Journal of Book of Studies

Volume 14 Number 2 Article 6

7-31-2005

Archaeology, Relics, and Belief

John E. Clark

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BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Clark, John E. (2005) "Archaeology, Relics, and Book of Mormon Belief," Journal of Book of : Vol. 14 : No. 2 , Article 6. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol14/iss2/6

This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Title Archaeology, Relics, and Book of Mormon Belief

Author(s) John E. Clark

Reference Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 14/2 (2005): 38–49, 71–74.

ISSN 1065-9366 (print), 2168-3158 (online)

Abstract Archaeology has much to offer as a scientific means of gathering independent evidence of the Book of Mormon’s authenticity. But one must look in the right place. A cautionary tale is the failed Cluff expedition of 1900, which, assuming a “hemispheric model” of Book of Mormon geography, traveled from Provo as far as Colombia looking for the city Zarahemla. Yet in 1842 the (under ’s editorship) had printed excerpts from a popular book on Mesoamerican archaeology that demonstrated a surprisingly high level of civilization, implying that Nephite lands did not extend into South America, thus supporting the theory of a “limited” geographic model. Both sides believe that archaeology is on their side. Book of Mormon critics also claim that archaeology is on their side, but decades of archaeological investigation in and in the Old World has shown a pattern of increasing convergence that favors Book of Mormon authentic- ity. Evidences discussed include, among others, metal records in stone boxes, ancient writing, warfare, the tree of life and other metaphors, Old and New World geography, and cycles of civilization. In a sidebar article, the findings of an amateur archaeologist challenge a popular assumption that the hill was the scene of the final battles depicted in the Book of Mormon. relics,

and book of mormon belief

by john e. clark

The wee hours of 22 September 1827 found The Book of Mormon challenges the world to Joseph Smith climbing the western slope of a promi- take it seriously as an account of God’s dealings nent hill near his home to keep his annual appoint- with ancient New World peoples. Nothing less than ment with the Moroni.1 After four years salvation is at stake. The world has not taken this of probation, the 21-year-old prophet was finally challenge lying down; it pushes back by denying the entrusted with the and the sacred book’s miraculous delivery and authenticity. While stones needed to translate them. The consequences billions of people in fact remain indifferent to the of this event have been earthshaking. The Book of book, as they do to the Bible, a vociferous cadre of Mormon, translated from this ancient record, is now critics clamor that the Book of Mormon is a fabrica- available in 105 languages, and close to 130 million tion, an ignorable fiction, but one they can’t seem to copies have been printed.2 leave alone.3

38 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 Since 1829 critics have crashing down. Given the attempted to discredit the stakes involved, the very pos- Book of Mormon by claiming sibility of testing the book’s that it was written by Joseph historicity and authenticity Smith—not translated—and becomes a moral obligation to that its history has no ground- do so. ing in the real world. They Space precludes a review believe they are winning the of full Latter-day Saint day, but 175 years of false- involvement with these issues; hoods and weak arguments one example will have to do. has not scratched the book’s Let’s revisit Provo’s Academy credibility. Because of what Square the morning of 17 is at stake, let us agree that April 1900. The assembled charges against the book are student body of Brigham serious and require response. Young Academy bade farewell The critical question concerns to their president, 15 fellow Book of Mormon authorship. students, and others as they Did Joseph Smith Jr. write rode off for South America. the book, or was it revealed Academy president Benjamin through divine means? This Cluff Jr. hoped “to discover is where archaeology steps in the ancient Nephite capital as the only scientific means of Zarahemla . . . [and] in of gathering independent this way . . . to establish the evidence of authenticity, and authenticity of the Book of hence authorship. The Book of Mormon is unique Mormon.”5 The expedition began with the bless- in world scripture because its claimed divine origins ing of the Church but not its financial backing, and can be evaluated by checking for concrete evidence its blessing was withdrawn before the group even in the real world. Prove the existence of Zarahemla, made it out of the United States. Of the original for example, and the validity of the rest follows. The 24 men, 9 crossed into Mexico and 6 made it to logic is simple and compelling for both sides.4 Colombia. After the group had boated 630 miles Let us consider the anti-Mormon position first. up the Magdalena River, a point that was 632 days’ If Joseph Smith made the book up, then its peoples journey from Academy Square, Colombian officials did not exist, its events did not happen, and there halted the anxious explorers’ progress just days should be no trace of them anywhere. If, after a short of their destination.6 Cluff and his students reasonable period of diligent searching, material Opposite page: The Maya site of Becán, in evidence is not found, then the Book of Mormon Campeche, Mexico. Photo courtesy of John E. Clark. Background: Maya monument sketch by would be shown to be imaginary, and by implica- Frederick Catherwood. tion Joseph Smith would be exposed as a liar and Clockwise from top: Moroni Delivering the Golden the church he founded unveiled as a hoax. Plates, by Gary Kapp; portrait of Benjamin Cluff The Latter-day Saint position is the near oppo- Jr.; embarkation of Cluff expedition. site. Confirmation of historic details of the Book of Mormon would substantiate Joseph Smith’s account of how it came to be and thus validate his seership and the divine origin of both the book and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. This brings us to the astonishing possibility of being able to test Joseph Smith’s claims through science, a pos- sibility that critics have long tried to exploit. The Book of Mormon is the keystone of ; destroy this stone and all that it supports will come

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 39 The ill-fated Cluff expedi- tion began in Provo, Utah, Months earlier he received a copy of the recent best- and ended prematurely in seller by John Lloyd Stephens, Incidents of Travel Colombia. in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, the first popular English book to describe and illustrate Maya ruins.11 This book amazed the English-speaking world never reached Zara- with evidence of an advanced civilization that hemla. Latter-day no one imagined existed—no one, that is, except Saint scholars and Latter-day Saints. The Prophet was thrilled, and tourists have been excerpts from the book were reprinted in the Times trying to get there and Seasons with unsigned commentary, presum- ever since, but it is ably his. What Joseph recorded is significant for the not clear where they issues at hand: should look, how Since our “Extract” [from Stephens’s book] was they should look, or published . . . we have found another impor- how they will know tant fact relating to the truth of the Book of Zarahemla when Mormon. Central America . . . is situated north they find it. of the Isthmus of Darien and once embraced Cluff returned several hundred miles of territory from north to become the to south. The city of Zarahemla . . . stood upon first president of this land. . . . It will not be a bad plan to com- Brigham Young pare Mr. Stephens’ ruined cities with those in University (the new name of the academy).7 His pro- the Book of Mormon.12 posal for the location of Zarahemla was apparently a popular one among at the time. He pre- sumed that Book of Mormon lands included both North and South America, a theory known as the hemispheric model.8 That it took nearly two years to meander to Colombia should have given him pause. The longest trip specified in the Book of Mormon took 40 days, and that group was lost and on foot (see Mosiah 7:4).9 An argument against the hemispheric model was provided by Joseph Smith. The year 1842 in Nauvoo had been hectic as the Prophet moved the work along on the Book of Abra- ham and the , all the while dodging false arrest. He even assumed editorial responsibility for the Times and Seasons, the Nauvoo newspaper.10

In the 1840s Stephens’s book (cover from 1969 edition by Dover) provided compelling evidence for the Book of Mormon. Far right: Map from the book.

40 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 The Stephens book created a stir in Nauvoo, prompting this editorial coverage in Times and Seasons.

As is evident in his comments, Joseph Smith believed Maya archae- ology vindicated the Book of Mormon. His placement of Zarahemla in eastern Guatemala implied that the Land Southward described in the Book of Mormon was north of Darien, as Panama was then called; thus his commentary pre- supposed a smallish geog- raphy that excluded South America. The Prophet regarded the location of Book of Mormon lands as an open question, and one subject to archaeo- logical confirmation. In the past 50 years, friends and foes have adopted Joseph’s “plan” of com- paring “ruined cities with those in the Book of Mor- mon.” Both sides believe archaeology is on their side.

Archaeology and Book of Mormon Arguments Consider the argu- ment against the Book of Mormon circulated recently by an evangelical group in a pamphlet: The Bible . . . is sup- ported in its truth claims by the cor- roborating evidence of geography and

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 41 archaeology. That assertion cannot be said for is too strong and underestimates human cussed- The Book of Mormon. Several decades of archae- ness. Moroni could appear tomorrow with the ological research, funded by LDS institutions, golden plates, the sword of Laban, and the Liahona concentrating in Central America and Mexico, in hand and this would not satisfy public demands have yielded nothing that corroborates the his- for more proofs.16 toric events described in The Book of Mormon.13 The logical challenges with the first assertion, that no “cities have been located,” are more subtle. The only things wrong with this clever argu- Book of Mormon cities have been found, they are ment are that its claims are false and its logic faulty. well known, and their artifacts grace the finest Archaeology and geography support the Book of museums. They are merely masked by archaeologi- Mormon to the same degree, and for the same cal labels such as “Maya,” “Olmec,” and so on. The reasons, that they support the Bible.14 Both books problem, then, is not that Book of Mormon artifacts present the same challenges for empirical confirma- have not been found, only that they have not been tion, and both are in good shape. Many things have recognized for what they are. Again, if we stumbled been verified for each, but many have not. Critical arguments specialize in listing things mentioned in the Book of Mormon that archaeology has not found. Rather than cry over missing evidence, I consider evidence that has been found. The pamphlet lists eight deficiencies: first, that “no Book of Mormon cities have been located,” and last, that “no artifact of any kind that demonstrates The Book of Mormon is true has been found.”15 This last assertion is overly optimistic in suggesting that such material proof is even possible. No artifact imaginable, or even a roomful, could ever convince dedicated critics that the Book of Mormon is true. The implied claim that the right relic could prove the book’s truth beyond all doubt Above: How They Till the Soil and Plant, copper plate engraving by Theodore De Bry (1528–98). Below: The Towne of Pomeiock, by John White (1550–93). Nineteenth-century Americans familiar with Native American lifeways as depicted in these two illustrations could no longer dismiss the Book of Mormon’s claim of city-level societies once the advanced civilizations in Central America came to light.

Cumorah’s Cave, by Robert T. Barrett. Early accounts relate that Joseph Smith and returned the Book of Mormon plates to a cave filled with such records. Preserving records on metal plates is an attested Old World practice that supports the Book of Mormon’s authenticity.

42 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 onto Zarahemla, how would we know? The difficulty most compelling evidence for authenticity is that is not with evidence but with epistemology. which verifies unguessable things recorded in the One last point about significant evidence. The Book of Mormon, the more outlandish the better.18 hypothesis of Joseph Smith’s authorship of the Book Confirmation of such items would eliminate any of Mormon demands that truth claims in the book residual probability of human authorship and go a be judged by what was believed, known, or know- long way in demonstrating that Joseph could not able in Joseph’s backyard in the 1820s. The book’s have written the book. This is precisely what a cen- description of ancient peoples differs greatly from tury of archaeology has done. the notions of rude savages held by 19th-century I consider only a few items. The one require- Americans.17 The book’s claim of city societies was ment for making comparisons between archaeology laughable at the time, but no one is laughing now. and the Book of Mormon is to be in the right place. As the city example shows, the lower the proba­ For reasons I will explore below, Mesoamerica is the bility that Joseph Smith could have guessed a future right place. fact, the stronger the likelihood he received the information from a divine source. Consequently, the 1. Metal Records in Stone Boxes The first archaeological claims related to the Book of Mormon concern the purported facts of 22 September 1827: the actuality of metal plates preserved in a stone box. This used to be considered a monstrous tale, but concealing metal records in stone boxes is now a documented Old World prac- tice.19 Stone offering boxes have also been discov- ered in Mesoamerica,20 but so far the golden plates are still at large—as we would expect them to be. 2. Ancient Writing Another fact obvious that September morn- ing was that ancient peoples of the knew how to write, a ludicrous claim for anyone to make in 1827. We now know of at least six Mesoameri- can writing systems that predate the Christian era.21 This should count for something, but it is not enough for dedicated skeptics. They demand to see , preferably on gold pages, and to find traces of the Hebrew language. There are promising leads on both, but nothing conclusive

Altar from Copan, sketched on the spot by Frederick Catherwood for The impression made by a roller seal from ancient Mesoamerica (see Stephens’s book Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas and photo on next page) displays a sophisticated writing system. Photo Yucatan (1841). courtesy of John L. Sorenson.

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 43 This roller seal was found at the site of Tlatilco, just west of Mexico imagined. In the book, one reads of fortified cities City. The writing appears to date with trenches, walls, and palisades. Mesoamerican between 400 and 700 bc. cities dating to Nephite times have been found with all these features.25 The Book of Mormon mentions bows and yet.22 New scripts are still arrows, swords, slings, scimitars, clubs, spears, being discovered, and many shields, breastplates, helmets, and cotton armor—all texts remain undeciphered. items documented for Mesoamerica. Aztec swords One example was recovered were of wood, sometimes edged with stone knives.26 56 years ago and qualifies as There are indications of wooden swords in the Book America’s earliest writing sam- of Mormon—how else could swords become stained ple, but so far nothing much with blood?27 Wooden swords edged with sharp has been made of it, and most stones could sever heads and limbs and were lethal. scholars have forgotten it exists.23 The practice of taking detached arms as battle trophies, as in the story of Ammon, is also docu- 3. The Arts of War mented for Mesoamerica.28 The golden plates and other relics ended up in Another precise correspondence is the practice New York in the final instance because the of fleeing to the summits of pyramids as places of were exterminated in a cataclysmic battle. The Book last defense and, consequently, of eventual surren- of Mormon brims with warfare and nasty people. der. Conquered cities were depicted in Mesoamerica Until 20 years ago the book’s claims on this matter by symbols for broken towers or burning pyramids. were pooh-poohed by famous scholars. Now that Mormon records this practice.29 Other practices of Maya writing can be read, warfare appears to have his day were human sacrifice and cannibalism, vile been a Mesoamerican pastime.24 behaviors well attested for Mesoamerica (see Mor- The information on warfare in the Book of mon 4:14; Moroni 9:8, 10). Mormon is particularly rich and provides ample opportu- nity to check Joseph Smith’s luck in getting the details right. The warfare described in the book differs from what Joseph could have known or

Clockwise from below: The Maya site of Becán, in Campeche, Mexico; artist’s rendering of Becán, which dates to Nephite times; drawing of dry moat and fortified wall based on excavations at Becán.

The final battle at involved staggering numbers of troops, including Nephite battle units of 10,000. Aztec documents describe armies of over 200,000 warriors divided into major divisions of 8,000 warriors plus 4,000 retainers each. One battle involved 700,000 warriors on one side.30 The Aztec ciphers appear to be propagandistic exaggeration; I do not know whether this applies to Book of Mor- mon numbers or not. In summary, the practices and instruments of war described in the Book of Mormon display

44 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 multiple and precise correspondences with Meso- american practices, and in ways unimaginable to 19th-century Yankees. 4. Cities, Temples, Towers, and Palaces Mesoamerica is a land of decomposing cities. Their pyramids (towers), temples, and palaces are all items mentioned in the Book of Mormon but foreign to the gossip along the Erie Canal in Joseph Smith’s day. Cities show up in all the right places and date to time periods compatible with Book of Mormon chronology.31 5. Cement Houses and Cities One of the more unusual and specific claims in the Book of Mormon is that houses and cities of cement were built by 49 bc in the Land Northward, a View of Teotihuacan’s Sun Pyramid from the pyramid of claim considered ridiculous in 1830. As it turns out, Quetzalcoatl. Photo courtesy of Val Brinkerhoff. this claim receives remarkable confirmation at Teo- tihuacan, the largest pre-Columbian city ever built in the Americas. Teotihuacan is still covered with ancient cement that has lasted over 1,500 years.32 6. Kings and Their Monuments All Book of Mormon peoples had kings who ruled cities and territories. American prejudices against native tribes in Joseph’s day had no room for kings or their tyrannies. The last Jaredite king, Coriantumr, carved his history on a stone about 400 bc, an event in line with Mesoamerican practices at that time. A particular gem in the book is that “labored” with his “own hands” (Mosiah 2:14), an outrageous thing for Joseph Smith to have claimed for a king. It was not until the 1960s that anthropology caught up to the idea of working kings and validated it among world cultures.33

Above: Hieroglyphic text from La Mojarra Stela 1 describing a ruler’s accession to power. Left: Carved throne from the Olmec site of La Venta.

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 45 More specifically, we consider Riplakish, the 10th Jaredite king, an oppressive tyrant who forced slaves to construct buildings and produce fancy goods. Among the items he commissioned about 1200 bc was “an exceedingly beautiful throne” (Ether 10:6). The earliest civilization in Mesoamer- ica is known for its elaborate stone thrones.34 How did Joseph Smith get this detail right?

Right: Re-created mural from Oxtotitlan Cave, in Guerrero, Mexico, depicts an Olmec ruler dressed in a bird costume and seated on a throne. Courtesy of John E. Clark.

Hieroglyphic writing graces the pages of the Dresden Codex, a Maya book from the Yucatán Peninsula dating to ad 1200–1250. The highlighted image shows a tree growing out of the heart of a sacrifi- cial victim (note the tree’s entwined roots at the bottom). Mormon’s metaphors make sense in the Mesoameri­ can world. We are just beginning to study these 7. Metaphors and the Mesoamerican World metaphors, so check the Journal of Book of Mormon Not all evidence for the authenticity of the Studies for future developments. Book of Mormon concerns material goods. A strik- ing correspondence is a drawing from the Dresden 8. Timekeeping and Prophesying Codex, one of four surviving pre-Columbian Maya A correspondence that has always impressed me books. It shows a sacrificial victim with a tree grow- involves prophecies in 400-year blocks. The Maya ing from his heart, a literal portrayal of the meta- were obsessed with time, and they carved precise phor preached in Alma, chapter 32. Other Meso- dates on their stone monuments that began with the american images depict the tree of life. The Book of count of 400 years, an interval called a baktun. Each

46 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 baktun was made up of 20 katuns, an extremely Nephite lands included a narrow neck between two important 20-year interval.35 If you permit me some seas and lands northward and southward of this liberties with the text, warned neck. The Land Southward could be traversed on the Nephites that one baktun “shall not pass away foot, with children and animals in tow, in about 30 before . . . they [would] be smitten” ( 13:9). days, so it could not have been much longer than Nephi and Alma uttered the same baktun prophecy, 300 miles. The 3,000 miles required for the two- and Moroni recorded its fulfillment. Moroni bids us hemisphere geography is off by one order of magni- farewell just after the first katun of this final baktun, tude. Nephite lands were small and did not include or 420 years since the “sign was given of the com- all of the Americas or all of their peoples. The prin- ing of Christ” (Moroni 10:1).36 What are the chances cipal corollary of a limited geography is that Book of Joseph Smith guessing correctly the vigesimal of Mormon peoples were not alone on the conti- system of timekeeping and prophesying among nent. Therefore, to check for correspondences, one the Maya and their neighbors over 50 years before must find the right place and peoples. It is worth scholars stumbled onto it? noticing that anti-Mormons lament the demise of The list of unusual items corresponding to Book of Mormon claims could be extended. The Latter- day Saint tendency to get absorbed in specifics has been characterized as a method for distracting attention from large problems by engaging critics with endless, irrelevant details,37 much as a mos- quito swarm distracts from the rhinoceros in the kitchen. Let’s take up the dare to consider big issues, namely, geography and cycles of civilization and population. 9. Old World Geography As is clear from the Cluff expedition, if the geography is not right, one can waste years search- ing for Zarahemla and never reach it. Book of Mor- mon geography presents a serious challenge because the only city location known with certitude is Old World Jerusalem, and this does not help us with locations in the promised land. However, geographi­ cal correspondences are marvelous for the Old World portion of the narrative. As S. Kent Brown and others have shown, the geography of the Ara- bian Peninsula described in 1 Nephi is precise down to its place-names. The remarkable geographic fit includes numerous details unknown in Joseph Smith’s day.38 10. New World Geography For the New World, dealing with geography is a two-step exercise. First an internal geography must be deduced from clues in the book, and this deduc- tion must then become the standard for engaging the second step, matching the internal geography with a real-world setting. John Sorenson has done Map of Book of Mormon lands based soley on internal evidence the best work on this matter.39 The Book of Mor- from the text itself. mon account is remarkably consistent throughout.

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 47 the traditional continental correlation because it was so easy to ridicule. The limited, scriptural geog- raphy is giving them fits. Sorenson argues that Book of Mormon lands and peoples were in Central America and southern Mexico, an area known as Mesoamerica. We notice that the configuration of lands, seas, mountains, and other natural features in Mesoamerica are a tight fit with the internal requirements of the text. It is important to stress that finding any sector in the Americas that fits Book of Mormon specifications requires dealing with hundreds of mutually depen- dent variables. So rather than counting a credible geography as one correspondence, it actually counts for several hundred. The probability of guessing Possible correspondences between the histories of Book of Mormon reams of details all correctly is zero. Joseph Smith peoples and the histories of Mesoamerican peoples. did not know about Central America before reading Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, and he apparently did not civilization was replaced by the lowland Maya, who know where Book of Mormon lands were, so a Book began building cities in the jungles of Guatemala of Mormon geography correlation becomes compel- about 500 to 400 bc. As with Olmec civilization, ling evidence that he did not write the book. experienced peaks and troughs of 11. Cycles of Civilization in Mesoamerica development, with a mini-collapse about ad 200.42 In short, the correspondences between the Book of I mentioned that the Book of Mormon’s claim Mormon and cycles of Mesoamerican civilization of civilized peoples was verified in Joseph’s lifetime. are striking. This claim is actually twofold because the book describes an earlier Jaredite civilization that over- 12. Mesoamerican Demographic History lapped a few centuries with Lehite civilization. The Reconstructing ancient demography requires dates for the Nephite half of Lehite civilization are detailed information on site sizes, locations, dates, clearly bracketed in the account to 587 years before and frequencies. It will take another 50 years of Christ to 386 years after. But those for the earlier active research to compile enough information to civilization remain cloudy, beginning sometime reconstruct Mesoamerica’s complete demographic after the Tower of Babel and ending before King history. The Nephite and Lamanite stories are too Mosiah fled to Zarahemla. were probably complicated to review here; I will just consider the tilling American soil in the Land Northward at least Jaredite period. To begin, the earliest developments by 2200 bc, and they may have endured their own wickedness until 400 bc. of Jaredites and are hazy, but from about The two-civilizations requirement used to be a 1500 bc onward their histories are remarkably par- problem for the Book of Mormon, but it no longer allel. The alternations between city building and is now that modern archaeology is catching up. I population declines, described for the Jaredites, emphasize that I am interpreting “civilization” in correspond quite well with lowland Olmec develop- the strict sense as meaning “city life.” In check- ments. Olmec cities were abandoned by 400 bc,43 ing correlations between the Book of Mormon and and the culture disappeared—just as the Book of Mesoamerican archaeology, I focus on the rise and Mormon describes for the Jaredites (see Ether 13– decline of cities. The earliest known Olmec city was 15). This is a phenomenal correlation. Much more up and running by 1300 bc, and it was preceded by research in southern Mexico is needed to check the a large community dating back to 1700 bc.40 Most lands that Sorenson identifies as Nephite. The little Olmec cities were abandoned about 400 bc, prob- I know of the region looks promising for future ably under duress.41 In eastern Mesoamerica, Olmec confirmations.

48 Volume 14, number 2, 2005 Coming back to the original question: Did Joseph Smith write the Book of Mormon? He did not. It has been obvious since 1829 to those who knew him best that Joseph Smith could not have written the Book of Mormon.44 Recent findings simply make the possibility of his authorship that much more inconceivable. The accumulating evi- dence from archaeology and the impressive internal evidence demonstrate that the Book of Mormon is an authentic ancient book of New World origin. The only plausible explanation for the book’s existence is that supernatural agencies were involved in its com- ing forth in our day. The Book of Mormon still presses the world to take it seriously, and now science is lending a hand. Fluctuations in population for the Jaredites and Olmecs are striking. The archaeology that has been undertaken in Meso- america is confirming historical, geographical, and political facts mentioned in the text. Archaeology Before leaving this issue, it is important to make is powerless, however, to address the book’s central one observation on a global question that troubles challenge—the promise that its doctrine leads to some Latter-day Saints. Could millions of people Christ. Although the Book of Mormon does not have lived in the area proposed as Book of Mormon provide clear directions for reaching Zarahemla, its lands? Yes, and they did. Mesoamerica is the only instructions for coming to Christ are unsurpassed, area in the Americas that sustained the high popu- and this is the infinitely more important destina- lation densities mentioned in the Book of Mormon, tion. If we are ever to reach this destination, we and for the times specified. must keep the relationship between external Book of Mormon evidences and belief in proper perspec- tive. President Gordon B. Hinckley sums up the A Trend of Convergence matter in his testimony: To this point, I have shown that the content of The evidence for [the Book of Mormon’s] the Book of Mormon fits comfortably with Meso- truth, for its validity in a world that is prone american prehistory, both in general patterns and in to demand evidence, lies not in archaeology or some extraordinary details. Many things mentioned anthropology, though these may be helpful to in the book still have not been verified archaeologi- some. It lies not in word research or historical cally, but this was true just a few years ago for some analysis, though these may be confirmatory. items just reviewed. The trend over the last 50 years The evidence for its truth and validity lies is one of convergence between the Book of Mormon within the covers of the book itself. The test of its truth lies in reading it. It is a book of God. and Mesoamerican archaeology. Book of Mormon Reasonable people may sincerely question its claims remain unaltered since 1830, so all the origin; but those who have read it prayerfully accommodation has been on the archaeology side. have come to know by a power beyond their If the book were fiction, this convergence would natural senses that it is true, that it contains the not be happening. We can expect more evidence in word of God, that it outlines saving truths of coming years. the everlasting gospel.45 !

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 49 of 2 Nephi 12:16 (no “pleasant God in History? Nephi’s Answer 9. For a discussion of the pre- mon, having approximately pictures”), nor does it follow Roy A. Prete modern practice of integrating 35 percent of his Old Testa- the preserved Hebrew or Greek revealed text with history, see ment writings either quoted texts of Isaiah 2:16. Such a 1. B. H. Roberts, Outlines of James E. Faulconer, “Scripture directly or paraphrased by representation implies that Ecclesiastical History: A Text as Incarnation,” in Historicity Nephite prophets.” “Isaiah, these authors think their ren- Book, 5th ed. (Salt Lake City: and the Latter-day Scriptures, life and ministry,” in Book of dition represents the original The Church of Jesus Christ of ed. Paul Y. Hoskisson (Provo, Mormon Reference Compan- form of Isaiah 2:16, but they Latter-day Saints, 1979), 221– UT: BYU Religious Studies ion, ed. Dennis L. Largey et al. provide no discussion of this 22, 284–86, 289–91; Mark E. Center, 2001), 17–61. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, point, a serious omission. This Peterson, The Great Prologue 10. For an introduction to the 2003), 340. Nephi quotes 18 same configuration of Isaiah (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, subject of God in history that chapters of Isaiah completely: 2:16 is repeated, again without 1975); E. Douglas Clarke, The focuses on relevant principles Isaiah 48–51 (1 Nephi 20–21; explanation, in Donald W. Grand Design: America from from a Latter-day Saint per- 2 Nephi 7–8); Isaiah 2–14 (2 Parry, Harmonizing Isaiah Columbus to Zion (Salt Lake spective, see Alexander B. Nephi 7–24); and the greater (Provo, UT: FARMS, 2001), City: Deseret Book, 1992). Morrison, “God in History,” part of Isaiah 29 (2 Nephi 27); 45. See somewhat similarly On the special mission of in Window of Faith, 1–12. plus additional portions, either David J. Ridges, Isaiah in the America, see Ezra Taft Ben- 11. For a fuller discussion, see quoted (such as 2 Nephi 6: 5–7; Bible Made Easier (Springville, son, Conference Report, April Robert L. Millet, “The Influ- 30:9, 11–15) or paraphrased UT: Bonneville, 2002), 140, 1948, 82–87; Ezra Taft Benson, ence of the Brass Plates on (e.g., 1 Nephi 22:6). So power- who explains 2 Nephi 12:16c “A Witness and a Warning,” the Teachings of Nephi,” in fully impressed was Nephi (“upon all pleasant pictures”) Ensign, November 1979, 31–33. The Book of Mormon: Second with the prophecies of Isaiah as meaning “pleasure ships 2. For a recent collection of Nephi, The Doctrinal Struc- that of the 55 chapters in 1 and upon which the wealthy trav- articles on aspects of the sub- ture: Papers from the Third 2 Nephi, approximately one- eled,” without further com- ject, see Out of Obscurity: The Annual Book of Mormon Sym- third are drawn from Isaiah. ment. This, again, suggests LDS Church in the Twentieth posium, ed. Monte S. Nyman 16. Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, three poetic lines about ships Century: The 29th Annual and Charles D. Tate Jr. (Provo, 3:87. in 2 Nephi 12:16, for which Sidney B. Sperry Symposium UT: BYU Religious Studies 17. See Alan K. Parrish, “Lehi and there is no available textual (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, Center, 1989), 207–25. the Covenant of the Promised support. Ridges provides the 2000). 12. For discussions of gospel Land: A Modern Appraisal,” same explanation for the sec- 3. God’s role in history is a vast dispensations, including that in Second Nephi, The Doctrinal ond line of Isaiah 2:16, altering topic, well beyond the scope of the Nephites, see Joseph Structure, 39–41. the “pleasant pictures” in the of this brief essay. For a fuller Fielding Smith, Doctrines of 18. Nephi must have been person- KJV text (p. 4). This results in discussion, see Window of Salvation, comp. Bruce R. ally gratified to receive the a synonymous couplet in Isa- Faith: Latter-day Saint Per- McConkie (Salt Lake City: Lord’s promise that his writ- iah 2:16 (which we accept), but spectives on World History, ed. Bookcraft, 1977–78), 1:160–64; ings on the small plates would there is no comment on how Roy A. Prete et al. (Provo, UT: Bruce R. McConkie, Mor- be preserved “as long as the this form of Isaiah 2:16 relates BYU , mon Doctrine, 2nd ed. (Salt earth shall stand,” a point he to 2 Nephi 12:16 or what has 2005). Lake City: Bookcraft, 1966), apparently had not appreci- become of the phrase “pleasant 4. See Ernst Breisach, Historiog- 200–202; Milton R. Hunter, ated when he was commanded pictures.” raphy: Ancient, Medieval, and The Gospel through the Ages to prepare them (see 2 Nephi 62. The quotation is from Hug- Modern, 2nd ed. (Chicago: (Salt Lake City: Stevens & 25:21–23; 1 Nephi 19:3). gins, “‘Without a Cause’ and University of Chicago Press, Wallis, 1945), chaps. 11–13; 19. See Grant Underwood, ‘Ships of Tarshish,’” 171. His 1994); also Mark T. Gilderhus, and “Dispensations,” in the “Insights from the Early Years: discussion of Clarke’s com- History and Historians: A Bible Dictionary in the Latter- 2 Nephi 28–30,” in Second mentary is on pages 172–74. Historiographical Introduction, day Saint edition of the King Nephi, The Doctrinal Struc- The research of Robert Paul 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, James Version of the Bible, ture, 323–36. (“Joseph Smith and the Man- NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003). 657–58. The Prophet Joseph 20. While the precise titles of such chester [New York] Library,” 5. For a nuanced treatment of the Smith stated, “It is in the order books have not been given BYU Studies 22/3 [1982]: historiography of providential of heavenly things that God in , there is some 333–56) suggests there was no history and the issues it faces, should always send a new dis- indication from a 1978 First copy of Clarke’s commentary see Brian Q. Cannon, “Provi- pensation into the world when Presidency letter that Moham- in the Manchester, New York, dential History: The Need for men have apostatized from the med, among others, was lending library in the late Continuing Revelation,” in truth and lost the priesthood.” inspired to bring forth truths 1820s. But Huggins’s claim Window of Faith, 143–60. Teachings of the Prophet Joseph of God, suggesting that the relates to Joseph Smith’s stay 6. Ronald A. Wells, History Smith, comp. Joseph Fielding Qur’an and other sacred texts in Harmony, Pennsylvania, Through the Eyes of Faith: Smith (Salt Lake City: Deseret could be among these. For this and he cites a claim that the Western Civilization and the Book, 1976), 375. interpretation and a discussion Rev. Nathaniel Lewis, one of Kingdom of God (San Fran- 13. See Noel B. Reynolds, “Lehi as of world religions with refer- ’s uncles, had a cisco: HarperSanFrancisco, Moses,” JBMS 9/2 (2000): 27–35. ences to their sacred texts, see copy of Clarke’s commentary 1989), 3–4. See in particular note 1, which Roger R. Keller, “Why Study and supposedly mentioned it 7. C. John Sommerville, references literature pertaining World Religions?” in Window to Joseph Smith (p. 173). “Christain Historiograpghy? to Nephi as a Moses figure. of Faith, 213–30. 63. We thank our wives and other A Pragmatic Approach,” Fides 14. See Millet, “Influence of the reviewers for their suggestions et Historia 35 (Winter/Spring Brass Plates,” 210–11, which Archaeology and the Book of for improving this study. We 2003), 3. presents evidence to suggest Mormon extend an extra note of thanks 8. For a discussion of methodol- that these were prophets of the John E. Clark to John A. Tvedtnes for his ogy in the Latter-day Saint con- tribe of Joseph. careful reading and comments. text, see Roy A. Prete, “Merging 15. According to Terry B. Ball, This article was originally a forum As always, all deficiencies are the Secular and the Spiritual,” Isaiah “is the most quoted address delivered at Brigham our responsibility alone. in Window of Faith, 125–42. prophet in the Book of Mor- Young University, 24 May 2004.

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 71 1. See Matthew B. Brown, Plates 12. Times and Seasons 3 (1 Octo- been found. 8. No artifact of Nibley, ed. John M. Lundquist of Gold: The Book of Mormon ber 1842): 927. any kind that demonstrates and Stephen D. Ricks (Salt Comes Forth (American Fork, 13. Tal Davis, A Closer Look at The Book of Mormon is true Lake City: Deseret Book and UT: Covenant, 2003), for a The Book of Mormon (Atlanta: has been found.” FARMS, 1990), 2:273–334. detailed account of the events Home Mission Board, South- 16. For an excellent discussion of 20. An early stone box is known of that morning. ern Baptist Convention, 1993). what physical evidence can for the late Olmec site of Tres 2. Figures current as of February 14. Judging supposed deficiencies and cannot do for the Book of Zapotes, Veracruz; see Chris- 2006, Curriculum Depart- of Book of Mormon archae- Mormon, see John W. Welch, topher A. Pool, “From Olmec ment, The Church of Jesus ology from the vantage of “The Power of Evidence in the to Epi-Olmec at Tres Zapotes, Christ of Latter-day Saints. biblical archaeology is akin Nurturing of Faith,” in Echoes Veracruz, Mexico,” in Olmec 3. For a concise review of histori- to gauging the speed of an and Evidences of the Book Art and Archaeology in Meso- cal positions concerning the oncoming car on the freeway. of Mormon, ed. Donald W. america, ed. John E. Clark and origins of the Book of Mor- Neither driver is in a position Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and Mary E. Pye (Washington DC: mon, see Louis C. Midgley, to make the call. The compel- John W. Welch (Provo, UT: National Gallery of Art, 2000), “Who Really Wrote the Book ling argument from archae- FARMS, 2002), 17–53. 146. Many offering boxes have of Mormon? The Critics and ology requires the reader’s 17. See John L. Sorenson, “How been found in the excavations Their Theories,” in Book of faith and indulgence in the Could Joseph Smith Write of the Aztec capital of Tenoch- Mormon Authorship Revis- soundness of biblical archaeol- So Accurately about Ancient titlan (present Mexico City) in ited: The Evidence for Ancient ogy as an entry fee to evaluate American Civilization?” in the Templo Mayor excavations; Origins (Provo, UT: FARMS, Book of Mormon claims. In Echoes and Evidences, 261–306; see Leonardo López Luján, The 1997), 101–39. truth, biblical archaeology is and , “The Wrong Offerings of the Templo Mayor 4. The most thorough discussion riven with pitfalls and dif- Type of Book,” in Echoes and of Tenochtitlan (Niwot, CO: of these points can be found ficulties. Archaeology has not Evidences, 307–29. University Press of Colorado, in Terryl L. Givens, By the confirmed the Bible in any 18. called such 1994). Hand of Mormon: The Ameri- nontrivial sense. For a frank improbable confirmations 21. The different scripts currently can Scripture That Launched assessment of some of the “howlers.” Hugh Nibley, known include Zapotec, Low- a New World Religion (New challenges of biblical archaeol- “‘Howlers’ in the Book of Mor- land Maya, Highland Maya at York: Oxford University Press, ogy, see William G. Dever, mon,” (Febru- Kaminaljuyú, Tlatilco, Teoti- 2002). What Did the Biblical Writers ary 1963): 28–34; reprinted huacan, La Mojarra, La Venta 5. Ernest L. Wilkinson and W. Know and When Did They in Nibley, The Prophetic Book Olmec, and a recent script Cleon Skousen, Brigham Young Know It? What Archaeology of Mormon (Salt Lake City: from the Olmec heartland that University: A School of Destiny Can Tell Us about the Real- Deseret Book and FARMS, has not yet been labeled. For (Provo, UT: Brigham Young ity of Ancient Israel (Grand 1989), 243–58. some introductory discussion University Press, 1976), 151. Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001); 19. See William J. Adams Jr., of these scripts, see Stephen D. 6. See Wilkinson and Skousen, Randall Price, The Stones Cry “Lehi’s Jerusalem and Writing Houston, “Writing in Early Brigham Young University, 160. Out: What Archaeology Reveals on Silver Plates,” in Press- Mesoamerica,” in The First 7. See Wilkinson and Skousen, about the Truth of the Bible ing Forward with the Book of Writing: Script Invention as Brigham Young University, (Eugene, OR: Harvest House, Mormon, ed. John W. Welch History and Process, ed. Ste- 179–80. 1997). and Melvin J. Thorne (Provo, phen D. Houston (Cambridge: 8. Copies of the Book of Mormon 15. The list of archaeological UT: FARMS, 1999), 23–26; Cambridge University Press, available at the turn of the objections to the Book of Mor- Adams, “More on the Silver 2004), 274–309; David H. century would have had the mon was taken from an earlier Plates from Lehi’s Jerusalem,” Kelley, “A Cylinder Seal from changes added to the 1879 edi- pamphlet by Hal Hougey, in Pressing Forward, 27–28; C. Tlatilco,” American Antiquity tion by Orson Pratt, and these Archaeology and The Book of Wilfred Griggs, “The Book of 31/5 (1966): 744–46; John S. included footnotes contain- Mormon (Concord, CA: Pacific Mormon as an Ancient Book,” Justeson, “The Origin of Writ- ing geographical information Publishing, 1983), 12. The in Book of Mormon Author- ing Systems: Preclassic Meso- based on a hemispheric geog- full list of objections, as they ship: New Light on Ancient america,” World Archaeology raphy. These specific identifi- appear in Davis, A Closer Look Origins, ed. Noel B. Reynolds 17/3 (1986): 437–58; Justeson cations were removed for the at The Book of Mormon (see n. (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1982), and Terrence Kaufman, “A 1920 edition and have been 13), is as follows: “1. No Book 75–101; William J. Hamblin, Decipherment of Epi-Olmec excluded ever since. of Mormon cities have been “Metal Plates and the Book of Hieroglyphic Writing,” Science 9. For good overviews of Book located. 2. No Book of Mormon Mormon,” in Pressing Forward, 259 (19 March 1993): 1703–11; of Mormon geographies and names have been found in 20–22; Noel B. Reynolds, “By Joyce Marcus, “The Origins related issues, see John L. New World inscriptions. 3. Objective Measures: Old Wine of Mesoamerican Writing,” Sorenson, An Ancient Ameri- No genuine inscriptions have into New Bottles,” in Echoes Annual Review of Anthropol- can Setting for the Book of been found in Hebrew. 4. No and Evidences, 127–153; Ste- ogy 5 (1976): 35–67; Joyce Mar- Mormon (Salt Lake City: genuine inscriptions have been phen D. Ricks, “Converging cus, Mesoamerican Writing Deseret Book and FARMS, found in Egyptian or anything Paths: Language and Cultural Systems: Propaganda, Myth, 1996); Sorenson, The Geogra- similar to Egyptian, which Notes on the Ancient Near and History in Four Ancient phy of Book of Mormon Events: could correspond to Joseph Eastern Background of the Civilizations (Princeton, NJ: A Sourcebook (Provo, UT: Smith’s ‘Reformed Egyptian.’ Book of Mormon,” in Echoes Princeton University Press, FARMS, 1992); and Sorenson, 5. No ancient copies of Book of and Evidences, 389–419; 1992); Sylvia Méluzin, Further Mormon’s Map (Provo, UT: Mormon scriptures have been John L. Sorenson, “Challeng- Investigations of the Tuxtla FARMS, 2000). found. 6. No ancient inscrip- ing Conventional Views of Script: An Inscribed Mask and 10. Times and Seasons 3 (15 March tions of any kind that indicate Metal,” in Pressing Forward, La Mojarra Stela 1 (Provo, 1842): 710. that the ancient inhabitants 187–89; H. Curtis Wright, UT: Papers of the New World 11. John L. Stephens, Incidents of held Hebrew or Christian “Ancient Burials of Metal Archaeological Foundation, Travel in Central America, Chi- beliefs—all are pagan. 7. No Documents in Stone Boxes,” 1995); Mary E. Pohl, Kevin O. apas, and Yucatan (New York: mention of Book of Mormon in By Study and Also by Faith: Pope, and Christopher von Harper and Brothers, 1841). people, nations, or places has Essays in Honor of Hugh W. Nagy, “Olmec Origins of

72 volume 14, number 2, 2005 Mesoamerican Writing,” Sci- Lundquist and John W. Welch, 306; and John W. Welch, “A Introduction to the Study of ence 298 (6 December 2002): “Ammon and Cutting Off the Steady Stream of Significant the Maya Hieroglyphics (1915; 1984–87; Karl A. Taube, The Arms of Enemies,” in Reex- Recognitions,” in Echoes and reprint, New York: Dover Pub- Writing System of Ancient Teo- ploring the Book of Mormon, Evidences, 331–87. lications, 1975); and J. Eric S. tihuacan (Barnardsville, NC: 180–81. 33. The notion of working kings Thompson, Maya Hieroglyphic Center for Ancient American 29. For towers as the last refuge or lesser kings came into the Writing: An Introduction (Nor- Studies, 2000); Javier Urcid in battle, see Alma 50:4; 51:20; anthropological literature man: University of Oklahoma Serrano, Zapotec Hieroglyphic Moroni 9:7. Compare with with the rise of evolutionary Press, 1960). Most introduc- Writing (Washington DC: Fray Diego Durán, The Aztecs: typologies and the concept of tory books on Mesoamerican Dumbarton Oaks Research The History of the Indies of chiefdoms. For valuable treat- archaeology cover the basics Library and Collection, 2001). New Spain, trans. Doris Hey- ments of chiefdoms, see Elman of the calendar. I recommend 22. See John Gee, “Two Notes on den and Fernando Horcasitas R. Service, Primitive Social any edition of Michael D. Coe, Egyptian Script,” in Pressing (New York: Orion Press, 1964), Organization: An Evolution- The Maya (London: Thames Forward, 244–47; Stephen D. 68: “The Tecpanecs, retreat- ary Perspective, 2nd ed. (New and Hudson). Ernst Wilhelm Ricks and John A. Tvedtnes, ing toward their city, intended York: Random House, 1971); Förstemann is credited with “Semitic Texts Written in to use their temple as a last Morton H. Fried, The Evolution discovering the principles of Egyptian Characters,” in stronghold, but Tlacaelel [an of Political Society: An Essay in the Maya calendar in 1887; see Pressing Forward, 237–43; and Aztec leader] reached the Political Anthropology (New his article “The Inscription Brian Stubbs, “Hebrew and temple before them and, tak- York: Random House, 1967); on the Cross of Palenque,” Uto-Aztecan: Possible Linguis- ing possession of its entrance, Timothy Earle, ed., Chiefdoms: reprinted in The Decipherment tic Connections,” in Reexplor- ordered one of his men to set it Power, Economy, and Ideology of Ancient Maya Writing, ed. ing the Book of Mormon, ed. on fire, having made prisoner (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- Stephen Houston, Oswaldo John W. Welch (Provo, UT: all those who were within.” versity Press, 1991); Robert D. Chinchilla Mazariegos, and FARMS, 1992), 279–81. Durán, p. 89: “When we reach Drennan and Carlos A. Uribe, David Stuart (Norman: Uni- 23. See Kelley, “Cylinder Seal from Totoltzinco the king of Tex- eds., Chiefdoms in the Americas versity of Oklahoma Press, Tlatilco,” 744–46. coco will set fire to the temple (Lanham, MD: University Press 2001), 224–33. 24. See M. Kathryn Brown and and the battle will come to an of America, 1987); and Allen 36. See Alma 45:10; Helaman 13:9; Travis W. Stanton, Ancient end.” W. Johnson and Timothy Earle, Mormon 8:6. Mesoamerican Warfare (Wal- 30. See Durán, The Aztecs, 217; The Evolution of Human Societ- 37. See Michael Coe, on the fal- nut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, Hubert Howe Bancroft, The ies: From Foraging Group to lacy of misplaced concrete- 2003); Ross Hassig, Aztec Native Races of the Pacific Agrarian State (Stanford, CA: ness, quoted in Hampton Warfare: Imperial Expansion States of North America (New Stanford University Press, 1987). Sides, “This is Not the Place,” and Political Control (Nor- York: Appleton, 1875), 2:425; 34. For information on Olmec Doubletake 5 (Spring 1999): man: University of Oklahoma and Sorenson, Images of thrones, see David C. Grove, 46–55, quotation from p. 51: Press, 1988); and Hassig, War Ancient America, 126–29. “Olmec Altars and Myths,” “They’re [Mormon apologists] and Society in Ancient Meso- 31. See Sorenson, Ancient Ameri- Archaeology 26/2 (April always going after the nitty- america (Berkeley: University can Setting. 1973): 128–35; Grove, “Olmec gritty things. . . . Let’s look at of California Press, 1992). 32. Teotihuacan, located just Archaeology: A Half Century this specific hill. Let’s look at 25. See John L. Sorenson, “For- north of Mexico City, was built of Research and Its Accom- that specific tree. It’s exhaust- tifications in the Book of about this time with massive plishments,” Journal of World ing to follow all these mind- Mormon Account Compared amounts of cement. In citing Prehistory 11/1 (1997): 51–101; numbing leads. It keeps the with Mesoamerican Fortifica- this correspondence pointed Grove and Susan D. Gillespie, focus off the fact that it’s all tions,” in Warfare in the Book of out by others, I am not claim- “Ideology and Evolution at in the service of a completely Mormon, ed. Stephen D. Ricks ing that Teotihuacan was the Pre-State Level: Forma- phony history. Where are the and William J. Hamblin (Salt indeed the place mentioned in tive Period Mesoamerica,” in languages? Where are the cit- Lake City: Deseret Book, 1990), the Book of Mormon account; Ideology and Pre-Columbian ies? Where are the artifacts? 425–44; and Sorenson, Images see Joseph L. Allen, Sacred Civilizations, ed. Arthur A. Look here, they’ll say. Here’s of Ancient America: Visualizing Sites: Searching for Book of Demarest and Geoffrey W. an elephant. Well, that’s fine, Book of Mormon Life (Provo, Mormon Lands (American Conrad (Albuquerque: School but elephants were wiped out UT: Research Press, 1998), Fork, UT: Covenant Com- of American Research Press, in the New World around 132–33. munications, 2003), 89–91. At 1992), 15–36; Gillespie, “Power, 8,000 bc by hunters. There 26. See William J. Hamblin and the moment, no New World Pathways, and Appropriations were no elephants!” See also A. Brent Merrill, “Swords city mentioned in the Book in Mesoamerican Art,” in Coe, “Mormons and Archaeol- in the Book of Mormon,” in of Mormon is known with Imagery and Creativity: Ethno­ ogy: An Outside View,” Dia- Warfare in the Book of Mor- certainty. Other cities in the aesthetics and Art Worlds in logue 8/2 (1973): 40–48. mon, 329–51; Matthew Roper, region around Teotihuacan the Americas, ed. Dorothea S. 38. See S. Kent Brown, “‘The Place “Eyewitness Descriptions of engaged in similar practices, Whitten and Norman E. Whit- That Was Called Nahom’: New Mesoamerican Swords,” in so I am drawing attention ten Jr. (Tucson: The Univer- Light from Ancient Yemen,” Pressing Forward, 169–76; and here to a region, a time period, sity of Arizona Press, 1993), JBMS 8/1 (1999): 66–68; War- Sorenson, Images of Ancient and a cultural practice, all of 67–107; and Gillespie, “Olmec ren P. Aston, “Newly Found America, 130–31. which are confirmatory of the Thrones as Ancestral Altars: Altars from Nahom,” JBMS 27. For blood-stained swords, see Book of Mormon account if The Two Sides of Power,” in 10/2 (2001): 56–61; and Brown, Alma 24:12–13, 15. one concedes that the Land Material Symbols: Culture and “New Light from Arabia on 28. See Alison V. P. Coutts, “From Southward was south of the Economy in Prehistory, ed. Lehi’s Trail,” in Echoes and a Convert’s Viewpoint,” in Isthmus of Tehuantepec. For John E. Robb (Carbondale, Evidences, 55–125. Echoes and Evidences, 421–52; further references to cement, IL: Center for Archaeological 39. See Sorenson, Ancient Ameri- Bruce H. Yerman, “Ammon see John L. Sorenson, “How Investigations, 1999), 224–53. can Setting; and Sorenson, and the Mesoamerican Custom Could Joseph Smith Write 35. The classic statements on Mormon’s Map. of Smiting Off Arms,” JBMS so Accurately about Ancient the Maya calendar are those 40. The population profile for the 8/1 (1999): 46–47; John M. American Civilization?” 261– of Sylvanus G. Morley, An Lowland Olmecs is based on

journal of Book of Mormon Studies 73 data for the history of the two “The Architecture of Early that “mist of darkness” really houses existed, however, principal capitals in the area, Kingship: Comparative Per- means “dark mist,” the way the does not change the argu- San Lorenzo and La Venta, as spectives on the Origins of the “rod of iron” might be called ment that the vision of the well as on some limited survey Maya Royal Court,” in Royal the “iron rod.” This may or tree of life demands that the around both capitals. I draw Courts of the Ancient Maya: may not be the case. There reader deal with unfamiliar from the following sources: Vol. 2, Data and Case Stud- are several other instances in images. The Book of Mormon Michael D. Coe and Richard A. ies, ed. Takeshi Inomata and this account in which adjec- is an ancient book written for Diehl, In the Land of the Olmec Stephen D. Houston (Boulder: tives are used before nouns to modern times—its readers are (Austin: University of Texas Westview Press, 2001), 1–45; modify them (e.g., “dark and the people of today, not those Press, 1980); Ann Cyphers, Richard A. Diehl, The Olmecs: dreary wilderness,” “white contemporaneous with Lehi or “Reconstructing Olmec Life America’s First Civilization robe,” “dark and dreary anyone else in the book. While at San Lorenzo,” in Olmec Art (London: Thames and Hud- waste,” “large and spacious there may be images in the of Ancient Mexico, ed. Eliza- son, 2005); and González, “La field,” “strait and narrow vision that correspond with beth P. Benson and Beatriz de Venta: An Olmec Capital,” path”), indicating, at least, that what some people in the book la Fuente (Washington DC: 73–81. it’s reasonable to read “mist may have actually seen in life, National Gallery of Art, 1996), 44. See Terryl L. Givens, By the of darkness” to be something these same images are unfa- 61–71; Cyphers, ed., Población, Hand of Mormon: The Ameri- other than just a dark mist miliar to readers of the Book Subsistencia y Medio Ambiente can Scripture That Launched a since the words “dark mist” of Mormon. en San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán New World Religion. could have been used to con- 14. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 170; (Mexico City: Universidad 45. Gordon B. Hinckley, “Four vey that latter meaning. emphasis in original. Nacional Autónoma de México, Cornerstones of Faith,” Ensign, 7. On the possible connection of 15. Leland Ryken, James C. Wil- 1997); Rebecca González Lauck, February 2004, 6. the building of Lehi’s dream hoit, and Tremper Longman “La Venta: An Olmec Capital,” to ancient South Arabian III, eds., Dictionary of Biblical in Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico, Lehi’s Vision of the Tree of Life: architecture, see S. Kent Imagery (Downers Grove, IL: 73–81; Stacey C. Symonds and Understanding the Dream as Brown, “The Queen of Sheba, InterVarsity Press, 1998), s.v. Roberto Lunagómez, “Settle- Visionary Literature Skyscraper Architecture, and “Dreams, Visions.” ment System and Population Charles Swift Lehi’s Dream,” JBMS 11 (2002): 16. Of course, we might choose to Development at San Lorenzo,” 102–3. divide up the vision into com- in Olmec to Aztec: Settlement 1. Robert L. Millet, “Another 8. On the connections to desert ponents in several different Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Testament of Jesus Christ,” geography and other features of ways. For this chart, however, Lowlands, ed. Barbara L. Stark in The Book of Mormon: First life in Lehi’s dream, see S. Kent I have basically chosen to and Philip J. Arnold III (Tuc- Nephi, the Doctrinal Founda- Brown, “New Light from Ara- designate a new component son: University of Arizona tion, ed. Monte S. Nyman and bia on Lehi’s Trail,” in Echoes when the location of the action Press, 1997), 144–73; Symonds, Charles D. Tate Jr. (Provo, UT: and Evidences of the Book of changes. Lehi’s location does Cyphers, and Lunagómez, BYU Religious Studies Center, Mormon, ed. Donald W. Parry, not change once he has par- Asentamiento Prehispánico en 1988), 163. Daniel C. Peterson, and John taken of the fruit of the tree, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán (Mex- 2. Richard Dilworth Rust, Feast- W. Welch (Provo, UT: FARMS, but the location of the events ico City: Universidad Nacional ing on the Word: The Literary 2002), 64–69, 102–4. he is observing and talking Autónoma de México, 2002); Testimony of the Book of Mor- 9. S. Kent Brown, “Lehi, Journey about does. and Christopher von Nagy, mon (Salt Lake City: Deseret of, to the promised land,” in 17. Ryken, Bible as Literature, “The Geoarchaeology of Settle- Book and FARMS, 1997), 4. Book of Mormon Reference 170–71; emphasis in original. ment in the Grijalva Delta,” in 3. Leland Ryken, How to Read Companion, ed. Dennis L. 18. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 171. Olmec to Aztec, 253–77. the Bible as Literature (Grand Largey et al. (Salt Lake City: 19. Leland Ryken, Literature of 41. See John E. Clark, Richard D. Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1984), Deseret Book, 2003), 515. the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Hansen, and Tomás Pérez 165. 10. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 167; Zondervan, 1974), 339. Suárez, “La Zona Maya en el 4. See, for example, Robert Alter, emphasis in original. 20. Corbin T. Volluz, “Lehi’s Preclásico,” in Historia Anti- The Art of Biblical Poetry (New 11. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 167; Dream of the Tree of Life: gua de México, Volumen 1: York: Basic Books, 1985); Ber- emphasis in original. Springboard to Prophecy,” El México Antiguo, sus áreas nard McGinn, “Revelation,” 12. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 169; JBMS 2/2 (1993): 38. culturales, los orígenes y el in The Literary Guide to the emphasis in original. 21. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 173. horizonte Preclásico, ed. Linda Bible, ed. Robert Alter and 13. Examples of ancient Arabian 22. It is interesting that while Manzanilla and Leonardo Frank Kermode (Cambridge, houses “built after the Baby- people are concerned about the López Luján (Mexico City: MA: Belknap Press of Har- lonian design of Lehi’s day” historicity of symbols, rarely Instituto Nacional de Antro- vard University Press, 1990), were 10 and 12 stories high, do they concern themselves pologia e Historia, 2000), 523–41; John B. Gabel, Charles with their windows starting with the symbolism of history. 437–510. B. Wheeler, and Anthony D. 20 to 50 feet above the ground Just as symbols can corre- 42. For basic information see York, The Bible as Literature: for purposes of defense. “At spond to actual events, actual the entries on El Mirador, An Introduction, 4th ed. (New night these lighted windows events can be understood to be Kaminaljuyú, and Chiapa de York: Oxford University Press, would certainly give the effect symbolic. I do not refer only Corzo in Susan Toby Evans 2000); Northrop Frye, The of being suspended above the to ritual and ceremony, such and David L. Webster, eds., Great Code: The Bible and Lit- earth.” Early castles of Arabia as the sacrament or baptism, Archaeology of Ancient Mexico erature (New York: Harcourt looked like they stood in the which are by definition sym- and Central America: An Ency- Brace Jovanovich, 1982); and air, high above the earth (see bolic actions. I refer to events clopedia (New York: Garland Northrop Frye, Words with Hugh Nibley, An Approach to in everyday life that normally Publishing, 2001). Power: Being a Second Study of the Book of Mormon, 3rd ed. would not be considered any- 43. For the demise of the Olmec the “Bible and Literature” (San [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book thing out of the ordinary but civililzation, see the following: Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace and FARMS, 1988], 257; also that can actually be seen as Clark, Hansen, and Pérez, “La Jovanovich, 1990). see Brown, “Lehi, Journey of, pointing to meaning beyond Zona Maya,” 437–510; John E. 5. Ryken, Bible as Literature, 166. to the promised land,” 515). themselves. For example, Clark and Richard D. Hansen, 6. Admittedly, one might argue The fact that such ancient Elder Boyd K. Packer spoke

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