the local people reported improvement in their lives as a result of the interventions discussed above, those in remote communities within the districts still lack good schools, libraries, hospitals, potable water and electricity. In a situation in which the majority of the people are not touched by the developments taking place in the education, and especially health, water and electricity sectors owing to lack of funding, managerial skills and too much interference from the national level, then one cannot declare that the decentralization process in

Ghana has been as effective as expected.

Conclusions

Based on the objectives of the study and the findings emerging therefrom, the following conclusions are drawn.

1. Decisions in the four sectors are taken at the social services committee of the

district assembly. This committee is made up of members with expertise in the

four sectors. To ensure success of business, experts such as doctors, nurses,

teachers, technicians are transferred to the districts and local communities to

render expert service. Government representatives at the assemblies are also

appointed on the basis of their expertise, and they render satisfactory services in

the districts. It is concluded, therefore, that the positing of experts to the districts, as well as the joint action of experts in all the four sectors tend to a large extent to

provide enough evidence that the decentralization process has been quite

effective.

The snag, however, is that some actors at the national level tend to hold on

to powers that should have been transferred to the lower levels of government.

2. An objective of the study was to find out the level of integration or synergy of

action in the education, health, water and electricity sectors such that projects in

all these sectors are successfully implemented.

It is concluded that joint planning, implementation, and evaluation of

projects are done by officials (experts) representing all the sectors at the social

services committee. of the district assembly. At the grass roots level too, chiefs,

elders, women’s groups and assembly members are all involved in similar

exercises. There is thus a high degree of synergy among the structures put in place

for the identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation of projects in all

the three sectors.

3. Another key issue is whether social services delivery has promoted the reduction

of gender disparities, and whether such policies have promoted leadership among

women.

It is concluded that gender disparities have been reduced through the

increased participation of women in the identification, planning, implementation,

and evaluation of projects in all the sectors. Besides, females’ access to social

services has been enhanced following the introduction of socialized medicine, abolition of school fees, and the introduction of some social welfare policies.

Women play leadership roles especially in girl-child education, health, water and

electricity sectors where they spearhead projects.

4. Finally it is concluded that an interplay of historical and contemporary realities

(external and internal) such as colonial (indirect) rule, the global emphasis on

decentralization of governance, and constitutional mandate, has been the force

behind the adoption of decentralization as a tool for effective governance.

Recommendations

On the basis of what have been found in this study, the recommendations that follow are made:

4. It was found that strenuous efforts have been made to transfer expertise to the

district and local communities. However it is reported that the matching financial

resources have never been adequate. It is therefore recommended to the Ministry

of local Government and Rural Development to increase its budgetary allocation to

the Districts so that they would have the wherewithal to do things for themselves.

5. Findings emerging from the study suggest that there is still too much power lodged

above. It is recommended to the Ministry of local Government and Rural

Development to insist that powerful officials at the national level cede some of

their powers to their subordinates in the regions and districts. To this end,

incentives such as accommodation, vehicles and special allowances should be made available to attract and motivate qualified personnel to accept posting to

the districts and local communities.

6. It was also found that human resource development in the administrative, fiscal

and democratic/political spheres is not well balanced. Manor (1999) is of the

opinion that the three must take place together. It is therefore recommended that

capacity building especially in revenue mobilization skills be embarked upon in the

districts. Management expertise should also be improved.

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