Transactions Institute of Indian Geographers

Department of Geography, University of Pune Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007

Vol. 36 No. 1 January 2014 Transactions Volume 36, No. 1, Winter 2014

Journal of the Institute of Indian Geographers

Department of Geography, University of Pune 411 007 GOVERNING COUNCIL, IIG 2013 – 2016

President (2013-2014) S.R. Jog, Pune Vice-President V. S. Kale, Pune D. K. Nayak, Shillong Surya Kant, Chandigarh Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Thiruvananthapuram

Secretary General Veena Joshi, Pune

Secretary Ram Deo Doi, Jaipur

Secretary Ravi S. Singh, Varanasi

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Regional Representatives Mohan Krishan (North) (Ex-officio Members) B. S. Mipun, Shillong (East) B. Eswarappa, (South) R.D.Gurjar, Jaipur (West)

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Advertising: For information and rates, please contact the Editor. Contents ISSN 0970-9851

Debendra Kumar Nayak Changing Household Size in India: An Inte-State 01 and Rabi Narayan Behera Comparison

Surinder Aggarwal Emerging global urban order and challenges to 19 harmonious urban development

Sarfaraz Alam Reorienting Undergraduate Geography Curricula 33

Bendanginla, Surendra Sigh Vegetation Greenness Parameterisation Using and Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh Temporal VGT - NDVI Data and Meteorological Conditions in Upper Dikhu River Catchment of Patkai Hills, Nagaland 45

Kiran Bala and Trends and patterns of seats Won by the BJP in Sachinder Singh Indian Parliamentary Elections (1984-2004): A Geographical Analysis 63

Harekrishna Haloi, Inequalities in Education for All (EFA) Achievements: Jnanashree Borah and The State of Primary Education in selected Lakshyahira Datta Community Development Blocks of Assam 71

Daljit Kaur Sandhu and Agricultural perspectives and its impact on soil and Ms. Krishna Kaushik groundwater A Case Study of Bibipur Village, Yamunanagar, Haryana 83

Sabina Bano and Spatial Variation of Women’s Development in Aanad Prasad Mishra Varanasi City 91

Maosanen Longchar Rural-Urban Migration and its Impact on the Urban Environment and Life in Nagaland 101

Nissar A. Kuchay and Analysis and Simulation of urban expansion of M. Sultan Bhat Srinagar City 109

Sutapa Mukhopadhyay Changing Flood Intensity Zone of Dwarka River Basin Surajit Let in Eastern India 123

K. R. Dikshit Book Review 133

Jutta Dikshit Book Review 141

Prof. K. M. Kulkarni Obituary Prof. L. S. Bhat 143

Prof. P. S. Tiwari Obituary Dr. K. V. Sundaram 145

Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Changing Household Size in India: An Inter-State Comparison

Debendra Kumar Nayak and Rabi Narayan Behera, Shillong, Meghalaya

Abstract Based on Census information, this research explores the trend and spatial pattern in the changes of household size in India using state level data. Changes in household size are clear reflections on changes in living arrangements as well as in household composition. The problem acquires nuances of meanings in a country like India which has shown indications towards a tendency to move into a low fertility regime in the years to come. However, aggregate demographic statistics generally mask substantial changes in the size and number of households. As in most indicators of demographic, economic and social changes, household changes are neither uniform in their social and spatial content. The paper examines inter-state variation in this feature of change that is unfolding in India in recent years. The study reveals, demographic parameters, in contrast to non-demographic parameters, have a stronger association with extremes of household size-either very small or very large. Key Words: Multi-generational households, joint families, mean household size, Demographic convergence.

Changing Household Size scholarly contribution on issues pertaining The issue of changes in household size to families and households and there are and composition in developing world extensive corresponding literatures. In is attracting scholarly attention only in contrast, demographers have neglected recent years due largely to significant the quantitative dimensions of the size demographic changes of declining fertility, composition and change in households and mortality and urbanisation in most countries their causes and consequences (Bongaarts, and due to sociological changes towards 2001). Understandably, family demography smaller households. Such changes have is fairly recent and relatively underdeveloped been quite widespread in economically branch of population studies. Intrinsic developed countries. The decline in fertility complexity inherent in demographic explains part of this change. The average understanding of households and families household has fewer parents, fewer siblings, have rendered this interesting area of analysis fewer grandchildren, and fewer other rather muted. Bongaarts (2001) has an relatives of the household head. The social explanation to this unsatisfactory situation. sciences, including sociology, economics, He goes on to add that “in conventional and anthropology, have a long tradition of demography the unit of analysis is the individual, whose characteristics can be perceived old-age security value of children described with a limited number of variables (Rani, 1986) or the view of children as risk such as age and sex. Widely accepted insurance (Robinson, 1986). Researchers theories and models have been developed have examined the extent to which fertility to describe how population distributions and household size may vary depending on of these individual characteristics are individuals’ family backgrounds, social and determined by vital processes. In contrast, psychological characteristics, or economic the family demographer has to deal with status. Blake (1986) observed an inverse multi-dimensional families, households, and relationship between social class and kin groups...The networks of relationships household size. More education, higher make families essential socioeconomic age-at-marriage, longer interval between units, but they pose formidable problems marriage and the birth of the first child, and to the demographer who tries to identify employment status were found associated and quantify the key structural dimensions with smaller families (Wagner et al., 1985). of these interrelated groups of individuals”. Probability of having an additional child is Nevertheless, studies on household higher in families with all children of the size constitute a significant area of research same sex (Gualtieri and Hicks 1986). in countries experiencing declining More recently, national census 2001 population growth effected by or leading to drew attention to falling household size significant changes in living arrangements. during the last three decades which is Understandably sociologists and demo- becoming an all India phenomenon rather graphers are not attracted to this area of than confined to Kerala. The other agency research in countries with high fertility that has made some contribution to this level. This perhaps explains lack of research area is National Family Health Surveys in this area in India. A cursory glance at (1993, 1999 and 2006). Both Census and available research in India reveals little or NFHS data provide valuable insights into negligible studies conducted in this area. significant changes in household size and Aiyappan (1972) analysed the census data on composition as well as in interstate variation households to study changes in family size beginning since 1991-a fact that has not been from 1871 to 1961 in Kerala, particularly adequately researched till date. drawing interesting conclusions on the Based on Census information, this study basis of data contained in the 1891 Census explores the trend and spatial pattern in the report. Studies of developing countries have changes of household size in India using focused on several socio cultural as well state level data. Changes in household size as socioeconomic factors associated with are clear reflections on changes in living fertility and household size: modernization arrangements as well as in household (Levy, 1985); contraceptive use and family- composition. The problem acquires nuances planning programs (Koenig et al., 1987); of meanings in a country like India which and cultural attitudes and values, such as the has shown indications towards a tendency to

2 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 move into a low fertility regime in the years namely Normal households, Institutional to come. However, aggregate demographic Households and Houseless Households1. statistics generally mask substantial changes in the size and number of households. As in Aggregate Pattern most indicators of demographic, economic In India as a whole (Table-1), the rate of and social changes, household changes are increase in population was higher than the neither uniform in their social and spatial rate of increase in the number of households content. It may be worthwhile to examine till the year 1981. The pattern has reversed inter-state variation in this feature of change in the year 1991 and has become more that is unfolding in India in recent years. intense in the year 2001. The 2011 Census data confirms a further intensification of this Family and households: Concepts process of reversal whereby the increase Census of India while collecting data on the in households far exceeds the increase in households considered it to be basic unit population growth. This is further evident in a society for social, economic, political from the decline in mean household size and socialization purpose. Sociologically, which increased till 1991 but fell sharply in Household is a co-residential socio- the year 2001. The 2001 and 2011Census economic unit regardless of kinship ties reveal widespread interstate variation in whereas family is a group- membership mean household size and composition across in which is mainly based on affinal and India. consanguinal ties. While both household It is evident that since 1991, the mean and families are culturally defined, the household size is not only declining, the former are task-oriented residence units increase in the number households is much and the latter are conceived of as kinship faster than the rate at which population groupings that need not be localized. But is increasing. Significantly, the decade the family is also co-residential, socio- 2001-2011 witnessed significant decline economic unit in most cases. The type in the rate of population growth, but the and size of the household in most of the multiplication of households continued at societies are influenced by kinship rules, a greater pace while the mean size of the demographic and socio-economic factors, households registered a substantial decline level of urbanization and industrialization. from 5.3 to 4.9. Demographers attribute Therefore to understand the social structure this change to a deepening of demographic of a society, its cohabitation pattern and transition process in India associated with congestion at a given point of time, the fertility decline. This is also indicative of household level data is a very useful tool. a rise in nuclear families relative to multi- Census in India traditionally collects generational families which till recent times information on three types of household were far more widespread.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 3 Table-1 : India-Mean Size of Households, Decadal Growth in Households, 1971-2011

Regions States/UTs 2001 2011 Growth Growth Differential Rate rate in HH in Ppln (%) (%) Mountain/Hill Arunachal Pradesh 213342 261614 22.63 25.92 -3.29 Himachal Pradesh 1217428 1476581 21.29 12.81 8.48 Jammu & Kashmir 1559544 2015088 29.21 23.71 5.5 Manipur 372956 507152 35.98 18.65 17.33 Meghalaya 416791 538299 29.15 27.82 1.33 Mizoram 175544 221077 25.94 22.78 3.16 Nagaland 325620 399965 22.83 -0.47 23.3 Sikkim 113917 128131 12.48 12.36 0.12 Uttarakhand 1593522 1997068 25.32 19.17 6.15 Region 5988664 7544975 26 N A N A Plateaus Andhra Pradesh 16920613 21024534 24.25 11.1 13.15 Jharkhand 4786657 6181607 29.14 22.34 6.8 Karnataka 10354059 13179911 27.29 15.67 11.62 Kerala 6707811 7716370 15.04 4.86 10.18 Madhya Pradesh 10839740 14967597 38.08 20.3 17.78 Maharashtra 19434335 23830580 22.62 15.99 6.63 Tamil Nadu 14603541 18493003 26.63 15.6 11.03 Region 83646756 105393602 26 N A N A Plains Assam 4898497 6367295 29.98 16.93 13.05 Bihar 13714601 18940629 38.11 25.07 13.04 Chandigarh 205135 235061 14.59 17.1 -2.51 Chhattisgarh 4077273 5622850 37.91 22.59 15.32 Dadra & Nagar Ha. 45125 73063 61.91 55.5 6.41 Daman & Diu 35330 60381 70.91 53.54 17.37 Delhi 2718050 3340538 22.9 20.96 1.94 Goa 292365 322813 10.41 8.17 2.24 Gujarat 9619796 12181718 26.63 19.17 7.46 Haryana 3693601 4717954 27.73 19.9 7.83 Odisha 7707106 9661085 25.35 13.97 11.38 Puducherry 214390 301276 40.53 27.72 12.81 Punjab 4329786 5409699 24.94 13.73 11.21 Rajasthan 9269237 12581303 35.73 21.44 14.29 Tripura 663416 842781 27.04 14.75 12.29 Uttar Pradesh 25644759 32924266 28.39 20.09 8.3

4 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 West Bengal 15820386 20067299 26.84 13.93 12.91 Region 102948853 133650011 29.82 N A N A Islands A & N Island 77578 93376 20.36 6.68 13.68 Lakshadweep 9957 10703 7.49 6.23 1.26 Region 87535 104079 18.9 N A N A INDIA 192671808 246692667 28.04 17.64 10.4

Growth in Households: Trends and increase in household numbers include Patterns Dadra and Nagar Haveli (62%), Pudducherry Rarely one finds a uniform change in a (40%), Bihar (38%) Chhattisgarh (38%) country like India with so much variation and Rajasthan (36%). On the other extreme in its physical and social make up. Though are states/UTs which added far fewer this demographic change has its regional numbers to the existing households. These nuances, the rate of increase in the number include the highly urbanised Chandigarh of households, barring a few, is remarkable (15%) and Delhi (22%). These variations in all the important regional divisions of notwithstanding, the increase in the number India. Number of households increased of households provide valuable insights into phenomenally in the plains, followed by the the nature of demographic changes when plateau and the mountains and hilly areas. At contrasted with the rate of population increase a very broad level the plateau region and the in these very regions/states (see fig.1). hills and mountainous regions added around 26 percent to their existing households during 2001-2011 decade while the rate of growth of the households was much higher (close to 30%) in the plains during the same period. Within the hilly region, the growth in households was particularly high in Manipur, Jammu and Kashmir and Meghalaya. Significantly, the rate of growth in households was far more uniform in the plateau region except in Kerala which added only 15 percent to its households and Madhya Pradesh adding a high of 38 percent. The range of variation is remarkably high in the plains. The increase in households Fig.1 : Change in Household and Population, ranged from a low of 10 percent in Goa to 2001-2011 as high as 70 percent in Daman and Diu. Some of the states that witnessed excessive

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 5 have increased. The correlation coefficient is as high as 0.87 between population growth rate and rate of growth in the number of households showing a strong positive association between these two variables. However, there is important variation in the differentials as far as different regions and states within these regions are concerned. In the hills and mountainous areas as a whole, the household increase compared to population growth is rather small. The case of Nagaland that shows a phenomenal increase in number of households compared to population growth Fig. 2 : Change in Single Member Households, cannot be taken for granted as the population 2001-2011 in 2011 seems to have declined in the state. This must be an enumeration aberration and It is remarkable that the rate of increase cannot be reliable. It is only in Manipur that in the number of households far exceeds the households have multiplied at a faster the rate at which the households are rate than the population increase. This proliferating. It is even more significant unusual differential in the state compared to that there is little regional or inter-state the remaining states in the region is largely variation to this trend. The two outstanding explained by the fact that the state supports a but highly contrasting instances of exception very high proportion of people in the valley. are represented by Arunachal Pradesh and The population has grown faster than the Chandigarh where the population growth rate of increase in households in Arunachal rate exceeds the rate at which households Pradesh while it is nearly equal in Sikkim.

Table-2 : India: Differential Growth in Population and Household Numbers, 2001-2011 Regions States/UTs Growth Rate in Growth rate in Differential Households (%) Population (%) Mountain/Hill Arunachal Pradesh 22.63 25.92 -3.29 Himachal Pradesh 21.29 12.81 8.48 Jammu & Kashmir 29.21 23.71 5.50 Manipur 35.98 18.65 17.33 Meghalaya 29.15 27.82 1.33 Mizoram 25.94 22.78 3.16 Nagaland 22.83 -0.47 23.30

6 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Sikkim 12.48 12.36 0.12 Uttarakhand 25.32 19.17 6.15 Plateaus Andhra Pradesh 24.25 11.1 13.15 Jharkhand 29.14 22.34 6.80 Karnataka 27.29 15.67 11.62 Kerala 15.04 4.86 10.18 Madhya Pradesh 38.08 20.3 17.78 Maharashtra 22.62 15.99 6.63 Tamil Nadu 26.63 15.6 11.03 Plains Assam 29.98 16.93 13.05 Bihar 38.11 25.07 13.04 Chandigarh 14.59 17.1 -2.51 Chhattisgarh 37.91 22.59 15.32 Dadra & Nagar Ha. 61.91 55.5 6.41 Daman & Diu 70.91 53.54 17.37 Delhi 22.90 20.96 1.94 Goa 10.41 8.17 2.24 Gujarat 26.63 19.17 7.46 Haryana 27.73 19.9 7.83 Odisha 25.35 13.97 11.38 Puducherry 40.53 27.72 12.81 Punjab 24.94 13.73 11.21 Rajasthan 35.73 21.44 14.29 Tripura 27.04 14.75 12.29 Uttar Pradesh 28.39 20.09 8.30 West Bengal 26.84 13.93 12.91 Islands A & N Island 20.36 6.68 13.68 Lakshadweep 7.49 6.23 1.26 INDIA 28.04 17.64 10.40

The differential is more uniform in The plains however display wide the plateau region ranging between 10-15 variation in differentials ranging from a percent. Madhya Pradesh has experienced negative in Chandigarh to 17 per cent in much faster increase in its households Daman and Diu. Delhi and Goa represent (differential being 18 percent) while areas of slower increase in households Jharkhand and Maharashtra represent areas compared to the increase in population. of slower growth in households compared Surprisingly, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttar to population growth rate. Pradesh and Dadra and Nagar Haveli have

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 7 experienced relatively slower increase in an average household size of 3.9 persons has households compared to population growth the lowest size in the country as a whole. along with Dehi, Goa and Chandigarh Only Jharkhand in this region has a much forming a contiguous belt in western part of higher mean household to join the cross the vast plains. The remaining states in the regional contiguous belt of large household plains have differentials ranging between size. An outlier of this belt is located in the 10-15. tribal areas of the North-east. The inevitable conclusion is that Decreasing household size all across households are indeed becoming smaller the country is evidenced from an analysis across regions and states breaking barriers of mean household size. Table-4 reveals of geographical diversity though the pace this uniform decline in household size may be different. irrespective of geographical location and regions. The only three exceptions are rather interesting represented by the mountainous Size of Households Arunachal Pradesh and the most modern While mean size of households has decreased and highly urbanised Delhi as well as the across regions, inter regional variations in littoral Goa where the mean household size the average size are still staggering. The has shown a marginal increase over the Hilly and mountainous regions continue 2001-2011 decade. In the rest of the country with much higher household size with the mean household size has declined in Jammu and Kashmir supporting an average varying degrees. of 6.23 persons per household closely In the Hilly region, the decline in followed by Meghalaya (5.51) Manipur household size is marginal in Meghalaya, (5.37) and Arunachal Pradesh (5.28). The Sikkim and Mizoram while Arunachal has plain areas display wider variation. States indeed shown an increase. Only Manipur in like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan this region shows substantial decline in its continue with very large households of over mean household size. The case of Nagaland 6 persons on an average. Punjab (5.6) and which too shows phenomenal decline in its Haryana (5.7) too have much higher average household size cannot be taken on its face size of households. Together, these states value for reasons cited earlier. including Jammu and Kashmir from the mountainous region constitute a contiguous The extent of decline in mean size of belt in the North sticking to large households, household in the plateau region is modest indicating continuance of multi-generational ranging from 0.27 member per household in households and joint families unlike in the Jharkhand to 0.65 in Madhya Pradesh. With the exception of Madhya Pradesh the decline south where the mean size of the households is lower than the national average (0.39) in is not only small, but continuously declining all the states included in this region. too. In the plateau region, Tamilnadu, with

8 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Table 3 : India: Mean Size of Households Region States/UTs 2001 2011 Change Hilly & Mountain Arunachal Pradesh (AR) 5.00 5.28 0.28 Himachal Pradesh (HP) 4.90 4.64 -0.26 Jammu & Kashmir (JK) 6.40 6.23 -0.17 Manipur (MN) 5.70 5.37 -0.33 Meghalaya (ML) 5.50 5.51 0.01 Mizoram (MZ) 5.00 4.93 -0.07 Nagaland (NL) 6.00 4.95 -1.05 Sikkim (SK) 4.70 4.74 0.04 Uttarakhand (UK) 5.30 5.07 -0.23 Plateaus Andhra Pradesh (AP) 4.40 4.03 -0.37 Jharkhand (JH) 5.60 5.33 -0.27 Karnataka (KA) 5.00 4.64 -0.36 Kerala (KL) 4.70 4.33 -0.37 Madhya Pradesh (MP) 5.50 4.85 -0.65 Maharashtra (MH) 5.00 4.72 -0.28 Tamil Nadu (TN) 4.20 3.9 -0.3 Plains Assam (AS) 5.40 4.9 -0.5 Bihar (BR) 6.00 5.48 -0.52 Chandigarh (CH) 4.30 4.49 0.19 Chhattisgarh (CG) 5.10 4.54 -0.56 Dadra & Nagar Haveli (DN) 4.80 4.69 -0.11 Daman & Diu (DD) 4.40 4.02 -0.38 Goa (GA) 4.50 4.52 0.02 Gujarat (GJ) 5.20 4.96 -0.24 Haryana (HR) 5.70 5.37 -0.33 NCT of Delhi (DL) 5.00 5.02 0.02 Odisha (OR) 4.70 4.34 -0.36 Puducherry (PY) 4.50 4.13 -0.37 Punjab (PB) 5.60 5.12 -0.48 Rajasthan (RJ) 6.00 5.45 -0.55 Tripura (TR) 4.80 4.36 -0.44 Uttar Pradesh (UP) 6.40 6.06 -0.34 West Bengal (WB) 5.00 4.55 -0.45 Islands A& N Islands (AN) 4.50 4.07 -0.43 Lakshadweep (LD) 6.00 6.02 0.02 INDIA 5.3 4.91 -0.39

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 9 The plains however display great fig.2) and large households of 6 members or diversity in the extent of decline in household more (see fig.5). Table-5 helps a comparative size. Apart from Delhi and Goa which analysis of changes in the proportion of show an increase in the average size of households in these two categories and across the household, the decline in mean size of different regions and states of India. It is evident households is all pervasive and ranges from that proportion of one member households 0.11 in Dadra and Nagar Haveli to 0.56 in during 2001-2011 decade registered a general Chhatisgarh. Some of the states located in decline in the hilly and mountainous region Plain areas that have shown remarkable with the possible exception of Nagaland. decline in the mean size of households The fall in the proportion of such households include Chhatisgarh, Rajasthan, Bihar and was precipitous in Mizoram and Sikkim. Assam as well as Punjab, West Bengal Simultaneously, the entire region except and Tripura- states widely distributed in Arunachal Pradesh experienced decline in the region. Conversely, states and union the proportion of very large sized households territories which have experienced very of six members or more. Decline in the small decline in their mean size of the proportion of households in two extremes households are Dadra and Nagar Haveli, suggest proliferation in medium household Chandigarh, Haryana and Gujarat. Together size. with Delhi and Goa which show an increase In contrast to this hill pattern the plateau in the average size of the household, they region displays a situation in which the form a loosely contiguous belt in the North- proportion of one member households has Western part of the country representing either remained constant or has increased areas of very slow decline in the mean size while there is a significant drop in the of the household. proportion of very large households. This An interesting comparison can be made indicates a strong tendency towards smaller between single member households (see households in the plateau region.

Table-4: Regional Variation in one member and over six member households, 2001-2011 Region States/UTs 1 member HH Over 6 member HH 2001 2011 2001 2011 Hilly & Arunachal Pradesh (AR) 8.3 5.9 37.7 40.9 Mountain Himachal Pradesh (HP) 7.0 5.7 33.7 27.3 Jammu & Kashmir (JK) 2.0 1.6 57.0 44.3 Manipur (MN) 1.8 1.6 49.4 35.6 Meghalaya (ML) 4.5 3.6 46.3 44.5 Mizoram (MZ) 10.7 5 40.1 35.9 Nagaland (NL) 3.9 5.6 54.5 41.1 Sikkim (SK) 14.2 5.2 34.9 30.2 Uttarakhand (UK) 5.8 5.5 40.3 34.7

10 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Plateaus Andhra Pradesh (AP) 4.3 5 23.3 15.3 Jharkhand (JH) 3.9 2.7 45.7 40.2 Karnataka (KA) 3.8 4 33.3 25.9 Kerala (KL) 3.2 3.7 25.4 19.9 Madhya Pradesh (MP) 4.3 4.3 43.8 32.7 Maharashtra (MH) 4.1 4.1 32.1 26.6 Tamil Nadu (TN) 5.1 5.3 19.6 13.4 Plains Assam (AS) 3.3 3.1 42.4 32.5 Bihar (BR) 3.3 2.1 51.3 44.5 Chandigarh (CH) 9.0 6.5 22.3 21.7 Chhattisgarh (CG) 5.6 5.6 37.5 28.5 Dadra & Nagar Haveli (DN) 4.5 5.9 32.4 26.8 Daman & Diu (DD) 7.0 7.1 25.0 19.1 Goa (GA) 5.7 5.3 25.6 20.0 Gujarat (GJ) 3.7 3.7 37.6 33.2 Haryana (HR) 2.5 2.3 44.0 36.0 NCT of Delhi (DL) 4.6 3.7 34.6 31.6 Odisha (OR) 4.9 4.2 31.1 24.2 Puducherry (PY) 3.8 3.7 22.5 15.7 Punjab (PB) 2.7 2.6 43.0 33.5 Rajasthan (RJ) 3.0 2.8 50.9 42.5 Tripura (TR) 3.5 3.1 30.7 19.6 Uttar Pradesh (UP) 3.6 2.6 56.8 52.4 West Bengal (WB) 3.4 3.4 33.2 23.0 Islands A& N Islands (AN) 7.4 7.3 24.4 17.6 Lakshadweep (LD) 7.9 6.1 49.1 50.4 INDIA 3.9 3.7 38.3 31.5

In the plains however there is a uniform however that the extent of fall in the large decline in both one member households sized households in most regions and states and very large households. The fall in far exceeds the fall or increase in the one the proportion of large size households is member households. While a uniform however much sharper across regions. decline in large households can be easily It is interesting that the southern states attributed to a greater nucleation of families, have experienced increase in one member it may be interesting to know the reasons households in sharp contrast to other areas for significant decline in one member in the backdrop of continuously falling households. average size of the households. It is evident

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 11 Distribution of Households of Different Table 6 : Distribution of States/UTs in different Size percentage categories of 2-3 member households Table-6 clearly shows a decline in the No and % of States/UTs number of states/UTs which have more than Category (%) 2001 2011 six percent of their households containing below 15 6 (17.1) 1 (2.8) one member each. Interestingly, Jammu 15 to 20 13 (37.2) 8 (22.9) and Kashmir and Manipur contain the least number of households with single members. 20 to 25 11 (31.4) 14 (40.0) On the other hand Chandigarh, the islands 25 to 30 5 (14.3) 8 (22.9) and Daman and Diu have far more numerous Above 30 0 (0.0) 4 (11.4) households (often above 6 percent of all Table 7 : Distribution of States/UTs in different households) with a single member. percentage categories of 4-5 member households Table 5 : Distribution of States/UTs in different Category (%) No and % of States/UTs percentage categories of one member households 2001 2011 No and % of States/UTs 25 to 30 4 (11.4) 1(2.8) Category (%) 2001 2011 30 to 35 9 (25.7) 6 (17.1) less than 2 1 (2.8) 2 (5.7) 35 to 40 9 (25.7) 8 (22.9) 2-4 14 (40.0) 15 (42.9) 4-6 13 (37.1) 14 (40.0) Above 40 13 (37.2) 20 (57.1) Above 6 7 (20.0) 4 (11.4) The trend is similar with respect to On the other hand small households/ relatively larger households of 4-5 members families, consisting of 2-3 members each, each which too are becoming more numerous are becoming far more numerous over in a majority of States/UTs (see fig. 4). It is 2001-2011 decade (see fig.3). Table-7 evident from table-8 that in a majority of the shows that while no state contained more States/UTs, households with 4-5 members than 30 percent of its households with 2-3 account for over 40 percent households persons in 2001, there are 4 states/UTs, cutting across regional differences though two in south, one in Northeast and one in far less conspicuous in parts of Hills and the western part of the country where over mountains and a few states in the plains 30 percent households contained only 2-3 including UP, Bihar and Rajasthan. The members each. On the other hand far fewer number of states/UTs with fewer (less than households (less than 2 percent) were small 30%) households with 4-5 members has in Uttar Pradesh showing little changes in come down drastically from 4 to just one its household size of small number. Around (Lakshadweep) 15-20 percent households contained 2-3 members in 13 states/UTs in 2001 which fell sharply to 8 only in 2011 though states like Bihar, Jharkhand and Meghalaya continued to move out of this category.

12 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Fig.3 : Change in Two to Three Member Households, 2001-2011

Fig. 4 : Change in Four to Five Member Households, 2001-2011

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 13 Fig. 5 : Change in Large Households, 2001-2011

The decline in the proportion of very Table 8 : Distribution of States/UTs in different large households is perhaps most revealing percentage categories of over 6 member of the 2011 census data (table-9). Form just households one state/UT containing less than 20 percent No and % of States/UTs of households with six members each in Category (%) 2001 2011 2001, the number of such states increased to 7. All the south Indian states exhibited less than 20 1 (2.8) 7 (20.0) a tendency towards fewer households of 20-25 5 (14.3) 4 (11.4) large size. However, Daman and Diu and 25-30 2 (5.7) 5 (14.3) Tripura too joined this club. Interestingly 30-35 9 (25.7) 7 (20.0) many of the other Northeastern states 35-40 3 (8.5) 3 (8.5) (except Assam), Jammu and Kashmir and Above 40 15 (42.8) 9 (25.7) states in the plains namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Hayana It is evident that there are declines had over a third (more than 35 percent) of in both single member and very large their households containing 6 members or households in many regions cutting across more. The plains and the Hilly areas seem to geographical regions suggesting smaller have changed only marginally as far as the household size as a norm to become a proportion of large households is concerned reality in years to come. Does it indicate a (see fig. 5). convergence of sorts?

14 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 It may be interesting to find out % Urban Population 2001 -0.40 broad relationship between household vs. 6 member HH 2011 -0.31 size with a few correlates. A study of the SC Population vs. 2001 -0.30 correlation coefficient between proportion One member HH of urban population and proportion of 2011 -0.21 single member households show a weak SC Population vs. 6 2001 -0.03 positive association both in 2001 and member HH 2011 -0.13 2011. However urbanization is negatively ST population vs. 2001 0.29 associated with very large household size. One member HH 2011 0.23 But the coefficients represent only a weak ST population vs. 6 2001 0.33 association in both the census years. The member HH 2011 0.44 inverse relationship between single member and over six member households too is not Hindu vs. one 2001 -0.20 statistically significant though the inverse member HH 2011 0.01 association is becoming stronger in 2011 Hindu vs. 6 member 2001 -0.43 compared to 2001. HH 2011 -0.48 No association could be established Muslim vs. one 2001 -0.11 between proportion of the Scheduled member HH 2011 -0.13 Caste and proportion of single member Muslim vs. 6 2001 0.35 as well as six member households. The member HH 2011 0.38 Scheduled Tribes however showed a Christians vs. one 2001 0.17 positive association with larger households member HH 2011 0.13 particularly in the year 2011. Proportion of Hindus and Muslims in the population Christians vs.6 2001 0.20 showed positive association with larger member HH 2011 0.20 households though the coefficient of TFR vs. one 2001 -0.11 correlation is not strong enough to draw any member HH 2011 -0.28 firm conclusion. TFR vs. 6 member 2001 0.75 HH 2011 0.83 Table 9 : Correlation coefficient CBR vs. one 2001 -0.04 member HH 2011 -0.33 Correlates year Correlation coefficient CBR vs. 6 member 2001 0.69 HH 1 member vs. 6+ 2001 -0.20 2011 0.81 member households 2011 -0.39 HH: Households SC: Scheduled Castes ST: % Urban Population 2001 0.14 Scheduled Tribes TFR: Total Fertility Rate, CBR: vs. 1 member HH 2011 0.26 Crude Birth Rate

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 15 Table - 9 clearly reveals that demo- indicators of development driven by a liberal graphic parameters in contrast to non- economic order adopted since the 1990s. demographic parameters reveal a stronger The conclusions of present study however association with single or large (over six are based on grossly aggregate data and the member) households. For example, TFR need is to scrutinise the pattern at lower shows a strong positive association with aggregate levels which may throw up far large household size though it has little more interesting regional patterns and more relationship with single member households. pertinent issues of concern as far as changing The same is true of crude birth rate and household size in India is concerned. large households of 6 or more. The positive association between fertility/birth rate with very large household size is getting stronger Note over the decade. 1 Census defines different types of households as the following:

Concluding Remarks Household: A ‘household’ is usually a group of persons who normally live together and take Family and households hold a prominent their meals from a common kitchen unless the place in social life of any population as the exigencies of work prevent any of them from most potent socio-economic institution. Any doing so. Persons in a household may be related change in the household size or lack of it is or unrelated or a mix of both. However, if a group a reflection of complex economic, social of unrelated persons live in a census house but and demographic process. Likewise, any do not take their meals from the common kitchen, change in household size has serious social, then they are not constituent of a common economic and demographic implication. household. Each such person should be treated The study underscores this fact as India is as a separate household. The important link in surely moving towards smaller household finding out whether it is a household or not, is size if one goes by the macro demographic a common kitchen. There may be one member data available in recently held Censuses. households, two member households or multi- Understandably, this change is not spatially member households. In a few situations, it uniform with different regions with their may become difficult to apply the definition of varied social and economic institutions household strictly as given above. For example, responding differently to this process which a person living alone in a census house whether however appears to be unfolding irrespective cooking or not cooking meals is treated as a of geographical differences. Only the pace household. Similarly, if husband and wife or a and magnitude of this decline in household group of related persons are living together in a size varies from state to state and region census house but not cooking their meals, it also to region. This demographic transition constitutes a normal household. which may aptly be described as a sort of convergence is taking place at a time when Institutional households- A group of there is great divergence in most economic unrelated persons who live in an institution

16 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 and take their meals from a common kitchen is Blake Judith (1986) “Number of Siblings, called an Institutional Household. Examples of Family Background and the Process of Institutional Households are boarding houses, Educational Attainment” Social Biology messes, hostels, hotels, rescue homes, jails, Vol. 33 pp.5–21. ashrams, orphanages, etc. If in a building which Bongaarts, John (1983) “The Formal Demography is occupied by an Institutional Household, the of Families and Households: An Overview”, families of the warden and the peon are also IUSSP Newsletter no. 17 pp. 33-42. living in separate census houses and cooking Bongaarts John, Thomas K. Burch, and for themselves separately, then each of the Kenneth W. Wachter (eds.) (1987) family is treated as separate household and the Family Demography: Methods and their houses occupied by them is treated as separate Application, Oxford, Clarendon Press. census houses. In this situation there will be one building, three census houses and three Bongaarts John (2001) Household Size and households i.e. one Institutional Household Composition in Developing World http:// and two Normal Households. If a group of www.popcouncil.us/pdfs/wp/144.pdf unrelated persons, sharing a common kitchen, accessed on 14.08.2013. is found living in a census house which is not an Census of India (2001) Data Highlights institution, such a household does not form an http://censusindia.gov.in/Data_Products/ Institutional Household but is treated like other Data_Highlights/Data_Highlights_link/ Normal household. data_highlights_hh123.pdf and http:// Houseless households- Households who do censusindia.gov.in/Data_Products/ not live in buildings or census houses but live in Data_Highlights/Data_Highlights_link/ the open on roadside, pavements, in Hume pipes, Datahighlights_HH567.pdf accessed on under flyovers and staircases, or in the open in 14.08.2013 places of worship, mandaps, railway platforms, Gualtieri, C. Thomas, and Robert E. Hicks etc. are treated as Houseless households. (1986) “Family Configuration and Family Size” Social Biology, Vol.33 pp.146–147. References Koening, Michael A, James A Phillips, Ruth S. Niranjan, S., Saritha Nair and T. K. Roy (2005) Simmons, Mehrab Ali Khan (1987) “Trends “A Socio-Demographic Analysis of the in family size preferences and contraceptive Size and Structure of the Family in India” use in Matlab, Bangladesh” Studies in Journal of Comparative Family Studies Family Planning, Vol. 18 no.3 pp. 117-27. Vol. 36, No. 4, autumn pp. 623-651

Aiyappan, A., (1972) “Household Size, Extended Levy, Victor (1985) “Cropping Pattern, Families and Changes in Family Structures Mechanization, Child Labor and Fertility in Kerala” Indian Census Centenary Behavior in a Farming Economy, Rural Seminar, New Delhi, Registrar General, Egypt” Economic Development and India. Cultural Change Vol. 33 pp. 777–791.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 17 National Family and Health Survey-3 (2007) Wagner, Mazie E, Herman J. P. Schubert, and Chapter-2 Household Population and Daniel S. P. Schubert (1985) “Family Size Housing Characteristics, International Effects: A Review” Journal of Genetic Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai Psychology Vol. 146 pp.65–78. pp. 23-26. Debendra Kumar Nayak Rani, Usha D. (1986) “Old Age Security Value Professor, of Children and Fertility in Relation to Rabi Narayan Behera Social Policy” Paper presented at the annual Research Scholar, meeting of the International Sociological Department of Geography Association. North-Eastern Hill University Robinson, W. C. (1986) “High fertility as Risk- Shillong-793022 insurance” Population Studies, Vol. 40 pp.289–298.

18 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Emerging global urban order and challenges to harmonious urban development1

Surinder Aggarwal, Delhi

Abstract More than half of the world’s population now lives in urban areas, making urbanization a defining phenomenon of this century. At the centre of this transformation are cities in developing countries and Asia in particular where it is largely characterised by megaurbanization and hyperurbanization. Urbanization today is driven by globalization forces, neo-liberalization tendencies, technology transfer and national policy changes. Push factors that propelled urbanization until the mid-90s are now reversed by pull forces. This paper examines broadly the emerging issues and possible responses and tools to manage contemporay urbanization.Urban sprawl linked with megaurbanization is becoming a global phenomenon and is considered one of the most significant characteristic of contemporary urban landscape Further the paper examines in what respects current urbanization is environmentally disturbing and socially discriminatory? Is globalization and neo- liberalization going to create/facilitate sustainable and just cities despite the use/transfer of new technologies, capital flows and access to information and communication systems? Towards prescriptions of the prevalent issues we explore new theoretical underpinnings to explain present urban landscape; importance of conservation of urban ecosystems; kind of urban models that need to be developed to address spatial reconfiguration to accommodate the disjointed urban growth, agglomeration economy and informality at different scales and places? Finally we suggest policy responses and planning tools to manage urbanization in the developing countries. Key words : Global urban transition, Asian mega urbanization, urban form, globalization, urban inequities, urban ecosystems.

1 The Context less important, still they remain our “species Urbanization, both as a social phenomenon of greatest invention” (Edward Glaeser and a physical transformation of landscape, 2011), main instruments of economic and is one of the most powerful, irreversible social transformation and amelioration of and visible anthropogenic forces on global poverty. Many of the most important earth. Of course, modern technology has and significant changes associated with seemingly made cities’ physical location globalization are taking place in urban

1. The paper is an edited version of the Key- Note address delivered at the International Geographical Congress-2012, Cologne. areas. Conversely, globalization itself is countries like Germany, United Kingdom, as much an inter-city phenomenon and Canada and the US were industrializing cities have become major driving force of fast. Now it is the huge urban number of globalization. In this sense urbanization is 3.6 billion that alarms us. Urbanization a defining phenomenon of this century and has a new face now, and weakly associated the developing countries are at the locus of with industrialization as was true in early this transformation. industrializing Europe and elsewhere. For the first time in human history, Rather, quaternary and tertiary sectors are more than half of the world’s 7 billion currently propelling urbanization and linked population lives in urban areas (Table 1). economic transformation. New forms of The demographic shift has happened in the advanced capitalism, neo-liberalization and last few decades largely due to rapid urban globalization have unleashed the market growth in the developing countries. Of forces of consumption and resource use to course such rapid urban shift is not for the undermine the development of inclusive, first time as often proclaimed. Rapid urban just and environmentally sound cities. change did happen in late 19th century when

Table 1 : Urban population and annual rate of change by development groups 1950-2050 Urban population Population (billion) Average annual rate of change (%) 1950 1970 2011 2030 2050 1950-70 1970-2011 2011-30 2030-50 World ...... 0.75 1.35 3.63 4.98 6.25 2.98 2.41 1.66 1.13 More developed 0.44 0.67 0.96 1.06 1.13 2.09 0.89 0.52 0.29 regions .... Less developed 0.30 0.68 2.67 3.9 25.12 4.04 3.33 2.02 1.34 regions ..... Compiled from United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division: World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision.

2. Emerging urbanization patterns and the Caribbean have reached high levels demographic changes of urbanization as more than 70% of their According to 2011 Revision of World total population is urban at present. Asia Urbanization Prospects there is significant and Africa are following the same path and diversity in the urbanization levels reached will cross 50 % mark by 2020 and 2035 by different global regions (2012). More respectively. Developing countries with developed regions like US and Europe 73 % share of global urban population and and many countries in Latin America and high urban growth rates are henceforth the

20 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 new actors of urbanization. By 2030 urban environments. Mega urbanization has of population pressure here will become two course slowed down and urban transitions times whereas land demand for urban have matured, except in the transition expansion is expected to go by three times. countries of industrializing Eastern Europe. This is supposedly the greatest challange to In Latin America, big countries like Brazil reckon with. have crossed the fast urban transition and Urban growth is not uniform and joined the developed countries list with high megacities, global cities and emerging urban population share. urban agglomeration dominate towards a rising share and fast urban transitions. 3 Asia: The major player of 21st Recent trends however indicate that mega century urbanization or emerging-megacities are slowing down in growth, whereas mid-size cities exhibit It is often stated that 21st century urbanization greater buoyancy and will absorb most belongs to Asia. Despite a low urbanization of the future urban population. Voluntary level of 45%, Asian region with 75 % of the migration that fueled early migration developing countries urban population and streams is now supplemented and reshaped 52 % of the global is expected to remain by recruitment agencies, employment the major contributor to the future urban regimes and immigration policies of various growth ( Fig. 1). countries. Push factors which propelled Imporatnce of Asian urbanization urbanization until mid 1990s are getting is also recognized by the fact that urban reversed by pull-factors. The demographic areas contribute close to 84% to their structure, exhibits signs of change, with national economies, whereas they contain more women migrants and swelling elderly only 42% of the urban population (Fig.2). and young population cohorts. Developed Situation across various Asian regions is countries on the contrary, exhibit a very modest growth of less than 1% ( Table 1) or even negative urban growth which follows their declining fertility levels. Another interesting trend is also noticed in some industrialized countries. Immigrants share in urban growth is rising in comparison to native groups. Such countries apprehend dominance of new immigrants in urban Fig. 1 politics and socio-economic spheres Compiled from United Nations, Department and a possible reason for future ethnic of Economic and Social Affairs, Population conflicts. Spatially, there is a visible counter- Division: urbanization trend with more expansion in World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 the rural settings for both working and living Revision.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 21 style urban design, models of urban growth and planning governing principles. Peter Rimmer and Howard Dick (2009) claim that Hong Kong, Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, Singapore, Istanbul, Bangalore and Mumbai are third world cities in a limited way. Due to their transnational Fig. 2 connectivity, construction of sophisticated Compiled from UN-HABITAT, ESCAP, The information and communication technology State of Asian Cities 2010/11 infrastructure, they are no more third-world cities in a conservative sense. We may not significantly different. China and India consider to look at Asia or regions of Asia, having urban population weight of 700 as a set of cities, rather than a block of million, which is close to the population of countries. Ananya Roy Aihwa Ong ( 2011) the U.S. and Europe, shall remain the major from their book on „Worlding Cities: Asian players. After Africa it is the second fastest Experiments and the Art of Being Global“ growing region with average annual growth conclude that in the globalizing world, rate of 3.2 %. Despite the projected declining Asian cities like Singapore and Dubai are urban growth rate of almost one-third by emerging as centers of global finance while 2050, Asia will accommodate around half New York and London are struggling the of the global 6.3 billion urban populations. aftermath of the great recession of 2008. The growth of urban population across Likewise, Shanghai and Hong Kong have various size settlements is not uniform in become share-selling capitals of the world. Asia. The region is characterized by mega- Asian cities today also map their own path urbanization process. Asia contained only and models of being global cities and not one mega-city, that is Tokyo, in 1970, and strictly following the master blueprint of the it’s count rose to five out of ten in 1990; 13 West. Mumbai for example, the financial out of 23 in 2011; and is projected to reach capital of India, is struggling to catch 22 out of 37 by 2025. In 2011, thirteen mega up Shanghai, as emerging global cities cities of Asia contained around 11 % of the become competitive. So they are now in total urban population of the region and their competition within the region themselves. share is expected to rise further. Many of the Today, cities like Bangalore, New York and Asian cities, like Singapore, Hong Kong, London exist and known for their ability Kuala Lumpur and Dubai, are placed among to innovate. Why did Bangalore out of all the global cities due to their specialized Indian cities achieve this status as hub of functions and global connectivity. They may IT? Skills, and human capital, perhaps not not be mega-cities but they are global cities. geography, are the source of Bangalore‘s Globalization has made the category of strength. Companies like Infosys, and a “third world city” as obsolete in many Asian virtuous circle was born wherein smart cities and they are proud to have their own firms and smart workers flocked to

22 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Bangalore to be near each other. Quite a few is more about interrelationship of cities than other non-capital cities such as Shanghai countries. Nations are no longer driving or Mumbai have substantial international globalization rather cities perform that role presence despite the dysfunction of their now. City like Seoul is more connected with home nations. Singapore and Hong Kong than other South As in case with modern nation cities, Korean cities. Absence or weak interaction cities in the new industrial economies, with wider network of national/regional China, India, Indonesia, Brazil for example, cities, of course is a worrisome trend within embody national ambitions of wealth, this globalization led mega-urbanization power, and recognition. Many Asian cities process in Asia. have recently become centers of enormous Urbanization in Asia is not a uniform political investment (Beijing, New Delhi), process and influenced by national or sub- economic growth (viz., Hongkong, Seoul), regional characteristics. It started with tourist destination(viz. Dubai, Singapore) slow growth rate and picked rapid speed and cultural vitality (Istanbul, Kuala and turned into hyper mode after 1980’s. Lumpur) and have thus become sites for Demographically, Asian urbanization global significanc. Referring to a McKinsey process encouraged megaurbanization Global Institute study on Urban World: and developed a new kind of economic cities and rise of the consuming class (2012), and demographic primacy, wherein global emerging 440 cities, including large number capital and export oriented economy of Asian cities , are expected to share close played decisive roles in promoting and to half of global GDP growth. Likewise such strengthening capital/mege/global cities. cities will contribute to growth in urban At the same time major Asian global cities demand for essential services and economic (Beijing and Delhi for example) are not infrastructure. China is noted to lead in such doing well on environment and liveability demand globally. For example China’s share aspects, despite their good economic will contribute to nearly 40 % of floor space performance. Lower tier cities and distant and 25% of municipal water demand in hinterlands have not grown as well under global share during 2010 and 2025 period. the shadow of megaurbanization and sea- Chicago Council of Global Affairs on Global board corridor urban development. Asian Cities Index (2012) featured fifteen Asian style urbanization is largely characterized cities among the top fifty, demonstrating the by heavy global capitalism (extension of stability of Asias’ relevance on the world dependency model), huge land portfolios, stage. According to Saskia Sassen: networks encroachment on scarce agricultural land and of 20 global cities (many in Asia) will damages to environmental and ecosystems. determine world’s geopolitical future and The current urbanization process has not G2 of US and China (2002). The above generated sharp regional, economic and study also quotes Peter Taylor’s relational social inequalities. Accerlated rural-urban city thinking analogy that the world today migration, particularly of the skilled

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 23 workers, has produced exculusionary Extra regional/global impacts of mega tenedencies leading to racial and ethinic urbanization like loss to ecosystems, conflicts (Kundu,2009). Population policies climate change, natural and hybrid disasters, should address such issues with a more and biodiversity loss are getting stronger humane and inclusive urban growth and drawing greater global attention. approach. In Asia, urbanization per se Urbanization is inherently not bad for need not to be discouraged as the economic ecosystems as urban areas account for gains and employability/livelihood only 2.8% of land area. Many developing concerns overwiegh over the manageable countries are already running into ecological environmental and social costs. deficits, more so in the urban areas. The eco health of many water bodies is 4 Why contemporary urbanization is seriously threatened and these are unable disturbing and discriminatory? to provide free ecological services of 4.1: Environmental and ecological threats bathing, performing rituals, livelihood generation etc., especially for the poor. Urbanization as a major cause for colossal Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report fossil energy use, urban sprawl, land use/ (World Resources Institute 2005) clearly cover changes exhibits local, regional and establishes mega urbanization responsible extra regional environmental impacts. for the biodiversity loss and health of the Such impacts are visible in most cities urban ecosystems. Cities also concentrate of the developing countries through vulnerability to natural disasters and to inefficient water services, deteriorating long-term changes in climate. According to water quality, groundwater depletion, air World Urbanization Prospects( UN,2012) and land pollution. Even though availability urban agglomerations of various size already and coverage of municipal drinking water experience potential risks of cyclones and supply has significantly improved (90%- floods, particularly on the Pacific rim 95%) during the last decade in the cities of and the Eastern US coastal zone’. Due to poor countries, waste water disposal and enormous concentration of human life, treatment has not shown commensurate global lifelines of communication, and improvement (close to 50%) and is a big valued goods and economic infrastructure, health risk to the vulnerable communities the potential effect of disasters on mega- and health of the water ecosystems. Cities cities is enormous. Kraas (2003) addresses consume more than two-thirds of total global mega-cities as global risk areas, which are energy against 50 % share in population, exposed on the one hand to environmental however its health impacts are conspicuous hazards and on the other hand to man-made in many large Asian and African cities. hazards. Beijing‘s toxic air pollution has broken records recently and both Beijing and Delhi Mega urbanization threaten human are infamous for toxic smog related health and environmental security. The impacts, risks and deaths. of-course are not equal on all social and

24 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 economic groups as these are influenced As urbanization forces accompanied with by human sensivities, vulnerabilities neoliberalization are advancing , inequality and thresholds (Aggarwal and Butsch, and poverty manifests now within societies, 2011). Factors like governance, policies, particularly key cities and the hinterlands, institutional roles and ciitizens involvement rather than across them (between rich and also produce differential impacts on the poor nations) . communities. Nevertheless, the vulnerable These inequalities and inequities find and marginalized groups suffer most manifestation in access to housing, municipal from such environmental impacts as their services, quality education and healthcare. sensitivities are high and preparedness low. WHO Commission on social determinants of health( 2008) identified urbanization as 4.2 : Urban inequities and conflicts the biggest social determinant of health globally. The Report asserts that much of In the process of mega-urban development disease burden and health ineqity in the we notice that not only the urban environment urban settings ( places of growing, living and is damaged but also it has affected the working) is avoidable and can be improved social and economic fabric and produced with action on social determinants like sex, landscapes of poverty, informality, inequality age, income, ethnicity and location.. and marginality, largely in the developing countries. Urban divides with several forms- A clear manifestation of the urban divide digital, income, social, urban services, is the presence of slums and prevalence of spatial (core vs periphery)- are becoming poverty. Slum dwellers are either clustered more pronounced and sharp. According to in space as in sub-Saharan Africa and Saskia Sassen, (2001) the ascendance of scattered within the urban fabric, like in information industries and the growth of India, and can also be found in the decaying global economy, both inextricably linked urban centres, and at the periphery of the and located in mega cities , have contributed city. The social and spatial divide created to a new geography of centrality and by slums is not only the result of income marginality. This centralized urban economy inequalities, but also a by product of has given unparallel power to the already inefficient land and housing markets, bad or advantaged to produce distinct division of non-existent policies and poor governance labour and space in urban systems. This is mechanisms that force many non poor/low resulting into economic and social conflicts income families to reside in slum areas for and spatial fragmentation. Contestation lack of better alternatives. The urban divide on competing social and economic spaces is not only about fragmented space and have produced conflicts and disturbed the socio-economic differences, it is also about social harmony of the urban society. On the inequalities in opportunity, between social new trajectory of current urbanization and groups, age groups and men and women in globalization, phenomenon of ‘local losers’ access to knowledge, use of technology and and ‘global winnerss’ is becoming evident. employment, among others. UN-Habitat

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 25 and ESCAP (2010/11) report found varying appreciates this approach of protest by degree of inequalities across many leading peaceful movements like “Occupy Wall cities of Asia . Street” in New York. The approach of course At a more radical level, Harvey ( gives visibility and voice to the citizens’ 2013) argues that urban conflicts will concerns for producing an inclusive city. probably be decisive in the wake of Western deindustrialization. He replaces 4.3 Urban sprawl and/urban the traditional concept of class struggle expansion with the struggle of all those who produce One of the most significant characteristic and reproduce urban life. With surplus of contemporary urban landscape is the global/national capital and sharp division phenomenon of urban sprawl or urban of labour, urban development projects like expansion. Different population growth Commonwealth games (India), Olympics rates and level of development generate (China), musical concerts, convention different demands for urban space leading canters, soccer world cup, ICT parks to urban expansion. On the contrary, urban and designed residential and commercial sprawl has to be seen as an uneconomical complexes are making cities competitive, and non-linear form of land consumption exclusionary, and giving birth to rising which creates needless interaction costs, social conflicts and movements for “city unjustified resource consumption and social rights“ such as Occupy Wall Street in New conflicts. Largely driven by profit making York. Such movements are justified since interest groups- builders, developers, public pays for the rising prices (a kind of urban design professionals, architechts, city rent) to live in this uniquely built iconic institutional finance - for low density living, city. Symbolic projects led urbanization can and high profile business, urban sprawl solve economic crises, like in China and has become the most challenging land, India during 2008 recession period, with social conflict and environmental issue of diversion of labour and surplus capital, this century. The auto-centric urban sprawl but more than anything, it is a way to get has attained the most unsustainable urban out of crises and not a sustainable solution form and production of urban space in both for growing exclusionary tendencies. industrialized and emerging economies. World Urban Forum 5 (2010) also echoed Globally, urban areas are expanding two “Right to the City” concept as a new times faster than urban population. Global paradigm for the transformation of cities, forecasts of urban expansion (Seto et al ,2012 although not in radical/legal right form. It has been interpreted as a theoretical, and World Bank 2005), urban built up area 2, , political and conceptual framework that will increase by1.2 million km by 2030, refers to aspects such as enforcement, nearly tripling the global urban land area empowerment, participation, self-realization circa 2000. Within the developing countries, and determination, and protection of human during the same period, urban population rights at the city level. David Harvey also is expected to double from 2 billion to

26 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 4 billion, whereas land demand will rise 5. What needs to be done to produce three times. For the industrialized countries and create harmonious urbaniza- the situation is even worse as population tion and sustainable cities? is expected to increase by 20% and land By harmonious urban development we area by 2.5 times. Fifty perent increase in mean a symbiosis between man and nature urban expansion is shared by Asia (55% of and across individuals and society towards Asia by India and China alone). Every new achieving quality of life in the urban settings. resident, on average, converts some 160 Considering the numerous challenges and square meters of non-urban to urban land. concerns of present urbanization trends, Globally, cities may possibly consume as we present below selected perspectives to much as 5−7% of total arable land, which is create harmonious urban development. currently 2% per annum. Urban expansion projections which includes urban sprawl 5.1 Shift in theoretical underpinnings establish that the process is real of contemporay urban landscape Developed countries, in particular land New forces of urbanization have transformed abundant US, increasingly display a counter- the role, economic base, social relations urbanization (rururbanization) trend after function, form, range of demands, iconic experiencing the phases of suburbanization, meaning and regional relationships of the edge city dewvelopment for both working cities across the world. At present cities get and living environments. On the contrary their meaning by actors such as architects, European cities are still relatively dense developers, urban designers, material experts and peripheral development is an emerging , planners and proprietors. These producers and growing phenomenon as rental and of social and economic space are situated land values rise in the central city. At the within class and cultural context. People, same time peripheral development in most cultures, ways of life, city icons normally metropolitan cities of the poor economies provide identity to a city. Unfortunately is relatively new trend and is largely illegal, it seems that ‚branding a city‘ to a new unplanned, and disjointed. The disjointed building or set of buildings is a kind of new landscape includes supermarkets, malls, identity for a city. New forms of urbanity office space, urban villages, high-rise (life styles of global milieu) are emerging residential/commercial complexes, and within the living territories of cities. Cities illegal squatter settlements. The process are becoming sites through which ideologies is threatening the productive agricultural are projected, cultural values are expressed land on the fringe and also damaging and power is exercised. They are also natural. Urban sprawl has thus attained becoming places of conflict resulting from infamous metaphor of “City Cancer“ when division of labour and space. Subsequently, it weakens communities at the core and space and time have changed their meaning destroys natural resources and ecosystems and context as these become constricted and at the edge. extraordinary dynamic for the post-modern

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 27 city. Urban expansion and urban sprawl, indigenious and imposed colonial forms a product of divergent forces, is making are found lacking. Rather, modified Western urban form almost shapeless. Apparently, models and factorial ecology approach to both convergence and divergence forces understand the urban form and underlying are operating simultaneously to produce social and economic structures are often segregated and highly differentiated and applied with inadequate explanatory power. fragmented urban landscapes. Combined with neoliberalization and Past and contemporay urban theories/ globalization influence, the indigenous models of Chicago school, structuralist characteristics such as informality, theories based on city power relations and socio-economic polarization, poverty, more recently of the Los Angeles school encroachments, fortified urban landscapes provide partial explanation of the present are making the urban landscape even more city form and wider relationships. Chicago complex and variegated. Informality , typical Shool theories largely explained internal land and ubiquitous characteristic of the city in use dynamics and the agglomeration type the South deserves acceptable consideration industrial economy and its social relations and realism within urban theory. expressed in urban space. Centralized The challenge for urban geographers is Chicago school models are being challenged to debate and refine the existing theories to now by Los Angeles decentralized city reflect the cosmopolitanism of contemporary form models (dis-asembling the urban) global urban diversity, new type of migrants promoted by Saskia Sassen and others. These and immigrants, cultural pluralism, social polycentric models capture primarily the conflicts, informality and competing land sprawling landscape as found in cities of the demands by new actors and stakeholders. North. European scholars did not promote They neeed to integrate the prevailing and any specific school of urban theory rooted in future trajectories of urbanization. It is land use approach, rather did more theoretical evidently clear that “one size shoe” models work on understanding the evolution of city and explanations are not tenable and we morphology (morphogenesis) by utilizing need to consider innovative urban theories/ iconographic and desriptive approaches. models for the unique features of the city in Understanding the impact of history and the North and the city in the South. Probably culture remained major concern in following a meta theory within the context of social the evolving urban form. The compact theory will be more realistic considering European city structure is losing ground to the vast diversity of urban settlements, sprawling and fragmented cities under the overwhelming social and environmental influence of globalization, new technologies issues and the distint process of urbanization. of information and communication and the The only uniformity or global convergence new urban actors. appears for megaurbanization, which Urban theory/models for the cities allows for a considerate thinking for in the South that explained the exclusive megaurbanization theory or models.

28 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 5.2 Conservation of urban ecosystems approach for producing harmonious urban Cities are basically ecological spaces. With development. the kind of urban sprawl/expansion and inner city development happening across the 5.3 Containing the urban sprawl world, ecosystems damages (coupled with Among several alternatives (viz. green belt, biodiversity loss) have become equally or revitalization of inner city, new urbanism, even more important than the environmental neo-urbanism) to contain urban sprawl, concerns. Ecosystems conservation helps smart growth/smart city is the one most in producing natural capital by saving talked about and a pragmatic solution. on municipal costs( sewage, water, clean It favours collaboration over regulation air..), securing livelihoods, boosting between state and local authorities. local economy (business, tourism, and Smart Growth Strategy (based on 3Es - delays the tipping point of environmental Ecology, Economy and Equity) focuses on degradation. Foremost, it provides almost creating urban growth boundary that limits free ecosystem services and livelihood outward expansion, and encourages new opportunities to the urban poor. Considering development in infill-locations in already the cost component of capital intensive urbanized areas to accommodate more infrastructure, conservation of urban intense and mixed land use development. ecosystems like forests, water bodies The approach preserves open spaces, farm and river beds is a formidable alternative land, critical environmental areas against to alleviate urban poverty, waste water further urban development and to use treatment and protection from natural space more effectively by using a single hazards. comprehensive plan that captures the vision Economists are seriously working on and means for transformation. Primarily, it assessing economic value of ESS towards implies to increase housing density in areas poverty reduction, and reducing disease that already have roads, water systems, and burden within the cities and beyond. transit access — in other words, to build upon Likewise, urban geographers can take a the built . To achieve these objectives, smart lead among spatial scientists to bridge city encourages the use of digital technology this research gap by trans-disciplinary and (real time governance and control), data inter-disciplinary collaboration towards base management, surveillance system, “applied urban ecology“. Henceforth, strict land use controls, efficient public urban focus should be more on the urban transit in inner city and pedestrianization of ecology and urban ecosystem approaches to roads and markets. The approach has great comprehend the processes and linkages with relevance for development of all size urban urban poverty, preserving ecosystems health settlements in the developing countries due and its manifestations for climate change. to its emphasis on energy efficient land uses. We require re-orienting our thinking of For the rich countries, it will strengthen environmental issues with urban ecosystems revitalizing the inner cities and encourage

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 29 the use of public transport. The only caveat The master plan approach, embedded is to avoid vertical growth in the name of primarily in land use planning, has not high density land uses and iconic image of addressed adequately the new challenges of the city under liberal urban design paradigm. environment degradation and inequity issues. Many cities across the world are now Likewise growth of urban sprawl, damages taking advantage of ICT infrastructure to the urban ecosystems, informality to develop smart transport, home-based and slums are among many externalities business, smart card services. Still the produced by the archaic urban and regional approach has not taken off with wider planning approaches. Lack of effective practice, and needs promotion in the leadership, governance and participatory developing countries where the need is planning has further aggravated chaotic equally significant as the cities there are urban growth. To correct and ameliorate such growing very fast and urban sprawl is a planning deficits, the planning profession, critical issue. as individuals and professional groups, remained unassertive to impress upon 1.5 Policy Responses and Tools to the primary decision makers for effective changes in land use based urban planning. Manage Urbanization in the To improve the prevailing dismal state of Developing countries cities, good governance and management Urban policies need to address clearly practices should become integral part of the emerging issues of megaurbanization, innovative urban planning process. Urban urban sprawl, ecosystem damages, and planners, architects and urban designers inefficient resource consumption. Rural- need to focus upon holistic solutions with urban migration policies need to be re- growing relevance for trans disciplinary examined to promote more democratic and interdisciplinary approaches. Smart and inclusive process of migration that growth model will be an ideal tool towards makes it an instrument of growth rather harmonious urban development. The than a deterrent. Sound urban land policy developed countries are promoting the is equally crucial as it influences urban main tenets of the concept to suit their sprawl, environmental degradation and need and city planners in the developing settlement of the poor. Strong and fair land countries may also adopt this approach as regulations are required that facilitate the it is absolutely cost effective, inclusive, inclusive growth and reduces informality. environmental friendly and participatory. On the moral and ethical grounds, right to city approach deserves attention and may be 6 Concluding remarks debated at national and sub-national level The current urban demographic shift has for securing social justice and inclusiveness gone in favour of less developed countries considering fundamental rights of the and in particular the Asian region. Within ordinary citizen. transition economies, including Asia,

30 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 mega-urbanization dominates the urban viable and sustainable alternative for cities transition at present and is projected to of the future. shift towards second and third tier cities of Certain relevant questions need to be less than 5 millions. Further, a new class of pondered over or answered for future research. influential builders, political establishment In the Asian context, the big questions remain and architecture and planning professionals that how to to regulate and manage Asian type have facilitated to produce a disjointed urban mega-urbanization and make choice between sprawl and alien urban form. Globalization competitive or cooperative city models? From and neo-liberalization processes have also the developing countries paerspective, how contributed towards mega urbanization can we internalize/legitimize informality and growing inequities, insecurities and towards inclusive urban growth? What are conflicts at least in the mega cities of the new thresholds that maintain sustainability developing countries. Equity concerns and stability of the urban systems.? How now predominate over inequality issues in can we regulate the uncontrolled process access to land and other social and economic of fragmented urbanization to save land infrastructure. However, the moot question and ecosystems in the rural-urban interface remains whether such forces are going to regions? create/facilitate sustainable and just cities in Asia or elsewhere despite the use/transfer of new technologies, capital flows and access References to information and communication systems? Aggarwal, S., Butsch, C. (2011): Environmental Considering the complex nature of and Ecological Threats in Indian Megacities. economic base, urban form, functions and - In: social relations under the new operating Richter, M., Weiland, U. (eds.): Applied Urban forces, the existing urban theories and models Ecology. Chichester: 66-81. of Chicago and even of Los Angeles school are Chicago Council of Global Affairs on Global found untenable both within the developing Cities Index (2012). and the devloped countries. In the absence Glaeser Edward (2011). Triumph of the City. The of any substantive urban theory, the current Penguin Press. persctives on the dynamics of urban space needs to reflect transnational, postcolonial Harvey, David (2013). Rebel Cities: From the and moral pohilosiphical underpinnings Right to the city to the Urban Revolution. within a metatheory framework. To address Vero, London. the environmental concerns , conservation of Institute for Urban Strategies (October 2011). urban ecosystems approach needs preferred Global Power City Index 2011.The Mori attention largely due to urban sprawl issues. Memorial Foundation. Likewise to contain urban sprawl, intensive Krass F. ( 2003). Megacities as global risk areas. enrgy use and better land management Smart Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen Cities approach need to be promoted for a 147(4):6-15.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 31 Kundu Amitabh (2009). Excusionary UN-HABITAT, ESCAP (2010/11). The State of Urbanization in Asia: A Macro Overview. Asian Cities. UN-HABITAT. Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. XLIV United Nations, Department of Economic and No. 48, November 28, 2009. Social Affairs, Population Division: World Rimmer Peter and Howard Dick (2009). The Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision, City in South East Asia: Patterns, Processes 2012 and Policy. Singapore, NUS Press, 2009. WHO (2008). Commission on Social Roy Ananya and Ong Aihwa (2011). Worlding Determinants of Health: Closing the Gap Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of in a Generation. WHO,Geneva. Being Global. Wiley Blackwell. WHO (2011). Map Production: Public Health Sassen, S. (2001). "The global city: Strategic Information and Geographical Information site/New frontiers." Globalization : a Systems. symposium on the challenges of closer World Bank (2005). The dynamics of global global integration. http://www.india- urban expansion. Washington D.C. The seminar.com/2001/503.htm. World bank Sassen, S. (2002). Global Networks, Linked World Resources Institute (2005). Millennium Cities, New York: Routledge Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing. Island press, Washington Seto Karen C., Guneralp Burak and Hutyra D.C. Lucy R. (2012). Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on Surinder Aggarwal biodiversity and carbon pools. PNAS, Vol. Former Professor of Geography 109, No. 40, October 2,2012. 16083-16088. University of Delhi UN-Habitat (2010). Global Urban Forum 5

32 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Reorienting Undergraduate Geography Curricula

Sarfaraz Alam, Banaras, Uttar Pradesh Abstract At undergraduate stage geography is opted as an optional subject by both science and arts stream students for B.A. and B.Sc. degrees. However, it has been observed that undergraduate geography departments in India are failing to attract first rate students. Students, who have studied arts and social science subjects at intermediate stage, electing geography as an optional subject at undergraduate stage, are found wanting in the basic ‘vocabulary’ and ‘grammar’ of geography (phrases have been taken from Jackson, Peter, 2006: 199-2004). On the other hand, students, who have studied science subjects at intermediate stage, electing geography as an optional subject at undergraduate stage, are those who have failed to get admission in other science and technology oriented subjects. These have implications for the teaching transaction and the overall image of the discipline and department. This paper endeavours to diagnose the underlying causes behind these trends. It, then, goes on to argue that the undergraduate geography curriculum modernization could be the single most effective means of dealing with this crisis. The subject could be made intellectually appealing and rewarding for students, teachers and society through curriculum innovation. Though curriculum development is a comprehensive process this paper focuses on few aspects only. Key Words: Geography, Curricula, vocabulary, grammer, curriculam development

Introduction There is a growing concern among policy than 3% of school children want to pursue makers and the teaching and research a career in science. We must find ways of community in India regarding the inability making these disciplines more attractive to of the undergraduate departments of children. We have to improve the quality universities and colleges to attract first of teaching of science and mathematics at grade students. The Prime Minister of India the school level. Countries like China and has also voiced his concern: South Korea are far ahead of us in investing "I share the concern being expressed by in science and technology. We need to do many of our scientists that our best minds much more in this vital area if we have to are not turning to science, and those who do, keep pace with the evolving global economy do not remain in science. I am told that less of the future." (Dr. Manmohan Singh, 2006) As a geography teacher, my apprehension could partly be linked to the content and is that the discipline of geography is not an method of geography teaching in schools exception to this trend. My experience and colleges. Therefore, many geographers has been that, of late, the lot that come in India are now realizing the importance of to geography are mostly those who have changing geography curricula at different failed to get admission in technical and stages of formal education. This is amply professional courses. This concern has been evident by the kind of themes recently earlier articulated by Lahiri-Dutt (2005: undertaken in a series seminars/symposia 691): organized in different universities/institutes It is well known that the best students located in different parts of India.1 Concerns go for medical and engineering studies, raised in these meetings prompted me to followed by those who go in for ‘hard’ share my views through this paper on the sciences like mathematics and physics, need to reorient geography curricula at then comes the ‘bio-sciences’ (those who undergraduate level. have been lucky ever since ‘environmental This paper starts with two pertinent science’ now offers them a place of pride questions concerning problems of within academia), and finally, there are geography at undergraduate level. First, why those intelligent students wanting to study intermediate passed arts and social science arts who opt for either economics or students, electing geography as an optional geography. subject at undergraduate level, are weak in Students usually opt for those subjects the vocabulary and grammar of geography? that are either directly rewarding (e.g., Second, why geography departments (those professional certificate/diploma/degree located in science faculties) are failing courses) or have the potential to fetch to attract good quality science students? them a good career in the long run. From The article, then, goes on to propose a few the point of view of career, geography in suggestions that could possibly enhance the India has remained largely an unrewarding profile of the discipline at undergraduate subject except for in teaching. This failure level.

1. Shri A. M. Khwaja Chair (located in the Department of Geography, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi) organized a two-day National Symposium on Paradigm Shift in Geography (on November 28 and 29, 2011); the Chair once again organized a two day National Seminar on Revisiting Geography as a Sustainable Discipline at Jamia from February 20 to 21, 2013. Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Trivandrum, organized a two-day national workshop on Philosophy and Research Methodology of Geography (during December 7 and 8, 2011); CESS again organized a one-day Symposium on the same theme on the occasion of the Indian Geographers Meet and National Conference on Natural Resource Management and Decentralized Planning on December 12, 2012; the Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi organized a three-day national seminar on Re-orienting Geography to Meet Present and Future Challenges (from March 14 to March 16, 2012). Another three-day national seminar was organized by the Department of Geography, BHU on the theme of “Reorienting Geography Education and Training for Sustainable Development in India” from October 29 to October 31, 2012.

34 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Why are the students taking geography of understanding of basic geographical at undergraduate of subject? concepts. It was found that there is a general It is being generally observed that students lack of understanding of fundamental electing geography at undergraduate level in concepts of geography among them. The arts/social science faculties come with weak result of the survey is presented in Table 1. foundations in the vocabulary and grammar of Table - 1 : Understanding of fundamental geography. The knowledge and intelligence concepts of geography level of students taking admission in Terms Do not Incorrect Parialy Fully geography departments depends to a certain Know Correct Correct extent on the nature of geography teaching at Latitude 9 22 25 43 the school level. In recent years, qualitative Longitude 15 21 25 39 transformations have taken place in the Globe 11 7 26 56 geography curriculum of school of NCERT Scale 7 21 27 45 (for details refer to Alam, Sarfaraz, 2010). Map 2 10 34 54 First, there is an effort to integrate geography Location 15 19 43 23 with either social science or environmental Region 19 36 17 28 studies in the secondary school curricula. It is needless to emphasize that students In an integrated teaching the focus is not taking admission at undergraduate level are on the discipline of geography per say. expected to know these concepts. Complex Instead, the syllabi are organized around concepts of geography are built on these certain themes. These themes are studied basic concepts. Lack of understanding of through different disciplinary lenses. As a these concepts among students hampers the result students do not get opportunities to teaching of complex concepts of geography acquire knowledge of essential facts and (e.g., spatial pattern, process, organization, understanding of fundamental concepts association, autocorrelation and change). specific to disciplines including geography. The second debilitating change in the As a result when they enrol in geography school curricula is related to the neglect of departments for undergraduate degree they world regional geography. Previously the are often found wanting in their knowledge study of the world regions was an integral and understanding of concepts very basic component of school geography syllabus. to geography such as latitude, longitude, School children had opportunity to travel absolute locations, relative location, site, in their imagination to different places and space, place, distribution, spatial interaction, regions of the world. This led to development areal association, region, map and scale. of some kind of mental maps/picture of the In August 2012, a questionnaire- world in them. So whenever a teacher used based survey was conducted among to name a place, region or a geographical newly enrolled B.A./B.Sc. students of the feature in his/her lectures, students could Department of Geography of Banaras Hindu mentally as well as visually ‘locate’ them. University (Varanasi) to assess their level Presently world regional geography is not

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 35 taught in schools using textbook published branches. For example, geomorphology by the National Council of Educational teachers teach various kinds of physical Research and Training (NCERT), several features on the earth as well as the underlying State Council of Educational Research and processes which create those features. The Training (SCERT) and State Institutes of teachers impart knowledge of patterns Educational Research and Training (SIERT) of location and distribution of all the (for details refer to NCFSE, 2000 and NCF, processes and the resulting features on the 2005, both reports prepared by the NCERT). earth to students. Similarly human-created As a result students are getting limited phenomena and processes are unevenly opportunities of acquiring knowledge of the distributed on the earth’s surface. A human world or developing a global perspective. geography teacher imparts knowledge The undergraduate geography about the unevenly distributed socio-spatial departments are now receiving students patterns and processes on the earth’s surface. who lack even the basic knowledge of Under these conditions those students who world geography (i.e. locations of places, are ignorant of the regional geography of regions and peoples, landforms, climate the world find it difficult to properly realize and so on). In the same survey, the newly class lectures. admitted undergraduate students were asked It is also worth noting that the study to write names of one country from different of geography at senior secondary stage is geographical regions of the world. Their not mandatory for opting geography as an knowledge of world geography was found optional subject at undergraduate level. As a to be awfully deficient. The distribution of result undergraduate geography departments their responses is presented in Table 2. are also receiving a substantial proportion of Table - 2 : Knowledge of nams of countries by students who have not studied geography at geographical regions higher secondary stage. These students have studied geography as a compulsory subject Name of Region Correct Incorrect Do not know at secondary school level. When they take West Asia 22 41 37 admission at the undergraduate level, two South Asia 56 10 32 years have already passed when they had South America 42 18 40 studied geography at secondary school level. West Indies 10 21 69 In these two years, students generally forget West Europe 49 8 43 whatever they have studied at school level. East Africa 17 24 59 North America 25 14 61 Why are geography departments failing East Asia 44 19 37 to attract good quality students? Cetral Asia 20 41 39 There is a steady decline in the popularity of The current state of geographical geography among school students. There are illiteracy hampers the teaching of physical both extrinsic and intrinsic reasons for this. and human geography and their sub- Extrinsic reasons are related to the nature

36 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 of the society in which geography is taught The preferred position of geography and learnt. The contemporary Indian Society as a social science/art subject, however, is a swayed by philosophy of neo-liberal is comparatively better. Geography has regime. The whole purpose of education traditionally been a favoured subject for has undergone complete makeover. The undergraduate and post-graduate degrees focus of education is to create a pool of in social science and arts faculties. But competent labour force who can contribute in recent years, it is facing competition to the growth of corporate economy. from subjects such as Economics, English, Students usually opt for those subjects at Hindi and Sociology (or Social Work). The intermediate and college stages which have prospect of getting a job after obtaining maximum possibilities of developing a graduation/post graduation degrees in these suitable career. Therefore, not surprisingly, subjects is brighter. the most intelligent students often take The intrinsic factors are equally admission in subject combinations which get to be blamed for the unpopularity of them admissions in medical and engineering geography among students. These are courses after intermediate. Those who related to the institutional framework join B. Sc. course give preference to those within which geography is practised. Most combinations which have potential to of the geography departments in India shape their career. They usually give first do not revise their undergraduate and preference to combinations which have such postgraduate curricula on a regular basis. subjects as mathematics, physics, chemistry, Curriculum development should be seen as computer science and geology. Geography is a continuous process. It should reflect the usually the last option for science students. changing contours of the society and the The weaker students are ‘forcefully’ given scholastic tradition. The National Council geography as an option due to their lower of Educational Research and Training ranks in entrance examination or poor (NCERT) advocates for revision in school marks at intermediate examination. The curricula after every five years. But a position of geography is somewhat similar majority of universities and colleges fail to when it comes to choice of subject for revise their curricula for decades. honours. Geography is usually not the The content of syllabi is a major concern favourite subject for honours for science of undergraduate geography. Undergraduate stream students. These students, who are geography syllabi in many universities are ineligible (because of low marks in previous full of obsolete themes with an emphasis examination) to opt other science subjects on distributional aspects of physical, biotic from their subject combination, are forced to and socio-cultural phenomena. Students take geography. The remaining students who just cram these facts without bothering intentionally choose geography for honours to learn about the underlying structures are those who do not opt for other science and processes which determine their subjects for fear of failure. distribution, and social consequences of

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 37 prevailing distribution patterns. There is industrial geography, political geography lack of elements of critical thought. This and social geography. is possibly one of the most fundamental There are plenty of examples of problems of geography in India. These repetitions and overlaps of papers and themes syllabi present low level of intellectual at undergraduate level in many geography challenge to both teacher and the learner. departments. For example, in a number Kuntala Lahiri-Dutt (2005: 691) questions of universities Economic Geography and the absence of critical thinking in geography Geography of Developed and Developing syllabi in undergraduate and post graduate Countries, Resource Geography are taught stages: as three separate papers in the undergraduate I have often wondered in my teaching course. A more reasonable idea would be life why excellent students who are selected to combine these papers in view of their to study geography honours due to their very similarities. high marks in higher secondary examination There is hardly any undergraduate turn to unquestioningly accepting memory geography department which offers sufficient exercise of repetitive material that has little number of optional papers in the third year relevance. What does our syllabus do to for students to choose from. In universities them that they never develop a significant and colleges where there are provisions of measure of critical thinking. optional papers in the third year (fifth and The conventional data collection and sixth semesters), but due to insufficient representation techniques dominate the numbers of teachers or their unwillingness to cartography papers at undergraduate level. teach, these optional papers are not offered. Many geography departments are ill- One of the optional papers becomes de facto equipped to incorporate the latest data compulsory paper as students are not allowed collection and representation techniques to choose from the list of optional papers. such as remote sensing and geographical Instead students are given a pre-determined information systems. In many departments optional paper even though they would have where these papers have been incorporated chosen some other optional paper. in syllabi, poor infrastructure and untrained Perhaps no geography department in teachers impede their teaching. India offer specialization in geography Lots of efforts are directed at the at undergraduate level. It is possible that sequencing of papers at undergraduate students from natural science stream may levels in the syllabi development. However, be more interested in physical and biotic in many geography departments there is a aspects of the earth. On the other hand, lack of proper sequencing of papers. For students from arts and social science streams example, paper titled regional planning and may be more interested in the study of the th development is taught in third year (in 5 earth as human habitat. However, both the th or 6 semesters where semester system is streams of students are forced to study the followed) without teaching agricultural and same papers. This hinders the development

38 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 of interests in specific sub-field of geography What needs to be done? among students at undergraduate level. Given these conditions the only option is The subject combination of geography to modernize the geography curricula at with other disciplines does not always follow both school and undergraduate levels. The a rational principle. Though geography innovation of geography curricula at school is an inclusive subject which could be would supply students with good knowledge made to stand as a bridge among subjects of geography undergraduate levels. of arts, science and social sciences, it is However, it should be noted that change in important to create combinations of subjects school geography curricula is not in hands keeping in view the societal demands. of individual geography departments. It The value of a particular subject keeps on would mean that undergraduate geography changing owing to changes in the society departments would continue to get students and academic. Therefore, there is a need to with poor knowledge and understanding identify disciplines with which geography of basic geographical facts, concepts and can have most productive combination skills. Therefore, individual geography at undergraduate level. For example, departments would have to take their own combination of geography with languages initiatives of modernizing undergraduate (English, Hindi, Urdu, Persian, Sanskrit, geography curriculum. The modernization etc.) is no longer a relevant combination of undergraduate geography curricula only except in exceptional cases where a should be based on two criteria. First, the student wants to pursue literary geography. curricula should be so changed to make the This is not at all to argue against the students discipline more useful and responsive to the of geography studying languages. But present-day needs of the society. Second, when majority of students are forced to interests of students with poor knowledge study geography with these subjects then it and understanding of geography should be certainly does not augur well for them. taken into account. The syllabi and teaching methods of Curriculum development at any level geography are also important issues of should be seen as a continuing process. It concern. A poor and out-dated syllabus should reflect the changing requirements and boring and unimaginative teaching kill students’ interests in the discipline. of the academic world and society. The Similarly, the teaching of socially useless qualitative and quantitative transformations and intellectually unexciting subjects does in the geographies of the world necessitate not inspire the students. This decreases the the development of new theories, models, confidence of students in the discipline. methods, techniques and technologies They get disconnected with the subject. As a to understand these transformations. result students do not opt for geography as an Geography departments would be required optional or honours subject at undergraduate to intellectually and technically equip level. This necessitates innovative ways of their students so that they feel updated and changing undergraduate geography curricula. relevant in the dynamic world of academia

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 39 and the society. Curriculum modernization a burden on students and teachers. It is not could be one of the key elements. Geography an easy task to strike a balance between all curriculum development constitutes many these aspects. aspects; this paper focuses on reorientation It is, therefore, proposed that the of geography syllabus. following principles for curriculum Reorienting geography syllabus development may be taken into consideration Syllabus development is a dynamic process. for reorienting undergraduate geography An up-to-date syllabus is critical for the curriculum. health of not only the discipline of geography 1. An effective curriculum should be but also its teachers and students. It also tells able to fill the gap between syllabi of whether the state of the teaching activity in different stages of formal education the department is vibrant or stagnant. “There (i.e. if an essential paper is not taught is a need to update syllabi regularly keeping at higher secondary school level, then in view the changes taking place in nature, it should be taught in the college). society, and polity. This need of changing the 2. A syllabus should be regularly revised syllabi is more demanding than what it was to up-to-date its content. The content in the past” (Singh, Sachinder, 2009: 113). should be derived preferably from the It is not that there is absence of efforts. current research trends in the discipline. Attempts have been made at individual 3. The syllabus should be relevant to the departmental level as well at the UGC level. contemporary needs of all sections of But these efforts have brought only a limited the society. attainment in few university departments. ‘Although many attempts have been made 4. All papers should be sequentially to restructure the geography syllabi at the arranged so as to make their learning national level, the results are not up to process rational. the mark’ (Singh, Sachinder, 2009: 113). 5. The syllabus should move from The reason for limited success is that the general situations to specific cases. For syllabus development is a complex and example, physical geography may be contested exercise. Syllabus development offered in third or fourth semester and depends on many factors including the geomorphology during fifth or sixth current research in the discipline and semester at undergraduate stage. At PG allied disciplines, the societal contexts, level any one paper from fluvial, glacial, the availability of infrastructure, the focus coastal or desert geomorphology papers of the departments, the specialization may be offered. And at M. Phil./Ph. D. and competence of teaching staff and the level still more specialised papers such level of understanding/talent of students. as flood plain geomorphology or deltaic Consequently, a syllabus developed without geomorphology paper may be offered. taking into considerations these factors, even 6. The syllabus should be able to stimulate an evidently progressive syllabus becomes sufficient interests of students. An

40 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 obsolete and fact-based syllabus would basic idea behind introducing this paper in not attract students. The focus should the very first semester/year is that students not be on the location and distribution opting geography papers at undergraduate of terrestrial phenomena, but on the level without any background knowledge underlying principles which govern of geography would be trained in the basics them. This means there is a need to of geography and therefore would develop a teach them concepts, skills, theories, good foundation in the discipline. The basic models and laws of geography and allied reason for introducing World (Regional) disciplines. Geography is that students would develop 7. Equal emphasis should be placed on a mental picture of the world patterns and physical and human aspects of the processes. As all geographical patterns and earth as students from both science and processes are found and operate on the arts (and social science) streams study earth’s surface and therefore, to understand geography at undergraduate stage. these patterns and processes, one should However, the emphasis could be given have knowledge of places and regions where more on human geography when it is they are found and operate. These two papers taught to arts and social science students would help students built a solid background and to physical aspects when it is taught in the fundamental ideas of geography to science students. At the same time, as a discipline as well as the empirical there should be sufficient scope for knowledge of the world geography. This development of specialization in the would make them comfortable with papers third year (fifth and sixth semesters) of to be taught in subsequent semesters. undergraduate. In the second year (third and fourth In accordance with these principles the semesters), two papers Physical Geography following specific suggestions for reorienting and Human Geography should be taught. geography curriculum are proposed. For In these papers also the emphasis should the first year (first two semesters) of three not be on the factual aspects of location, year (six semesters) undergraduate degree distribution, interactions but on the principles course, two new papers are proposed. These which influence their spatial characteristics. papers are Fundamental of Geography By third year students start thinking and World (Regional) Geography. In of specialization of geography. However, the paper Fundamentals of Geography, there is no specialization in the third the distinct nature of geography as a year. Branches of physical, human and scholarly discipline should be focussed. This cartography are equally emphasized. It is can be done by teaching them a brief proposed that the number of compulsory historical evolution of geography, its papers should be restricted while those of distinct philosophical foundations, concepts, optional papers should be increased. The methodologies, approaches, perspectives, compulsory papers should be chosen in such tools and techniques should be taught. The a way that it is equally useful to both the

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 41 groups of students i.e., students interested basic knowledge of economics, social in physical as well as human geography. For geography without sociology, and political example, Geography of India, Environmental geography without politics will always Geography and Cartography could be of remain incomplete” (Singh, Sachinder, interests to both groups of students. The 2009: 117-118). optional papers should be oriented to either The inclusion of elements of critical physical geography or human geography. thought in geography syllabi would help The following papers are proposed – students to see the contemporary issues Geomorphology, Climatology, Hydrology, with much better insight. In this context Pedology, Oceanography, Biogeography, Banerjee-Guha (2004:78) says that: ‘one of Economic Geography, Political Geography, the important intellectual tasks in geography Social Geography, Population Geography in the present day, therefore, is to construct and Settlement Geography. and appropriate language and a theoretical An important component of under- understanding of such contemporary issues graduate syllabus is practical geography, of space society convergence’. As a result, which incorporates many aspects. The ‘the new geographer in the making should emphasis on traditional surveying techniques spend his/her energies not on trivialities but like chain and tape survey, plane table on the significant social problems which survey, prismatic compass, dumpy levels can acquire new meaning, if analyzed with should be reduced. On the contrary, new the tools of geographical analysis’ (Ahmed, techniques like GPS, RS imageries, schedule Aijazuddin, 1997: 368). and questionnaire-based surveys need to be emphasized. Already the NCERT has Conclusion incorporated remote sensing and GIS in Geography departments in India are facing the geography syllabus of higher secondary two important challenges. First, arts and school. Therefore, corresponding to the theory social science students opting for geography papers of geography at the undergraduate as an optional paper at undergraduate stage, the sequencing of geography practical stage are found to be wanting in both the papers/topics should be rationally organized. vocabulary and grammar of geography. In the new circumstance there is a Second, geography departments are unable pressing need to make new combinations to attract good quality science students of geography with such disciplines as for admission in B. Sc. course. These computer sciences, political science, challenges could be met by reorienting economics, mathematics, statistics, botany, geography curricula at undergraduate stage. environmental sciences and education. The incorporation of relevant and useful “The sub-branches of geography cannot themes in syllabi together with their rational sequencing and adoption of innovative flourish without knowledge of their related teaching techniques could make the subject social science disciplines. Teaching and intellectually appealing and rewarding for learning of economic geography without students, teachers and society. However,

42 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 the process of curricular modernization Lahiri-Dutt, Kuntala (2005): “Geography as a should take into account the availability Marginal Social Science”, Economic and of infrastructure, priorities of departments, Political Weekly, (February 12): 689-691 specialization and competency of teaching NCERT (2000): National Curriculum Framework staff and the general quality of students. for School Education. New Delhi: NCERT References NCERT (2005): National Curriculum Framework Ahmad, Aijazuddin (1997): “Fifty Years of 2005. New Delhi: NCERT Indian Geography” in Kapur, Anu, ed. Press Information Bureau, Government of India (2002). Indian Geography: Voices of (August 28, 2006): “PM announces setting Concern. New Delhi, Concept Publishing up of National Institute of Science Education Company: 366-376 and Research at Bhubaneswar” Geography in India”, Journal of Geography, accessed on June 2, 2013 109 (6): 243-250 Singh, Sachinder (2009): “Geography in India: Banerjee-Guha, Swapna (2004): “Space, Society, Some Reflections”, Transaction Institute of and Geography: Investigating the Crisis of Indian Geographers, 31(2): 109-120 Postmodern Urban Space” in Banerjee- Guha, Swapna (ed.) Space, Society and Sarfaraz Alam Geography. Jaipur/New Delhi: Rawat Assistant Professor Publications: 61-82 Department of Geography, Jackson, Peter (2006): “Thinking Faculty of Science Geographically”, Geography, 91 (3): 199- Banaras Hindu University – 221005 2004.

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Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Vegetation Greenness Parameterisation Using Temporal VGT- NDVI Data and Meteorological Conditions in Upper Dikhu River Catchment of Patkai Hills, Nagaland

Bendanginla, Surendra Singh and Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh Shillong, Meghalaya

Abstract This paper analyses the effect of forest-meteorological factors on vegetation cover considering spatio-temporal variations in vegetation greenness intensity in the particular environmental conditions of Upper Dikhu River catchment which is located in the Patkai Hills of Nagaland Himalaya. The greenness intensity maps of each and every point of time were prepared at one-metre spatial resolution to analyse the spatial and temporal variations in vegetation greenness cover in the study area. Regression analysis was pursued to prioritize the effects of meteorological factors of the change in vegetal greenness intensity. The distributional patterns of greenness intensity spatially vary because of the variation in topo-features (elevation and slope), while its temporal variations found significant owing to noticeable variability in the meteorological attributes. Polynomial regression was the best-fit mathematical form which captured the maximum degree of temporal variability of mean greenness intensity up to 54.0 percent. It showed a decreasing trend when Heat index, Precipitation and PET increased. However, there was a positive impact of soil moisture which optimized greenness intensity as 117.5 mm moisture was available in the soil. Such conditions of meteorological phenomena are prevalent in the post-monsoon seasons (October to December) in the study area. Keywords: Greenness intensity, topo-features, heat index, polynomial form, soil moisture storage, mean-NDVI, spatio-temporal variation

dry matter among plant organs and water Introduction absorption by roots and carbohydrate Vegetation phenology is an important assimilation in early literature (Dewit et dimension of biological studies. While al. 1969, Hunt 1977). Later on, vegetation reviewing the literature, plant growth growth models were developed in order characterisation was more concerned with to examine the physiological processes the simulation of physiological processes and phenological events, their stages such as the analysis of photosynthesis, and environmental stress using Potential transpiration, respiration, distribution of Evapotranspiration based plant growth index, photosynthetic efficiency index for analysis of phenology of cropping system measurement of reproduction the green leaf and also prediction of spatio-temporal biomass (McCall and Bishop-Hurley, 2003) variation of runoff generation using SPOT- and Thornthwaite-based thermal efficiency VEGETATION 10-day composite NDVI index (Singh et al. 2006). Recently, data (Panigrahy et al. 2003, Upadhyay et biophysical environment of vegetation and al. 2008, Gupta and Panigrahy 2008). No its growth have widely been parameterised doubt, multi temporal Remote Sensing by using remotely sensed data with various data are being widely used for the study of techniques of predicting green leaf biomass dynamic phenomena (Upadhyay et al. 2008) (Asshbindu 1989), ground water potentials and gaining importance as an appropriate (Gupta 1991, Mukherjee and Banerjee tool for International Geosphere Biosphere 2005), rate of Potential Evapotranspiration Programme- Data Information System (PET), Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and (IGBP-DIS) which runs in cooperation vegetation index (Ricotta 1999). Time series with many worldwide agencies. Under this data of Normalised Difference Vegetation program, a time series of AVRR-NDVI Index (NDVI) are being widely used for monthly maximum value at spatial resolution spatio-temporal analysis of vegetation cover of 1*1 sq km data have been provided for and greenness intensity. the earth surface (Eidenshink and Faundeen There are numerous Digital Image 1994). It is used for preparation of vegetation Processing techniques such as slicing, image index (Ricotta et al. 1999). reduction and magnification, transects, An effort is, therefore, made here (a) contrast enhancement, band ratioing and to use 10-day time-series composite NDVI so on (Jensen 1996); out of which NDVI data for parameterisaton of vegetation happens to be the most widely used for greenness intensity to show spatial features the purpose of understanding green leaf of vegetation type based on its leaf shade concentration through calculation of Leaf density and (b) to compare this time-series Area Index (LAI) (Pandya et al. 2007). vegetation greenness intensity with the It is helpful in predicting chlorophyll meteorological data of same points of status in the vegetation for the analysis of time to examine the causes of changes in phenological as well as bio-technological vegetal cover. The main features of the processes of different types of tree species present research are the analysis of spatio- (Su 2002, Mukherjee and Banerjee 2005). temporal patterning of vegetation greenness This technique has been widely used for intensity and prioritisation of its impact of accurate description of vegetation cover forest-meteorology factors (Temperature, and land cover classification for various Rainfall, Potential Evapotranspiration and purposes such as preparation of vegetation Soil Moisture) in the humid Patkai hills index (De Fries et al. 1995), detection of land of Nagaland Himalaya considering Upper cover changes using Landsat TM images Dikhu River catchment as a meso- areal of different dates (Jomma and Kheir 2005), domain of the present study.

46 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Study Area 28°C in July (Hot). Rainfall is sometimes Study area includes the Upper Dikhu River sufficiently high in pre-monsoon period catchment that lies between 26° 0´ N to (April) but July is the peak of monsoon 26°52´ N latitudes and 94°30´ E to 95°16´ when it precipitates up to 600 mm. Post- E longitudes with an areal extent of about monsoon showers which occur from 3,047 sq. km. It is situated on the western October onwards are helpful for soil slopes of Patkai hills in Nagaland (Fig.1) recharge and vegetation growth. Due to (see page 59 for the fig. 1). The upper ridges thick fertile soils (1.2 m to 1.8 m) having of the catchments are elevated about 2,200 200 mm of water retention capacity and m a.s.l. while its mouth, i.e., the foothill high nutrient contents promote vegetal part of river catchment ends at 150 m a.s.l. growth (NBSS & LUP 2004). Moderate (Fig.-2A). It is important to note that more slopes along the river valleys and balanced than 50 percent of the cultivated area of the topographic features (almost equal areas entire state of Nagaland is concentrated only under valley slopes and high hills) and good within and around the Upper Dikhu River drainage conditions of the river catchment catchment (Jha 1976). As such, the lower create congenial ecological conditions for part of the river valleys and gentle slopes dense vegetal cover and greenness intensity. are under some kind of cultivation, whether As a result, more than 54.50 % of land is settled or jhum, while remaining areas are under dense forests which includes other dominated by forests. The river Dikhu is one forest areas like reserved forests (0.77%), of the major tributaries of river Brahmaputra protected forests (0.1%), proposed forests and receives water through numerous small (4.17%) and the village forests (48.90%) tributaries from the hills through which it (Statistical Hand book of Nagaland 2004). flows. It originates near Surmi at an elevation of 1,897 m. After traversing a tortuous Material and Methods northerly course of 107.5 km through dense There are two main dimensions of the forests in hilly terrain of Nagaland, it enters present analysis to characterise the spatio- the plains of Assam and thereafter traverses temporal pattern of vegetal cover based on an approximate distance of 80 km to join its greenness intensity and to describe the the river Brahmaputra. The banks of the main causes of change in these patterns. As Dikhu River vary in width from 40 m to land attributes of the area (elevation, slope, 100 m associated with slopes varying from drainage as well as soils) are static in its moderate to strong (8-16%). However, nature over a period of time, the temporal most of the areas of the upper reaches of the changes in vegetal cover might be the result catchment have strongly steep to cliff- like of variable meteorological phenomena. slopes (more than 32% gradient) (Fig.-2B) However, many studies conclude that (see page 59 for the fig. 2A and 2B). spatial patterns of vegetation cover are Average temperature is recorded controlled implicitly by two elements of 17°C in January (moderately cold) and topography: the elevation and the slope

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 47 (Thapa 2004). Spatio-temporal analysis of where PV= Physical Value as output vegetal cover was pursued by using Multi for NDVI value, DN= the Digital Number Spectral 10-day time series composite NDVI stored in the input data file, scale (constant) data which are being provided at 1*1 sq = 0.004 and offset (constant) = -0.1 for km spatial resolution using SPOT images NDVI. Pixel-wise statistics of NDVI were under Vegetation for Africa Program (VGT generated by using ILWIS (Integrated Extract, see http://www.vgt4africa.org/ Land and Water Information System) and VEGTExtract.do). The data of vegetation its distributional patterns were analysed cover for an interval of three months were considering its spatial resolution of 1*1 sq downloaded from the website of above meter size. cited program (http://free.vgt.vito.be/) In fact, NDVI values vary ranging from to characterize the seasonality effects of +1 to -1. In order to analyse the intensity of changes in vegetal cover taking into account greenness of vegetal cover to show its spatial five years downloaded data (January 2004 variability for which a given classification in to December 2008). The months of January which five classes of vegetation greenness (moderately cold but dry), April (moderately types was followed (Bartholome 2006). cold and moderately dry), July (warm They are: Non-Vegetation cover (NDVI and wet) and October (moderately cold value below 0.0), Stressed Vegetation (0.0- and moderately wet) for each year were 0.4), Normal Vegetation (0.4-0.7), Dense considered to analyse the regular features of spatial distribution of vegetation greenness Vegetation (0.7-0.9), Very Dense Vegetation intensity. The variations in these four Cover (0.9-1.0). This classification must seasons are with the attributes concerned provide the main features of the distribution to forest meteorology to show their effects. of each point of time in order to highlight It is to note that this website provides 10- the greenness- based spatio-temporal days average raw data sets. First 10-days characteristics of vegetal cover. Statistical average data of each required month were analysis of greenness intensity distribution used to make the spatio-temporal analysis was pursued on the basis of its main in order. After downloading the concerned parameters like maximum, minimum, mean, data from website, a standard procedure was variance and growth rate values that vary adopted to make data of NDVI through the over time. use of software downloaded from the given After collecting monthly statistics of website. Raw physical DN values of each Temperature (T) and Precipitation (P) for pixel were converted to obtain NDVI by all defined periods of time (January 2004 applying the following formula as given to December 2008) from centrally located in the Manual of the Program (Bartholome meteorological station of the study area - 2006: 100) see also website http://www. Mokokchung (Nagaland), the statistics of devococast.eu/VGTExtract.do. four main attributes of forest-meteorology, namely, Heat Index (HI), Potential- PV= (Scale*DN) + Offset, … … (1) Evapotranspiration (PET), Precipitation

48 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 (P) and Soil Moisture Storage (ST) were Moderate growth rate (10-12 %) is observed generated using T-M procedure that is based during the post Monsoon season (October on ‘thermal efficiency’ criteria of vegetation to January) especially when it is associated growth and is dependent on general water with moderate monthly rainfall of 50-100 budget equation {P- (PET+ ΔST+ RO)= mm even in the month of January at the time 0} (Thornthwaite and Mather 1957). HI is of less soil moisture storage (Table-1). There directly converted from Temperature as it are general inferences drawn from numerous establishes the relationship following ‘base studies that warm humid conditions are variable and power constant’ equation: suitable for optimal intensity and growth of HI= (Tm/5)1.514 , … … (2) vegetal cover (Champion and Seth 1968). In the present study, the evidences of NDVI where Tm = mean monthly temperature based greenness intensity of vegetation and (oC); Tm= {(T - T )/2}. The attribute max mini its growth as found in Table -1, are deviating Precipitation is directly used from given from the general findings but they are raw data, while other attributes like PET interesting. Vegetal growth starts increasing and ST were calculated with a specific given with increasing greenness intensity from T-M procedure (Singh et al. 2010). Mean- post-monsoon time of October. It is argued NDVI for each point of time is considered that the growth of the vegetation at foothills as dependent variable and these attributes of in Assam Valley may continue until a forest-meteorology as independent variables secondary peak of growth is realized in post- to establish the ‘best- fit line’ in each monsoon season sometime in November distribution for which five mathematical due to abundance of soil moisture and high functions, namely, linear, polynomial, temperature (Uma Shankar 1991, Uma logarithmic, power and exponential, were Shankar et al. 1993). Similar results are used. The main analysis of the distribution also drawn from the present analysis that and discussions are mainly based on the post-monsoon season is ideal for maximum ‘best- fit statistics’ for prioritizing the growth of vegetation intensity. On the other vegetation factors hand, the growth is recorded negative, for instance in April 2004, up to -44.36 percent Results and Discussion during the spring season (January to April) (A) Statistical Analysis when soil is dry and evaporative demand is not filled by the precipitation. The causes The mean-NDVI values in the temporal of such variability may be the most variable distribution of 20 points of time (January phenomenon of soil moisture storage as it 2004 to October 2008) appear to be very was recorded to the maximum of 200 mm in high (0.62 to 0.68) in the month of January; the month of April and July 2004, October in the case of January 2004, it was 0.6826. It 2005, July and October 2006, April, July implies interestingly that greenness intensity and October 2007 and July 2008. The lowest and its growth rate are higher in moderately soil storage was recorded in the year of April cold (15°C to 20°C) weather conditions. 2008 with a storage capacity of only 42 mm.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 49 Table- 1: Distributional Characteristics of Vegetal Cover and Meteorological Parameters (January 2004- October 2008)

NDVI Characteristics Meteorological Parameters Coeffi- cient of Stan- Varia- 3-months dard tion Precip- Max Min Mean growth Devia- (C.V Kurto- Skew- Heat itation PET ST Period NDVI NDVI NDVI Rate (%) tion %) sis ness Index (mm) (mm) (mm) January 2004 0.88 0.37 0.68 0.00 0.12 24.23 -0.64 -0.39 6.32 52.00 36.14 104.00 April 2004 0.68 0.07 0.38 -44.64 0.79 127.60 -1.19 0.00 9.22 385.60 83.46 200.00 July2004 0.84 0.04 0.44 16.43 0.24 29.08 -1.20 0.00 11.56 215.60 136.89 200.00 October 2004 0.90 0.07 0.49 12.00 0.24 28.47 -1.18 -0.02 10.47 57.60 100.98 161.00 January 2005 0.86 0.34 0.63 27.13 0.14 27.25 -1.02 -0.14 5.05 7.60 27.80 88.00 April 2005 0.78 0.31 0.57 -8.27 0.12 25.27 -1.02 -0.09 10.51 66.50 109.14 88.00 July2005 0.87 0.07 0.48 -16.91 0.22 28.07 -1.18 -0.01 11.60 327.30 136.89 49.00 October 2005 0.92 0.14 0.53 11.66 0.22 28.58 -1.17 -0.04 10.65 63.80 103.95 200.00 January 2006 0.90 0.36 0.66 24.42 0.14 25.75 -0.95 -0.18 4.52 0.00 19.46 131.00 April 2006 0.78 0.22 0.50 -24.87 0.15 27.17 -1.14 0.01 9.49 177.40 83.46 104.00 July2006 0.88 0.09 0.52 4.31 0.22 27.27 -1.11 -0.11 13.17 579.80 157.95 200.00 October 2006 0.90 0.14 0.57 9.16 0.20 25.93 -1.04 -0.12 11.55 69.90 112.86 200.00 January 2007 0.88 0.33 0.62 9.66 0.14 25.54 -1.04 -0.07 7.14 0.00 41.70 80.00 April 2007 0.73 0.04 0.38 -39.23 0.20 28.51 -1.19 0.01 10.92 187.80 109.14 200.00 July2007 0.86 0.08 0.49 30.46 0.21 27.30 -1.17 -0.02 13.50 338.00 157.95 200.00 October 2007 0.91 0.04 0.50 1.03 0.24 27.78 -1.15 -0.04 12.50 184.00 133.65 200.00 January 2008 0.89 0.37 0.66 32.88 0.13 23.99 -0.83 -0.19 7.91 27.90 47.26 73.00 April 2008 0.77 0.36 0.58 -12.58 0.11 26.68 -1.09 -0.06 12.85 84.00 144.45 42.00 July2008 0.87 0.08 0.47 -19.51 0.23 28.67 -1.19 0.00 13.94 602.20 157.95 200.00 October 2008 0.90 0.04 0.51 10.41 0.23 26.60 -1.05 -0.12 12.21 116.90 127.71 190.00

50 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Secondly, the coefficients of spatial variation negative vegetal growth (-44.64%) during of mean-NDVI are moderate (24.23 to three-month of dry season (January to April 28.58%) in almost all points of time 2004) was experienced. considered for present study except for April Thirdly, each and every distribution of 2004 when it was recorded very high. During greenness intensity follows ‘platykurtic’ this time the meteorological conditions were curve (more flat than normal) indicating a found more wet with exceptionally high trend towards uniform pattern of greenness precipitation (385 mm) that might have intensity in the study area. It means that, in fully saturated the field capacity of soils. As spite of significant temporal variations in a result, some areas with steep slopes might greenness intensity (mean-NDVI values) have released much more sub-surface water and seasonal growth, the spatial features and created flood conditions in valley floors of growth do not vary much temporally. in the lower parts of Dikhu River catchment. If 24.23 percent coefficient of spatial Consequently, this made spatial variability variability is contributed by topographic of mean-NDVI very high (127.60%) and the

Fig. 3 : Temporal Variation in Mean NDVI with its Forest- Meteorological Attributes

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 51 factors in the study area as it is minimum in dimensions of this analysis may provide the temporal distribution, then its temporal clues to justify the impact assessment of fluctuation of about 4 to 6 percent (varying meteorological attributes. First, the need to from 24.23 to 30.0 %) may be the result of understand the causes of spatial variations at variable meteorological factors contributing base point of time, assuming spatial features to the vegetal growth processes. of greenness intensity as constant (January Fourthly, greenness intensity does 2004 conditions) which can be compared with not correspond to forest-meteorological topo-features for causality description and attributes in its temporal trend. Mean-NDVI secondly to interpret the changes in spatial value has inverse trends with almost all variation of greenness intensity over time in respect to changes in the meteorological factors attributing to greenness intensity. parameters that can be used for soil salanity So the relationship of mean-NDVI with management (Aldakheel 2011). its contributing factors becomes negative (Fig.3), which may be elaborated in detail Comparing topo-features (elevation and in the coming discussion. slope) with areal extent of the variations in greenness intensity at base point of time, it is (B) Analysis of Spatial Variation evident that the areas of moderate to strong and gentle slopes (0-8%) of open valley It is described earlier that spatial variation floors have dense intensity of greenness of in greenness intensity (mean-NDVI vegetation cover (mean-NDVI varies from value) was minimum (CV=24.23%) in the 0.7 to 0.9), while the remaining areas of month of January 2004 when the value of high elevation except few patches of jhum meteorological attributes were recorded very occupy normal vegetal greenness cover low. If this time period (January 2004) is (0.4 -0.7 mean-NDVI). The upper reaches considered as base point of time and spatial of Dikhu River and its tributaries which are constant to analyse its temporal trends that topographically classed as high-elevated relief occurred due to changes in meteorological features show normal greenness intensity (see attributes of greenness intensity, then two page 60 for the fig. 4).

Table-2: Area and Percentage coverage of Various Vegetation classes for Different Periods

Non-Vegetation Stressed Vegetation Normal Vegetation Dense Vegetation Very Dense Cover Cover Cover Cover Vegetation Cover Area Area Area Area Area Period (sq km) % (sq km) % (sq km) % (sq km) % (sq km) % January 2004 Neg Neg 1.00 0.03 705.60 23.16 2340.47 76.81 Neg Neg April 2004 Neg Neg 984.55 32.31 2062.52 67.69 0.00 0.00 Neg Neg July2004 Neg Neg 2347.35 77.04 358.93 11.78 340.80 11.18 Neg Neg October 2004 Neg Neg 264.68 8.69 725.10 23.80 2056.40 67.49 Neg Neg January 2005 Neg Neg 5.49 0.18 1489.33 48.88 1552.25 50.94 Neg Neg April 2005 Neg Neg 9.65 0.32 2844.94 93.37 192.48 6.32 Neg Neg

52 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 July2005 Neg Neg 376.53 12.36 1426.03 46.80 1244.51 40.84 Neg Neg October 2005 Neg Neg 131.12 4.30 354.50 11.63 2552.64 83.77 8.81 0.29 January 2006 Neg Neg 2.25 0.07 941.07 30.88 2103.74 69.04 Neg Neg April 2006 Neg Neg 847.76 27.82 2184.01 71.68 15.30 0.50 Neg Neg July2006 Neg Neg 103.94 3.41 398.88 13.09 2544.25 83.50 Neg Neg October 2006 Neg Neg 69.51 2.28 499.71 16.40 2477.84 81.32 Neg Neg January 2007 Neg Neg 4.51 0.15 1982.47 65.06 1060.09 34.79 Neg Neg April 2007 Neg Neg 1751.58 57.48 1289.77 42.33 5.72 0.19 Neg Neg July2007 Neg Neg 245.57 8.06 741.00 24.32 2060.49 67.62 Neg Neg October 2007 Neg Neg 370.14 12.15 933.45 30.63 1741.72 57.16 1.76 0.06 January 2008 Neg Neg 1.00 0.03 959.22 31.48 2086.84 68.49 Neg Neg April 2008 Neg Neg 3.11 0.10 2900.80 95.20 143.16 4.70 Neg Neg July2008 Neg Neg 661.23 21.70 713.44 23.41 1672.40 54.89 Neg Neg October 2008 Neg Neg 225.86 7.41 1087.24 35.68 1733.97 56.91 Neg Neg N.B,.: Bold figures show very high percentage shares, neg= negligible

Secondly, most of the areas of valley As stated earlier, the temporal trend of Dikhu River system which have normal of vegetation greenness intensity does greenness intensity of vegetation in winters not match with forest-meteorological become stressed patches (mean NDVI 0.0- attributes. It appears that greenness intensity 0.40) and the areas of dense vegetation is higher during low Heat Index (below become normal. It can be said that in general, 9.50), low amount of monthly rainfall (150 overall greenness intensity increases in mm) and moderate level of soil moisture valley slopes and valley flats of gentle storage (about100 mm) as appeared in slopes during post-monsoon season and Table-1. In such situations of intensive it diminishes during pre-monsoon season greenness of vegetal cover especially during (Fig-4). For example, the months of October post-monsoon season, all parameters of and January have the maximum area (more meteorology have negative relationship, it than two-third) under the class of dense is to be stated that intensity of greenness vegetation (mean-NDVI 0.7 to 0.9) which diminishes as temperature, precipitation and shrinks to one-third or even much lesser PET increases. However, these variables sometimes during the dry season of pre- determine the priority of factorial impact; monsoon (till April) (Table-2). In this time the concerned analysis may be extended to soil recharge and the level of moisture make the exercise of best-fit regression for storage becomes lower than 100 mm. each and every distribution. Greenness intensity becomes very low as mean- NDVI below 0.4 resulting to stressed (C) Regression Results vegetation (Fig-4). Applying five mathematical functions for

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 53 distribution of mean-NDVI subject to each in case of mean-NDVI with soil moisture forest-meteorological attribute, it is found storage, the degree of curve linearity is that coefficient of correlation is negative and seen to be convex. It shows that increasing weak in many cases, that is why degree of soil moisture storage increases greenness determinant is very low (Fig-5). However, intensity up to a certain extent, after that there are a few important inferences form greenness intensity diminishes sharply (Fig- regression analysis. 5, see inset 2D). However, the polynomial 2 Polynomial is found the best-fit form coefficient X of greenness intensity with because it captures the maximum degree of soil moisture storage is calculated in minus variability in the distribution of mean-NDVI terms (though its value is extremely low with all considered meteorological attributes as 0.00002) and another coefficient X is like heat index (R2= 45.1%), precipitation positive (as 0.0047) that have combined (R2=53.5%), PET (R2=53.5%) and soil positive effects during the initial stage of leaf moisture storage (R2=48.5%), (Table-3). It development especially after few showers of implies that variability in greenness intensity rain. But when X reached to its (soil moisture follow a curvilinear pattern of polynomial storage) optimal level of 117.5 mm during type rather than linear ones. Undoubtedly, rainy season, a negative condition appears

Fig.-5: Best-Fit of Mean NDVI with its Forest-Meteorological Attributes for different mathematical functions: 1=Linear, 2= Polynomial, 3=Logarithmic, 4= Power and 5= Exponential

54 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 and consequently, diminishes greenness dY/dX = 2aX +b= 0 if equation is written as intensity. On the other hand, the concave Y= aX2 +bX + c ) must provide the solution nature of greenness intensity (decreasing as X= (b/2a) (see Table-3 for optimal levels with decreasing rate) has been found with of greenness intensity as well as its factors). heat index. This is indicative of thermal It is found that Heat Index at 13.0 (that is efficiency and precipitation as priority indicative of 24°C temperature), 250 mm of rainfall, 100 mm of PET and 117.5 mm of factors of normal vegetal growth. The above soil moisture storage are ideal conditions for factors also control soil moisture which optimal greenness intensity for vegetal cover plays an important role in plant growth. (Table-3). Such conditions are prevalent in Optimization of such polynomial the post- monsoon seasons in the study area. It functions with the help of their first order implies that soil moisture storage has a direct differentials to make it zero dY/dX= 0 (the impact on greenness intensity of vegetation first order differential of any polynomial is in the Upper Dikhu River catchment.

Table-3: Best Fit Mathematical Functions of Mean NDVI (Dependent) with respect to Meteorological Parameters (independent Variables)

Degree of Optimal Level Optimal Level of Mathematical Determinant of Attributes Greenness Intensity Function Form of NDVI w. r. t. (R2) (mean-NDVI) Heat Index (HI, Unitless) Linear Y= -0.019X +0.735 0.38 Polynomial Y= 0.003X2 -0.078X +0.983 0.45 13.0 0.476 (Normal) Logarithm Y= -0.17ln(X) +0.935 0.42 Power Y= 1.067X-0.31 0.35 Exponential Y= 0.748e-0.03X 0.32 Precipitation (P, mm) Linear Y= -0.000X+0.585 0.37 Polynomial Y= 2E-06X2 -0.01X +0.643 0.69 250.0 .4325 (Normal) Logarithm Y= -0.0112 ln(X) +0.591 0.36 Power Y= 0.585X-0.02 0.34 Exponential Y= 0.580e-0.000006X 0.35 Potential Evapotranspiration (PET, mm) Linear Y= -0.001X+0.657 0.40 Polynomial Y= 2E-04X2 -0.004X +0.772 0.54 100.0 0.5722 (Normal) Logarithm Y= -0.09ln(X) +0.967 0.48 Power Y= 1.134X-0.17 0.41 Exponential Y= 0.654e-0.00x 0.33

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 55 Soil Moisture Storage (ST, mm) Linear Y= -0.000X+0.658 0.34 Y= -2E-05X2 +0.0047X 117.5 0.705 (Dense) Polynomial +0.429 0.49 Logarithm Y= -0.08ln(X) +0.951 0.25 Power Y= 1.169X-0.16 0.25 Exponential Y= 0.666 e-0.00X 0.33 N.B.: N= 20 for present case as 20 occurrences are considered for temporal analysis

Conclusions ‘platykurtic’ nature (more flat) that is The greenness intensity of vegetal cover indicative of less spatial variation in found normal (0.62 to 0.68 mean-NDVI vegetation greenness. value) with its low coefficient of spatial (b) Temporal variations of mean-NDVI do variation (CV varies from 24 to 28%) during not match significantly with the forest- the winters of moderate meteorological meteorological attributes. However, conditions. Such variations in the vegetal these attributes have variable effects on cover are due to the elevation and slope greenness intensity. gradient of land surface features in the Patkai (c) Polynomial regression is the best fit form Hills. However, relationships of greenness of the distribution of mean greenness intensity with the meteorological factors are intensity of vegetal cover. Soil moisture calculated negative in all the cases except storage is the most influential factor of available soil moisture storage which is most meteorology which optimizes vegetal influential factor for the growth of greenness greenness growth at its ideal availability of vegetal cover especially during the post- of 117.5 mm which is available in the monsoon season when there is occurrence post-monsoon seasons of high growth of soil moisture recharge with its fairly high and dense-vegetal cover. storage to feed water during winter growth of vegetation greenness. In particular, the following inferences are drawn from the Acknowledgement present study: We are thankful to Professor Uma Shankar, (a) In spite of variable topo-features of Department of Botany, North-Eastern land surface, the spatial variability Hill University, Shillong for his fruitful of greenness intensity does not vary suggestions at the final draft of the significantly. Consequently, spatial manuscript and also to the University pattern of greenness intensity are not Grant Commission, New Delhi for providing much diversified as coefficient of financial assistance under Rajiv Gandhi spatial variation ranges from 24.6 to National Scholarship for pursuing Ph.D. 29.0 percent. Its distribution follows Program to the first author.

56 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 References generation in India using remotely sensed input and soil conservation service-curve Aldakheel Y. Y. ( 2011): Assessing NDVI spatial number model. Current Science, 95 (11): pattern as related to irrigation and soil 1580-1587 salinity management in Al-Hassa Oasis, Gupta R. P. (1991): Remote Sensing Geology, I Saudi Arabia, The Journal of Indian Society Edn, Springer-Verlag, Newyork of Remote Sensing, 39(2): 171-180; DOI 10.1007/s 12524-010-0057-z Hunt, W. F. (1977): A Simulation model for decomposition in grassland. Ecology, Ashbindhu S. (1989): Digital change detection 58:469-484 techniques using remotely sensed data. Jensen J. R. (1996): Introductory Digital Image International Journal of Remote Sensing, Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective. 10(6):989-1003 Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 179 and 316 Bartholome E. (2006, Ed): VGT4Africa User Jomaa I. and Kheir R. B. C. (2005): Multi- Manual (I Edn), No. EUR 22344 EN. temporal unsupervised classification and Prepared by Joint Research Centre and NDVI to monitor land cover change in Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Lebannon, Options Mediterraneennes- European Commission, Italy: 98-101 (for series B(No 46), Environment Monitoring ready reference, see http:// europa.eu.int) in the South-East Mediterranean Region Champion H. G. and Seth S. K. (1968): A Revised Using RS/GIS techniques. Downloaded Survey of Forest Types of India. Manager of from http://ressources.ciheam.org/om/pdf/ Publications, Government of India, Nasik b46/00800525.pdf, on 12. 06. 2011 De Fries R., Hansen M. and Townshend J. Mc Call D. G. and Bishop-Hurley G. J. (2003): (1995): Global Discrimination of land A pasture growth model for use in a whole cover types from matrices derived from farming dairy production model. Agriculture AVHRR pathfinder data. Remote Sensing Systems, 76(3):1183-1205 Environment, 54: 209-222 Mukherjee A. P. and Banerjee D. M. (2005): Dewit C. T., Browner R. and Vries F. W. T. P. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (1969): the simulation of Photosynthesis (NDVI) Analysis-Use of vegetation Health as Ground water Indicator, the systems:I-models and methods, Vision RI Viewpoint website, http:// Proceedings, IPB/PP technical Meeting, www.visionriviewpoint.com/article. Pudoc, Wageningen asp?articlied=53downloaded on 3.3.2011. Eidenshink J. C. and Faundeen J. L. (1994): the NBSS & LUP (2004): Soil Series of Nagaland, 1-Km AVHRR global land data set- first Technical Bulletin, NBSS Publication-109, stage in implementation. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 15 (17): 3443- National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land 3462 Use Planning, Nagpur. 79-82 Gupta P. K. and Panigrahy S. (2008): Predicting Pandya M.M., Singh R. P., Chaudhari K.N., the spatio-temporal variation of runoff Murali K. R. and Kirankumar A. S. (2007):

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 57 Spectral Characteristics of sensors onboard Su Z. (2000): Remote Sensing of Land Use and IRS-1D and P6 satellites: Estimation and Vegetation for Meso-scale Hydrological their influence on surface reflectance and studies, International Journal of Remote NDVI, The Journal of Indian Society of Sensing, 21(2): 213-233 Remote Sensing, 35(4): 333- 350 Thapa P. (2004): Land Resource Evaluation Panigrahy S. Ray S.S., Sood A. P., Sharma P. K. for Land Use Planning of Mawkynrew C. and Parihar J. S.(2003): Cropping System &R.D. Block, East Khasi Hills Meghalaya. Analysis of Punjab State Using Remote Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Sensing and GIS- Scientific Note. RSAM/ Geography, North Eastern Hill University, SAC/CS/SN04/2003, Space Application Shillong: 120-149 Centre, Ahmedabad Upadhyay G. Ray S. S. And Panigrahy S. (2008): Ricotta C. Avena G. and Palma A. De (1999): Derivation of crop phonological parameters Mapping and monitoring net primary using multi-Date SPOT-VGT-NDVI data a productivity with AVHRR- NDVI time case study for Punjab, The Journal of Indian series: Statistical equivalence of cumulative Society of Remote Sensing, 36(1): 37-50 vegetation Indices. ISPRS, Journal of Uma Shankar (1991). Nutrient cycling in Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 54: degraded ecosystems (grasslands) of 325-331 Meghalaya. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Singh S. Sharma B. and Dey P. P. (2006): North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong. Predicting simmer rice yield based on Uma Shankar, Pandey, H. N. and Tripathi, R. S. biological and technological parameters of (1993). Phytomass dynamics and primary monsoon lands of Brahmaputra valley, India, productivity in humid grasslands along International Agricultural Engineering altitudinal and rainfall gradients. Acta Journal, 15 (2-3): 91-107 Oecologica 14(2): 197-209. Singh. S., Starkel L. and Syiemlieh H.J. ( 2010): Bendanginla, Land Degradation and Ecorestoration in Surendra Singh* the Extremely Wet Monsoon Environment Hiambok Jones Syiemlieh of Cherrapunji Area, India, Bookwell Department of Geography Publications, New Delhi: 48-50 North- Eastern Hill University Statistical Handbook of Nagaland (2004): Shillong Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Corresponding Author Government of Nagaland, Kohima

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1=Areas above 1600 m a.s.l., 2= Areas of 900 to 1600 m a.s.l. , 3= Study Area Fig.-1: Dikhu River Catchment in its Regional Surroundings (See page 47 for text) A B

Fig-2A: Elevation Map: 1= 150-600m, 2= 600-1000m, 3= 1000-1400m, 4= 1400-1800m, and 5= 1800-2200 m Fig-2B: Slope Map: 1- Very gentle and gentle slope (0-8%), 2- Moderate and Moderately Strong (8-16%), 3- Strong and Very Strong (16-24%), 4- Highly Strong (24-32%) and 5- Steep Slopes and Cliffs (above 32%) (See page 47 for text)

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 59 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers

Fig.4: Greeness Cover distribution:

Non-Vegetation Cover (<0), Stressed Vegetation (0.0-0.40),

Normal Vegetation greeness Cover (0.40-0.70), Dense vegetation (0.70-0.90),

Very Dense Vegetative Cover of high intensity of its greeness (0.9-1.0) (See page 52 for text)

60 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers

Fig.2 : Consistency in the seats won by the BJP: 1989-2004 (See page 66 for text)

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 61 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers

Fig.3 : Consistency in the seats won (in number of time) by the BJP: 1989-2004 (See page 66 for text)

62 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Trends and patterns of seats Won by the BJP in Indian Parliamentary Elections (1984-2004): A Geographical Analysis

Kiran Bala and Sachinder Singh, Rohtak Haryana Abstract The paper analyses the trends and patterns of seats won by the BJP in Indian parliamentary elections (1984-2004) which examines the geographical spread of the party. The constituency-wise analysis of the seats won by the BJP reveals that the main supporting area of the party was North India in general and Hindi Speaking States in particular. Outside this region, the state of Gujarat has emerged the key state for the party. The party performed appreciably well in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Recently the party also has shown its presence in North-Eastern States and in Orissa. Key Words: 'Indian Parliamentary elections', BJP, Hindu Nationalism, Secular Nationalism

Introduction members as members of the party and that Among the many Indian political parties of the R.S.S. (Rashtriya Swayamsevak claiming to uphold Hindu nationalism, the Sangh) in the Janata 2 regime was the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) is the most deciding factor behind the establishment significant one in the contemporary political of BJP as an independent party. With its scene. As a concept, Hindu nationalism new incarnation as Bharatiya Janata Party has been defined as a feeling of pride in (BJP) from Bharatiya Jana Sangh, entered the ancient glory of the Hindu culture and into the mainstream of Indian politics and tradition. Although as a concept, Hindu is continuing up till now. Taking the whole nationalism is centuries old but the scale span of period (1984 to 2004), it would not at which it has been aligned with politics be wrong to say that its electoral gains were is a new phenomenon in Indian politics. At highly considerable. present the BJP is the main articulator of this conception. Over the period of time, Methodology this party has become one of the largest The detailed constituency level analysis of political parties in the country, challenging seats won for the BJP has been carried out the Indian National Congress which for seven parliamentary elections, spanning uphold a form of secular nationalism and over 20 years of Indian politics—1984, held sway over the Indian politics for a 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998, 1999 and 2004. long period. The controversy over the dual The spatial patterns of seats won by the party membership of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh are examined at the unit of parliamentary constituency with the help of tables and (120 seats), 1996 (161 seats) and 1998 maps for the selected seven parliamentary (182 seats). In 1999, the party seats tally elections. Wherever required such patterns was similar to that of 1998 election (i.e. are also examined at the unit of state and 182 seats). However, in 2004, the party had region for testing the regional character experienced a loss of 44 seats. of the party. Among the cartographic In terms of seats won, the party was techniques, choropleth method is used to last in the ladder of seven national political show the patterns of the party's seats won. parties in 1984. The BJP's electoral debacle Bar diagram and histogram are also used to in the 1984 parliamentary polls was indeed show the trends in seats won by the party. tragic. The party blamed the ruling party For all the elections under study, the for making clever use of the situation source of data remained the election reports “resulting from operation Blue-Star, the as published by the Election Commission ghastly assassination of Indira Gandhi and of India. bloody riots following the assassination” (Puri, Geeta, 1992). However, in the next Trends and patterns of seats won election, its position was raised to third For a political party which could win only place (85 seats) after the Congress (197 two seats in 1984, the period that followed seats) and the Janata Dal (143 seats). “The was quite astounding (Fig.1). In the next 1989 elections allowed the BJP to improve election it won 85 seats and this upward its representation throughout North India trend continued in the elections of 1991 and in Maharashtra, where its association

Fig.1 : Seats won by the BJP in Parliamentry elections: 1984-2004

64 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 with the Shiv Sena helped it to obtain in the Lok Sabha. “The party enjoyed 21, 23.7% of the vote…….” The situation was 30 and 6 seats from its pre-poll allies……. evidently much more favourable in Gujarat, Following the elections, the BJP gained the Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya support of ……the Telegu Desam Party Pradesh, where it won respectively 12 seats (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh led by Chandra out of 12, 13 out of 25, 3 out of 4 and 27 Babu Naidu- formerly a strong constituent out of 40” (Jaffrelot, C., 1996). Further in of the UF- and a few Independents, which 1991, with 120 seats it became the second added 22 seats and a slender majority in ranking party, after the Congress (232 the parliament to the BJP-led coalition” seats). The BJP's growing strength over the (Pai, Sudha, 2001). The BJP's repeated geographical space was quite noticeable in performance in 1999 elections by winning this election. “Barring Himachal Pradesh, an identical number of seats was a proof its gain was in the entire Hindi-Heartland. of renewal of the mandate for the Vajpayee There was hardly any doubt that this gain government. Studies have shown that the was largely on account of the Ram Temple BJP has become a formidable national agitation and the tirade against the so-called party within a short period. It stepped „minorityism” (Ghosh, Partha S., 1999). It into “the mantle of the Congress by trying became the largest party in 1996 (161 seats) to become an umbrella organization by and pushed the Congress to the second spot accommodating diverse cleavages and (140 seats). During this election, in the at the same time binding them with its absence of any wave in favour of the BJP, distinctive ideological cement” (Appiah, two factors were mainly responsible for its P., 2004). impressive seat gains. “First, was the ability In 2004, however, the BJP was shifted of the party to forge pre-election alliances to the second place (138 seats) by the with other parties, i.e., the Samata Party Congress (145 seats). Despite the decline in Bihar, Haryana Vikas Party in Haryana in 2004, the overall trend clearly indicates and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra. Secondly, that the BJP with the passage of time has the party also succeeded in consolidating managed to create its place among the its support among the upper castes while national political parties in the country. fracturing the votes of the OBCs” (Kantha, Parmod K., 1997). Consistency in the seats won by the BJP The party maintained its status of being The analysis on the consistency of seats the largest political party in 1998 (182 won by the BJP indicates that out of the seats) and 1999 (182 seats) also. The seat total 543 constituencies there were 248 adjustments during 1998 elections provided (249 from 1984 to 2004) constituencies the BJP with crucial seats from its allies never won by the party from 1989-2004. in regions where it formerly had no base. This indicates that the party victories The party's pre and post-election coalition were basically restricted to rest of the alliances enabled it to achieve a majority 295 constituencies. The detailed analysis

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 65 of these 295 constituencies reveals that won by the party 5 (out of 6) times and there were only 100 constituencies won the remaining 48 constituencies were won by the party 4 or more times and in 195 by the party 4 times (Fig.3) (see page 62 constituencies its victories were either 3 for fig 3). The 20 constituencies won by times or less (Fig.2) (see page 61 for fig 2). the party in all the elections (1989-2004) The generalized map shows that the include nine constituencies from Madhya constituencies where the party had won 4 Pradesh (Bhind, Damoh, Hoshangabad, or more times are from Madhya Pradesh Bhopal, Vidisha, Shajapur, Indore, Ujjain, (27), Uttar Pradesh (22), Gujarat (17), and Mandsaur), six constituencies from Rajasthan (9), Bihar (9), Maharashtra (6), Gujarat (Rajkot, Dhandhuka, Ahmednagar, Karnataka (4), Delhi (4), and Himachal Gandhinagar, Broach, and Surat), three Pradesh (2). In terms of regions, there constituencies from Rajasthan (Jaipur, were only 4 such constituencies from Bayana, and Jhalawar) and one constituency South India. On the other hand, there were each from Uttar Pradesh (Bareilly) and 73 such constituencies from the Hindi Delhi (South Delhi). In majority of the Speaking States. The 100 constituencies cases, constituencies won by the party won by the party 4 or more time include five and four times were adjacent to the 20 constituencies won by the party 6 (out constituencies won six times. of 6) times. There were 32 constituencies

Fig.4 : Region-wise distribution of seats won by the BJP in Parliamentry elections: 1984-2004

66 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Regional Analysis of the seats won by the the party wise distribution of seats won was BJP as follows: BJP (57 seats), SP (21), BSP (4) The regional analysis of the seats won by and others (3). In 2004, for comparison, it the BJP was important to test the opinion was BJP 13 seats (-44 from 1998), SP 36 people hold that the BJP is a party of North (+15), BSP 19 (+15), Others 7 (+4) and India in general and Hindi-Speaking States the Congress 10 (+10). Outside the Hindi in particular. The analysis of time series Speaking States, the party has shown its data in terms of seats won by the party signs of presence in North Eastern States has revealed that the results are not in (nil in 1989 to 4 seats in 2004). The party contravention to the general feeling of the performed consistently well in Western people (Fig.4). Barring the 1984 election States (22 seats in 1989 to 27 seats in when the party could win 2 seats only, the 2004). Among the Western States, the state share of North India in total seats won by of Gujarat has emerged as a secure area for the party. The state of Orissa has also the party remained more than 85 percent. shown its inclination towards the BJP. It was 100 percent in 1989 and more than 95 percent in 1991 and 1996. In the later elections, however, a decline was recorded Conclusion in the share of this region. The share of On the basis of various criteria used for this region was 86.59 percent in 2004. In analyzing the consistency in the seats contrast to North India, the share of South won by the BJP, the following points India has shown an increasing trend. From can be summed up: 1989, when the party could win a single seat in South India, the share of this region 1. In terms of seats won, the party was at in 2004 was 13.04 percent (18 seats). 6 The seventh spot in 1984 which rose to third analysis has shown that in the North India, place in 1989, second place in 1991. It the main supporting area for the party was became the largest political party in the Hindi Speaking States. The share of 1996 and maintained its status in 1998 this region was about 75 percent in 1989. It and 1999 also. In 2004, however, it remained more than 70 percent in 1991 and was relegated to the second spot by the 1996, thereafter, it recorded a continuous Congress; decline. It was 67.58 percent in 1998, 61.53 2. In the country about 46 percent percent in 1999 and 56.52 percent in 2004 constituencies (249) were never won by (Fig.4). This decline in the performance of the party. Of the region's total number the party in the Hindi Speaking region was of constituencies, the share of such basically associated with capturing of the constituencies for the party was 36.74 electoral space by other political parties percent in North India, 74.24 percent in Uttar Pradesh—the largest constituent in South India. It was 19.91 percent in among the Hindi-Speaking States. In 1998, the Hindi Speaking States and 70.83 out of the total 85 seats in Uttar Pradesh, percent in North-Eastern States;

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 67 3. Of the 295 constituencies won by the 7. The spatial analysis of the BJP party at different times, there were candidates as runner-up candidates 100 constituencies won 4 or more indicates that whereas in 1984 times. These include 27 constituencies when the party could win only two from Madhya Pradesh, 22 from Uttar seats, there were 102 seats where its Pradesh, 17 from Gujarat, 9 each candidates were runner-up. Of these 97 from Rajasthan and Bihar, 6 from were from North India (75 from Hindi Maharashtra, 4 each from Karnataka Speaking States) and the remaining and Delhi, and 2 from Himachal 5 from South India. The number of Pradesh; runner-up candidates was maximum 4. There were 20 constituencies won by in 2004 (i.e. 132) when the party had the party in all the six elections held experienced a loss of 44 seats from from 1989-2004. These include nine 1999 elections. Majority of the runner- constituencies from Madhya Pradesh up candidates for the party were from (Bhind, Damoh, Hoshangabad, Bhopal, North India and more specifically Vidisha, Shajapur, Indore, Ujjain, the Hindi-Speaking States. The state and Mandsaur), six constituencies wise analysis of runner-up candidates from Gujarat (Rajkot, Dhandhuka, reveals that in addition to the Hindi Ahmednagar, Gandhinagar, Broach, Speaking States and Western India, the and Surat), three constituencies party is giving stiff competition in the from Rajasthan (Jaipur, Bayana, and state of Karnataka. The party is also in Jhalawar) and one constituency each the process of creating its own space from Uttar Pradesh (Bareilly) and in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Delhi (South Delhi); Nadu, West Bengal and Assam. 5. In terms of seats won at regional level, In nutshell this can be summarized the party was at its best in North India that by all means undertaken for analyzing in general and Hindi Speaking States the electoral performance of the BJP, in particular. The share of North India it was found that the party's core area of in the total number of seats won by the strength was the Hindi-Speaking heartland. party remained more than 85 percent. From this region, the core states for the The party performance has, however, party were Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, improved in South India also. From Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar one seat in 1989, the party won 18 (Jharkhand area) and Delhi. Keeping in seats in 2004 in South India; view the party's past record in the region 6. Outside the Hindi-Speaking States, it can be generalized that the party will the party performed appreciably well continue to receive support from this region in Gujarat and shown its presence in near future also. However, it is difficult recently in North-Eastern States and in to draw the same prediction for the party Orissa; in the case of Uttar Pradesh. The reason

68 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 being that the political space of the state Refrences is sharply divided between the Congress, Appaiah, P., (2003): Hindutva: Ideology and the BJP, the Samajwadi Party and the BSP. Politics, Deep & Deep publications, New With the latter two parties having their Delhi, pp. 191-192. strong electoral bases around certain caste and religious groups, and the Congress Ghosh, Partha S. (2003): “The Congress and seriously searching for its lost electoral the BJP: Struggle for the Heartland”, ground, the space for the BJP is certainly in Mehra, Ajay K., et. al. (eds.), Political not going to be easy to maintain and extend Parties and Party Systems, Sage in the state. Publications, New Delhi, pp. 233-34. The study, however, has also revealed Jaffrelot, C., (1996): The Hindu Nationalist that through organizing various yatras, Movement and Indian Politics, Penguin agitations, making flash changes in its Books India Ltd, New Delhi, p.404. policies (putting various controversial Kantha, Parmod K., (1997): “General Elections, agendas at the back), working with different 1996-BJP Politics: Looking beyond the regional parties, the party certainly has Impasse”, Economic and Political Weekly, created space for itself beyond the Hindi Vol. XXXII, No. 48, p. 3095. Speaking States. The party has emerged Pai, Sudha, (2001): State Politics: New Dimen- as a strong electoral force in the states of sions, Shipra Publications, Delhi, p.41. Gujarat and Karnataka. In certain states its performance largely depends on the Puri, Geeta (1992): “An Exhiliarating Electoral working of its alliance with regional Experience: The BJP Overcomes Its parties‟ viz. Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Identity Crisis” in Singh, M. P. (ed.), Lok Orissa, Punjab and Haryana. The party is Sabha Elections 1989: Indian Politics in also working seriously for gaining some 1990s, Kalinga Publications, Delhi, p.138. space in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and North-Eastern States. Kiran Bala and Sachinder Singh Department of Geography, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 69

Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Inequalities in Education For All (EFA) Achievements: The state of Primary Education in selected Community Development Blocks of Assam

Harekrishna Haloi, Jnanashree Borah and Lakshyahira Datta. Guwahati, Assam

Abstract The Education For All (EFA) is a worldwide novel mission of UNESCO which is centered around six goals. While each of the six EFA goals is individually important, it is also useful to have a means of indicating progress towards EFA as a whole. The EFA Development Index (EDI), a composite of relevant indicators, provides one way of doing so at least for the four most easily quantifiable EFA goals. The present study is an attempt to examine three components of Education For All Development Index namely Universal Primary Education (UPE), Quality of Education and Gender Parity and Equality and finally to assess Primary Education EDI of four Community Development Blocks of Assam identified to represent four socio-economically backward communities namely Tea Garden Labour community, Char community, Scheduled Tribe community and Scheduled Caste community respectively. The study is based on secondary data which have been analyzed and discussed with necessary statistical techniques and inferences are drawn based on them. The EDI of the selected blocks are far below the countries average which may be related to literacy status. The situation demands a systematic approach for attaining the goal of Universal Primary Education by the socio-economically backward communities of Assam. Key Words: Education for All, Quality of education, Gender Parity and equality, C.D. Blocks, survival rates

Introduction: and inequality, improving health and Primary education is the foundation on nutrition and promoting sustained human which the development of every citizen and development led growth (World Bank-2004) the nation as a whole builts on. Widespread One of the Millennium Development education not only helps growth through Goals (MDGs) agreed in September, productivity effects, but also crucial to 2000 at a UN Summit of world leaders distribution of the gains from growth. held at Dakar is the achievement of Growth in a society in which most people universal primary school attendance for have a basic education is most likely more boys and girls; this of course, implies a pro-poor than growth in a society in which complete closing of gender gap. It also the educated are the elite few (Becker and requires a hundred per cent primary school Tomes, 1986). So, education is a powerful completion rate, that is, that all students tool for reducing poverty, unemployment, entering grade I are retained until grade 5. The movement was launched in 1990 is meant for goal 2, Adult Literacy for goal at the World Conference on Education 4, Gender Parity and equality for goal 5 for All (EFA) in Jomtein, Thailand. From and Quality of Education ( EFA Global this conference, the World Declaration Monitoring Report,2010). Out of these four on Education for All was adopted, which indicators, the Adult Literacy Rate which is stressed that education is a fundamental used as a proxy to measure progress towards human right and pushed countries to first part of goal 4 has to be avoided because strengthened their efforts to improve of its limitations. First, the adult Literacy education. The MDG couched in these Indicator being a statement about the stock terms reflects recognition of the importance of human capital is slow to change, and of basic (primary) education (Bhalotra and thus it could be argued that it is not a good Zamora, 2006). leading indicator of year by year progress. Education For all Development goals: Second, the existing data on adult literacy The Education for all (EFA) is a worldwide are not entirely satisfactory novel mission of UNESCO which is centered In order to evaluate each country’s around six goals as mentioned below: progress with regards to the EFA goals 1. Expand early childhood care, set in the Dakar Framework for action, especially for the most vulnerable UNESCO has developed the Education For and disadvantaged children. All Development Index (EFA-DI). The EDI measures four of the six EFA goals, selected 2. Provide free and compulsory on the basis of data availability. Each of four primary education for all. goals is evaluated using a specific indicator, 3. Ensuring learning and life-skills for and each component is then assigned an young people and adults. equal weight in the overall index. The 4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement EDI value for a given country is thus the in levels of adult literacy by 2015, arithmetic mean of the four indicators. specially for women. Since they are all expressed as percentages, the EDI value can vary from 0 to 100% or, 5. Achieving gender parity by 2005, when expressed as a ratio, from 0 to 1. The gender equality by 2015. higher the EDI value, the closure the country 6. Improve the quality of education. is to achieving Education For All (EFA) as While each of the six EFA goals is a whole. individually important, it is also useful to In India primary education has have a means of indicating progress towards historically been neglected by the State, with EFA as a whole. The EFA Development educational expenditure being concentrated Index (EDI), a composite of relevant on the tertiary sector (Dreze & Sen. 1995). indicator, provides one way of doing so, at Successive policy statements have pledged least for the four most easily quantifiable to initiate special measures to rectify EFA goals e.g. Universal Primary Education the historically inherited inequalities in

72 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 education that have hindered the progress The Present Study: Keeping these of some social groups such as scheduled perspectives in view, the present study Castes, scheduled Tribes and minority attempts to examine the inequalities in EFA communities As a result, there are vast along the specific problem groups in Assam inequalities in educational attainment in viz. Tea labour community, Char community, India, a remarkable degree of illiteracy Scheduled Tribe and Scheduled Caste. The coexisting with frontier research in science rationale behind delimiting the study among and technology. It calls for serious self- specific social groups menlined above is due reflection not only by the State but also to the fact that a good number of studies by professional groups and civil society have already identified the aforesaid social organizations. groups as problem areas which have special It is a constitutional obligation of the implications with regard to enrollment and ‘State’ to ensure free and compulsory dropout in primary education (Borah, 2002 ). primary education for all in India. The Tea-garden labourers are those who work constitution of free India that came into force in tea gardens, the large revenue generating in 1950, proposed to achieve the target of industry in Assam. Char community are universalization within a period of ten years. those habitant in few districts of Lower The goal, which was expected to be achieved Assam live particularly in riverine sandbars by 1960, has remained elusive even now. and mostly includes immigrants from nearby Several programmes have been initiated for countries. Scheduled Tribe means the universalisation of primary education such tribes which are recognized in the Indian as Non Formal Education (NFE), District Constitution living both in hills and plains. Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Scheduled Caste is socio-economically Total Literacy Campaign (TLC), Mid-day backward community recognized in the Meal Scheme and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan Indian Constitution living scattered in (SSA) to name a few. Assam. Assam, the most populous state of the North East India is showing her literacy rate Objectives: at 64.28 per cent, a little below the national The prime objectives of the study are to average of 65.38 per cent with a male- examine three components of Education female gap of 15.90 per cent in 2001. It has For All Development Index namely increased to 73.18% in 2011 which is also Universal Primary Education, Quality of at a slight below of national level literacy Education and Gender parity and equality rate74.04%. The male being the 78.81% and and finally to assess the EDI of the selected female 67.27 % with a gender gap of 11.54% CD blocks (Census 2011). The improvement in both the literacy and gender gap in a decade is not at satisfactory level.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 73 Study Area: that the Tea Labour community is socio- The study area comprises of four Community economically backward, they are not yet Development Blocks of Assam. These included in scheduled social group in the are Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and state. (Kar, 2007) Mayong which have been selected to The Chenga C.D. block is situated in represent four socio-economically backward the South eastern corner of Barpeta district communities namely Tea Garden Labourer, of Assam. The total population of the Char community, Scheduled Tribes and block is 76,079, inhabiting in 56 villages Scheduled Caste respectively. having a density of 461 persons per sq. km The Behali C.D.Block is situated in and 35.62% literacy rate (Census 2001). the eastern part of the Sonitpur district The area has a dominance of minority of Assam. Total population of the block Muslim community. The Char community is 79,890 inhabiting in 109 villages with is regarded as non-scheduled social group a density of 360 person per sq. km and (Kar, 2007) in Assam though they are socio- 40.96% literacy rate (Census 2001). The economically very backward. area is mostly covered by tea gardens and The Kachugaon C.D.Block is situated in hence, it is primarily dominated by the Tea the western most part of Kokrajhar district Garden labour community. Despite the fact of Assam. The total population of the block

74 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 is 2, 16,622 inhabiting in 237 villages with Discussion: a density of 435 person per sq. km and The analysis of the data and information are literacy rate of mere 32.23% ( Census 2001). discussed below: The area is predominantly inhabited by the Universal Primary Education: The Scheduled Tribe People. The Scheduled UPE goal implies both universal access to and Tribe people comprises of 32.08 per cent of universal completion of Primary Education. the total population in the block which is far The indicator selected to measure Universal above the state average of 12.41%. Primary Education achievement in the EDI is Mayong C.D. block is situated in the the total primary Net Enrolment Ratio (NER). western part of Morigaon district of middle Net Enrollment Ratio: Net Enrollment Assam. The total population of the block Ratio is the ratio of the number of children is 2, 42,147 (Census 2001) inhabiting of official school age who are enrolled in in 244 villages having a density of435 primary school to the total population of persons per sq. km and 46.46 % literacy children of official school age. This reflects rate. Among the social groups Scheduled the percentage of primary school age children Caste is the most prominent group in the who are enrolled in primary school and each block comprising of 23.08 per cent of the value varies from 0 to 100% or ratio of 0 to 1. total population which exceeds the average In order to calculate Net Enrollment scheduled caste population of the state with Ratio (NER), population from age group 6.85%. 5-9 years have been taken from Population Census 2001. Although the relevant age group of primary school from class I to Methodology IV coincides with the age group of 6-10 The study is based on secondary data. The years the non availability of data compels Census of India 2001, Population Census investigator to confine to age group of 5-9 Village Directory 2001, and Educational years. Again based on the percentage share Management and Information System of 5-9 age group of the total population (EMIS) 2007 of Sarva Siksha Abhiyan of the concerned district the Block wise (SSA), Assam have been used. population in the age group is calculated (Table 1). Data on enrolment have been Selection of four Community collected from the Education Management Development Blocks, one from each and Information System (EMIS) of SSA, district of Sonitpur, Barpeta, Kokrajhar Assam. As the enrolment data refers to 2007, and Morigaon is done that are based on the the village level population data have to be highest concentration of the respective social estimated for 2007 by employing the decadal groups, calculated on the basis of Census population growth rate. In order to maintain report 2001. Data have been analysed balance between the selected age group and and discussed with necessary statistical standard of primary education the enrolment techniques and inferences are drawn based of class I to class III have been considered. on them. The NER thus found is expressed in ratio.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 75 Table 1: Net Enrollment Ratio (NER) in different C.D.Blocks.

Population Population Population Enrollment NER Block (2001) 2007 2007(estimated) (2007) (in P.C) (in Ratio) (Estimated) 5-9 yrs age group Class I-III Behali 79890 93415 12330 7625 61.9 0.62 *13.2 Chenga 76079 88959 13272 9026 68.0 0.68 *14.92 Kachugaon 216622 253296 37589 22469 59.77 0.59 *14.84 Mayong 242147 283142 42358 28965 68.38 0.68 *14.96 Data Source: Census of India 2001, EMIS-2007 SSA, Assam *District Percentage of population of 5-9 yrs age group. It reveals that (Table-1) the 5-9 years in Chenga and Mayong Blocks are found to age group constitutes 13.2%, 14.92%, be the highest with the value of 0.68 each 14.84% and 14.96% of total population of followed by Behali and Kachugaon with Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and Mayong 0.62 and 0.59 respectively. An observation Block respectively. Based on the aforesaid at a glance gave an understanding that percentage shares populations in the age enrollment is linked to literacy level. With group of 5-9 years for the year of 2007 have highest literacy level (Table 2) Mayong been found out. The enrollment from class I shows highest NER. Kachugaon with poor to class III have been recorded and NER has literacy level shows the lowest NER. been calculated in terms of ratio. The NER Table 2 : Literacy level in the different C.D. Blocks.

No. of Level of Literacy C.D.Block village Low Below Average Above High Below 15% Average 30% - 45% Average Above 60% 15% - 30% 45% - 60% Behali 109 8 29 35 23 14 7.34% 26.61% 32.11% 21.10% 12.84% Chenga 56 7 17 11 15 3 12.5% 30.36% 19.64% 26.79% 5.36% Kachugaon 237 5 33 85 69 29 1.11% 13.92 35.86% 29.11% 12.24% Mayong 244 6 40 66 57 63 2.46% 16.39% 27.05% 23.36% 25.82% Data source: Census Report of India, 2001.

76 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Quite interestingly Chenga C.D. Block are thus two sub goals namely gender seems to displays an opposite situation. parity (achieving equal participation of Despite the poor literacy level the area shows girls and boys in primary and secondary a high NER. It may be due to implementation education) and gender equality (ensuring of Govt. special programmes for Char that educational equality exists between boys area development in addition to normal and girls). The Gender Parity Index (GPI), developmental programmes. when expressed as the ratio of females to Gender Parity and Equality: Measuring males in enrolment ratio or the literacy rate, and monitoring the broader aspects of can exceed unity when more girl/women are gender parity and equality in education is enrolled or are literate than boys/men. For difficult (EFA Global Monitoring Report, the purposes of the index, the F/M formula 2007). No such measures are available on is inverted to M/F (transformed) in cases an internationally comparable basis. Gender, where the GPI is higher than 1. To find out the fourth EDI component is measured by GEI, the primary GPI and transformed GPI a composite index, the gender specific EFA are calculated by using the aforesaid model. index (GEI). Ideally, the GEI should reflect In the present study the GPI for enrollment the whole Gender related EFA goal, which in class I-IV has been calculated using calls for eliminating gender disparity in EMIS data 2007, SSA, Assam. The literacy primary and secondary education by 2005 GPI has been worked out from population and achieving gender equality in education Census, 2001(Table 3). by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ Thus, GEI= 1/3 (primary GPI) + 1/3 full and equal access to and achievement in (transformed GPI) +1/3 (literacy GPI) primary education of good quality. There Table 3: Gender specific Index (GEI) in different C.D. Blocks.

Enrollment Literacy C.D. Block Primary GPI Transformed GPI GPI Behali 0.69 *103 0.66 *6 0.62 *109 Chenga 0.70 *53 0.64 *3 0.54 *56 Kachugaon 0.64 *229 0.49 *8 0.60 *237 Mayong 0.72 *232 0.68 *12 0.66 *244

Source: EMIS 2007, SSA, Assam. Census of India, 2001. *No. of villages

The Gender Parity Index based on GEI of Behali: enrollment and literacy has been worked 1/3(0.69) +1/3(0.66) +1/3(0.62) =0.65 out for the villages in the respective Blocks GEI of Chenga: as follows: 1/3(0.70) +1/3(0.64) +1/3(0.54) =0.62

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 77 GEI of Kachugaon: year. It, however, reveals interesting and 1/3(0.64)+1/3(0.49)+1/3(0.60)= 0.57 useful information about retaining capacity GEI of Mayong: of the system (DISE, 2007). 1/3(0.72)+1/3(0.68)+1/3(0.66)= 0.68 In the context of the present study, a As seen in table 3, the GPI in enrollment variation is seen with regard to class and stands at highest in Mayong C.D.Block gender among the selected Blocks. It is followed by Behali, Chenga and Kachugaon revealed (Table 4) that the mean enrolment with the ratio of 0.68, 0.65, 0.62 and 0.57 decreases with the increase of class level; respectively. It is clearly indicated in the table but the rate of decrease is more pronounced that although GPI in literacy is the lowest in in case of girls. As shown in the table-4 the Chenga C.D Block the GPI in enrollment the survival rate from class-I to class III shows a good picture next to the Mayong. stands at 0.68, 0.55, 0.61 and 0.75 for In case of Mayong the higher literacy may Behali, Chenga, Kachugaon and Mayong influence the higher GPI. But the situation in C.D. Block respectively. With a ratio of Chenga signifies that literacy is not playing 0.75 Mayong shows the highest survival significant role in the relatively better status rate among the selected blocks followed of GPI in enrollment (Table 2). Here also, by Behali with a value of 0.68 in class III.. implementation of Government special In case of girls enrollment both Mayong programmes for Char area development and Behali displayed a satisfactory level seems to play a positive role. of survival rate compared to the other Quality of Education: Among the blocks. Chenga C.D.Block representing the feasible proxy indicators available for a large Char community shows the worst survival number of countries, the survival rate to grade rate being the 0.55 in both girls and boys 5 was selected as being the best available for enrollment. Kachugaon C.D.Block with the quality of education component of the 0.61 shows a little high of survival rate EDI (EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2010). than the Chenga. While calculating the Survival Rate: The grade specific Class IV enrolment with that of Class I it enrollment over a period of five years are is found that the former occupies 61.01%, considered in estimating the retention or 53.11%, 57.96% and 71.12% of the later survival rate at the primary level and it gives for Behali, Chenga, Kachugao, Mayong a fairly good information about retaining blocks respectively. The picture with regard capacity of the education system. In this to Chenga C.D.Block is in fact a grey one study Apparent Survival Rate (ASR) has where Class-IV occupies relatively a lesser been used. The Apparent Survival Rate percentage share of Class I i.e. 53.11%. worked out here presents the share of The enrolment stands at a mean of 17.51 enrolment in Class-II and subsequent Classes in class I of Behali Block, decreases to a in relation to the enrolment in Class-I in a mean of 14.38, 12.16, and10.7 at class II, year. The rate is considered crude as it is III, & IV respectively. In case of Chenga based upon the enrolment data of only one Block the enrolment stands at a mean of

78 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 33.17 in class I and Culminates at 17.61 in Education For All Development class IV. Likewise the mean enrolment of Index: By summing up the three components class I of Kachugaon and Mayong Blocks of EDI namely Net Enrollment Rate, Gender starts at 19.96 and 23.76 and ends in class Specific index and Survival Rate in terms of IV at 11.58 and 16.9. The rate of decrease ratio the EDI for the selected C.D. Blocks is more pronounced in Chenga followed have been found out as follows: by Behali. The situation of Kachugaon and EDI= 1/3(total Primary NER) +1/3(GEI) Mayong are also very disappointing. It is +1/3(Survival rate to grade III) apprehended that the decreasing record of enrolment by increase of class level, which EDI Behali 1/3(0.62) +1/3(0.65) led to a low retention of students at the end +1/3(0.68) = 0.65 of the primary schooling may incorporate EDI Chenga: 1/3(0.68) +1/3(0.62) the dropout. However, further study in +1/3(0.55) = 0.62 this area covering wider dimension is of EDI Kachugaon: 1/3(0.59) +1/3(0.57) paramount importance. Table 4 also shows +1/3(0.61) = 0.59 the percentage of the class IV enrolment compared to the enrolment of class I. EDI Mayong: 1/3(0.68) +1/3(0.68) Accordingly the rates are 61.11% for Behali, +1/3(0.75) = 0.70 53.09% for Chenga, 58.02% for Kachugaon and 74.12% for Mayong.

Table 5: EDI in the sampled blocks

C.D. Block Total Primary NER Gender specific Survival Rate to EDI EFA Index (GEI) grade III Behali 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.65 Chenga 0.68 0.62 0.55 0.62 Kachugaon 0.59 0.57 0.61 0.59 Mayong 0.68 0.68 0.78 0.70 Data sources: Census of India 2001, EMIS 2007, SSA (Assam)

It is revealed (table-5) that the EDI Behali shows somehow a good EDI due to is found to be the highest in Mayong CD its Improved GEI and Survival rate. The block with a value of 0.70 representing Scheduled Tribes dominated Kachugaon Scheduled Caste Population where all CD Block shows the poorest level of EDI the three components of EDI namely Net with an index of 0.59 followed by Char Enrollment Rate (NER), Gender specific community dominated block Chenga with index (GEI) and survival rate are found to be 0.62. Here if we look in to the literacy scene highest compared to the other C.D.Blocks. (Table 2), the Mayong block has claimed

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 79 comparatively satisfactory level in literacy. as calculated by UNESCO (EFA Global On the contrary the Kachugaon and Chenga Monitoring Report, 2010). As stated in the blocks displayed a dismal picture with Report, India lags far behind in the global large number of villages fall in the range context occupying 105th rank in EDI among of 30%-45% and15%-30% literacy rates 125 countries in the world which falls under respectively. In case of Chenga due to the the category of Low EDI country. However, poorest survival rate the EDI remains only at as against four parameters adopted in the 0.62. While comparing the present findings UNESCO’s report, the present exercise at the national context it is seen that all these could consider only three of the selected four C.D. blocks are placed far behind the parameters which stands as a limitation of country’s EDI which stands at 0.77 (in 2007) the study.

Fig 2: Education For All Development Index in different C.D. blocks.

Conclusion From the above analysis inferences can interestingly, the EDI stands at a relatively be drawn that literacy have a positive role better state with 0.62 in Chenga due to the in achieving Education For All. However, high NER and GEI. But the survival rate in the Char areas represented by Chenga which is the another important criteria for C.D.Block, shows a different picture where assessing the achievement of Universal literacy is not the determining factor for EDI. Primary Education is far below than that Implementation of special developmental of the other C.D.Blocks. That is why programmes for Char areas development the positive impact of developmental may be cited as determining factor for programmes is acutely challenged by the relatively improved NER scenario. Quite poor survival rate and literacy.

80 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Keeping aside the special situation of from District Mission Co ordinators of the Char area, the literacy rate being the Morigaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta and Kokrajhar governing factor for achieving Universal districts of Assam. Primary Education goal must be improved • Enrollment-Based Indicators Part IV, irrespective of any social groups. In such a Elementary Education in India: Analytical situation it is imperative that the identified Report, Part V, DISE 2007.pp 119-131 social groups need a systematic approach to attain the goal of Universal Primary • Elementary Education in India: Education. Progress towards UEE: DISE Flash Statistics;2006-2007 • Educational Development Index, Bibliography Elementary Education in India: Analytical • Annual Report of DPEP 1999-2000, District Report- Part V (2006-07) pp 170. DISE Primary Education Programme, Guwahati, • Gohain. M and Borah. J. (2004) Girl Assam, pp.10-21 Child, Primary Education and Women • Assam at a glance, 2001 Published by Empowerment: A Case Study on Tea Garden Directorate of Census Operations, Assam. Community. Education for the Survival • Bhalotra.S. and Z.Bernarda (2006)., of Human Race, Vol. 2 ed.Bhagabati.N. Primary Education in India, Research Paper and Talesra.H.: Authors Press, Laxmi No.2006/80, UNO-WIDER.pp 1-11 Nagar,Delhi-110092. pp 543-572. • Borah. J., (2002): A Comparative Study • G.Becker and N.Tomes (1986), Human Level of Students of Different Communities Capital and the rise and fall of families, using same tools for all and to identify the Journal of Labor Economics, 4, S1-S39. major causes of difference in Achievement, • J.C.Aggarwal, (2008) Educational Reforms irrespective of Different Communities, A in India (for the 21st Century), Third DPEP Project Report. Revised Edition,2008,Published by Shipra • Census of India, 2001. Publications, Dehli.pp10-16. • Dreze. J and .Sen. (1995) India: Development • Jayashree Nanda,( 2007) Education for All, and participation, Oxford University Press, A. P. H. Publishing Corporation, New Dehli. Delhi pp 113-123 • Education For All Global Monitoring • Kar.B.K.(2007), Population ,Geography of Report, (2007) UNESCO pp 244 – 251 Assam, Rajesh Publications. New Delhi. • Education For All Global Monitoring pp 115-154. Report, (2010) UNESCO pp 278 – 291 • Lynden. Biloris., and De. Utpal Kumar, • Educational Management and Information ed., (2004). Education in North East Systems (EMIS) 2007, Sarva Siksha India-Challenge and Experience, Concept Abhiyan, Assam, Guwahat and EMIS data Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 81 • Statistical Hand Book of Assam 2011, Published by Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Assam. • World Bank (2004), Attaining the Millenium Development Goals in India: Role of Public Policy and Service Delivery: Human Development Unit, South Asia Region, June. Harekrishna Haloi Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Pub Kamrup College, Baihata Chariali, Kamrup (Assam). Email: [email protected] Dr. Jnanashree Borah Associate Professor, Department of Geography, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati-16 Email: [email protected] Dr. Lakshyahira Datta Professor (Retd.) Department of Gegraphy, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781 014.

82 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Agricultural perspectives and its impact on soil and groundwater A Case study of Bibipur Village, Yamunanagar, Haryana

Daljit Kaur Sandhu and Ms. Krishna Kaushik, Yamunanagar, Haryana

Abstract Over the last 20 years, major changes have occurred in agricultural activities - cropping patterns, crop combination and land use in Bibipur village of Yamunanagar district. Due to expansion of ply board industries in the region the area under wheat and rice has been replaced by new crop named Poplar (tree). The crop combination of the village i.e.sugarcane-wheat- rice in 1990-1992 has been replaced by sugarcane-wheat-poplar in 2010-2012.Increasing cropping intensity has experienced a change in accordance with decline in waterlogged area. In fact, sugarcane is water demanding crop but the groundwater has not depleted due to the location of village along Yamuna River. In this village shallow water is not suitable for drinking purpose from last few years due to the excess use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides in the agricultural field and the leaching of contaminated water of Yamunanagar city and industrial waste in Yamuna River. In shallow ground water conductivity and TDS is high and turbidity and DO is low from the normal values. The village has sandy and silty loam soil with low organic carbon, phosphors, sulpher and medium potash contents. Key Words: Crop pattern, crop combination, crop intensity, soil, ground water.

Introduction in study area and the potential for raising Bibipur village is located at 30°7’30” north the yield nearly exhausted in many crops latitude and 77°23’16” east longitudes with and regions, stepping up of the incidence an area of 255 hectares in Jagadhari block of multiple cropping will be necessary to of Yamunanagar district in Haryana. It is augment agricultural production (Hayami approximately 10 kilometers from Jagadhari et al, 1971). Both human and environmental towards east. Bibipur village is dominated factors contributed to the intensification by Muslim population. process and changing cropping patterns Agricultural development is an remain central to it (Ali, 1987). Expansion of interlinked process of agro climatic new crops will change the existing cropping condition, implementation of modern inputs patterns and increase total agricultural in farming related to high yielding varities output although productivity per agricultural of seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, worker may tend to decline as more and herbicides, pesticides and irrigation. The more family labourers would engage in scope for expanding the net sown area farming (Brush and Turner, 1987; Grigg having already reached a saturation level 1982). Objectives The results of Groundwater qualities 1. To examine the change in land use and (pH, Conductivity, TDS (Total Dissolve cropping pattern in the village since Solution), Turbidity and D.O (Dissolve 1990-1992 and 2010-2012. Oxygen) are self-tested by the researcher in the college department lab with the help 2. To analyze the spatial pattern of crop of Deluxe Water and Soil Analysis Kit combination in 1990-1992 and 2010- Model 172. Doi’s technique is used for crop 2012 in Kharif and Rabi season. combination. 3. To study the physical and chemical properties of the soil in Bibipur village Land use of Bibipur village in Yamunanagar district. Spatial pattern of land use in Bibipur village, 4. To analyze the quality and depth of net sown area since 1990-1992 to 2010- ground water (shallow and deep water) 2012 has been increased by 24 per cent by of Bibipur village in Yamunanagar declining water logged area in the study district. area. The waterlogged area has decreased by 25.06 per cent over the period of 1990- Data Base and Methodology 1992 to 2010-2012. Area sown more than The study is based on primary and secondary once has increased by 31 hectares from data. The secondary data has been taken 1990-1992 to 2010-2012. Land not available from khasra girdawari 1990 -1992 and 2010 for cultivation is also increased by 15.03 – 2012. The primary data is collected by per cent during 1990-1992 to 2010- 2012. personal contact with the farmers. Soil test Fallow land has enhanced by 0.39 per cent result has been taken from soil testing lab since 1990-1992 to 2010-2012. of Agriculture Department, Yamunanagar.

Table 1.1 LandUse of Study Area(Hectares) 1990- 1992and 2010-2012 (Percentages are given in bracket) Years Geographical Land not Water Fallow Net sown Area Total Area available Logged land area sown cropped for area more area cultivation than Once 1990-1992 255 78 84 0.5 92.5 (36.27) 79 171.5 (30.58) (32.9) (0.19) 2010-2012 255 117 20 1.5 116.5 110 226.5 (45.88) (7.84) (0.58) (45.68)

84 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 85 Changing Cropping pattern and crop- Cropping Intensity combination during 1990 – 1992 Cropping intensity of the study area has Sugarcane-wheat-Rice was crop combination been increased by 185.40 to 194.42 per cent designated in the study area by Doi’s from 1990-1992 to 2010-2012 respectively. techniques. Sugarcane was main crop in It is increased by 9.02 per cent. It is due 1990-1992 and covered 41.54 percentage of to increasing in the cultivated land and the total cropped area in 1990-1992 (Table declining in the waterlogged area in the no 1.2). Wheat was next highest crop in study area. Single cropped area was 34.97 1990-1992 and covered 28.12 percentage in 1990-1992 and double cropped area is of total cropped area, and followed by rice 64.83 per cent per cent in 2010 - 2012 (fig. in 1990-1992 (16.72 percent). Next it was 5). There is decrease in single cropped area fodder crop. Pulses, vegetable (methi), by 1.16 per cent in 2010-2012 and double oilseeds, garlic and potatoes were the cropped area is increased by 0.91 per cent other minor crops and covered the 13.62 in 2010-2012 (fig 6). percentage of the total arable land (fig.1 and 2). Results of soil and Ground water In the study area pH and EC are (Normal), Changing Cropping pattern and crop- OC, Sulpher and Phosphorous are (Low) combination during 2010 – 2012 and Potash is medium in soil. The results of In 2010- 12 three crop combination i.e. deep ground water have been recorded that sugarcane-wheat- poplar is designated in is pH 7.89 pH (normal), conductivity 0.49 the study area. Rice crop is replaced by mS (0.8 mS normal), TDS (Total dissolved poplar trees. Sugarcane is major dominant solvent) 0.31ppt (0.20ppt normal), turbidity crop and covered 48.63 percentage of the zero ntu (0 -2 ntu normal) and DO (Dissolve area (Table No 1.2). The area under Wheat oxygen) 5 ppm (5-8 ppm normal). In the crop decreased from 28.12 to 18.84 per cent ground wa ter TDS is high. The deep in 1990-1992 to 2010-2012 respectively. water is fine for drinking and agricultural In 2010-2012 the area under rice crop has purposes. The results of shallow ground decreased by 10.8 per cent and it is not water have been recorded i.e. pH 7.21 included in crop combination. Therefore, conductivity 1.16 mS, TDS 0.74 ppt, in 2010-2012 poplar trees is considered as turbidity zero ntu and DO 4.8ppm. Only a dominant crop and covered 15.50 per cent pH is normal in shallow water, conductivity of the total cropped area, it is also grown and TDS are high, DO low and turbidity is with the combination of wheat - poplar, normal. Thus the shallow water is not good haldi-poplar and fodder- poplar. Pulses, for drinking. It is usable for irrigation and garlic, oilseeds are the other minor crops. washing purposes. These crops cover 1.36 per cent of the area. An arable land increased by 9.41 per cent in 2010-2012 from 1990-1992. (fig.3 and 4).

86 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Table 1.2 Cropland occupancy as percentage of Total Cropped Area Crops 1990-1992 2010-2012 Change from 1990-1992 to 2010-2012 Kharif Rice 16.72 5.92 -10.8 Sugarcane 41.54 48.63 +7.09 Fodder 8.08 4.10 -3.98 Haldi -- 0.30 +0.30 Poplar -- 8.21 +8.21 Rabi Wheat 28.12 18.84 -9.28 Wheat- Poplar -- 2.9 +2.9 Pulses 1.83 0.91 -0.92 Fodder 2.20 2.43 +0.23 Potato 0.18 -- -0.18 Haldi -- 0.31 +0.31 Vegetables 0.55 -- -0.55 Oilseeds 0.39 0.15 -0.24 Garlic 0.39 -- -0.39 Poplar -- 7.3 +7.3 Volume of change in 100 100 ± 26.34 cropping pattern

Table 1.3 Distribution of Land Holding Size Size of Holdings (Acres) Percentage Marginal size of holding Below 2.5 57.14

Small size of holding 2.5– 5.00 33.33 Medium size of holding 5.00– 15.00 9.52

Large size of holding More than 15.00 Nil

Land size Cropping pattern according to size of In sample village 57.14 per cent area is holding cultivated by marginal farmers, 33.33 per In marginal size of holding, farmers have cent by small farmers and 9.52 per cent sown all type of crops rather than in small area is cultivated by medium farmers. Large and medium size of holding (Table 1.4). size of holding is absent in the study area Pulses is absent in small and medium size (table 1.3). of holding.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 87 Table1.4 Distribution of crops in Different size of Holding Crops Marginal size of holding Small size of holding Medium size of holding Sugarcane 19.64 21.62 20 Wheat 26.78 21.62 20 Rice 26.78 18.91 20 Fodder 14.28 18.91 20 Pulses 1.78 -- -- Poplar 10.71 18.91 20 Values in percentage

Conclusion their leaves in winter season as a result rabi Over the last 20 years, major changes crops (wheat etc.) will receive good sunshine have occurred in agricultural activities - for the growth of plants. The soil will also get cropping patterns, crop combination and enriched by the decomposition of the leaves. land use in Bibipur village in Yamunanagar Poplar trees will help in storing the irrigated district. Expansion of new crop (poplar water due to the spreading of fallen leaves on tree) has changed the existing cropping the agricultural field. Moreover, poplar trees pattern. Poplar trees are also grown with the will mature within 4-5 years. The wood of combination of rabi crops. Due to its eco- poplar will be ready for plyboard industries friendly nature with other crops, they shelter in the region. Farmers attain more profit and

88 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 feel comfort with the cultivation of poplar Jana, M.M. (1987): “Cropping Patterns in West trees. Cropping intensity has increased. Bengal”, Geographical Review of India, Single cropped area has decreased whereas Vol.49, No. 3, pp.13 – 22. double cropped area has increased therefore Sharma, T.C. (1997): “Trend in Cropping multiple cropping system is popular in the Intensity in Karnataka: A Regional Profile”, village. Net cropped area has increased Transactions of the Institute of Indian steadily with the corresponding decline in Geographers, Vol.19, No. 1, pp.17 -30. waterlogged area. Singh, Jasbir and Dhillon, S. S. (2004): Reference “Agricultural Geography”, Tata McGraw Ali, Abu Muhammad Shajaat (2002): “An – Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Ecological Explanation of Recent Changes Delhi. in Cropping Patterns in Bangladesh”, Singh, Jasbir and Kaur, D. (1990) : “Fluctuations National Geographical Journal of India, Vol. in ground water table and its impact on crop 48, pp.77-90. intensity/ cropping pattern in Jagadhri Tehsil Basu, Swapna (1984): “Impact of D. V. C. (Ambala District)”, Unpublished M.Phil.. Irrigation in Changing the Landuse and Dissertation. Cropping Pattern of the Lower Damoder Sharma, Vijay Kumar and Kaur, D. (2007): Valley”, Geographical Review of India, “Groundwater and Agricultural Vol.46, No. 1, pp.70 – 78. Development in North Eastern Haryana Carlyle, William J (2002): “Cropping patterns (1970 – 2003)”, UnpublishedPh.D. thesis. in the Canadian Prairies: thirty years of change”, The Geographical Journal, Vol. Dr. Daljit Kaur Sandhu 168, No. 2, pp. 97 – 115. (Associate professor)

De Lisle, D. de G. (1982) : “ Effects of Distance Ms. Krishna Kaushik on Cropping Patterns Internal to the Farm”, (Research fellow) Annals of the association of American Guru Nanak Khalsa College, Geographers, Vol. 72, No. 1, pp. 88- 98. Yamunanagar, Haryana

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Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Spatial Variation of Women’s Development in Varanasi city

Sabina Bano and Aanad Prasad Mishra; Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Abstract Development is a human centered process. People are both the ends and the means in the process. Human resource development applies equally to both women and men. Women play an equal role even in sustainability of development throughout the world. But the fruits of development are distributed unequally among males and females. The process of their (women) marginalization is evolved through excluding them from certain functions, by confining their roles and responsibilities in certain spheres and by not recognizing their works. This gender discrimination severely limits the expansion and utilization of women’s capabilities. This has critical implications for the development process, the society, half of which are women. Even the fruit of development is unevenly distributed among women according to region. This paper is an attempt to measure the spatial variation of women’s development in Varanasi city. Key words : Women Development Index (WDI), Female literacy, Standard of living, Health and Nutritional status

Introduction Although the principle of equality of Women constitute about half of the world’s men and women was recognized as early total population, but still equality of women as 1945 in the UN charter, and in the UN is not fully recognized. Their position and declaration of Human Rights of 1948, status have been inferior to male members several researchers have pointed out that of the society. India is a region of striking development planners worked on the socio-economic and cultural diversity with assumption that what would benefit one wide variations. Due to the development section of society (especially man) would of patriarchal society women have become trickle down to other (women) and that a weaker section, her functions have been they did not need to fully address women’s neglected to more procreation and attending position in the process of development. to household chores. She has become a This orientation in policy framework target of social and economic exploitation. ignores about the specific benefit of women This gender discrimination severely limits population. the expansion and utilization of human Early writings in the 1970, were informed capabilities in women and it has been critical by liberal feminism, their goal was to make implication for ‘development’. women visible in the development process. One of the early books which broke the development policies on women sees them silence about women was Easter Boserup’s as objects, rather than agents of change. Until (1970) Women's Role in Economic quite recently, it was generally believed that Development pointed out that early economic growth and development was a development models not only overlooked sufficient condition for an improvement in women’s contributions but also devised women’s social position. Such an approach, projects that were frequently harmful to which is derived from Mydral’s ‘trickle women. Boserup’s work has been criticized down’ theory of development, denies the for ignoring women’s reproductive role unequal power relationships which exist as well as hierarchal gender relations between people of different caste, races, and that uphold women’s subordination more classes and between men and women. Even generally in parts of the world (Beneria Human Resource Development (UNDP- and Sen, 1986). Her initiation succeeded HDR-2001) talks about energies, skills, in making women visible and stimulated talent and knowledge of peoples, which calls for women to be integrated into the are or should be applied to the production development process. of goods or in rendering of useful services In 1984, a cooperative of feminist come under the assessment of human scholars- practitioners in the Women and resources then what about those women who Geography Study Group of the Institute of are engaged in household chores throughout British Geographers published "Geography their life. Where will they stand in respect and Gender" (Women and Geography Study of such definition? Group 1984). This followed surveys on The 20th century, probably, is one which research on women in geography (Monk has experienced the most trouble in defining and Hanson 1982; Zelinsky, Monk, and the role of a person as male/female. Judith Hanson 1982). According to Women and Butler (1990) has completely changed the Study Group (1997). The group advocated direction of women’s studies, through her change not simply by adding women to most influential work, which published as geography, but by developing “an entirely book entitled, ‘Gender Trouble’ (1990). different approach to geography as a Early only scholars confined to think of whole”. Looking back at the modernization differences between men and women as approach, Parpart (1993) finds that, “if Third being innate and immutable. World women were considered at all, they Raju and Bagchi (1994) contributed were typically regarded as an impediment to significantly in the emerging field of modernity and development”. Neocolonial gender study. They integrate different discourse represented Third World women scales of analysis and combines economic as ‘exotic specimens’, as oppressed victims, explanations with local dimensions such as as sex objects, or as the most ignorant and religion, culture, and societal constraints on backward members of backward societies. gender roles in South Asian countries. In Discussion about the impact of another study done by Mei-Po Kwan (1999)

92 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 conceptualizes individual (male/female) paper is an attempt to discuss the regional accessibility as space-time feasibility and variation of development among women provides formulations of accessibility living in Varanasi city. measures based on the space-time prism construct. Hapke (2000) demonstrates that Study Area how particular ideologies of gender and Varanasi ‘The Sacred City’ has acquired great work associated with different caste/ religion importance at national and global level. The influence the strategies individual household extent of the city touches Banaras Hindu adopts. Productive and reproductive age University in south and its western and north group of women in urban area not only western part mostly surrounded by villages support her family even contribute in various and agricultural land. Varanasi as it is now aspects to make them stand. officially known is a major trade centre Treas and Drobnaic (2010) leading of Purvanchal (Eastern Uttar Pradesh and international scholars tried to investigate Western Bihar). In the process of growth, the how culture and country specific social city metropolitan due to its residing people features influence our household and mostly from different corner of international personal lives. Keeping such feedbacks this boundary. Recently, many cultural events

Fig. 1

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 93 have been revived, which attracts tourists Data and Methodology in various ways and justified the multi- Present work is an outcome of intensive culturism in Indian society. Actually, Varanasi field work. This study has tried to cover reported as a cultural capital of India, and three variables which indicate the index its significance is quite visible among the of development of women. The first one is tourists, scholars and philosophers. City is literacy of women, second one is dealing located along the left crescent shaped bank of with standard of living of women assessed the Ganga River. It extends between 25° 15´ by their working status, decision making to 25° 22´ N latitudes and 82° 57´ to 83°01´ capacity, material possession and monthly E longitudes, covering an area of 74.3 sq.km per capita income. The last and third one (according to MCA). talks about their health and nutritional The city lies between the Varuna river in status under various headings such as age the north and Assi river (now converted into at marriage, age at the birth of first child, Nala) in the south. (fig.1) The city is situated number of children, delivery place of the in the middle Ganga plain having sub humid last child, Body Mass Index, intake of climate with scorching hot summers and dry Kcal, protein, calcium, and iron. These winters. Varanasi enjoys moderate climate variables generated through questionnaire with normal temperature ranging between based survey of 600 respondents. These 32º C and 46º C. Average rainfall is 1114 respondents were taken from 18 wards mm which occurs mostly in the months of Varanasi city considering the level of of July, August and September. Because gender disparity on the basis of male- female of cultural aesthetic it happens to be the differential in literacy, workforce, main first choice of residence in and around city. According to 2001 census, the population workers, as well as overall and child sex- of the city is 10, 91, 918 persons including ratio based on purposive sampling. Index 48 per cent of female population. It consists value has been calculated across the wards of 90 municipal wards. The average female for individual variable and finally composite population density is more than 6000 females index is developed to measure the spatial per sq. km. Sex ratio is 876 which is far variation in development. behind the national average i.e. 933 in 2001. Women Development Index (WDI) Objectives WDI (Women Development Index) is The present study has been undertaken with computed with the help of three basic the following major objectives dimensions of women development. However, • to measure the spatial development the data for the prescribed indicators in of women across sample wards UNDP’s methodology was not available at ward level. Hence, substitutes of those indices • to assess the factors responsible for the substantial variation in are used to develop the variables of WDI and development of women. substitutes are-

94 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 1. A long healthy life as measured by indices. The indicators are made scale free health and nutritional status of women unit (between 0 and 1) by applying following across sample wards formula. 2. Knowledge as female literacy across Iij=Xij-min Xij/ max Xij-minXij sample wards and where, Iij is the factor score for the 3. A decent standard of living , as measured jth ward with respect to ith variable. Xij is by availability of assets to enhance the the actual value for selected indicator for women comfort in household and allied the Jth ward and Min Xij and Max Xij are functions the minimum and maximum goal posts/ However, the data for the prescribed values selected for the indicator. There is indicators in UNDP’s methodology was not however, danger in the choice of maximum available at ward wise level. Hence authors and minimum goal posts as they can be have used substitutes of those indicators. subjective and change over time. Hence, For example, data on income or expenditure these goal posts are selected on the basis was not available therefore status of women of the levels that can be achievable or has including their comfort level at household been achieved elsewhere and have universal level is able to meet the minimum needs as validity. However, the goal posts for some monthly per capita income of household, variables are minimum and/or maximum occupation status of women, educational values in the data series. status of women, participation in decision In the second and final stage, the overall making and material possession which women development index (Ij for Jth ward) reduce women workload and support has been worked out by aggregating the her task comfortably. Similarly, data on component indices and dividing it by total life expectancy was not available at the number of indices. ward level, is substituted by their health Σⁿ Iij j and nutritional status which reflects the Ij = i=1 Σⁿ utilization of basic health services and i=1 health awareness among women and lastly enrollment and dropout rate is also not Where ∑Iij is summation of component available at the ward level so female literacy indices and is considered as an indicator. ∑ⁿ is the total number of indices. To drive the composite index of women Further the processed statistics has been development, the first step is to compute displayed in the tabular form.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 95 Table: 1. Women Development in Varanasi city

Fe- Health Index Sl Wards Name male Index Standard Index and nu- In- of Total WDI No. & No. lit- of FL of living of SLI tritional dex HN eracy status 1 Lahartara 01 64.8 0.75 41.6 0.44 30.9 0.00 1.19 0.40 L 2 Tarna 05 40.0 0.24 56.9 0.61 43.4 0.26 1.10 0.37 L 3 Pahariya 07 52.6 0.50 45.1 0.48 45.8 0.31 1.28 0.43 M 4 Alaipur 14 28.7 0.00 11.6 0.10 37.0 0.13 0.23 0.08 VL 5 Madan- 16 57.8 0.61 42.2 0.44 58.0 0.57 1.62 0.54 M pura 6 Sikraul 21 58.4 0.62 2.3 0.00 34.2 0.07 0.69 0.23 VL 7 Mewaiya 25 36.2 0.16 35.7 0.37 50.8 0.42 0.94 0.31 L 8 Jaitpura 26 44.8 0.60 23.7 0.24 51.8 0.44 1.27 0.42 M 9 Sarnath 27 38.7 0.21 82.0 0.88 67.2 0.76 1.85 0.62 M 10 Baloapir 29 38.9 0.21 29.5 0.30 39.9 0.19 0.70 0.23 VL 11 Khojwa 31 61.4 0.68 49.8 0.53 49.8 0.40 1.60 0.53 M 12 Dur- 64 63.1 0.72 90.1 0.97 57.8 0.56 2.25 0.75 H gakund 13 Bangali- 67 72.6 0.91 88.3 0.95 78.7 1.00 2.87 0.96 VH tola 14 Sunder- 68 56.4 0.58 94.3 1.02 59.3 0.59 2.19 0.73 H pur 15 Karaundi 71 61.5 0.68 31.6 0.33 57.9 0.65 1.65 0.55 M 16 Sigra 72 76.7 1.00 78.9 0.85 62.5 0.66 2.51 0.84 VH 17 Bhelupur 77 66.4 0.79 79.8 0.86 59.8 0.60 2.25 0.75 H 18 Kamach- 85 73.4 0.93 76.0 0.82 55.3 0.51 2.26 0.75 H ha Source: Census and Personal Survey 2008-09 FL- Female Literacy, SLI-Standard of living, H&N-Health and Nutritional status and WDI- Women Development Index a. Limitations of the study the WDI and other composite indices can only Since the concept of women development is present a broad proxy on some of the key much broader, complex and dynamic than what issues of the women development. For the can be captured in the Women Development fuller and comprehensive picture of women Index or any other composite indices such development in any region will require as Gender Development Index (GDI), GEM analysis of other various women development (Gender Empowerment Measurement), etc. indicators. The unavailability of data for Among all these indices, the primary one and the prescribed indicators is also one major socially most relevant is the WDI. However constraint especially at ward level study.

96 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 97 b. Spatial variation of women’s comfort level as well as educational development status is also showing better image The women development index has with respect to others. been worked out for selected wards as shown iii) Moderate level of women in fig no. 3 and it has been classified into development (0.42 - 0.66) the following five categories on the basis Under this category wards are of Mean±S.D namely very high (>0.78), Pahariya (0.44), Jaitpura (0.44), high (0.66-0.78), moderate (0.42-0.66) low Madanpura (0.55), Khojwa (0.55), (0.30-0.42), and very low (<0.30) human Karaundi (0.56), and Sarnath (0.63). development (table 1). These six wards have attended i) Very high level of women low to moderate positions in development (>0.78) literacy that’s why over all women There are two wards belonging to development has influenced. That’s this category, namely Bangalitola why education has been considered (0.97) and Sigra (0.85). It is due to as an important instrument to bring the high development in educational, about the social and economic economic and health awareness change. It is very essential to bring among women. Importantly women up the status and position of women. of such wards are quite progressive To make a society cultured and regarding awareness of their health progressive, it is very essential to and nutritional status as well as provide proper education to women these women impart a major role in at per with men. decision making not only on day to iv) Low level of women development day social life even in reproductive (0.30 – 0.42) and economic decisions. Lahartara (0.41), Tarna (0.38), and ii) High level of women development Mewaiya (0.33) are belonging to (0.66 - 0.78) this category. Due to lack of literacy There are four wards belonging and decision making of women in to this category whose women various aspects are comparatively development index is ranging low are the responsible factors to between values 0.66 to 0.78. influence the level. These wards have a high position v) Very low level of women regarding all dimensions of development (<0.30) women well beings. It covers the Alaipura, Sikraul, and Baloapir wards of Sunderpur, Bhelupur, are such wards which come under and Kamachha. Women of these the very low level of women wards are having comparatively development. Due to very low level better material possession for their of literacy (in general, poor parents

98 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 actively seek education for their in vocational and technical institutions. male children as the best means of The traditional mentality of the parents improving their income-earning and cultural, economic bias of the society options, but overburdened mothers must be redressed. Self dependency can may be forced to take daughters out help to raise their status in development of school to assist with childcare course. For the proper development of the and household chores), economic status of women there is need breaking condition, negligible participation of the traditional barriers, widening the in decision making and low level frame work of employment opportunities of comfort level development of of women, modifying the social attitude women is very low. towards female workers and non-workers, developing the vocational guidance and Conclusion counseling adoption and completing the structure of social protection with housing The forgoing analysis reveals that, there facilities of women workers. In the last are spatial variations in levels of WDI but most significant is the role of women within the selected wards of Varanasi city. themselves to realize their importance and The six wards Durgakund, Sunderpur, equality in the society. Self help group Bhelupur, Kamachha, Sigra and Bangalitola and self consciousness of women folk identified with high to very high WDI due may bring the lost prestige and status if to better economic condition, high literacy government and voluntary organizations rate, well facilities with medical utilization become effective and operative in a planned and awareness towards nutritional status. way. Let the women realize their significant However, wards like Lahartara, Tarna, role at par with men the required result will Mewaiya, Sikraul, Baloapir, and Alaipura be achieved. the underlying factors are responsible for the low or very low WDI such as low literacy rate, high gender disparity, poor economic References condition, low participation in decision Beneria, L. and G, Sen (1982) Class and Gender making, inadequate utilization of health Inequalities and Women’s Role in Economic facilities, and lack of awareness of health Development. Feminist Studies, vol. I: 157- and nutrition care. 76, Spring. To raise the status of women, Boserup, E. (1970) Women’s Role in Economic government and people should establish Development. New York, St. Martin Press. and develop sufficient educational facilities and a number of schemes for the purpose Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism must be introduced mainly for women. and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, Sufficient girls schools should be opened London. with assured and secured transport facilities. Hapke Holly, M. (2001) Gender, Work, and It is essential to reserve the seat for girls Household Survival in South Indian Fishing

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 99 Communities: A Preliminary Analysis. Treas, J. and Drobnic, S. (ed.) (2010) Dividing Professional Geographer, vol. 53 (3): 313- the Domestic Men, Women, and Household 31. work in Cross National Perspective, Momsen, Janet H. (2004) Gender and Standford University Press. Development. Routledge Publication, UNDP, Human Development Report, 2001, Landon. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Kwan Mei-Po (1999) Gender and Individual Women and Geography Study Group (1984) Access to Urban Opportunities: A Study Geography and Gender: An Introduction to Using Space – Time Measures. Professional Feminist Geography. Hutchinson, Landon. Geographers, vol. 51 (2): 210-27. Women and Geography Study Group (1997) Momsen, J. H and Townsend J.G ed. 1987 Feminist Geographies: Explorations in Geography of Gender in the Third World. Diversity and Difference. Longman, Harlow. Hutchinson, New York Press. Zelinsky, W., Monk, J., and Hanson, S. (1982) Monk, J. and Hanson, S. (1982) ‘On not ‘Women and geography: a review and excluding half of the human in human prospectus’, Progress in Human Geography, geography’, Professional Geographer, 34, Vol. 6 (3), 317-66 11-23. Sabina Bano Parpart, J. (1993) Who is the ‘other’? A Research Scholar (SRF), post modern feminist critique of women, [email protected], Development theory and practice, Dr. A.P. Mishra Development and Change, 24, 439-64. Associate Professor, Raju, S. and Bagchi, D. (ed.) (1994) Women [email protected], and Work in South Asia: Regional Patterns Department of Geography, and Perspectives, Routledge Publication, Banaras Hindu University, London and New York. Varanasi-221005

100 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Rural-Urban Migration and its Impact on the Urban Environment and Life in Nagaland

Maosanen Longchar, Lumami, Nagaland

Abstract The phenomenon of population movement has been a part of human history since time immemorial, and man is restlessly migrating from one place to another as part of a process of adaptation to his social, economic, cultural and ecological environment. In the most primitive society migration is the first mode of existence of the man. He used to migrate from one place to another in search of food, livelihood and security. And since then he has been able to have a stationary and stable life which is much more secured and developed when compared to the life in the primitive society. In modern times, migration from the rural to urban areas is accelerating, making internal and international migration potentially one of the most important development and policy issues of the 21st century. Nestled among the gorgeous ranges of the Northeast India, the State of Nagaland with a total population of about 19,80,602 persons (Census, 2011) covers a geographical area of 16, 527 sq.km (approx). Migration is an important factor in changing the size and structure of the population. As elsewhere, even in Nagaland, the phenomenon of migration from the rural areas has contributed largely to the rapid growth of urban population. However, now the explosive character of population growth in the urban centers has become a matter of grave concern. In 1981, the urban population of the state was 1.2 lakhs, which increased to 3.5 lakhs in 2001. Besides all other factors, migration from rural areas to the urban centres has been the driving force behind the explosive population growth rate which has created serious impact on the environment in these urban centers besides causing strain on the limited urban services and infrastructure and increase in urban poverty and unemployment levels. Therefore, the present study is an attempt to evaluate the ongoing process of rural-urban migration and its impact on the urban environment and quality of life in the urban centres of Nagaland. Keywords: Migration, Nagaland, Rural to Urban migration, Urban environment

The term migration has been understood and semi-permanent shift of residence in various ways by different scholars. across boundaries of administrative and Literally, it means the settlement or settlements units, migration is one of the shifting of individual or a group of people most important correlates of modernization. from one place to another, more or less It is an instrument of cultural diffusion permanently. Defined as a permanent and social interaction, and is a necessary element of population redistribution. The growing in population as more and more study of migration is of special interest to people migrate from the surrounding geographers as it is closely related to the villages in search of jobs, education, health spatial distribution of population. A large care and various other lifestyles that are number of studies have been conducted by not available in the villages. Subsequently, various social scientists regarding migration the small townships and hamlets have been in India. However, geographers have not expanding and growing in complexity, made their due in this connection to the part congenial to the growth of population. of the country which is under study. Judging by the number of people living in rural areas constituting 71.03% of The Reasons for this Phenomenon Nagaland’s population in 2011, as against 82% in 2001, it can be inferred that it is Migration processes have been existent an indication of rural to urban migration throughout all times and in all regions of the in the state. The decadal rural to urban world. The original triggering of migration migration has been steadily increasing in former times had been primarily the over the decades. Among the four urban search for more favorable conditions. areas from where the sample was drawn, Patterns of migration over the years have Kohima as the State capital and Dimapur undergone many changes particularly since as the commercial hub of the State appear the age of industrialization. Towns and cities to have the highest and most sustained pull attract the ‘surplus labour’ from nearby or over the rural population to migrate. far-off villages; thereby they become the pivotal centres of attraction. In rural areas the burgeoning poverty, meager employment Impact on Urban Areas opportunities, low and uncertain/irregular In Nagaland, except for Dimapur, all wages, lack of education and health facilities urban areas are located in the hill districts. act as push factors and induce people to Whereas, the topography and the geology migrate to the urban places. of the hilly nature of the state present a The migration process affects the areas limitation to the expansion and development to which migrants have moved in and of the urban areas, the influx of migrants areas from which they have moved out. particularly from the rural areas is seen The fact that the decadal growth rate of to have been contributing to the growing population in Nagaland during 2001-2011 urban population. This heavily takes toll is 0.47% indicates that the growth is largely on the existing infrastructural facilities due to migrant population. This trend of and the amenities as well. The majority continuous out-migration is related to of the migrant population in Nagaland conditions in the rural areas where the life is is drawn from the rural areas, and the not that comfortable. In Nagaland, since its phenomenon of continued out-migration statehood in 1963, the small administrative essentially tells upon the conditions in the blocks and headquarters have been steadily rural areas, making the life increasingly

102 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 difficult. More than 80 per cent of the rural Environmental Implications population is dependent on agriculture. But No doubt, the growth of population has the low rate of investment in agriculture, a number of positive impacts on the inequalities in the distribution of land environment and human well-being, i.e. and other productive assets, institutional higher population densities mean lower mechanisms which discriminate in favour per capita costs of providing energy, health of the owners of wealth (e.g. In provision care, infrastructure and services. Also, of credit and government schemes), coupled urbanization has historically been associated with natural calamities lead to increasing with declining birth rates, which reduces unemployment and poverty of the rural population pressure on land and natural population. In fact, the unemployment resources. Despite all these positive impacts, and poverty of the rural population are the almost all major towns of the region are main causes of out migration to the urban increasingly plagued by environmental centres of the state and to other states as problems. Some major aspects are as follows: well. Unemployment pushes migrants towards areas with greater employment a) As a direct result of urbanization, opportunities where they engage themselves great threat to health and safety in in petty business activities such as vegetable the towns comes from water and air vendors, grocery stores, petty shops like pan pollution, especially at the households shops, hotels and tea stalls etc. and community levels. Waterborne diseases are found most commonly in low-income neighborhoods as a result Consequences of inadequate sanitation, drainage and Though agriculture still remains the main solid waste collection services. Health occupational activity in rural Nagaland, risks, especially to the poor, are also agricultural production is mostly for posed by pesticides and industrial domestic consumption. Due to lack of effluents. infrastructural facilities such as connectivity, b) The productivity of many cities market linkages, facilities for storing is adversely affected by traffic and value addition for the agro products, congestion and air pollution. The the creation of opportunity for sustained loss in productivity includes the total employment and income generation is productive time wasted in traffic and insufficient. Problems are also cropping up the associated increase in the costs of as a result of out-migration in the place of operating and maintaining vehicles origin, and in the place of destination. Some such as wear and tear as a result of idling of the emerging problems are closely related in traffic and frequent acceleration to environment, apart from others such as and braking. For example, delays, infrastructural strain and poverty. which may result in late arrival for employment, meetings, and education,

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 103 result in lost business. Furthermore, their immediate vicinity. Intensive and Fuel wastage owing to increased extensive exploitation of natural resources to idling, acceleration and braking support urban economy includes excessive increases air pollution and carbon extraction of energy resources (including dioxide emissions. fuel wood), quarrying and excavation of c) Uncollected and improperly handled sand, gravel and building materials at large solid waste can have serious health scales, and over-extraction of water. Other consequences. They block drainage effects can be felt further such as pollution systems and contaminate groundwater of waterways, long-range air pollution at landfill sites. Most urban centres in that impact on human health as well as the state are also unable to manage the on vegetation and soils at a considerable increasing amounts of hazardous wastes distance. generated by hospitals and the rapid growth of industries. Besides this, Most Infrastructural Strain and Poverty towns do not have underground piped The growth of large cities, particularly in or sewerage system and even if they do developing countries, has been accompanied exist; the total length of proper drains by an increase in urban strains resulting is short of crude drains, which therefore from unemployment and infrastructural means that there is no proper cement inadequacies leading to increase in urban (RCC) coverage for most drainage poverty in general. In many cities and towns, systems. Further none of the towns in urban services are commonly inadequate to Nagaland has a functional sewerage meet even the basic needs of the inhabitants. treatment system. A thematic report on rural-urban migration d) Conversion of agricultural land and in Nagaland has been brought out recently forest, as well as reclaiming of wetlands, which draws attention to issues pertaining for urban uses and infrastructure, is to facilities, opportunities and livelihood associated with widespread removal of options. “The report indicates that it is vital vegetation to support urban ecosystem to concentrate on urban regeneration in and put additional pressure on nearby Nagaland especially as most of the towns areas that may be even more ecologically are in the hills which naturally have very sensitive. Major urban centres such as limited carrying capacity,” penned lead Dimapur, Kohima and Mokokchung are author and coordinator of thematic studies the most affected and environmentally Prof. Manoj Pant. fragile areas which are triggered by Infrastructure is about delivering the rapid expansion of human settlement essential services that people need to and infrastructural development. maintain basic standard of living. The Urbanization does not have only local essential services include water supply, environmental impacts but also large sanitation, electricity, roads, transport and so-called ‘ecological footprints’ beyond telecommunications, health care, education,

104 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 market and financial institutions. These in settlements in Nagaland, except for Dimapur turn lead to improvements in health, access are situated either on hill slopes or rugged to education, economic opportunities and terrain the prospect of all round development more. The water supply requirement of becomes practically unfeasible. most towns in Nagaland is met through natural sources such as rivers, streams, springs and ground water reserves. While Measures to Remedy there is some supply by the Public Health Since the statehood of Nagaland in 1963, the Engineering Department in some pockets small administrative blocks and headquarters of some of the towns, the remaining urban have steadily grown in population as people population either resorts to getting their migrated to these places for education, water requirements met through the above health care and livelihood prospects. mentioned sources or end up digging up Accommodation of population from the wells and using community springs. In the rural areas in the ever complex expansion field of sanitation, the urban centres have not of the townships is going on unabated. been able to do much either. The towns have Whereas growth and development are their respective municipal councils to look positive movement, in regard to urban living after the sanitation and public amenities of such growth almost always is accompanied the urban residents; however, these councils by multiple problems and issues associated are mostly inefficient as well as inadequate with the movement of people and materials to take prompt actions in meeting the in a larger scale than the land can hold. The requirements of the ever-increasing urban need to address the growing infrastructural population. and social needs of the increasing urban The transport sector, too, has seen population on one hand and the problems of a substantial growth in the last decade, land acquisition, issues of public safety and particularly with an increase in personal environmental protection on the other are transport. The average growth rate of the the crucial areas requiring judicious urban vehicle population of Nagaland has been planning and development. in the region of 5-7% in the last decade. To achieve an enduring solution to the In terms of district and town wise vehicle problems of migration and urbanization population, the districts and towns of measures should be adopted to do away Dimapur and Kohima have the highest with the conditions which generate such vehicle population. This phenomenon has problems. The Gandhian approach seems to made traffic congestion and snarls a common be relevant in this regard. Urban development feature in the urban centres of Nagaland. is desirable but it should not be at the cost The pressure of urban population on public of the rural people. And since about 71% of amenities and infrastructure is no doubt an Nagaland’s population dwells in the rural important reason for underdevelopment and areas so a rural solution is the only solution poverty. However, given the fact that urban to rural and urban problems. Providence of

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 105 social amenities and the development of the and social needs of the increasing urban rural areas in all spheres of life will definitely population, problems relating to land be an answer to the overwhelming outflow acquisition, issues of public safety and of rural population to the urban centres. environmental protection. These are crucial However, Scholars differ in their opinions on areas requiring judicious urban planning and the rationale of urban growth as an essential development. Besides, an important measure element of the process of development. would be to provide urban amenities in the Some argue that the rapid growth of urban rural areas so that rural based activities centers has been the result of migration of would take place in the urban areas and ill-equipped and unskilled poor peasants the urban oriented activities would also from the villages causing over-population take place in the rural settlements. The in cities and towns, rise of unhealthy slums recognition of such rural-urban interface and choking of civic amenities. There are should be taken into perspective for the all others who consider urbanization as ‘an round development of the State. opportunity and a challenge’. They argue that ‘for most part, urban migrants are energetic and ambitious and that the urban References poor make significant contributions to urban Aier, A. and Kithan, T. (2011): Rural-Urban economics’. A balanced view may be taken Migration: A Thematic Report 2009, in this regard as asserted by Gopal Krishan: Department of Planning and Coordination, “While rural development is the most Government of Nagaland. desirable objective in itself, it is doubtful if it Chan, K.W. (1994): Urbanization and Rural- will make a dent on rural-urban migration… Urban Migration in China Since 1982: A New One may possibly arrive at a conclusion that Baseline, Modern China, Vol. 20 No. 3, July the basic question is not of containing of the 1994 243-281, Sage Publications Inc. http:// growth of dynamic cities but of managing www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/189200- them better”. [Access date: 21.11.2011] In conclusion, the present scenario of Goldstein, S. (1990): “Urbanization in migration from the rural areas to the urban China, 1982-87: Effects of migrationa centres is taking place at a rapid pace in and reclassification, Population and Nagaland. Whereas such phenomenon Development Rev. 16, 4: 673-701. of growth and development are positive Guangming ribao. Beijing. movement for the urban centres, in regard to urban living such growth almost is always Harris, J.R. and Todaro, M.P. (1970): Migration, accompanied by multiple problems and Unemployment and Development: A issues associated with the movement of Two SectorAnalysis, The American Economic people and materials in a larger scale than Review. Vol. LX, No. 1. the land can hold. As such, there is an urgent http://www.jstor.org/stable/1807860 [Access need to address the growing infrastructural date: 22.11.2011]

106 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Ichimura, M. (2003): Urbanization, Urban http://ir.ide.go.jp/dspace/bitstream/2344/729/3/ Environment and Land Use: Challenges and ARRIDE_Discussion_No.137_mitra.pdf opportunities, An Issue Paper, Asia-Pacific [Access date: 19.9.2012] Forum for Environment and Development Nagaland Action Plan on Climate Change, Expert Meeting, 10 January 2003, Guilin, Draft Copy, March 2012, Government of People’s Republic of China,APFED3/ Nagaland. EM/03/Doc.5. Sinha, B.R.K. (2005): Human Migration- Kaur, G. (1996): Migration Geography, Anmol Concepts and Approaches, http://www. Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. mtafki.hu/konyvtar/kiadv/FE2005/ Krishan, G. (1989): New Themes in Population FE20053-4_403-414.pdf [Access date: Research, Demography India, Vol.18 30.11.2011] Migration in India 2007-2008, NSS Report Vero, C. Thematic Report on Rural-Urban No. 533: Migration in India: July, 2007- Migration June, 2008, National Sample Survey http://www.morungexpress.com/ Office, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Perspective/69550.html (Access date – Implementation, Government of India, June 17.11.2011) 2010 Mitra, A and Murayama, M. (2008): Rural to Maosanen Longchar Urban Migration: A District Level Analysis Department of Geograph, for India, IDE Discussion Paper No. 137, Nagaland University Institute of Developing Economies (IDE), Laumami, Nagaland Jetro, Japan.

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Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers “Analysis and Simulation of urban expansion of Srinagar City”

Nissar A. Kuchay and M. Sultan Bhat, Srinagar, Jammu Kashmir

Abstract The process of urban expansion is a dominant phenomenon in the Himalayan regions which has been accelerated by increasing levels of urbanization facilitated by marked developments in transportation, tourism and industrialization. The other determinants of sprawl include high population growth on account of migration and the establishment of growing network of public utilities. Unlike plains the vertical expansion of cities in these areas is constrained due to geo-structural sensitivity of the region, the cities in such areas mainly grow outwards along their peripheries and major transport corridors encroaching into productive agricultural land, wetlands and forest areas which in turn negatively influence the food security and environmental status of these regions. Srinagar city is the largest urban centre across whole Himalayan region and is experiencing considerably high rates of population growth and areal expansion. The city has recently been ranked as one among the first hundred fastest growing urban centers throughout the world. Therefore in present study an attempt has been made to analyse and simulate the trends and patterns of population growth and spatial expansion of this fast growing Himalayan urban centre Keywords: Urban sprawl, mountainous, Himalayan, wetlands, agriculture, transport corridors.

Introduction neighbourhoods. Further, extension of In the present day scenario, cities are urban areas and merging of fringe areas becoming hub of almost all human activities. into main city seems to be a continuous This has resulted in ever-growing size of process, a phenomenon called urban sprawl. cities, squeezing open spaces available within Generally speaking, growth of population is the city and has started exerting pressure on the fundamental factor in human ecological civic amenities. This extraordinary growth system and its relationship to the natural of population resultant areal expansion and resources, environment and technology pressure on amenities are the most dramatic (Rajeshwari, 2006). phenomenon associated with urbanization. In India, unprecedented population This is also a fact that the pressure of the growth coupled with unplanned continuously growing city centre gradually developmental activities has resulted in changes the structure of surrounding rapid but skewed urbanization. This has posed serious implications on the resource systematically mapped, monitored and base, access to infrastructure and the accurately assessed from satellite data along development of the region. The urbanization with conventional ground data (Lata, et al., takes place either in radial direction around 2001). a well-established city or linearly along the Sprawl has a considerable impact highways (Jain, 2007). Some of the causes on ecosystems and other environmental of the sprawl include- population growth, resources which provide societal and economy and proximity to resources and environmental benefits simply by existing basic amenities. In the course of urban and functioning. These essential biological spread, valuable land is being converted for and physical systems include wetlands building, industry, transport facilities etc. that provide flood control and waste water The direct implication of such urban renovation; atmosphere, forests, and sprawl is the change in land use and land grasslands that provide climate regulation; cover of the region. The ability to serve biodiversity factors that contribute to and develop land heavily influences the healthy, well-functioning ecosystems economic and environmental quality of life (Barnes, 2003; He et al, 2011). Moreover, in towns (Turkstra, 1996; Xiao et al, 2006). urbanization is radically transforming rural Haphazard and unplanned expansion of landscapes, shifting the economic base away urban centers is a typical character of the from agriculture towards other uses and Himalayan region, the urban scene in most changing the aesthetic characters of these of the mountain valleys is dominated by landscapes. urban primacy of a single central urban center. Study Area An absence of any land use planning Srinagar city is not only the largest urban may lead to land degradation. Un-planned centre in the state of Jammu & Kashmir decisions may result into misery for but in the whole Himalayan region. The large segment of the local population city has been growing at an alarming pace and destruction of valuable eco-system. therefore indicating considerable changes. Techniques for the planning and management The city lies 74º 43´ - 74º 52´ E longitude & of land resources specifically integrated and 34º 0´ - 34º 14´ N latitude. It is about 5200 holistic will check long term quality of the feet above mean sea level. The location land for human use, their prevention or map of the study area is shown in fig.1. (see resolution of social conflicts related to land page 119 for fig.1) The city has a unique use and the conversion of ecosystem (Bhatt physiographic setup with steep hills in et al., 2007). Identification and analyses of the East and North East, low lying paddy the patterns of sprawl in advance would fields falling in the flood plain of Jhelum help in effective infrastructure planning in in the South and West, the karewas of urban area. The spatial patterns of urban Budgam in the extreme South and towards sprawl over different time periods can be the North are located the uplands with

110 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 moderate slopes. The famous Dal Lake is in India. The main floral species of the city situated in the heart of the city. There are are Chinar, Popolar, Willow, Kikar, Han, two conspicuous physical features in the Bren etc. shape of Kohimaran and Kohisuleiman hillocks. The city of Srinagar experiences a Objectives Mediterranean type of climate and receives The study has been carried out with a focus most of its precipitation during the winter to achieve the following objectives; season in the form of rain and snow. I. To analyze the population growth Location Map of Study Area and urban expansion (spatio- temporal growth) from 1901 to 2011 The city has a rich heritage of flora and fauna and is unique in the sense that II. To identify and analyze the forms the forests are very close to it. These forest of urban sprawl from 1901 to 2011 areas are home to varied mammalian III. To project the future scenario species like black bear, leopard and world of population growth and areal famous Hangul– the only red dear found expansion of Srinagar city.

Materials and Methods Flow Chart of Methodology

Decadal census of India SoI toposheets &

1901 - 2011 Satellite data

Georeferencing and Time series analysis digitization

Temporal Land use maps Growth trends

Regression modeling Spatial overlay analysis

Future growth scenarios

The projected rates of population growth Y= A.Bx were simulated through the following The log form of the above equation is as; equation; log Y= log A+ x log B

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 111 Results and Discussions persons in 2011 A.D. indicating nearly Srinagar city is experiencing the phenomenon tenfold increase amounting to 900 percent of accelerated urbanization induced by large growth with a net increase of 110,3219 scale development in transport and tourism, persons. The pattern of decadal growth growing network of urban amenities however, has not been uniform. In the early and infrastructure developmental. All decades from 1901-1961A.D, the growth these factors have resulted in burgeoning has been slow due to the low growth rates population growth especially during the which has declined from 22.46 percent in last fifty years or so. Srinagar- the primate 1931 A.D. to 15.71 percent in 1961 A.D. city of the region has enjoyed its primacy This decline in the growth rate could be throughout the ages. The city was found attributed to the political unrest and partition by king Ashoka in 272B.C and is one of of the subcontinent in 1947 A.D. which led the oldest urban centers of the region. The to a large scale migration of people. It was city has achieved the status of metropolitan after 1961 A.D. that a new phase of growth urban centre in the year 2008 and is currently of population commenced. The population experiencing higher rates of urban growth of the city increased from 285,257 persons as compared to other cities of the country. in 1961 A.D. to 606,002 persons in 1981 The city has experienced almost no vertical A.D. recording a net addition of 320,745 expansion due to fragile geophysical setup persons with alarming growth rates of of the region which in turn has resulted in 34.31 and 40.13 percent respectively. The accelerated horizontal sprawl of the city. main factors responsible for this accelerated population growth during this period have Population Growth been in migration, increase in birth rates and fall in death rates. Besides this, the merger of High population growth rate is a common 62 villages in municipal limit in 1971 A.D. problem of most of the urban centers and the introduction of urban agglomeration throughout the developing world. The concept which brought a number of rural figures regarding population of Srinagar areas under the jurisdiction of Srinagar city city are relatively reliable only since are indeed the other factors contributing enumeration of 1901 A.D. Therefore it to the rapid growth of the city population. may be taken as a base for analysis of Subsequently from 1981 to 2011 A.D. the growth trends and decadal variations in population increased to 971,357 persons in the population of the city. The Table I.I 2001, registering a net growth of 365,355 presents the pattern of population growth persons in two decades with a decadal and percentage of variation during different growth rate of 30.14 percent and 122,5837 decades. From perusal of the Table I.I, it persons in 2011 recording a net addition of is evident that the population of Srinagar 254,480 persons during the last ten years. city during the last century (1901-2011) has grown phenomenally. It increased from The dynamic trend in the population 122,618 persons in 1901 A.D. to 122,5837 growth of Srinagar city suggests an

112 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 accelerated rate of growth in city’s population the city is bound to create an impact on the in future which is revealed from the fact that socio-economic structure of the city and the city has achieved the metropolitan status may accentuate the problems of housing in the year 2008. This anticipated rapid scarcity, land speculations and urban blight change in the demographic dimension of and slums.

Table I.I: Srinagar City- Population Growth and Areal Expansion (1901-2011) Decadal Absolute Decadal Absolute Area Density Year Population Growth Variation Growth Rate Variation (Km2) Per Km2 Rate Km2 Km2 1901 122618 ------12.8 ------9579 1911 126344 3726 3.04 12.85 0.5 0.39 9832 1921 141735 15391 12.18 14.48 1.63 12.68 9788 1931 173573 31831 22.46 17.6 3.12 21.54 9862 1941 207787 34212 19.71 17.6 0.00 0.00 11806 1951 246522 38735 18.64 29.52 11.92 67.72 8351 1961 285257 38735 15.71 41.44 11.92 40.37 6884 1971 403413 118156 34.31 82.88 41.44 100 4867 1981 606002 202589 40.13 208.9 125.12 150.96 2912 1991 194902 N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A N.A 2001 995806 389804 64.32 278.1 69.20 33.12 3581 2011 1225837 230031 23.13 416.3 138.2 49.72 4407

Source: Census of India, 1901-2011, Srinagar Municipal Corporation. NA (Not Available) No Census was conducted in 1991.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 113 5.2 Areal Expansion years and a very fast expansion after 1970’s During past century (1901-2011) increasing as the total area of the city has increased 2 2 population due to high natural growth from 12 Km in 1911A.D. to 82 Km in 2 rate and in migration for better livelihood 1971A.D., 278.1 Km in 2001A.D. and 416 2 opportunities have paved way for rapid Km in 2011A.D. The analysis of the spatial expansion of this urban centre. The Table expansion of the city reveals that growth I.I shows the pattern of increase in the area of the city has been an exponential one as of the city during last hundred years. It is reflected in Fig. 3b. The sprawl of the city clear from these figures that there has been between 1901 and 2011 has been reflected a slow expansion of the city during first fifty in Fig.4. (see page 120 fig. 4)

5.3 Spatial Forms of Sprawl infrastructure is extended perpendicularly Sprawl development consists of three basic from the major roads and lines. Leapfrog spatial forms: low-density continuous sprawl, development sprawl is a discontinuous ribbon sprawl, and leapfrog development pattern of urbanization with patches of sprawl. Low density sprawl is the highly developed lands that are widely separated consumptive use of land for urban purposes from each other and from the boundaries, along the margins of existing metropolitan albeit blurred in some cases, of recognized areas. This type of sprawl is supported urbanized areas (Harvey and Clark, 1971). by piecemeal extensions of basic urban The interpretation of Fig.4 highlights infrastructures such as water, sewer, power, the changing spatial form of Srinagar and roads. Ribbon sprawl is development city. The areal sprawl during the period that follows major transportation arteries prior to 1971A.D. indicates that the city outward from urban cores. Lands adjacent has grown roughly in a circular form. to corridors are developed, but those However after 1971A.D. the city has without direct access remain in rural uses/ experienced tremendous sprawl and has covers (Muller et al, 2010). Over time, been transformed from a circular to a star these nearby “raw” lands may be converted shaped urban centre. This change in the to urban uses as land values increase and spatial form of the city during last forty

114 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 years could mainly be attributed to its fragile in search of better jobs and access to urban and challenging geo-ecological setup. amenities and from the core city in search of As visualized in the Fig.4, there has been better environmental conditions and living practically no spatial expansion of city limits quality. This has led to redistribution of in the east and the north west of the city land by the complementary tendencies of due to the presence of Zabarwan hills and concentration and dispersion of population. Anchar wetland respectively. This shows the The environmental impact of sprawl control of natural environment in shaping spans local, regional, and global geographical the spatial form of the city. The urbanization scales. At a more regional scale the sprawl in Srinagar city has taken place either in the of Srinagar city has been mainly at the cost form of ribbon sprawl, in a linear direction of agriculture and horticulture land. The along the highway and other major transport expansion of the city in the north and the corridors (district roads) of the city or in east has mainly been at the cost of precious the form of leapfrog, occupying certain horticulture land while in the south and the suitable patches as per the accessibility and west it has been at the cost of productive proximity. This has in turn resulted in large agriculture and wetland area. scale fragmentation and encroachment of productive agricultural and horticulture The fast sprawl of the city has heavily land. The wetlands and lakes of the city that encroached on the wetlands like Littorals have been at service both economically as of Dal, Anchar, Hokrasar, and Narkara. All well as ecologically, since times immemorial these wetlands have suffered a substantial have not been spared. The presence of these loss in their spatial extant (Bhat, 2008). physical and ecological features has played The ecological studies carried out during a leading role in shaping the overall form the last thirty years have shown increasing of the city. pollution levels in the water bodies of the city especially the Dal lake and the Jhelum river. 5.4 Impacts of Sprawl These changes in the spatial and ecological status of water bodies are mainly the The problems created by the haphazard response to the unplanned and unregulated and unrestricted growth of Srinagar city urban activities especially after 1970’s. have aggravated irregular and chaotic development of residential, industrial and Another important observation in commercial areas resulting in fragmentation response to the sprawl of Srinagar city is and loss of productive agriculture and human-wildlife conflicts As the residential horticulture land, spatial and ecological land uses intrude into more agricultural destruction of life supporting wetlands, and wildlife habitats areas, human-wildlife world famous lakes, traffic bottle necks, conflicts are on the rise. The expansion of slums, polluted environment and others all the city towards the upper areas of Zabarwan known and felt by the residents of the city. hills, especially in Dachigam catchment has Suburbs of the city have attracted people results in an alarming increase in human- from both sides i.e. migrants from rural areas wildlife conflicts.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 115 Despite traffic congestion and long 5.5 Future Growth of Srinagar City hours to commutes the work places, the (Fig.6) suburbs continue to remain a preferred The analysis of population growth and residential location with better quality of areal expansion of Srinagar city during life for many city residents. On the other past hundred years show an exponential hand migrants from rural areas also prefer growth pattern as reflected in Fig. 2b and to settle in suburbs due to the availability 3b respectively. This phenomenon of of affordable land and connectivity to burgeoning population growth and fast areal their native rural areas. Society faces the expansion together with current growth rates challenge of striking a balance between being very high, suggest an unmanageable curtailing urban growth beyond developed growth of the urban centre in near future. areas and providing housing opportunities for inner-city residents who struggle to The analysis of the past patterns improve their quality of life. (during last hundred years) of growth and

future trends through regression analysis already stressed and strained urban amenity (exponential), the city is projected to cross structure of the city resulting in backlogs in 1.7 million persons in terms of its population vital sectors and may lead to a scenario of size and sprawl over more than 750 Km2 in unmanageable urban system. terms of its spatial extant by the year 2031 as reflected in Fig. 5a and 5b respectively. Conclusion The immediate areas of development would The city of Srinagar being the largest urban be the areas in the vicinity of major transport centre among all Himalayan urban centers corridors. Presently this land forms a part is facing the phenomenon of accelerated of productive agriculture land of the city urbanization and resultant environmental and most of the perishable items to the city degradation It has a very complex geo- come from these areas. This phenomenon ecological setup with precipitous hills of unregulated expansion of the city in standing guard in the East to prevent city’s turn will put enormous pressure on the further expansion on this side, besides

116 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 there are a number of urban lakes like Dal, near future as well. (see page 121 for Fig. 6) Anchar, Nigeen, Babdemb and khushalsar The population size of the city is projected that have played a dominant role in shaping to cross 1.7 million mark and the area of the the spatial form of the city. These physical urban centre is projected to reach 750 km2 by and ecological features have played a the year 2031. The analysis brings to light determining role in shaping the overall the process and pattern of rapid urbanization spatial form of the city. The city has grown in this mountainous area and calls for an in a circular form during the first half of immediate attention of planners to devise 20th century and has been now transformed comprehensive a land use plan for the into a star shaped urban centre growing sustainable and balanced urban development mainly along the major transport corridors in the region. Otherwise the city may in the form of ribbon development. The land turn into an unmanageable metropolitan along the roads with easy accessibility has complex with serious ecological and social been developed leaving behind fragmented consequences. interiors. Another form of sprawl found in Srinagar city is Leapfrog sprawl caused by rugged terrain, wetlands and water Acknowledgement bodies. All these factors have precluded The authors are highly thankful to the the continuous development or made it University of Kashmir for providing the prohibitively expensive. space and support to conduct this research During the latter half of past century work. Thanks are also due to the University the magnitude of population growth and Grants Commission for providing satellite resultant spatial expansion and land use data through a sponsored research project. change in Srinagar city has increasingly assumed from significant to threatening proportions. The city has grown tenfold References in terms of population and more than Almas, A., Amjed S., Rahim, A., Butt, B., Tayyab, twentyfold in terms of area between 1901 I. and Shah, C. (2007): Metropolitan growth monitoring and land use classification using and 2011AD. This escalating urban growth, geospatial techniques, ISPRS Workshop on in a sensitive geo-ecological setup has Service and Application of Spatial Data resulted in large scale encroachment and Infrastructure, XXXVI(4/W6), Hangzhou, degradation of productive agriculture/ China. 14-16 horticulture land, life supporting wetlands, Barnes, J. ( 2003), “Natural History of the Albany green spaces and forest areas. Pine Bush”: Albany and Schenectady Counties. NYS Museum Bulletin, New York, Past patterns of urban expansion of the NY, 502. city both in terms of population size and Bella, K. P. and Irwin, E. G. (2002): Spatially spatial dimensions coupled with current explicit micro level modeling of land high rates of sprawl, suggest higher growth use change at the rural-urban interface, rates and fast urban expansion of the city in Agricultural Economics, 27:217-232.

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 117 Berling, W. and Wu, J. (2004): Modeling urban Eastern parts of Kolkata Metropolitan landscape dynamics: a case study in Phoenix, Area, Transections institute of Indian USA” Urban ecosystems, 7:215-240. geographers, 31, 2. Bhat, M. S. (2008) Urban System in Himalayas- Taubenbock, H., Wegmann, M., Roth, A., Mehl, A study of Srinagar City Region, Dilpreet H. and Dech, S. (2009): Urbanization in Publishing Co. New Delhi. India: spatiotemporal analysis using remote Bhatt, B., Gupta, A. K., Gunin, G. (2007): sensing data, Computers, Environment and Application of Remote Sensing and Urban Systems, 33, 3: 179-188. GIS for Detecting Land Use Changes: Turkstra, J. (1996): Urban Growth and Land A Case Study of Vadodara http://www. Use Options for Lower-Income Groups A gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/ Case Study of Villavicencio, Columbia, ITC sprawl/remotesensing_ab.htm Journal 1: 57 – 63 Harvey, R. O. and Clark, W. A. V. (1971): The UN Habitat, (2009): Global Report on Human nature and economics of urban sprawl, In Settlements 2009—Planing Sustainable Bourne L. S. (eds.) “Internal Structure of Cities: Policy Direction, United nations the City” Oxford University Press 475–482. human Settlements Programmee/ Earthscan, He, C., Tian, J., Shi, P. and Hu, D. (2011): Simulation London, UK. of the spatial stress due to urban expansion on Wu, Q., Li, H., Wang, R., Paulussen, J., He, Y., the wetlands in Beijing, China using a GIS- Wang, M., Wang. B. and Wang, Z. (2006): based assessment model, Landscape and Monitoring and predicting land use change Urban Planning, 101:269-277. in Beijing using remote sensing and GIS, Lata, K. M., Sankar Rao, C. H., Krishna, P. V., Landscape and Urban Planning, 78: 322-333. Badrinath, K. V. and Raghavaswamy. S. Xiao, J., Shen, Y., Ge, J., Tateishi, R., Tang,C., (2001): Measuring urban sprawl: a case Liang, Y. and Huang, Z. (2006): Evaluating study of Hyderabad, GIS Development, 5, urban expansion and land use change in 12: 26-29. Shijiazhuang, China, by using GIS and Muller, K., Steinmeier, C. and Kuchler, M. remote sensing, Landscape and Urban (2010): Urban growth along motorways Planning, 75: 69-80. in Switzerland, Landscape and Urban Planning, 98:3-12 Nissar A. Kuchay Mundia, C. N. and Aniya, M. (2005): Analysis of Ph. D Scholar, land use/cover changes and urban expansion Department of Geography & of Nairobi city using remote sensing and Regional Development, GIS, International Journal of Remote University of Kashmir, Srinagar- 190 006 Sensing, 26: 2831–2849. M. Sultan Bhat Rajeshwari, (2006): Management of the Urban Professor and Head, Environment Using Remote Sensing and Department of Geography & Geographical Information Systems, J. Hum. Regional Development, Ecol., 20, 4: 269-277 University of Kashmir, Srinagar- 190 006 Sanat, K. G. and Abhik, D. (2009): Spatiality and zoning of urban functions in the North-

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2014, XLIII + 800 p. 127 illus., 65 illus. in color ISBN 978-94-007-7055-3

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CONTENTS Introduction.- Part I: Historical Outline.- North-eastern India through the Ages.- Part II: The Land.- North-East India – Structural Framework.- Physical Setting of Northeast India.- The Drainage System of Northeast India.- Weather and Climate of the North- East.- Natural Hazards in the Northeast Region.- The Resource Endowment of the North-Eastern Region.- Forest and Grasslands of the North-East Region.- Part III: The People.- Early Colonisation of Northeast India.- People of the North-East.- Population of the North-eastern States.- Migration and its Impact on the Society and the Economy of the North-East.- Human Habitat in the North-East India.-Urbanisation and Urban Landscape in North-East India.- Part IV: The Economy.- Agriculture: Past and Present.- Industries and Associated Economic Activities.- Transport and Trade in Northeast India.- Socio-Economic Development of the North-East: An Assessment.- Part V: The Future.- Epilogue.

THE AUTHORS Prof. Dr. K.R. Dikshit is a former Professor of Geography of the University of Pune, India (now retired). He has written several books, such as “Geography of Gujarat” (1970), “Contributions to Indian Geography: Geomorphology” (1983), “Maharashtra in Maps” (1986) and “Environment, Forest Ecology and Man in the Western Ghats: The Case of Mahabaleshwar Plateau” (1993) as well as many research papers.

Jutta K. Dikshit has been teaching geography at the Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune. She studied geography and German language and literature at the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz (Germany), and obtained her doctoral degree from the Sorbonne, Paris. Before coming to India, she worked as a lecturer at the University of Saarbrücken for a number of years. Her research papers are mainly in the field of physical geography. She is the editor of the book “The Urban Fringe of Indian Cities” (2011).

122 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Changing Flood Intensity Zone of Dwarka River Basin in Eastern India

Sutapa Mukhopadhyay, Surajit Let, Santiniketan, West Bengal

Abstract Flood is intrinsic components of the natural climate system and climate variability. Dwarka river basin has experienced 37 memorable meso to macro level floods between 1900 to 2010. Among them more than 75% floods phenomena have occurred after 1950. About 14 devastating floods have been recorded since 1900. Among these extreme flood events, 21.42% occurred before 1952 and rest 78.58% have agitated after 1952. According to the perception study and recorded secondary data, it is clear that the discrete and cumulative flood frequency have been progressively increasing over time. From the flood trend analysis due to the desperate intervention of human being in the basin area through various anthropogenic activities such as construction of barrage across river, embankment along river banks, khadan construction on the upper catchment area etc. to draw immediate profit from river and river command area, river has changed its character in diversified ways. The intensity of flood in terms of flood frequency, flood height and flood stagnation period has been increased many times. So it may be said natural forces alone do not cause floods today; rather, floods is a byproduct of the interaction between natural events and human activities. For that some scientific and creative measures are essential not only to abate flood intensity but also to make creative adjustment with flood. Keywords: Flood intensity, Flood Frequency, Retention capacity, Hydrological density, Flood vector.

Introduction: “Flood is defined as a state of high water Long time before the flood was considered level along the river channel or on coast that to be beneficial for human civilization when leads to inundation of land which normally fertile soil carried by the river and flood was submerged”( Khullar, 2000). In other words rhythmic in manner. But now the intensity flood is simply defined as spilling of water of flood has increased many times due to body over normal level of discharge. In extreme human interferences with river West Bengal the northern and central parts through construction of dam, embankment are flooded by rivers like Mahananda, along river to draw huge profit at a time and Bhagirathi, Ajoy, Mayurakshi, Dwarka, flood is considered as terrifying occurrence Damador, etc. due to inadequate capacity as it carries huge amount of sand instead of of river channel, absence of embankment, fertile soil . high rate of sand deposition, construction of dam etc. ( Majumdar, 1941). Due to loss of river scenario of Bengal. Taking start from carrying capacity of Dwarka river the flood Chhotonagpur the river flows toward extra height and flood frequency have increased moribund deltaic region. The whole basin of many times and even today normal flow of Dwarka river lies between 23°58’ and 24°29’ river is bringing high flood. In this situation north latitude and 87°18’E and 88°12’E some creative and scientific measures are longitude covering an area of 3569.76 essential not only to reduce flood intensity sq.km. The study area includes two districts but also to make adjustment with flood. of Jharkhand (Pakur and Dumka) and two districts of West Bengal namely Birbhum Location: and Murshidabad. This broad basin covers Dwarka River is well known name in the 12 CD Blocks. The total length of Dwarka river is 156.5km.

Fig. 1

124 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Physical Background of the Study Area: annual rainfall of this basin is about 124 - The Dwarka river originates from 130 cm, where 80% of the rainfall is received Chhotonagpur plateau and merges with from June to September. As a result flood Mayurakshi river in Murshidabad District. is a normal event in this period. Maximum The upper part of this basin is located temperature during summer rises up to 38°C in Chhotonagpur plateau region having and comes down to about 12°C during winter. undulating plateau surface with large number of isolated hills. Maximum relief Database of this part is about 502 m. and middle part The present paper has been prepared after belongs to Rarh Bengal. The lower segment the compilation of the secondary as well as of this basin is plain area with numerous primary data. The data about flood height, rivers, gullies, segments, bils swamps, flood water stagnation period and flood levees, chars etc. The general slope of the affected area have been collected from entire region is about 1:3.54 Irrigation and Water ways Department The Dwarka river is extremely sinuous of Government of West Bengal, Disaster in nature and having large number of Management cell of West Bengal Govt. and tributaries. In upper part number of the perception study of the flood victims tributaries is more and non perennial in through scheduled questionnaires. character. But in lower part most of the tributaries are perennial in nature and bring Methodical Frame huge amount of water during Monsoon period. Some important tributaries are Mor, Entire basin has been subdivided into 67 Brahmani, Banki, Gomvira etc. equal size grids (64 sq.km of each) and flood frequency, flood height, flood water Climate of Dwarka basin is characterized stagnation etc. data have been collected on by hot summer, high humidity as well as the basis of each and every individual grid. monsoonal annual rainfall. The average

Fig. 2

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 125 In this paper average condition of flood their variations in basic unit expressions. frequency, flood water height, flood water M Weighted score = ×100 stagnation of some seven major floods since n 1978 to 2010 have calculated and plotted Where M = Maximum value of column; on map. Flood frequency has been initially N = variable calculated in the way that 1flood/5years or 1flood/2year or like. But for the convenience Weighted score values are added of discussion, all flood frequency data together to show the composite weighted have been converted in respect to 1 year. score. On the basis of composite weighted For example, 1flood/1year indicates the score, the entire basin area has been divided value as 1; 1flood/2years indicates 0.5 or into four broad flood zones namely (i) like (Mukhopadhyay et al 2011). Three intensive flood zone (>240) (ii) moderate individual flood intensity zoning maps have flood zone (80-240) (iii) low flood zone been prepared for the year of 1978, 2000 and (<80) (iv) no flood zone (0). 2007 as these are prominent flood years of the basin. Flood Parameters For year wise flood intensity zoning Flood Affected Area two parameters have been selected namely Table 1 clearly shows that flood affected a) Flood water level height and b) Flood areas have been increasing over time. In last stagnation period. Weighted composite score century 1978 flood year was the greatest as method has been employed to integrate the per flood extension and damage records. flood data for each affected mouza (small But flood year 2000 has washed out all the administrative land unit). previous records and accounted the most Integrated flood map is prepared using extensive flood character. Figure 9 shows three parameters namely flood level height, the status of most intensive flood extended flood frequency and flood stagnation period. areas. It is noticed that flood 2000 not The standard scores have been calculated only submerged the lower basin but also using weighted score method for removing inundated extensive part of upper basin area.

Table 1: Distribution of Flood Affected Area Flood zone 1978 2000 2007 Area (km2) % Area (km2) % Area (km2) % Intensive flood zone 766.78 21.48 1023.81 28.68 613.64 17.19 Moderate flood zone 546.89 15.32 614.71 17.22 661.12 18.52 Low flood zone 350.91 9.83 610.43 17.10 376.97 10.56 No flood zone 1911.32 53.57 1320.81 37.0 1917.68 53.72 Three devastating flood years of these have been selected according to their devastating effects.

126 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Flood during 1978 Memorable flood has been reported in 1978 in the lower area of Dwarka river basin. The inadequate capacity of river, extreme curvature of the river, convergence of large number of tributaries and huge downpour at a time was responsible for occurrence of flood during 1978. The lower portion of the Dwarka river basin is fertile and suitable for cultivation. So, the huge areal coverage in Fig. 3 lower portion means loss of crop land. About 538 mouzas were affected by flood which is Flood during 2000 about 46.93% of the total basin area. Intense flood was recorded in the eastern part of During 2000 the most devastating flood has Birbhum and Murshidabad districts. But been recorded in Dwarka River basin. The extreme upper part of this river basin was main causes for such intense flood in 2000 not affected by the flood in 1978. were huge amount of downpour (654mm.)

Table 2: Number of Flood Affected Mouzas during 1978

FLOOD EVENTS → 1978 2000 2007 Flood Weighted Districts No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of No. of Zone Score affected Blocks Mouzas Blocks Mouzas Blocks Mouzas affected affected affected affected affected affected Intensive <20 Murshiidabad 5 153 5 170 5 90 zone Bibhum 4 110 4 149 4 123 Moderate 20-100 Murshiidabad 5 58 5 63 5 55 zone Bibhum 4 78 4 89 4 80 Low >100 Murshiidabad 1 2 1 1 3 72 zone Bibhum 3 80 3 83 4 107

Fig. 5 Fig. 4

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 127 within very short span of time, discharge quantity of water release from Deucha dam of large amount of water (more than 45000 and cyclonic rainfall (518mm). The areal cusec) from dams all on a sudden, bringing coverage of flood was relatively low than of huge amount of water by tributaries to the previous two floods. About 537 mouzas main river, poor drainage condition etc. About were fully or partially affected by the flood 555 mouzas were affected by the flood which during this year which is about 46.28% of is about 63.0% of the total basin area. Gross the total Dwarka River basin. record of loss including lives and properties was maximum during flood year 2000. Flood Frequency

Flood frequency means how many floods Flood during 2007 occur per unit period of time. Flood frequency In the year 2007, large part of Dwarka River depends on the frequency of downpour in basin (middle and lower catchment area) basin area, uncontrolled discharge of water was beaten by a severe flood due to large from dam or barrage etc.

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

In Dwarka river basin the frequency Table 3: Distribution of Flood Frequency Area of flood varies from river confluence area Range of flood Area in % of area to upper catchment. In lower catchment frequency/year km2 to total the flood occurrence is very frequent, >1 767.49 21.50 almost one flood is experienced in every 0.75-1 267.73 7.50 year. In 2007 three meso to macro level 0.25-0.75 383.75 10.75 floods were experienced by the lower <0.25 2186.48 61.25 catchment dwellers. In middle catchment the frequency is comparatively lesser and Flood Height in upper catchment there is no significant occurrence of flood. Flood height is the function of volume of discharge, topographical character, period

128 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 of water accumulation etc. The region where Table 5: Flood Water Stagnated Zones the height of flood is more, possibility of Range of flood Area in % of area flood devastation is also high. The flood stagnation sq.km to total height also varies from lower to upper (in days) catchments like that of the flood frequency. >10 472.64 13.34 In Dwarka River basin the maximum 4-10 1016.31 28.47 flood height is noticed at the confluence <4 1350.08 37.82 area where flood height is more than 1.6 Nil 727.16 20.37 m. Depressed land, long water stagnation In lower catchment area of Dwarka period etc. are influential factors for such river basin the period of flood stagnation is greater flood height. In the upper catchment sometime more than 15 days. The tendency area flood height is nil because there is no of stagnation is relatively greater in the sign of flood. right hand sector of the lower catchment where the flood height is also maximum. In Table 4: Distribution of Flood Height Area upper catchment area due to the presence of Range of flood Area in % of area significant slope and draining out ability of height(m.) km2 to total the channel the stagnation period is either >0.8 659.69 18.48 marginal or completely nil (Fig.8). .5-0.8 709.31 19.87 0.2-0.5 632.56 17.72 Relationship between Flood Height and 0-0.2 755.36 21.16 Flood Stagnation: Nil 812.83 22.77 There is positive relationship between flood

height and flood stagnation period in all the Flood Stagnation Period observed years for same 67 grids, although Flood stagnation indicates how long flood the magnitude of relationship is not uniform. water stagnates in a particular area.This In the lower catchment area the relationship period may vary according to the rate is stronger than the average value indicated of movement of water through spill way, in the following table. presence of topographical depressed land, slope of the land, number of tributaries etc.

Table 6: Correlation and Regression Values between Flood Height and Flood Stagnation

Year 1978 1984 1995 1999 2000 2006 2007

Regression Coefficient 0.821 0.687 0.651 0.737 0.702 0.659 0.744

Correlation Coefficient 0.907 0.829 0.807 0.859 0.838 0.812 0.863

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 129 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Gradual degradation of drainage is showing the variation in areal coverage network, natural depression, and rise of of intensive flood zone in different major water level of the master stream Bhagirathi flood years. etc. are mainly responsible for growing rate of positive allometry between flood height 2. Moderate Flood Zone and flood stagnation period. Relatively upper part of Dwarka River basin Integrated Flood Zones specially the eastern part of Murshidabad district, eastern part of Birbhum district Integration of different parameters like flood come under this category. Total area of height, flood stagnation, and flood frequency moderate flood coverage is 898.51 sq.km. for the measurement of flood can provide a detail picture of spatial flood character at a Extensive river command area, glance. This map (Fig.10) has been prepared convergence of meso rivers, deposition of on the basis of composite weighted score river bed, influx of water from the other values which has mentioned in the early river basin etc. are mainly responsible for part of this paper. flood in this zone.

1. Intensive Flood Zone 3. Low Flood Zone Basically the confluence area of Dwarka In relatively upper part of this river basin River basin comes under intensive flood specially the western part of Birbhum of zone. Almost all the mouzas of Kandi block West Bengal and eastern part of Dumka experience intensive flood. Total area of district of Jharkhand come under this flood intense flood zone is about 207.40 km2. zone. Total areal coverage is 909.57 sq.km. Relatively greater degree of slope, high Low lying topography, wetland character, relief less dense population, less cropping poor drainage system, convergence of large intensity, all are responsible for low flood number of meso level rivers etc. are mainly and marginal flood loss. responsible for intensive flood. The fig. 9

130 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 4. No Flood Zone In extreme upper portion of the catchment area where there is no large and broad river, surface flow is more common than any channel flow the occurrences of flood is almost nil or rarely found. For example in the memorable flood history, only during flood year 2000, some portion of no flood zone was marginally affected. Total coverage of this kind of no flood zone is Fig. 10 1554.28 sq.km. The flood intensity zone on the basis of catchment dwellers. flood frequency, flood stagnation period and • There is strong relation between flood flood height have been presented in fig.10 in lower catchment area and discharge by using the Composite Score to represent of water from Deucha barrage. During the total flood character. 2000 flood coverage area and damaging Table 7: Scale of Integrated Flood Affected Area intensity were very high due to the % of release of huge amount of water from Flood zone Area area to the barrage. total • Out of some memorable flood Intensive flood 207.40km2 5.81 incidences, flood 2000, flood 1998, zone flood 2007 are significant. Among them Moderate flood 898.51 km2 25.17 2000 flood is worst one for its spatial zone extent, flood height and stagnation Low flood zone 909.57 km2 25.48 period. About 63% area of the whole No flood zone 1554.28 km2 43.54 basin was affected by flood during this period. Major Findings: • As a flood vector, rainfall is directly • The flood level height has increased linked with mass scale flood but as remarkably in lower catchment area a specimen of human interference, and normally maximum flood height narrowing down of river course by is found in confluence catchment area. encroaching lodges, sudden discharges from barrages (Deucha) etc. are also • Due to non-perennial character of river responsible for the cumulative flood and high slope, upper part of this basin devastation in this basin. is totally free from flood devastation. • From the comparative study of the • Flood frequency is increasing since flood intensive zone it is expressed that 1978. Now every year macro to meso the zone is gradually shifting toward level floods are experienced by lower relatively upper reach since 1978. It

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 131 indicates that the flood affected area and IX. Profit –loss calculation should intensity are spreading upward. immediately be revised for Deucha barrage to make our future plan more Some Remedial Measures: viable. I. Dredging of feeder channels will help X. The perception of the basin dwellers to free trespassing of the water from should be implied to chalk out the Dwarka to Bhagirathi at faster rate. management strategies. II. Increasing of the retention capacity of Flood is natural phenomena, so it should the wetland or wetland areas to hold not be hampered and tampered. It is high excess water during flood. time that people should be concerned about III. Large numbers of sizeable culverts are ensuing threats otherwise river can announce essential along the road for the passing rebel against the river tamer and on that of the water as it will save the road days man would have nothing to do rather damage. shameful surrender to river and riverine process. People are living within the flood IV. Controlled monitoring of water command area, so they should adjust with discharge from dam and barrage is flood at any cost. necessary during peak monsoon period and the capacity of the storing water must be increased. References V. Encroachment of the settlement areas Khullar, D.R. (2000) “India A Comprehensive into the channel must be avoided as Study”, Kalyani Publishers pp.224-238. the constricted flow is responsible for sudden flood occurrence . Majumdar, S.C.(1941): Rivers of Bengal Delta, Department of Irrigation, Govt. of West VI. Flood safety room, community hall, Bengal common concrete granary etc. may be considered as good step to get rid of Mukhapadhyay, S. Mukhapadhyay, M. & Pal. much losses. S.(2011): “ Advanced River Geography” ACB. Publishing, pp.130-136. VII. Village wise flood volunteer group should be organized for urgent and prompt saving of properties during Dr. Sutapa Mukhopadhyay, flood. Associate Professor, [email protected] VIII. Flood warning system should be implemented and revived. At least one Surajit Let, river gauge station per each 20 km Research Scholar, distance should be established with Dept. of Geography, proper rain gauge system. Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, W. B. [email protected]

132 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Book Review - 1 Paradigm Shift in Geography M. H. Qureshi (ed. 2013)

M. H. Qureshi (ed. 2013) Paradigm Shift in Hanuman Singh Yadav’s paper “Global Geography: Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd., Finance and Capital driven Spaces: A New Delhi; pp xxvi+352; price Rs.1500/- Geographical Explanation” presents an Not many geographers know that analytical view of the role of capital in the Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, has been organization of space, a fact often ignored publishing a series of geographical books, in geographical study. Yadav’s paper known as Jamia Millia Islamia Studies. The offers compelling argument to support his series contains at least half a dozen books on view that “geography has gone through diverse themes. The volume under review is a paradigm shift, both in method and a part of that series. philosophy, in tune with the development of capitalism, as positivism, radicalism and The volume under review “Paradigm lately postmodernism, but geographical Shift in Geography” contains 13 papers, analysis remained devoid of ideology”. This presented at a seminar, held on 26th and 28th opens a new avenue of debate for evaluating Nov. 2011, under the auspices of the A. M. the extent to which capital dictates the Khwaja Chair, presently held by Professor M. character of economic landscape. H. Qureshi, the editor of the volume. Not all the papers focus on the theme of the seminar: B. S. Butola’s “Shifting Paradigm: in fact, a majority takes up other themes, not Shifting Goalposts in Political Geography” less important, but not quite in consonance runs into 63 pages, occupying almost a fifth with the spirit of the seminar. The book opens of the book- length. Written in a terse, often with a foreword by the then Vice-Chancellor, a stifling style, the paper is insufferably Janab Najeeb Jung, followed by a preface by long and chaotically organized. He sets Professor M. H. Qureshi, that acquaints the out to explain, at great length, the concept readers with what one would expect in the of paradigm, and the divergent views of book and gives a brief resume of the articles Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper, observing contained in the volume. The text starts that Kuhn himself used the concept of with the keynote address of Madaswamy paradigm and paradigm shift in not less Moni of National Informatics Centre, New than 21 senses, which he enumerates (pp Delhi. Emphasizing the importance of 78 &79 of the volume), crediting Haggett environmental conservation and sustainable and Chorley, followed by David Harvey and inclusive growth, he talks of paradigm for popularizing the concept of paradigm. shift as seen in the emerging geo-spatial He gives credit to Friedrich Ratzel, as the techniques. originator of the idea of ‘Lebensraum’, that morphed subsequently into geopolitik disciplines and humanities’, (what remains of Karl Haushofer. Surprisingly, he thinks to be included?). He, self–righteously, like that Ratzel was the first to bring humans Kabir, reviles both, the sciences on their in the ambit of geographical study, a pontification on metaphysical approach view not widely shared. In his narrative and experimental verification, and social of paradigm shift, Butola talks of the sciences for constructing the narratives and gradualism of Charles Lyell on one side and discourses, combining them with borrowed the evolution of Charles Darwin on the other. techniques from science. He doesn’t stop here, and switches over to One should know that concepts and the mechanistic and Cartesian-Newtonian techniques don’t descend from heaven, and paradigm, followed by Copernicus-Galileo don’t fall in an exclusive domain of one paradigm, rather in a an inverse order, science or the other. Science doesn’t grow to arrive at the ‘Continental and Plate in isolation, it enriches itself by sharing, Tectonics‘ paradigm. What the latter has to adoption, application and propagation. He do with paradigm shift in political geography accuses geographers of blindly importing is not clear to this reviewer. concepts from various disciplines. Would he Reverting to Greco-roman idealistic like to straitjacket geography in an inflexible paradigm, and then the views of some frame protecting it from the evil influences French philosophers, Butola compresses of other sciences? in a sentence the contribution of European The most damaging and contemptuous philosophers, starting from Immanuel remarks that show low esteem for the Kant, underscoring the names of eight discipline are in the pen-ultimate paragraph. philosophers, including some celebrated These read as follows.”Geography as a composers like Mozart and Bach, Butola discipline was subjected to two equally drifts in his voyage of paradigm-discovery, dangerous pathologies: implosion due to encompassing everything that comes his mindless borrowing from other disciplines, way till he touches the anchoring ground and explosion due to low capacity to digest of Michael Foucault before talking of bio- the imported stuff, resulting into throwing politics, on which he has contributed a paper up indigested knowledge articulated into in ‘Human Geography’ (see bibliography). numerous sub-branches of the discipline”. He concludes-“Under bio-political regime, Geographers! Beware, you stand the risk the organisms including the human beings of chewing the secondary, thrown-up stuff. and their life processes have become Sarfaraz Alam’s essay - ‘Main the subject of political power”. Butola’s Ideological Currents in Indian Geography’, narrative of geography, as a discipline, well written and sequentially organized, is swings from one extreme to the other. likely to be a reference material for those He says ‘geography as a discipline is who would like to know about ideologically different from many other disciplines, guided research in India. Though, as the particularly from natural and social science author observes in his essay, ideological

134 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 debate in geography appeared late on it implies, does not lie in ideology, it has to the scene, there is no reason why its late be discovered through scientific methods. arrival or even its neglect among Indian Misra and Raju have proceeded with the geographers be lamented. Does ideology intention, as the title suggests, of discussing really have a place in an objective analysis “Colonial Influence on Geographical Studies of a situation? It could have as much of a in India: A Brief Perspective”. They think vitiating impact as an enlightening one. that the leading geography departments of Alam divides the ideological evolution of India (Calcutta, Banaras and Aligarh) “which Indian geography into four phases, viz. flourished under the colonial regime carried period of empirical and regional geography, on with the colonial legacy and decided on period of positive and systematic geography, the nature and trend of geographical studies period of relevant geography and period in India. As these three early departments of ideological diversity. Differentiating produced students who spread far and between conservative, liberal and radical wide in the country and perpetuated the ideologies, Sarfaraz quotes from the writings same legacy. This is exactly the reason of Indian geographers, ranging from Rana P. why Indian geographers have always been B. Singh to Moonis Raza, Aijazuddin Ahmed seeking or waiting for something to come and M. H. Qureshi, on the one hand, to A. from the west. This is the singular reason P. Misra, Swapna Banerjee-Guha and B. why most of the studies and works done K.Choudhary on the other. In conclusion, the by Indian geographers during the period author finds that no one ideology pervades 1950-90 have revealed the same trend and in teaching or research in Indian geography, tendency”, a very simplistic explanation and concludes that research should be indeed. The authors seem to think, as the conducted by adhering to standard scientific reviewer understands, that the studies ideals and integrities, and that it should be of themes like communal divide, ethnic critical in approach not only to question the conflicts and religious and environmental existing geographical knowledge but also to studies, advocated by the western scholars expose the hidden agenda of geographical were meant to promote the interest of the knowledge production. What appears from capitalist western world. In a large and the essay is that Alam seems to believe diverse country like India, one can discover in taking up an ideological position for an array of themes and problems, and no one which he seeks support from D. Gregory prevents Indian geographers from moving by quoting his statement - ‘Our adoption away from the comfort of their armchair of one position rather than another is much research and grapple with problems in the more convincing if the choice is a conscious field. But, would they? one, deriving from a careful appraisal of the Ali Raza Moosvi’s “Paradigm Shifts and alternatives’. One can take a position post- Expansion of Knowledge: A Preliminary facto following rigorous research analysis, Study of Geography” is a precise and well but a pre-conceived ideological position is written review of geography as a university the mind of a lunatic. The reality, whatever discipline, with a historical perspective. In

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 135 his review, Ali has justifiably inserted the having its origin in the biological sciences, contribution of Middle East geographers and attributed to German scientist Ernst such as al-Idrisi and Ibn Battuta, though one Haeckel, the adoption of the term either as may question the inclusion of the latter in the human, political, economic, as a qualifying rank of geographers. His mention of al-Biruni prefix, adds one more perspective to the evokes admiration of this great scientific range of relationships and human-nature thinker whose Kitabu’l Hind is a masterpiece interactions. None of the two substitutes - of geographical understanding. While human and political ecology- is contentious tracing briefly the evolution of geography and none of them offers a holistic definition through the centuries, and that of modern of the discipline. Never in its history, human geography with Humboldt’s ‘Kosmos’ and ecology was considered a substitute for, Thomas Huxley’s ‘Physiography ‘, through or an adequate definition of, Geography. the phase of determinism to the emergence Both, human ecology as well as political of modern technology, Ali laments that ecology could represent two important “the present geographical paradigms of perspectives. Choudhary’s demonstration empiricism and spatial representation have of the importance of political power, and a deep connection with the market with political ecology, with examples from the which they transact on a daily need-basis. use of environmental resources, related More and more technological applications to land use, ground water extraction and are being introduced in geography only in mineral resources, in different parts of the so far as the application of technology to country is convincing, but it is not the whole space is concerned. But synthesizing this truth; many more factors are involved. As information in a spatial context needs a he himself observes – “The nature of the theory, and it is here that geography seems to complexities of the scenario is much more be lacking”. Then comes the most significant intricate than the human-environment statement – “The study of basic theory, relation in the classical sense. It is these already in need of urgent redress, would intricacies that geography has to address collapse and the subject itself would be today, if it has to survive and it intends to make itself socially relevant”. While on anchorless to move in whichever direction as couldn’t agree more with Choudhary, one the winds of change and opportunity blow” is tempted to add that geography was never unless we infuse the discipline with basic limited to making of an inventory, nor did it theory and understanding. shy away from what the author calls intricate B. K. Choudhary’s exhaustive paper – relationship. A satisfactory explanation “Paradigmatic Shift in Geography - Journey could be simple or full of complexities, from Human Ecology to Political Ecology” depending on the nature of problems. The is based on an important assumption, i.e., potential of political ecology, as seen by the the human ecology has yielded place to author, to analyse the ‘triad of Resource- political ecology. One is tempted to remind Development-Peace’ using multiple social the author that the very concept of ecology frame works, is an optimistic assessment.

136 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Anindita Datta’s review of gender organized and informative paper with a geographies in India is metaphorically select bibliography and a couple of end titled - “Wild Flowers on the Margins of notes, is a good read for all those interested the Field: On the Geographies of Gender in in medical geography; and the reviewer India”. Is Gender Geography in India like would not hesitate in recommending it as a wild flowers on the margins of cultivars? an important reading material for graduate Indian geography is not unfamiliar with students. The opening paragraph of the paper, gender problem: to bring it centre stage and defining different approaches to geography, to accord an appropriate place in the array often missed in research papers, is followed of sub-disciplines is what is aimed in this by a review, in brief, of global researches review paper of Datta. During the recent in medical geography and the situation decades, there has been steady progress in India. And, finally, the author talks of and there is clear encouragement to the future directions and the issues at hand. introduction of this sub-discipline even at the It is a concise, precise and systematically under-graduate level. As noted by the author organized paper that is smooth in style and ’the UGC did propose an undergraduate enlightening in content. The paper, however, programme of gender-study in 2001’ Yet, may not suggest a paradigm shift, but a shift ‘there exists a clear lag between research in focus and emphasis. trends in the local and global contexts’. The “Preparing Crop Inventory and detecting most common effort in this direction has Land Use Changes. Shift in Methodological been to make the disparities in education, Paradigm” is a paper presented by three health-care and employment of women professors of the department of Geography, vis-à-vis man, visible. ‘However, an overt Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Unlike a questioning of patriarchy and the unequal substantive paper, the authors have presented balance of power between men and women a methodological shift in collecting crop that result in these patterns has not really statistics. Tracing the history and importance occurred’. Regrettably, in the opinion of this of crop statistics from the days of Kautilya’s reviewer, ‘seeking a balance of power’ as if Arthashastra right through the Moghul period, men and women are competitors or rivals’ is exemplified by Ain-e-Akbari, the celebrated a proposition not shared universally. work of Akbar’s general Abul Fazal, that The review-paper is indeed interesting suggests devices for the compilation of and the ‘wild flowers - the gender geography’ crop statistics, the authors comment on the on the margin of the cultivated field should elaborate and time consuming method of be tended to blossom, but to supplement collection through ground survey, sampling and not to destroy the existing luxuriance, reporting of statistics. They advocate the as the weeds do. adoption of ‘Remote Sensing Techniques Rajeshwari’s paper- “Methodological - Visual and Digital’ by enumerating its Developments in Medical Health Care advantages over traditional methods. Geography”, a very systematically There is a methodology for every aspect

Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 | 137 of estimation, area, productivity etc, and, thinking but also provides a basic framework as they suggest is being applied by state of understanding.. agencies through ^CAPE (Crop Acreage and The pen-ultimate paper of the volume Production Estimation) and LACIE (Large is one by R. B. Bhagat who is arguing for Area Inventory Experiment). Outlining a “Decentralised Food Security Policy” the procedure through various charts, the within the larger framework of “Population, authors conclude that the remote sensing Hunger and Food Security in India”, the technology has enormous potential, what title of his paper. Taking stock of the food they have delineated is just indicative, security situation over the last half a century, and many studies can be conducted on Bhagat shows how the food availability has various themes on agriculture, taking high- improved despite an increase in population resolution data. and has lingered around 440 gm per capita To this reviewer’s delight, he finds per day following Green Revolution, though Mahabir Singh Jaglan talking of the a decline in an overall availability of pulses “Place and Significance of Field-work in is a cause for concern. Seen against a norm Geographical Teaching and Research in of 2,400 kcal per person per day in rural and India’. It can hardly be denied that as the 1900 kcal in urban areas, Bhagat, quoting years and decades pass by, geography in other authorities, makes out a case of under- Indian universities is bracing to don the nourishment to the tune of 79.8 in rural and mantle of an armchair discipline, reflecting, 75.8% in urban areas. Mere availability philosophizing, trying to find a niche for of food doesn’t guarantee access to food, geography in the changing philosophical and this establishes a close link between base of social science disciplines. What poverty and food security. This affects the author of the paper is emphasizing even children and causes infant mortality. is the indispensability of fieldwork in a Intervention by the Central Government geography course designed for university has taken the form of Food Security Act, level studies. Quoting Fuller (2006), the guaranteeing food to poorer sections of author enumerates the objectives and the the society at affordable price. The author advantages of fieldwork and demonstrates points out several deficient features in the with the help of data, extracted from five National Food Security act, rooting for a national journals, the pathetic state of decentralised system operated by the states fieldwork content in university courses. through the village Panchayats. Part of the explanation, the reviewer thinks, Dinesh Pratap in a spatial study of lies in the state of decline in physical “Forest Policies, Management Rules geography, at the post-graduate level in and Local Community in Uttarakhand” the universities. The application of Remote evaluates the impact of changing forest sensing techniques cannot be a substitute for policies and their impact on the forests of fieldwork and actual contact with physical Uttarakhand. With the primary objective of or socio-economic landscape not stimulates ensuring environmental stability, ecological

138 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 balance and biodiversity conservation all some assertive discussions with a together with improving the productivity of philosophical overtone. Though the nature the forests, a policy of joint management of of the seminar was such that one can find the forests involving forest departments and enough justification to include all that the village communities was initiated. The exists in the book, yet one wonders if Indian policy, it appears, gave additional powers geographers are not tending to write more to the forest department. The author has ‘on geography’ than ‘geography’. discussed at length the implementation of Professor Qureshi deserves our the Joint Management Policy and the Forest appreciation for initiating this series and Rights Act, 2006 as seen in Uttarakhand. bringing out several volumes including He finds tardy implementation of the the present one. The book is well- edited, Forest Rights Act, procedural delays and and the printing is error-free. Let us hope conservative interpretation of rules resulting the seminars and the present series of in the denial of community rights. And, publication continue. despite various objections and suggestions of the community and recommendations of committees, the ideal forest policy K. R. Dikshit for effective community management of Pune the forests remains elusive, defeating the purpose of various policy initiatives and the introduction of new acts. Of the thirteen papers contained in the volume, none, strictly speaking, talks of a paradigm shift. Some talk of an additional perspective, some represent the geographical dimensions of national problems, some talk of new methodologies and their problem solving potential, and some others talk of the neglect of certain methods and approaches. The only paradigm shift appears to be keeping a safe distance from the landscape approach, greater indulgence in philosophical and methodological discussions and some neglect of substantive studies. Notwithstanding the above comments, the volume is rich in content. It has some well-organised review papers, a few presentations of the problems encountered in policy implementation, and above

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Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Book Review - 2 Glimpses of Kerala through Maps Srikumar Chattopadhyay and S. Suresh Kumar Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram; 2013

Srikumar Chattopadhyay and S. Suresh The explanatory notes for each map Kumar, Glimpses of Kerala through are short, to the point, and offer occasional Maps, Centre for Earth Science Studies, background information. Tables form an Thiruvananthapuram; 2013, with 32maps important part of the explanatory notes. and explanatory notes, pp. 93 price- not Some plates, i. e. Landscape Ecological stated Zones would be less meaningful without Nearly 30 years after the Centre the detailed table. About one third of of Earth Science Studies (CESS) in the plates relate to what the authors Thiruvananthapuram brought out the call Biophysical Set-up with two plates Resource Atlas of Kerala (scale 1:1,000.000), referring to biosphere and ecological the Centre has published a new atlas- zonation, and the remaining seven depict Glimpses of Kerala through Maps. The atlas the physical features of Kerala. The plate contains two sections, the first consisting ‘Decrease in Annual Rainfall’, is based of 32 colour plates and the second the on the comparison of rainfall, during the explanatory notes, including 21 tables and two periods of forty years each, from the references. All the colour plates use the 1901-1940 to 1941-1980. Transport and same base map (scale 1:2,270.000) with Population form a small part of the atlas district outlines. This facilitates a quick with only five plates. The map “Spatial comparison of the contents of different trend of internal migration in Kerala” maps. Fifteen of the 32 maps are multi- skilfully represents a problem specific thematic. Though a few maps like the to Kerala. The eight tables that follow administrative divisions, the drainage, soil present the agricultural landscape of the or rainfall maps, are based on the Resource State, including the “Size of operational Atlas of Kerala, they are fully updated and landholding in the State”. The change in revised. Some of the maps carry the imprint the total cropped area, the decline in the of individual scientists like the Geology area under paddy, the spatial variation in map (K. Soman), and the map of Planation the area under coconut and the expansion of Surfaces and of Landscape Ecological Zones rubber plantation are well brought out. The (S. Chattopadhyay). Most of the maps, last nine maps refer to social infrastructure however, have been the outcome of team and levels of deprivation and development effort and based on the results of different using different parameters. This could form research projects of the Centre. the a priori base for, development planning. The colour scheme is slightly on the The atlas would be decidedly useful to bright side, some following harmonious planners, teachers and students as well as gradations of greens, blues or red, some those interested in the physical and socio- more multi coloured. One important aspect economic landscape of Kerala. of the maps is that they are not overloaded with information and together with the Jutta Dikshit explanatory notes, provide a good overview Pune of different facets of the geography and economy of Kerala.

142 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Professor Laxminarayan Sanna.Bhat : Obituary

Born : 28.08.1930 Died : 25.11.2013

Professor Bhat Laxminarayan Sanna, life in Uttar Kannad district, then a part commonly known as Prof L. S. Bhat, also of Bombay presidency. During the early endearingly addressed as Bhat sahib, by 1950’s, soon after his graduation in Science his students and close associates, passed with Geography, he was awarded Daxina away on 25th Nov, 2014 following a massive Fellowship. This enabled him to register heart attack in New Delhi. Ms Bhat and as a student for M.Sc. (by Research) in other members of the family were by his Geography in Karnatak College, Dharwad. side when the end came. Professor Bhat is Thus began his geographical journey with survived by his wife, two sons, his daughter rigour and enthusiasm. He was very fortunate and several grand children. The institute in having Professor C.D.Deshpande, as of Indian Geographers deeply mourns his his mentor and guide. Having come in death. In his demise, Indian Geography has close contact with stalwarts like Prof lost an able researcher and a trendsetter in V.L.S. Prakasa Rao and Professor Andrew Regional Planning studies and practices. Learmonth, he imbibed their academic Professor L.S.Bhat was born in a small qualities that guided him in his future life. village, Holangadde, in Kumata taluka The most important position Dr. Bhat of Uttar Kannad district of Karnatak, on held was as a professor of geography and 28th August, 1930. He spent his early Regional Planning at the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), New Delhi. Here he came in He was a founder member and General contact with Prof. P. C. Mahalnobis with Secretary of National Association of whom he worked on several projects. While Geographers, India, for several years. He working at the ISI, he was also associated has steered the Association successfully, with the Planning Commission of India, through the initial period of teething trouble. New Delhi, an association that lasted for On the social front too, Prof. Bhat’s over a decade between 1961- and 1974. contribution is no less significant. He He was awarded the Leverhulme Research initiated the Delhi Karnataka Sangh and Fellowship, and worked as a consultant to served as its Secretary and President. the United Nations ESCAP at Bangkok. In He was felicitated as a distinguished the late sixties, he was a visiting faculty at Kannadiga during Karnataka Rajyotsava – the SGS, Australian National University, 99 celebrations, at New Delhi on 20.11.1999, Canberra. He was also a regular visiting conducted jointly by the Department of faculty at Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi Information and Publicity, Government University, and the School of Architecture of Karnataka, and the Delhi Karnataka and Planning, New Delhi. Sangh. Despite his personal tragedy of He has to his credit a large number having a special childhood disability, he research publications, including books on bravely faced the harsh realities of life. He Regional Planning in India, Micro-level took active interest in the Delhi chapter of planning, Integrated Area development, Handicapped Children Parents Association Planning regions and Regional Survey of (HCPA). Mysore State (with V.L.S.P.Rao), Impact The works of Prof Bhat will continue to of Metropolitan City on the surrounding inspire professional geographers for a long Region, (co-author), and Contributions to time to come. the Economic Geography of India (with A.T.A. Learmonth). In recognition of his contributions to Indian Geography K.M.Kulkarni and Regional Planning, the Indian Professor of Geography (Retd) Council of Social Science Research, Department of Geography New Delhi, awarded him the prestigious Gujarat University National fellowship, to work on ‘Spatial Ahmedabad-380 009 Perspectives in Decentralized Planning.' He was instrumental in the formulation and implementation of Research and Training Programmes, related to regional planning in geography, in several universities.

144 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 Trans. Inst. Indian Geographers Dr. K. V. Sundaram : Obituary

Born : 30-11-1929 Died : 23-11-2013

Dr. K. V. Sundaram, one of the pioneers of seven years of teaching and research, he regional planning in India, is no more with moved to the Town Planning Organization, us. He left for his heavenly abode, after now Town and Country Planning a prolonged illness, on 23th November Organization (TCPO), Government of India, 2013. Kavassery Vanchi Sundaram was New Delhi as a Research Associate in 1958. born on 30th November 1929 at Calicut in He worked with a multi-disciplinery team Kerala State in India. His father, Shri K. in preparation of a Regional Development A. Vanchi Iyer, moved to Tamil Nadu in Plan for Metropolitan Delhi, which was the 1930 to take up a job as Headmaster of a first of it’s kind in India. After completion high school at Devakottai in Ramnathpuram of the Delhi Master Plan, he worked on district. Sundaram completed his schooling regional planning projects for the Rajasthan at Devakottai and under-graduate studies Canal Region, Dandakaranya Development at Tirunelvelli and Madurai. He joined Region, South-east Resource Region and the the first batch of the University of Madras dacoity infected districts of central India. for his Master’s degree in Geography and This wide ranging on-the-job experience completed the course in 1951. stimulated his thinking on inter-state Sundaram started his professional career regionalisation for planning. His paper as a faculty in Alagappa Chettiar College on Planning Regions of India, discussed at Karaikudi in Tamil Nadu in 1951. After in a special session of the International Geographical Congress at New Delhi in thinking on spatial planning and integrated 1968, was highly appreciated. Equally area development. He played a crucial appreciable was his critical evaluation of role in preparing guidelines for block and the prevailing ‘Town Group’ concept of the district level planning initiated by the Census of India, and his suggestions for a Planning Commission. He firmly believed more rational approach to delimitation of in capacity building of the personnel at the urban areas. Another valuable contribution sub-national levels for ensuring effective of this eminent geographer, during his stint decentralisation of powers and functions, at TCPO, was his study of spatial planning and for initiating planning from below. He of the tribal areas of Bastar district in actively collaborated with the Department Madhya Pradesh, now Chhattisgarh, as part of Science and Technology, Government of a United Nations project on ‘Growth of India in setting up information systems Poles and Growth Centres in Regional for planning at sub-national levels. He Development Planning in India’. The was instrumental in initiating a centrally study forms part of the widely referred sponsored programme of the Planning book, ‘Regional Development Planning in Commission for creating a multi-disciplinery India : A New Strategy’, jointly authored team of planners, and strengthening planning by R.P.Misra, K.V.Sundaram, and V.L.S. machinery at the district level. The inclusion Prakasa Rao. In 1973 Sundaram was of a post of geographer in this team was a invited by the United Nations Centre significant contribution of Sundaram. for Regional Development (UNCRD), Sundaram’s academic pursuits Nagoya, Japan as a consultant, where he impressed British Scholars and he was worked with a research team on a multi- awarded a Senior Fellowship by the Nuffield national comparative study of ‘Growth of Foundation, London to pursue research on medium sized towns in relation to their rural spatial dynamics of under-development regions’, covering case studies in Japan, at the Centre for South Asian Studies, Philippines, and India. Sundaram moved University of Cambridge, U.K. During to the Planning Commission, Government the tenure of the fellowship (1978-79), of India in 1973 and served in various he wrote his widely acclaimed book titled positions : Joint Director, Director/Deputy "Geography of Under-development : The Advisor, and Joint Advisor of the Multi- Spatial Dynamics of Under-development." level Planning Division. His activities in the As Nuffield Fellow, he lectured at a number Planning Commission concerned research, of European universities, and was invited planning and appraisal of projects, advisory as a visiting professor to the U.S.A. by the services, promotion of training activities, Center of South Asian Studies, University of and directing and managing some centrally Michigan, Ann Arbor, and the Department sponsored projects. His major contribution of Geography, Boston University. was promotion of multi-level planning Following international recognition for at district and block levels and related Sundaram’s work, a number of international training activities. He wrote extensively on organizations desired to utilize his expertise regional, local and multi-level planning, in the fields of urban and regional planning, which had great impact on contemporary rural development, multi-level planning,

146 | Transactions | Vol. 36, No. 1, 2014 and training of personnel. Sundaram took India and abroad for enriching the theory voluntary retirement from the Planning and practice of regional planning in the Commission of India in 1987 and joined developing world. He was elected President the United Nations Organization. His of the National Association of Geographers, major international assignments included India (NAGI) in 1998-99. He established a : ESCAP, Bangkok, 1979-80; UNCRD, professional consortium of Earth scientists - Nagoya,1981-82 ; UNESCO, Paris, 1986 ; Bhoovigyan Vikas Foundation at New Delhi FAO/UNO, Rome, 1986-87, and 1988-92 ; in 2000 to take care of Mother Earth and International Centre for Integrated Mountain formulate appropriate Earth care policies for Development, Kathmandu, 1988 and 1993 environmental protection and preservation. ; Centre of Integrated Rural Development He continued to nourish the foundation as for Asia and the Pacific, Dhaka, 1992 and it’s Founder Chairman to the last days of 1995 ; and Asian Institute of Technology, his active life. Bangkok, 1993. He was a profilic writer. Dr. Sundaram was an excellent human He authored/edited 20 books, 30 manuals/ being. He led a simple life and was an reports/monographs, 43 chapters in edited embodiment of humility. He was generous books, 06 reviews, 15 key-note/presidential to the core and loved to share with others addresses, and presented 41 research papers whatever he had. He valued friendship and in national and 30 papers in international all those who have been associated with him, seminars/workshops. cherish his friendship. His migration from Dr. Sundaram was conferred the this world is indeed an irreparable loss to Degree of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) by the bereaved family, especilly his partner- the University of Mysore in 1977 for his in -life, Girija ji, and his loving son and published work, ‘Urban and Regional daughter, and to the large fraternity of his Planning in India. He was honoured with friends and admirers. May this noble soul Jayendra Saraswati Lifetime Excellence rest in eternal peace. and Achievement Award of the Centenarian Trust of Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham by His Prof. P. S. Tiwari Holiness Sri Sri Sri Jayendra Saraswati Professor of Geography (Retired) Swamigal in 2004. He has been felicitated University of Madras by a large number of universities, research E-mail : [email protected] institutes and professional organizations in

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