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Magnetic Source Imaging and Infant MEG: Current Trends and Technical Advances

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Magnetic Source Imaging and Infant MEG: Current Trends and Technical Advances brain sciences Review Magnetic Source Imaging and Infant MEG: Current Trends and Technical Advances Chieh Kao 1 and Yang Zhang 1,2,* 1 Department of Speech-Language-Hearing Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA 2 Center for Neurobehavioral Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-612-624-7818; Fax: +1-612-624-7586 Received: 30 June 2019; Accepted: 26 July 2019; Published: 27 July 2019 Abstract: Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is known for its temporal precision and good spatial resolution in cognitive brain research. Nonetheless, it is still rarely used in developmental research, and its role in developmental cognitive neuroscience is not adequately addressed. The current review focuses on the source analysis of MEG measurement and its potential to answer critical questions on neural activation origins and patterns underlying infants’ early cognitive experience. The advantages of MEG source localization are discussed in comparison with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), two leading imaging tools for studying cognition across age. Challenges of the current MEG experimental protocols are highlighted, including measurement and data processing, which could potentially be resolved by developing and improving both software and hardware. A selection of infant MEG research in auditory, speech, vision, motor, sleep, cross-modality, and clinical application is then summarized and discussed with a focus on the source localization analyses. Based on the literature review and the advancements of the infant MEG systems and source analysis software, typical practices of infant MEG data collection and analysis are summarized as the basis for future developmental cognitive research. Keywords: Magnetoencephalography (MEG); infant; cognitive development; source localization; equivalent current dipole (ECD); minimum norm estimation (MNE) 1. Introduction Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an important and completely non-invasive imaging technique for mapping functional brain activities in normal as well as pathological populations for basic research and clinical purposes. It uses special sensors called superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) to measure and visualize the exquisite online magnetic field changes from post-synaptic neuronal currents on the millisecond or sub-millisecond scale depending on the sampling rate of signal recording. Historically, these neuronal activities at the system level have been recorded noninvasively and studied with electroencephalography (EEG), which is much less expensive for instrumentation and measurement. EEG generally provides less precise localization of the cortical/subcortical sources compared with MEG in studies on early brain development [1] (but also see References [2,3] for successful EEG source localization examples). Unlike EEG, which is subject to signal smearing due to conductivity issues in the skull and scalp, the MEG signal is less susceptible to the heterogeneous anatomical structures and tissues between the sensors and the neuronal generators. When integrated with a three-dimensional head model built from an individual’s magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, MEG becomes functional magnetic source imaging (MSI), which allows mapping the online millisecond-by-millisecond dynamics of mental activities with a spatial resolution on the order of millimeters [4]. In the first twenty years or so since Dr. Cohen’s seminal work in 1968 [5], MEG research and clinical applications were rather limited due to its availability, technicality required of Brain Sci. 2019, 9, 181; doi:10.3390/brainsci9080181 www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci Brain Sci. 2019, 9, 181 2 of 27 Brain Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 25 bothdue hardware to its availability, and software, technicality and cost. required The last of bo threeth hardware decades haveand software, witnessed and a steadycost. The surge last ofthree MEG publicationsdecades have with witnessed a plateau a steady of approximately surge of MEG 400 publications per year inwith the a lastplateau six of years approximately and a slow 400 increase per ofyear infant in MEGthe last publications six years and from a slow 1996 increase (Figure 1of). infant The increase MEG publications of the MEG from publications 1996 (Figure reflects 1). The fast growingincrease interests of the MEG andfunding publications in the reflects field of fast cognitive growing science interests and and brain funding imaging in the propelled field of bycognitive technical advancesscience inand the brain digital imaging computing propelled world by for technical real-time advances high-capacity in the processing digital computing and complex world scientific for visualization.real-time high-capacity With the increasing processing popularity and complex of MEG, scientific there havevisualization. been a series With ofthe comprehensive increasing scientificpopularity review of MEG, papers there [6–11 have] and been textbooks a series/edited of comprehensive volumes [12– 18scientific] to introduce review MEGpapers to [6–11] the scientific and community,textbooks/edited the medical volumes field, [12–18] and to the introduce wider audience MEG to the in general.scientific Therecommunity, have alsothe medical been summary field, reportsand the of MEGwider studiesaudience on in special general. populations There have withalso been various summary clinical reports conditions of MEG such studies as autism on special [19–21 ], epilepsypopulations [22,23 with], schizophrenia various clinical [24 conditions–26], language such as impairment autism [19–21], [27], epilepsy dementia [22,23], [28], dystoniaschizophrenia [29,30 ], major[24–26], depression language disorder impairment [31], obsessive-compulsive[27], dementia [28], dystonia disorder [29,30], [32], major fibromyalgia depression syndrome disorder [33 [31],], and otherobsessive-compulsive neurological and psychiatricdisorder [32], disorders fibromyalg [8,34ia]. Asyndrome guideline [33], by Schwartzand other et al.neurological [35] on pediatric and MEGpsychiatric studies providesdisorders a[8,34]. detailed A guideline overview by and Schwartz some successful et al. [35] on examples, pediatric reassuring MEG studies the provides feasibility a of usingdetailed MEG overview to explore and cognitive some successful development examples, in both reassuring typical the and feasibility clinical populations. of using MEG to explore cognitive development in both typical and clinical populations. Figure 1. Number of magnetoencephalography (MEG) publications in the period of 1968–2019. Data Figure 1. Number of magnetoencephalography (MEG) publications in the period of 1968–2019. Data were exported and replotted from the online PUBMED database (pubmed.gov; as of 21 July 2019) with were exported and replotted from the online PUBMED database (pubmed.gov; as of 21 July 2019) search of target word “magnetoencephalography” in the title or abstract for “All MEG Publications”; with search of target word “magnetoencephalography” in the title or abstract for “All MEG and target words “magnetoencephalography” and “infant* or neonate* or newborn*” in the title or Publications”; and target words “magnetoencephalography” and “infant* or neonate* or newborn*” abstract for “Infant MEG Publications”. in the title or abstract for “Infant MEG Publications”. Unlike fMRI, PET (positron emission tomography) and SPECT (single-photon emission computed Unlike fMRI, PET (positron emission tomography) and SPECT (single-photon emission tomography),computed tomography), which are secondarywhich are secondary measures measures of metabolism of metabolism over much over longermuch longer time time scales, scales, MEG directlyMEG directly measures measures neuronal neuronal activities activities associated associat withed variouswith various brain brain functions functions of interest. of interest. While While MEG doesMEG not does have not capabilities have capabilities to directly to identify directly the identify biochemical, the biochemical, molecular, molecular, and genetic and mechanisms genetic formechanisms explaining brainfor explaining structure andbrain functions structure underlying and functions mental underlying and neurological mental and disorders, neurological it can be combineddisorders, with it can various be combined research toolswith tovarious help determine research tools the relationships to help determine between the system-level relationships and lower-levelbetween system-level brain mechanisms and lower-level and is well brain placed mechanisms for multi-modal and is imaging.well placed MEG for and multi-modal EEG can be simultaneouslyimaging. MEG recorded and EEG with can each be simultaneously providing complementary recorded with information each providing about neuronalcomplementary currents. Currently,information the mainabout clinical neuronal applications currents. ofCurrently, MEG are the for localizingmain clinical epilepsy applications and pre-surgical of MEG are mapping for withlocalizing improved epilepsy surgical and outcomes, pre-surgical and mapping recent years with haveimproved seen asurgical steady outcomes, increase of and research recentinterests years andhave efforts seen in a usingsteady MEG increase to characterizeof research interests a broad and range efforts of neurological in using MEG and to psychiatriccharacterize conditionsa broad forrange potential of neurological diagnostic
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