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Expanding the Understanding of Self-Directed Learning: Community Action and Innovative Workplaces

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Expanding the Understanding of Self-Directed Learning: Community Action and Innovative Workplaces EXPANDING THE UNDERSTANDING OF SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING: COMMUNITY ACTION AND INNOVATIVE WORKPLACES by ROSEMARY TAYLOR M.A., The University of British Columbia, 1993 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Department of Educational Studies) We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA June 2002 © Rosemary Taylor, 2002 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of ^^-K^rts^XX^r^ezX jSJCLs^<&-*-&--£> The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date Jj^) 2S2_/ 2^>-2_~ DE-6 (2/88) ii ABSTRACT Much confusion surrounds the term 'self-directed learning', which presently describes a process, a goal, a teaching technique, and an outcome of that teaching. As a process, the literature concentrates mainly on how individuals learn, with little reference to groups that can be as self- directed as individuals. The purposes of this study were: (a) to reduce conceptual confusion by creating a typology distinguishing different processes of self-directed learning; (b) to explore the phenomenon of group self-directed learning; and (c) to illustrate the effect of environment on learning, and the complex learning dynamics in group settings. This project arose somewhat differently from typical doctoral research. Data from two unrelated field studies conducted for other purposes, completed before this thesis work began, each illustrated self-directed groups learning informally in the contexts of community action and innovative small workplaces. A subsequent review of the literature indicated a lack of attention to this form of group learning, and the field studies were then re-analyzed from this perspective. As a result of the literature review and data re-analysis (1) a typology emerged from the literature review that divides the process of self-directed learning into three forms, each of which is context sensitive but between which learners can continually move back and forth; (2) it appears that the term 'autodidactic' can apply to specific groups which are both self-organized and self-directed in their learning efforts; and (3) that the term 'autodidaxy' as presently defined is as conceptually confusing as the term 'self-directed learning'. This confusion is reduced by the typology proposed by this thesis. Minor findings indicate two continuing problems. The first is reluctance by some to accord non-credentialed learning the value it deserves, and the second is the difficulty often encountered in transferring knowledge from the site of learning to the site of application. This study concludes that 'informalizing' some formal curricula, and encouraging self-directed learning at all levels and in all contexts, may provide some of the tools necessary for living and learning in the twenty-first century. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii List of Figures v List of Tables vi Acknowledgements vii CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 2 Research Questions 4 Purpose of the Study 5 Organizing Framework for Analysis of Self-Directed Learning 6 Background to this Study 7 Significance of the Study 9 Outline of the Thesis 12 CHAPTER TWO. METHODOLOGY 14 Review of the Self-Directed Learning Literature 14 Re-analysis of a Study of Community Action 17 Re-analysis of a Study on Learning in the Workplace 18 Outline of Methodology for this Thesis 19 Limitations of this Methodology 20 CHAPTER THREE. LITERATURE REVIEW 22 Background To Self-Directed Learning 22 Founding Fathers 24 Evolution of the Study of Self-Directed Learning 27 Contexts in which Self-Directed Learning Occurs 28 Non-formal Educational Contexts: Shared Control of the Learning Process 37 Informal Contexts - Autodidaxy 41 Summary of Self-Directed Learning Contexts 48 Elements of Self-Directed Learning 50 Themes Arising from the Literature 79 Summary 82 CHAPTER FOUR. ANALYSIS OF A COMMUNITY ACTION CAMPAIGN 86 The Community Action Study 87 Data Re-analysis 88 Dynamics of Learning in a Community Action Group 110 Teaching Techniques Used by Campaigners 117 Summary 118 CHAPTER FIVE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING IN INNOVATIVE SMALL WORKPLACES 121 The Workplace Learning Study 122 Data Re-analysis 124 Comparing Community Action with Workplace Learning 164 Summary 165 iv CHAPTER SIX. DISCUSSION 167 Overview 167 Discussion 169 Findings From the Literature 169 Findings from the Field Studies 177 Answers to Research Questions 185 Summary 188 CHAPTER SEVEN SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 192 Summary of this Study 192 Implications of Research Findings 194 Suggestions for Further Research 195 REFERENCES 199 V List of Figures Figure la. Group learning dynamics, step one - independent individual learning Ill Figure lb. Group learning dynamics, step two - individuals sharing personal learning with others Ill Figure lc. Group learning dynamics, step three - group sharing knowledge with those beyond their own boundaries 112 Figure Id. Group learning dynamics, step four - group learning and knowledge sharing process improving over time 113 Figure 2. Flow of learning as observed in a community action group campaign 115 Figure 3. A self-directed learning typology : 173 vi List of Tables Table 1. Factors affecting control in autodidactic learning projects 109 Table 2. Comparison between Kasl's model of group learning and that found in a study of community action 116 Table 3. Increasing complexity as autodidaxy moves from individual to group settings 179 Vll ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is all about self-directed learners and the wide web in which they become involved. This self-directed learner, who has been behind the camera taking the snapshots of learning depicted here, is no exception. I therefore wish to acknowledge and thank all those who have helped me in myriad formal, informal, and incidental ways, to reach this goal. Thanks to modern technology, and the ease of electronic communication, my web extends around the world, and without the help and support of many people, from my committee members Kjell Rubenson, Tom Sork and Barbara Paterson, conference colleagues in many places, friends and family, this dissertation might never have been written. 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION People have always learned on their own as individuals or together as members of a group or community. This everyday learning is ubiquitous and commonplace, and until recently remained almost unnoticed. However, self-directed learning, as it is now known, has become the subject of considerable interest and scrutiny by educational researchers who have examined the phenomenon extensively. This interest was sparked to a great extent by Houle's Inquiring Mind published in 1961, which simply asked why some people are lifelong learners while others are not. Since that time there has been a rising tide of research in this area (Candy, 1988), examining the subject from many angles. However, there are still gaps in knowledge not only because some aspects such as self-directed learning for social action have not yet been well studied, but also because technological progress has created many new contexts in which self- directed learning occurs. These areas, therefore, are open for investigation. A great deal of the learning that takes place both within and beyond educational institutions is the result of self-teaching (Tough, 1967), or autodidactic learning (Candy, 1988), and considerable interest has been shown in the research and study of what is generally referred to as self-directed learning in a variety of contexts and circumstances. However, as a result of the very flexible way in which the term self-directed learning is used in the literature, it has come to mean many things. The phrase now covers a wide range of learning processes taking place in a variety of contexts, under many different circumstances, from university lecture halls to hobbies at home. Self-directed learning is also seen as a product as well as a process (Knovvles, 1990), a goal (Long, 1998), and a teaching technique (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991), and there is no one accepted definition which is agreed on by all who use the term. At present in North America there is a core of researchers studying self-directed learning, each specializing in their own area of interest, and as a result the literature tends to follow certain 2 threads. Some are particularly interested in self-directed learning in a formal academic setting, while others are experts in self-directed learning in workplace contexts. A third group studies self- directed learning that individuals do for their own pleasure on an informal basis, which is where Houle's study was situated. Tough, a student of Houle's, was one of the first to investigate the way in which these independent learners plan and carry out their projects, and Brookfield and Candy are two well-known researchers who have advanced the study of autodidaxy to its present level. Brookfield, in particular, has also added to the literature of self-directed learning for social action and community education. There are many other researchers who have developed distinct lines of enquiry within the topic. Two other major areas of research involve readiness to be a self-directed learner and the personal characteristics required by such learners. These are difficult qualities to assess, but several instruments have been created to measure these propensities in a variety of contexts and cultures. Many characteristics and components of self-directed learning have been researched individually, but there is presently no literature drawing all these factors together.
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