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Machismo(S): a Cultural History, 1928 – 1984

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Machismo(S): a Cultural History, 1928 – 1984 Machismo(s): A Cultural History, 1928 – 1984 by Erik Morales A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American Culture) in The University of Michigan 2015 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Anthony P. Mora, Chair Associate Professor Maria E. Cotera Associate Professor Kristin A. Hass Professor Regina Morantz-Sanchez © Erik Morales 2015 For my family and in memory of my father, Jose H. Morales. ii Acknowledgements This seven-year project was shaped and made possible by the generous support of many. The Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan provided me with several awards: the Rackham Merit Fellowship, a Predoctoral Fellowship, a Travel Grant, and a One-Term Dissertation Fellowship. The Department of American Culture granted me a Summer Writing Residency Award. The Social Science Research Council, through the Mellon Mays Graduate Initiatives Program, provided me with a Dissertation Completion Grant. These funds allowed me to research, write, and record the rare material I needed for this dissertation. I am indebted to my dissertation committee. Their guidance on the direction of my research was vital in setting goals and producing chapter frameworks. A big thank you to the chair of my committee, Anthony Mora, who patiently and generously read, then re-read each chapter draft. Kristin Hass provided countless moments of moral support and kept me in mind for funding and networking opportunities. Regina Morantz-Sanchez steered me into the fields of Jewish and Asian American masculinity, influencing the ways I examined the sources I collected. Lastly, Maria Cotera provided me with substantial recommendations to help me complete the final revision. Many others from the University of Michigan community of scholars nurtured this project. My first chapter was drafted in American Culture 850, taught by Magdalena Zaborowska, where Shanesha R. F. Brooks-Tatum, Wendy Michaels, Margot Finn, and Annah MacKenzie engaged and elevated my draft into a concise chapter. I later presented a portion of it iii at the Latina/o Studies Silver Symposium conference at the University of Michigan in 2009 where the audience eagerly offered ways to expand it. My writing group, organized by the Gayle Morris Sweetland Center for Writing, edited the first half of this dissertation. They are: Julia Lippman, Joshua Ryan Hawkins, Maria Hadjipolycarpou, and Yanina V. Arnold. I learned how to write accessibly to other scholars outside of my field during our weekly meetings over coffee. I also want to acknowledge other faculty in American Culture who offered advice on this project. They are: Catherine Benamou, Amy Carroll, Vincent Diaz, Lawrence La Fountain- Stokes, Philip J. Deloria, Julie Ellison, and Amy Stillman. Other colleagues not already mentioned who made my time at Michigan memorable are: John Low, Matthew Stiffler, Brian Chung, Lee Ann Wang, Veronica Pasfield, Sharon Heijin Lee, Dean Saranillo, Kiri Sailiata, Lani Teves, Rabia Belt, Afia Ofori-Mensa, Lorgia and John García Peña, Sarah Gould, Kelly Sisson, Sam Erman, Federico M. Helfgott, Hannah Noel, Isa Quintallia, Jesse Carr, Maritza Cardenas, Abraham Acosta, Richard Nation, Robert Duke, Mary-Elizabeth Murphy, Jack Etsweiler, and Lloyd Barba. Lastly, and certainly not least, I want to thank the incredible department staff in American Culture: Marlene Moore, Tabitha Rohn, Mary Freiman, Tammy Zill, and Judy Gray. A number of archives enthusiastically shared their collections with me. These include: Special Collections at the Houston Public Library; Chicano Studies Research Center at the University of California Los Angeles; Special Collections at the University of California Riverside; Archives Research Center at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; ONE National Gay & Lesbian Archives at the University of Southern California; Benson Latin American Collection and the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at the University of Texas at Austin; Bentley Historical Library and the Joseph Labadie Collection at the University of Michigan; Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College; Special Collections, Ethnic Study iv Collection, Latin American and Latino History and Culture at Michigan State University Library; Cushing Memorial Library and Archives at Texas A&M University; and the Walter P. Reuther library at Wayne State University. I appreciated the staff’s knowledge, insight, and friendliness during my long hours in their collections. The final thank you is for those who aided my undergraduate education. The City of Commerce, California, my hometown, awarded me several scholarships that helped with textbooks and travel expenses to and from Minnesota. The faculty and staff at Macalester College who I want to acknowledge are: Peter Rachleff, Duchess Harris, Karin Aguilar-San Juan, Leola Johnson, Joi Lewis, Sedric McClure, George Latimer, Mahnaz Kousha, María Elena Cepeda, and Kendrick Brown. Their encouragement led me to the Institute for the Recruitment of Teachers, which recommended the University of Michigan as the place for my graduate studies. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................1 Chapter Two: Constructing and Contesting the Machismo Model, 1934 – 1974 .............19 Chapter Three: Debating Nationalist Machismo: Latina/o Activists, 1967 – 1974 ...........56 Chapter Four: Criminalized Machismo: Two Crimes, Two Speeches, and their News Coverage in 1974 Texas.....................................................................................................96 Chapter Five: Macho Latinos in Popular Culture: Authorship and Stereotypes, 1969 – 1978..................................................................................................................................140 Chapter Six: “I want to be a Macho Man”: Appropriating Sensual Machismo in Popular Culture, 1974 – 1981........................................................................................................195 Chapter Seven: Epilogue..................................................................................................234 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................238 vi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1.1. Google Ngram Viewer search results for “machismo” and “macho”.........................18 1.2. The New York Times’ Chronicle search results for “machismo” and “macho” ..........18 3.1. “The Macho’s Sombrero Sometimes Hides More Than His Head” comic ................95 5.1. The main poster of the film Macho Callahan (1970) ...............................................194 6.1. 1974 Newspaper advertisement for Macho wetsuits by Sea Suits ...........................231 6.2. 1974 Newspaper advertisement for Macho wetsuits by Sea Suits ...........................231 6.3. 1976/1977 Magazine advertisement for Macho fragrances by Fabergé ...................232 6.4. 1978 Magazine advertisement for Macho fragrances by Fabergé ............................232 6.5. An image of Randy “Macho Man” Savage from a wrestling show advertisement ..233 7.1. The Japanese flyer for the 1984 video game Super Punch Out!! (1984) ..................237 vii Chapter One Introduction This dissertation draws attention to the uncritical circulation of the term “machismo” in scholarly works and American cultural discourse from 1928 – 1998. It traces the term in select historical and social contexts, in both English and Spanish publications, to investigate the type of cultural work the idea does among the social sciences, humanities, U.S. popular culture, and the Latina/o community.1 While machismo obviously has its roots in the Spanish-language, this dissertation focuses on the ways competing interests deployed the term in mostly Anglophone contexts and how this imagery of machismo affected Latina/o racial representations.2 I argue that uncritical reproduction of the term augmented the racialization of Latina/os, furthering white anxiety over Latina/o culture in the twentieth century. I use “racialization” to signify the classification of Latina/os as culturally and/or physically aberrant compared to white Americans.3 In the second edition of their leading text 1 In this dissertation, Latina/os is an umbrella term used to describe the “mosaic of identities” of those with Latin American heritage. Vicki L. Ruíz and Virginia Sánchez Korrol, Latina Legacies: Identity, Biography, and Community (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 5. 2 The terms macho and machismo are examples of Spanish loanwords in American speech. I am not referring to Spanglish, the practice of code-switching between Spanish and English. Spanglish is more than linguistic behavior, as columnist Ed Morales argues; it is what “we speak, but it is also who we Latinos are, and how we act, and how we perceive the world.” Scholar Ilan Stavans agrees that Spanglish is more than just a language, defining it as “the verbal encounter between Anglo and Hispano Civilizations.” Ed Morales, Living in
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