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Running Head: DRIVER RETENTION 1

Truck Driver Staffing Retention Problems and Recommendations

John Buksa

California State University, Maritime Academy

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Abstract

The objective of this project is to attempt to find possible solutions to the current truck driver and retention issues that are plaguing the over-the-road (OTR) freight industry.

Currently the truck driving is seen as having low desirability when more stable alternative (construction , administrative and clerical work, and material handlers) are available that do not involve having the lifestyle of a truck driver. The transportation companies and shippers are the ones that deal with the consequences of this situation, which creates the great need for a solution. The project details the current industry and drivers by exploring the demographics, pay, current migration trends into and out of the industry, technology and how it has affected the industry, as well as the lifestyle. Then the project identifies five possible solutions to increase retention and reduce the issues of driver staffing for companies. While all the proposed solutions are possible, two of the five solutions are then recommended as having the potential for the most success.

Keywords: driver staffing, driver retention, Hours of (HOS), Electronic Logging

Device (ELD), semiautonomous trucking,

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Introduction

The trucking or road freight industry in the did not have its start until the First

World when the railroads were unable to meet the for moving freight. Prior to

1917, were only used in the of freight within and around cities as the railroad system was more cost and time efficient; the roads and highways during that time were poorly constructed and inadequate. It was not until after WWI and throughout the when the highway infrastructure was slightly enhanced and extended with the federal aid projects throughout the country and interregional highways were introduced. However, as stated by

Weingroff (2017), the only saw less than 5% of freight moved over the road whereas closer to 1940 that figure increased to around 10%. That figure was not maintained for long and dropped drastically during the Second World War as railroads were the mode of choice for handling the increased freight transport demand (Weingroff, 2017).

After 1954, President Eisenhower set in motion the creation and expansion of the interstate highway system that allowed for the road freight industry to keep up with the economic boom.

While Eisenhower’s initial Federal-Aid Highway Act was rejected due to issues involving the taxes levied to fund the initiative, it was not until 1956 when the act finally passed. The tax issues were fueled by a rivalry between railroad and trucking companies/special groups

(the rail freight sector trying to keep their dominance of the ). The final act had an agreement of tax increases on automobiles, trucks, oil, gas, and rubber for tires to fund the initiative (Weingroff, 2017).

The construction and improvement of interstate highways aided the post-war by opening up more access to which in turn increased the demand for truck drivers to transport the goods. Since the 1950s, the demand for road freight movement and the need for

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truck drivers have seen increases and decreases from several factors. These factors include political changes including regulations to the industry, oil fluctuations, the production of goods being outsourced to other nations, and the changes in population/demographics (Weingroff, 2017).

In regards to the changes in population/demographics, the current trend seen is that the truck drivers that started after the last boom in the industry (the 1950s) are now retiring or have stopped working, and the new of drivers is not the same. Currently, drivers who are both qualified and willing to work the needed hours with the conditions of the are hard to find (Long 2018). They are not willing to work the same hours and in the same conditions like their predecessors did, and in a society that is increasing in consumerism with more freight being transported over the road than any other method, this is appears to be a negative trend (Long,

2018).

The sector of the industry that is most affected by the driver shortage is the over the road

(OTR) or long-haul sector. Burks and Monaco prove the claim that long haul drivers have been impacted the most in their report for the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019). The type of lifestyle that long-haul drivers lead has proven to be unappealing to today’s current . In addition, the rise and fall of the staffing in the industry will later be shown to directly coincide with trends in other areas of the workforce for other trades and occupations.

This paper will be divided into three main sections: the literature review, the creative project, and the summary and final recommendation. The literature review will focus on several areas: demographics in relation to employment trends, the migrations of drivers into and out of the industry, the lifestyle of the job, the increase in intermodal freight and its effect on road freight, several causes and already proposed solutions to the problem, and the teamster’s position on the

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problem along with their approved solutions. The creative project will then focus on five solutions to increase truck driving staffing and retention in an industry that is becoming increasingly unpopular to enter. Those solutions will encompass using the electronic logging device (ELD) systems and the data that they collect to implement more consistent pay standards, using digital applications like Uber Freight, implementing semiautonomous trucking technology, lowering the interstate commercial driving age from 21 to 18, and creating programs. Lastly, a recommendation will be made on the viability and more probable solution to aid in the driver shortage and retention problem.

Literature Review

Demographics

To truly understand the truck driver shortage problem, it is necessary to understand the demographics of the industry and how the industry is constituted. Sean Kilcarr from Fleetowner highlights this change in his coverage of Randy Seals’ discussion, a customer advocate for

McLeod, at the McLeod Software 2017 User Conference (2017):

Out of a population of 3.5 million truck drivers in the U.S. – 3.1 million of whom are

commercial driver’s license (CDL) holders – some 38.75% are minorities and 6% are

women, according to data compiled by the American Trucking Associations (ATA).

Some 66.6% of the truck driver population is currently made up of white males, based on

2014 data, followed by Hispanic men at 14.6%, men of other nationalities at 14.8%, and

females at 6%.

…According to ATA data, the average age of a private fleet truck driver is now 52,

followed by 50 at LTL carriers, 49 at TL carriers and 47 at drayage operators.

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All in all, the average age of a truck driver now hovers around 49, he said; seven years

more than the age of the average U.S. worker overall.

As Kilcarr notes, there are disproportionate percentages of different ethnicities and female drivers that constitute the workforce in the industry. The majority of drivers being white with small percentages being other ethnicities/nationalities, and a very small percentage being women drivers. This is also supported by an earlier article by Rip Watson who writes that of the commercial driver population, 73% are Caucasian whereas the Hispanic population is 12% along with the African American driver population, and a 5% constitution of women (2014). It should be noted that these demographics vary slightly by region and area (Kahaner 2017).

One emerging group in the trucking industry is the Punjabi and Sikh population.

Theeconomist.com reports that “there are approximately 150,000 Sikhs in trucking, 90% of whom are drivers. Those numbers are growing rapidly, with 18,000 Sikhs entering the industry in 2017 alone” (2018). Vishnu Rajamanickam from freightwaves.com even asserts that using

Sikh truckers would be a solution to the problem as Sikhs see the profession as something honorable and to be proud of whereas younger tend to have a more negative perception (2018).

However, Punjabi and Sikh populations are not the only foreign nationality or immigrants working in the industry. Larry Kahaner with fleetowner.com discusses the other immigrant groups that make up the industry in his article from 2017 where he interviews Justin Lowry, a

George Mason University PhD researcher on immigrants. Kahaner writes that Lowry found that the largest percentage of immigrant drivers come from five countries: Mexico, El Salvador,

Cuba, , and (2017). The next biggest group of drivers come from ,

Poland, and other eastern European countries, and the smaller groups of immigrant drivers come

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from: Bosnia, Honduras, , Russia, , China, and the Dominican Republic (2017).

Another point made in the article was that there are four states with the highest percentages of immigrant drivers. The state of has a driver population with 46.7% of it being made up of immigrants, has 40.4%, has 32.2%, and New York has 25.7%

(Kahaner 2017).

Women only comprise four to six percent of the driver work force in the past two decades

(Ellen Voie, 2016). As the President of the Women in Trucking Association, Voie writes that women are generally prone to have fewer crashes and those crashes are less costly in damage and destruction. She attributes that the quantity of women drivers is small due to the fact that the industry has not adjusted/made acceptable accommodations for women to learn, sleep, and drive

(Voie 2016). For example, in her article she gives examples of driver facilities and locations that are only accommodated to male drivers and not female drivers; one of the major issues being the sleeping facilities (Voie 2016). However, the larger issue than any of the smaller problems is that “Industry representatives maintain that they don’t care about the gender of drivers. The carriers say they hire men and women and treat them equally. But trucking can’t escape the fact that there are 20 men to every woman behind the wheel” (Voie 2016). It should be noted that this hiring gap is only starting to be realized by the trucking firms.

Other than nationality and gender, age is another demographic in the trucking industry that is changing and affecting retention and staffing. There has been a shift where the average age of drivers is older: around 45 years of age or older (ltxsolutions.com, 2018) and increasing in age until they retire. An additional aspect adding to the complexity of the problem is that the entrance of younger drivers into the workforce is minimal, if not decreasing ( 2014).

Another report from 2014 by Jeffrey Short of the American Transport Research Institute focuses

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on the demographics of the industry, Analysis of Truck Driver Age Demographics Across Two

Decades:

The data indicates that a core group of “” employees who entered the industry

more than 20 years ago have stayed within the industry across this time period. Thus, the

industry appears to be disproportionately reliant upon a single generation, and it can be

further surmised that this core “trucking generation” will be exiting the workforce in

increasing numbers over the next 10 to 20 years. With a lower proportion of 25-34-year

olds than was historically present, the potential for a far greater driver shortage is

possible within that same 10 to 20-year timeframe.

Pay

Pay is an important area in demographics just as much as ethnicity, gender and age. The area of driver pay is complex as well as it is comprised of the type of driver pay, the actual work performed, and the company that is the employer. Systemtrans.com outlines the eight common types of driver pay: hourly pay, per mile pay, per diem pay (usually a flat rate for everyday), percentage of the load (percent of of freight being hauled), stop pay, detention pay (delay and waiting), accessorial pay (any other duties performed), and fuel and safety bonuses (2018).

Companies have actually been increasing the pay for drivers in previous years as a reaction to the higher freight demand and lower driver capacity. Erica Philips from the Journal writes about the increase of pay in her article (2018). She states (taken from an American

Trucking Association report) that the increase has actually been from 15% to 18% between the years of 2013 and 2017 (2018). Furthermore, she writes that:

Some private-fleet drivers earned as much as $86,000 annually in 2017, up from $73,000

in the group’s 2013 survey, on top of benefits packages that included new paid leave

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offers and more-generous plans. The survey showed the median for a

truckload driver working a national, irregular route—essentially an entry-level driving

position—was $53,000, up $7,000 or 15% from 2013.

This information hints at the possibility that the transportation companies are making the connection that higher above the cost of living could increase driver retention or attract new drivers. Philips does concede in the article that while companies are raising their wages, drivers are still leaving for jobs where they can receive higher steady earnings (2018).

Migration into and out of the Industry

Apart from the lower level demographics such as age and ethnicity, higher level demographics such as worker migration into and out of the industry should be studied as well. Furthermore, each of the other areas in demographics will build upon/affect migration as a whole and will be needed to understand the current trends. The Bureau of Labor Statistics report by

Burks and Monaco (2019) show that driver migration is controlled by two main factors: pay and hours. The report also shows that the activity is shown to be different in for-hire driver categories (generally long-haul) compared to other private carrier categories of drivers.

A portion of the Burks and Monaco (2019) study focused on the occupations that drivers are pulled from and how it relates to where they migrate to. They write that both for hire drivers and private carriage drivers are pulled from the same work areas except that 50% more private carriage drivers transition from construction areas of work compared to for hire drivers. Also, the number of drivers from areas of material movement and transportation (non-trucking) is similar for both categories since workers who handle freight are considered to have a higher chance to be associated with truck drivers in their line of work. Drivers from the areas of management/executives and office workers represent a large category as well as the primary one

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from where for-hire truck drivers are sourced. This is compared to private carriage truck driving which draws significantly less (Burks and Monaco 2019).

The study further found that the areas of employment where the drivers transitioned to are similar to those that are originally left to enter trucking. Burks and Monaco wrote that “the fact that the alternate occupations among those who leave and enter are similar leads us to believe that these jobs…represent a reasonable set of occupations from which potential drivers could be recruited” (2019). This leads to their conclusion, as previously stated, that pay and hours are the key drivers for occupation movement and job retention. However, the study did not take into consideration seasonal factors that affect migration such as weather and agricultural seasons.

Lifestyle and Transition of the Job

The lifestyle of the truck driver is usually different from other occupations and it also varies between the type of work that the driver is doing, therefore, making it a hurdle in retention and hiring. Whether the driver is an over the road/long haul driver, regional driver, delivery driver, hazardous material hauler, liquid hauler, driver, or an overnight driver, they all involve different lifestyles.

CDLcareernow.com outlined and described the lifestyle for people who are interested in becoming commercial drivers. They write that the work of a driver is not an average job with regular hours and that it usually involves sleeping in a truck and frequenting truck stops. The drivers are expected to work long and lonely hours traveling around 500 miles in a day with an average of 125,000 miles a year; meaning that time at home can be inconsistent and short for

OTR drivers. Along with this a driver must have a personality (patient, determined, and independent) that is compatible with the type of work and lifestyle. However,

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CDLcareernow.com also points out some of the benefits of the lifestyle such as the ability to see new locations and new countries like and Mexico.

Technology and its Effects

While the lifestyle of trucking appears to be a barrier to entry of the occupation due to the general conditions, as highlighted above, with new technology, conditions and ways of operations the lifestyle could be more attractive. Frank Morris describes in his article for NPR how modern trucks are similar to modern such as that they have automatic transmissions and the new safety features such as lane guidance and collision aversion with cameras, monitoring computers, and emergency braking (2019). In addition, all of the new technology in the trucks allows the drivers to be carefully tracked (Morris 2019). With the addition of this new technology and safety features, the job becomes easier and the occupation becomes open for entrants in younger and older age ranges due to the ease of use.

In addition to the new safety technology that most carriers now have, there is the federally mandated electronic logging technology (ELD’s or automatic on-board recording devices) that have brought problems as well as benefits. With the introduction of Electronic Logging Devices

(ELDs), truck drivers are now held to higher standards of following the (HOS) requirements. Compared to the previous hand-written/drawn paper drivers’ logs, the new system does not allow for the falsification or altering of logs to allow for more drive time or the skipping of breaks. However, the benefits are that the work time for drivers is more strictly recorded (for pay purposes, as discussed in Steve Baker’s 2018 Forbes article), breaks/lunches/rest time have to be taken (improving a better quality of life), and violations are accurately recorded to hold everyone accountable. Overall, safety has increased industry wide due to the ELDS and new

HOS regulations. (See Appendix 1 for a table of the HOS rules.)

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Ashley Coker highlights the impacts of the ELD mandate on the industry in her article for freightwaves.com. She writes that while there were no impacts on crash reductions, driver compliance and behaviors were affected (for a full list see Appendix 2). In the driver compliance area, it was found that the HOS regulations saw increased compliance as a whole. In addition, there was a total 52% reduction in violations from inspections after the mandate took effect (the largest decrease occurring after the transition from no enforcement to light enforcement). Further investigation of data on the inspections done on large carriers that resulted in violations actually increased from 0.85% to 0.89% before decreasing to 0.75%.

Whereas for the owner-operators or for-hire drivers, the inspections that ended in violations steadily declined from 10.7% down to 6% (2019). The findings that were categorized under driver behaviors appear to be more specific to drivers. For owner-operators or for-hire drivers, there was an increase in violations of 22.7% during the light enforcement period; whereas, there were 35.3% more violations during full enforcement. This increase in violations after the mandate started being fully enforced is similar to the trend seen with company drivers where there was a 5.5% increase in violations during the strict enforcement period (Coker 2019).

While the variances are small, there are measurable changes and will continue to be as time passes. It should also be noted here that the fleet management capabilities have increased because of this mandated technology. The fleet management capabilities here are in reference to broad areas such as accurately managing drivers’ hours, violations, and specific locations.

Although more specific areas such as hard braking (a pre-determined loss of speed in a certain time due to braking), speed, and acceleration could also be measured.

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Increase in Intermodal and its Effects

The new technology introduced to the field and the increased fleet management capabilities that were brought with the technology have aided in the recent growth of the intermodal transport sector (the use of two or more modes of transportation such as rail, road or ocean).

According to a study from Ahanotu and Grenzeback for the U.S. Department of Transportation, the rail intermodal sector witnessed an increase in activity starting in the early 1990s until 2007 when it declined until 2009 due to an economic (2017). However, observing it in regards to container and trailer volume, the volume increased from averaging around six million a year in 2000 to a 13 million a year average in 2013 (Ahanotu and Grenzeback 2017). Ahanotu and Grenzeback also identify that since there were National Highway System freight intermodal connectors designated by the government, port and rail containerized intermodal traffic has had a

50% increase (2017). While this study focused on freight intermodal connectors, it exposed the general increase in intermodal freight transport from ports and railroad terminals flowing into the general highway system.

This increase in intermodal freight has in turn created a new need for more drayage/dray and long-haul drivers to accommodate the capacity. (Note: Drayage or Dray is the movement of containers or trailers over short distances in the supply chain, or the movement of the containers or trailers from the port/terminal to a customer facility for example (containerport.com 2017).)

Janet Nodar highlights this issue in her article. She writes that the shortage of drivers is not only due to the increase in freight but also due to the ELD mandate limiting the hours that drivers can drive (2018). She notes that this ELD issue is more common in the midwestern part of the U.S. where ports and terminals are at a further distance to industrial centers compared to areas like the west or east coast. Nodar adds that new draymen are joining the driver pool, but issues such as

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new technology (specifically the ELD systems with the HOS mandate), bonds, and overweight permits are acting as or burdens that prevent them from being utilized the most efficiently (2018). The key here would be to help long-haul drivers be converted to draymen.

Causes and Solutions of the Driver Shortage

With the increasing shortage of commercial drivers and the difficulties in recruiting, many studies have been conducted on what is causing the problems and the solutions and corrections/solutions to them. Kevin O’Marah in his article postulates that the problem could a result of the fact that “too many supply chain executives still see trucking as an undifferentiated commodity bought almost exclusively on the basis of cost” (2016). O’Marah frames the cause of the problem as drivers being considered as commodities rather than individuals that have needs, compensation expectations, and goals. While he agrees that the median driver salary has stayed closely in line with , he admits that drivers in truckload fleets have an increased tendency to quite in their first year of work (almost a 90% rate) (2016). He further explains that “maybe the combination of homesickness, licensing and regulatory hassle, financial responsibility and aggravation with road congestion merits a raise” (2016). O’Marah’s solution to the problem is based on the fact that turnover for Less-Than-Truckload (LTL) operations is significantly less as drivers who are customer facing/interacting have an increased tendency to put more value and effort in their jobs to make them (2016). In summary, O’Marrah’s argument is that if drivers’ roles were transformed into LTL type roles where the drivers would be customer facing with more social interactions, and where they would have the possibility of being home each night, there could be increased retention.

Another possible solution that has been debated is the alteration of driver pay. Steve Banker puts forth this idea in his May 2018 article. He not only states that the increase in pay will

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resolve the driver shortage, but it is doing that already. He writes that the drivers needed are there, but the shortage actually occurs with the actual drivers who will work for the current wages being offered (2018). Banker does point out a positive statistic from the American

Trucking Association that from 2013 to 2017 the for truck drivers increased from 13 to

18 percent (2018). He writes that the majority of drivers are paid by the mile (normally OTR drivers) with only a small number paid by the hour (usually LTL drivers); however, drivers should be paid for all of the work that they perform while they are on duty. One example that is described is that dray drivers in California who sit and wait at ports/terminals are not being fairly compensated for waiting. (Side note: The standard of paying drivers a certain rate per mile will not include time spent waiting, so a driver could finish a load in two hours or 20 and the pay would not be different.) The same goes for drivers that have to wait for live loads and unloads or other circumstances such as adverse weather, traffic, and other conditions that slow them down.

Banker claims that with new ELD and other monitoring systems, companies are able to keep more drivers accountable and therefore should be able to pay them hourly, a more reasonable pay especially when it comes to wait times, adverse weather conditions, and traffic. He then concludes by discussing how carriers’ pricing is often complex with many items involved, but still ends with unfair driver pay.

Banker writes that a simplification of the process might be beneficial for the drivers. The carriers should start charging their customers and clients for all of the costs that revolve around their services (Banker 2018). He adds that “even if carriers did pay drivers based on how many hours they work, they could still choose not to charge shippers based on distance traveled or other mechanisms.” (2018). Not only that but if carriers followed through with his idea and consistently charged the actual drivers’ cost, then the carriers might be more willing to be fairer

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in pay. It should be noted that not all companies charge customers less than actual cost, but it is possible as insinuated by Banker.

Others, like Mark Allen and Chris Spear believe that the real problem is that drivers are not allowed to drive interstate commercially until they are 21 years of age. Allen and Spear write that young people wanting to enter into the driver profession are essentially limited or turned away from it. While they can obtain a commercial driver’s license at the age of 18, they cannot participate in interstate commerce until they reach 21 years of age (a law that is supposed to be nullified with the introduction of the DRIVE-Safe Act in the House of Representatives). Allen and Spear discuss the DRIVE-Safe Act as a two-fold solution to the problem. The act would create a better culture of safety and it would also create a way for drivers to get their necessary qualifications (Allen and Spear 2018). They continue to explain the act further by stating that once a driver obtains a CDL (a commercial driver’s license), a training program would start that would have several performance benchmarks to be passed (2018). As stated, the bill mentions a strict training program with benchmark standards, this would be considered an apprenticeship program (the specifics as to how that will be set up and executed are not discussed in the article).

Although as of March 22, 2018, the bill was referred to the subcommittee on Highways and

Transit (congress.gov).

In an article regarding the Land O’Lakes company and their solution to the driver shortage problem, Banker highlights their solution as a combination of the previously detailed ones in this section. He first explains how the shortage stems from demographics. More specifically that because rates are low, people are more active consumers (2018). In addition, the

ELD mandate has not had a real effect on the driver staffing and retention, but the true reason for

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the shortage is due to carriers having to lower and driver wages being directly affected

(Banker 2018).

Banker then went on to explain Land O’Lake’s solution to easing the burden. Part of this was the introduction and implementation of a low-cost supply chain visibility program from

FourKites. The program is a digital application that could be downloaded onto any smartphone; an application similar to other digital freight applications like Uber Freight. Once the application is downloaded, the drivers would then be able to accept loads and be tracked by the customers as they monitor their shipments movements. An additional benefit to this application is that because of the constant monitoring, it can be determined when the driver is in detention, has weather delays or is stuck in traffic thereby allowing the drivers to be paid for all of their time

(Banker 2018). Banker also notes that Land O’Lakes is using Uber Freight and Convoy type applications to deal with their loads as well as small private fleets (2018).

Banker concludes his piece by adding that using autonomous trucks and working with the recipients to alter the delivery in regards to needs would also be part of this solution

(2018). Since this is in reference to grocery items, the recipients would be retailers. If the retailers would allow for delivery outside of the normal business hours during a Monday to

Friday schedule then there would be capacity issues resolved.

The Unions’ and Teamster’s Viewpoints

While there are numerous viewpoints, suggestions, and solutions offered from many people throughout the industry, it should not be overlooked that the unions and teamsters are involved in the road freight industry as well. Therefore, it is important to consider their perspectives on the staffing trends that are occurring and the solutions that they are proposing. Laura Weber from teamster.org highlights two different viewpoints on the cause of the shortage. One viewpoint

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being from the American Trucking Association where they attribute the shortage and low retention to the hard nature of the job, and OTR drivers being away from home for long periods

(Weber 2017). The other viewpoint that she details is from a sociologist at the University of

Pennsylvania, Steve Viscelli. She writes that his viewpoint is that “the shortage is the product of an industry labor model that relies heavily on inexperienced drivers and independent contractors”

(Weber 2017). The drivers that work as employees of a company are not being paid fairly and are only usually being paid by the mile; making it difficult to earn a livable . (Even though wages have increased in the past years, as previously discussed.) While the drivers who are owner operators or are in a lease-to-own situation with their vehicles are having to deal with unfair contract terms and the inability to payback their and cover their costs (Weber 2017).

In terms of solutions, the teamsters have taken a strong position against lowering the commercial interstate driving age to 18 years of age. In a May 2019 press release the Teamsters

General President Jim Hoffa denounces the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration’s

(FMCSA) pilot program to introduce the younger drivers to the industry. He characterizes the program as being extremely unsafe. Instead, Hoffa explains that a more permanent solution should be investigated that would address the “rampant turnover that part of the industry faces, or the low pay and tough working conditions those drivers endure” (2019).

A solution that is supported by the teamsters is the use of apprenticeship programs. In 2015 the brotherhood launched a Teamsters Apprenticeship Program as a national initiative to help to train drivers for the LTL industry (working closely with the ABF company) (teamster.org 2019).

The program had a focus on three main groups of people (teamster.org 2019):

…transitioning military personnel, high school graduates and current dock workers.

While servicemembers returning to the civilian workforce are placed on an accelerated

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track for CDL training, incumbent dock workers are placed on a track to upgrade to CDL.

Meanwhile, high school graduates who are too young for their CDL licenses are trained

to become dock workers until they are 21 and eligible for CDL training.

For each of these tracks after the CDL training takes place, there will be one year of on-the-job supervision required before the driver is considered a journeyman. One of the goals in targeting these groups is to capture the young people in the industry before they move to other jobs or that do not require them to be 21 years of age (teamster.org 2019). An additional benefit would be that the dockworker is now considered a with apprenticeship possibilities.

Creative Project

Electronic Logging Devices and Hours of Service

The ELD mandate that came into full enforcement in December of 2017 brought the end of the use of paper logs. Violations, hours of service, and a wealth of information is now available and constantly being collected by these devices. However, the problem is that companies are not utilizing (and analyzing) all of the data to its potential. The ELD devices have the potential, if used fully, to be able to supply companies with a vast amount of data and to be a driver/transportation management solution.

On the user end of the ELD systems there is an ease of use for the drivers. Instead of a driver having to hand draw, write and maintain a paper log, the in-vehicle systems will automatically perform those tasks with reduced intervention from the driver. The driver typically has some type of handheld device such as a smartphone or tablet that is connected to the truck where the log would be started and the basic information such as breaks, lunches, and other notes would be entered. The system would also detect when the truck is driving, in motion, and stopped based

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on certain parameters preset by the manufacturer and the company. With a small amount of training, drivers are able to use these systems.

Another aspect of the ELD system is the protection of hours for the drivers. Therefore, anyone (drivers, managers, or employers) can no longer falsely alter their logs as was the case with paper logs. They are no longer able to drive longer than 11 hours during a 14-hour cycle and are forced to take their 10-hour rest period between 14-hour cycles (FMCSA, 2013).

Employers and driver managers are not able to force drivers to drive or be on-duty longer than the federal regulations stipulate (Rodela, 2018). The drivers then can be rewarded for safety achievements as the systems monitor driver performance aspects such as hard braking, acceleration, and turning. When drivers’ rights are protected, the work environment for drivers improves along with morale.

In addition to morale, the proper use of ELD systems can help driver retention through improved and more accurate pay. Companies would be able to track on-duty time and driving time with increased accuracy, which could be then a more reliable basis for pay as the data from the systems would be a trustworthy source of driver’s hours records. (For reference according to fmcsa.dot.gov, on duty time or on duty not driving time is considered any time when the driver is working, at a customer facility, or doing manual labor; compared to driving time when the driver is actual driving the .) However, it should be noted that the use of the system for pay determination will vary based on the type of work performed and the type of truck driver (i.e.

LTL, OTR or dray).

Less than Truckload drivers will have a different pay scenario than OTR or long-haul drivers.

An LTL driver usually has a route that consists of multiple stops to different destinations. The drivers typically work in shifts and goes home at the end of their work day (hence using day cab

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and not needing sleeping berth equipped tractors). Using a method of pay by the miles that are driven would be ineffective as their service area and distances travelled are not usually large enough for sufficient pay. If a driver had a route that stayed in a small city area, the pay method would not work since the driver is driving fewer miles. Paying $00.56 per mile (an average pay according to Steven Golich) and a mileage of 100 miles would yield $56.00 of pay for the day. However, if a pay by the hour system was used based on the ELD system data of on duty and drive time, that is a more reliable and fair system of payment. They would be paid for any idle time waiting at customer locations, extensive traffic, and any other scenarios where they are on duty that paying by the mile would not cover. A driver that works 8 hours with a wage of

$25.00 per hour would have pay of $200.00 for a day’s work. The system would provide accurate information that would not be able to be altered by the driver or company.

The next type of driver to consider in regards to this method of driver pay would be OTR or long-haul drivers. These are the drivers that typically drive the longer routes across the country, between states, and operate sleeper berth units. The OTR drivers are paid by the mile due to the large quantity of miles that are driven. For 660 miles driven in a day at $00.56 per mile would mean $369.60 made for that day of work. This is where using the ELD system data to help improve driver pay would benefit retention. (See Appendix 3 for a comparison of the pay methods discussed.)

The pay by the mile system fails to take in consideration the other work that the drivers do outside of physically driving. The system does not account for occurrences such as detention where the drivers are delayed at load pick up or load drop off locations waiting on manufacturers or centers to load and unload the freight. Wait time in traffic and weather conditions are also not considered, when a driver is stuck in traffic or weather conditions that will

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negatively affect the miles they are able to drive. In addition, mechanical failures will cause drivers to lose mile pay as they are not driving when their equipment is down.

By implementing a new pay system where the drivers still get their pay by the mile rate, but are also paid for the time spent not driving, as outlined above, this will help develop a more equitable pay system and potentially increasing retention. When the drivers are detained, waiting for loading or unloading, in traffic, or hazardous weather, they could be paid based off the on-duty time on the ELD system that is reported. ELD systems typically do not update the status from on-duty to driving when the tractor is moving at speeds below five miles per hour to account for yard moves and other adjustments. Therefore, a consistent pay system would begin when the ELD status is driving (i.e. the tractor is moving), the driver would then be paid their by the mile rate. When the ELD status is on duty they would be paid a by an hourly rate. For example, if a driver drove 200 miles in a day ($0.56 per mile), but was stuck in traffic for one hour and in detention for three hours ($25.00 per hour) then the driver would be paid $212.00 for the day’s work. Alternatively, if a driver drove the maximum allowable hours in a day (11 hours) to drive a total of 660 miles ($00.56/mile) and worked the last three hours ($25.00/hour) until their 14 hour cutoff, that driver would be able to make $444.60 for the day. As shown, the driver’s pay would be complemented by the hour rate and would be fair due to the fact that all of their time would be compensated.

Freight Brokerage Digital Applications

Uses

In recent years, there has been an increase in digital applications such as Uber Freight that act as freight brokerage platforms for drivers. These applications are slowly taking the place of the traditional freight broker-driver relationship. Using something as small as a cell phone or tablet,

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the drivers can enter the application, look for loads that are within their proximity and to their standards, accept the loads, perform the work, and then get paid. This is replacing the previous method of using freight brokerage companies as an intermediary between the drivers and shippers.

In the traditional method, the drivers or carriers would reach out to freight brokers for loads for general work or loads between previously contracted loads to fill in gaps or get them back to their home locations. The freight broker firms or agents would then find a load for that driver among their current client companies. The driver would then accept the load, perform the work, and then wait several days for the payment to go through (Wollenhaupt, 2019).

There are some other key differences between traditional freight brokerage agents/firms and the digital applications. While there are separate digital applications not connected to freight brokerage firms, some firms such as Convoy have expanded and released their own applications to help compete with applications similar to Uber Freight (Wollenhaupt, 2019). The applications allow for the drivers to have more options of different types of loads where one firm might not have options for the drivers in certain areas. This allows for the drivers to have the potential to continuously haul freight and increase revenue compared to having to drive with an empty trailer until their next stop or back to their home locations. Another difference is that the technology provides more power to the drivers. The applications could allow drivers to sometimes bid on loads, rate shippers, and provide real time updates on appointment arrival and departure times.

Furthermore, as mentioned previously, the pay is automatic without having to wait possibly days for it to clear the brokerage firm (Weed, 2019).

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Implementation

The use and correct implementation of freight brokerage applications could help improve the driver shortage situation. These applications are ideal as they give the drivers control back over their work. However, to make this system work, it needs to be made efficient in terms of equipment. Drivers would need to be owner-operators or lease their equipment as they will be more available to accept these loads freely. This will keep them in the driving profession longer as they will be in charge of their earning potential, as previously outlined. In regards to company drivers, their only experience with freight brokers is usually through their company when it deals with backhauls. Therefore, the applications would not be applicable to that group as the revenue goes to their companies and the decisions to accept or reject loads are made by the companies.

Another aspect for implementation should be uniformity of the applications. The applications should have similar driver and equipment requirements. This means that all of the equipment and drivers would be held to the same uniform standards creating several benefits. The most prominent benefit being that drivers would not have to compete with illegally operating, unsafe, and unlicensed drivers for loads and would create more work opportunities for the drivers.

The availability of loads to drivers would need to be maintained as well. Either shippers and companies would need to post the loads across the different applications, or there needs to be a centralized system. If the drivers do not have available loads to accept, then the same problem with the traditional freight brokerage system will occur. Part of the freedom of the applications is the constant availability of work of their choosing for the drivers.

The last part of implementation involves payment. As stated previously, one of the benefits of the applications is the ability of the drivers to receive payment for their work in a quicker manner than with traditional freight brokers. Since the middle-man (the freight broker) is

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removed with the applications, the payment should go through the application straight to the driver (less the percentage taken by the application service if any). The method of payment should also be easy and straightforward so that the drivers have the potential to earn higher revenue or income.

Possible Resistance

The resistance to the applications helping to improve the driver shortage would come from two areas: traditional transport companies and the freight brokerage firms/agents. The traditional transportation companies such as CR England or JB Hunt would oppose the applications as they take the business away from them and give it to owner-operator drivers. They could potentially be the sole carriers for the shippers, but with the applications those loads and routes are outsourced. Alternatively, if they are the sole carriers, they could lose loads and routes to the applications for reasons such as cost. Although the companies could also use the technology to their advantage. The applications could be used when the drivers would need backhauls or have other downtime, which would keep the drivers busy and a steady stream of revenue for the companies.

The freight brokerage firms/agents would also create opposition as the applications directly take their work away (the unions and teamsters would more than likely argue the same).

Shippers are able to directly post loads with the applications and would not need the agents and personnel at the firms to help them advertise loads, and likewise for drivers. With the implementation of the applications, the need for freight brokers would dramatically decrease.

Observing this trend, some of the brokerage firms have adapted themselves to stay in the market.

Companies like CH Robinson and Convoy have created their own digital applications similar to the Uber Freight application. The firms would either adapt themselves to stay in the market, be

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consolidated with other larger firms who have already adapted themselves, or be pushed out of the market. If the firms are able to adapt themselves like CH Robinson and are able to reach more drivers and shippers, then they will be able to compete.

Semiautonomous Trucking

Background

When the general public hears the phrase, or associated phrases, of automated trucking they usually visualize something along the lines of the Tesla autonomous/driverless truck. However, there are actually several different versions or levels to autonomous trucking with many actually involving a driver present. These levels range from limited with the driver heavily involved to less driver involvement and finally ending with no driver presence at all. The autonomy in these forms usually involves acceleration and deceleration as well as steering in situations with steady driving such as on highways (Wetzel, 2020).

In addition, trucking automation is usually misconstrued as a recent technology and innovation. However, the start of autonomous trucking dates back to the mid 1990’s and then continues in the early 2000’s after being picked up for military purposes. The technology has been evolving and further developed up to today by technology startups, robotics companies and other large companies as a solution to the driver shortage. The ability to use the technology as a complete logistics solution is just one of the many benefits; the other main benefits being no longer having to worry about driver staffing or issues, driver time in regards to HOS, a large reduction in costs, and streamlining the logistics process (Menear, 2020).

While automation in trucking seems to be the emerging trend, it is unlikely to create a loss in truck driver jobs in the near future. The higher levels of automation are still in the prototype and testing phases. What is most likely to happen is that the middle and lower levels of automation

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will be expanded, developed and widely used. This already occurs in the newer models of trucks with new versions of lane assistance and cruise control.

Implementation

The ideal implementation for autonomous trucking to aid in the driver shortage and retention would be at the semiautonomous level, or the middle levels of the autonomy scale. It should be noted that this should be for the present until the fully autonomous trucking technology is completely developed, tested and proven. The semiautonomous level would need the truck drivers and require the staffing still to drive/guide/monitor the trucks.

Combined with the continuous required need for drivers and the new semiautonomous levels of trucking technology already in trucks, the job has become/would be easier, and the barrier to entry is lowered. While the drivers would still need to have the proper licensing and training, the level of effort and difficulty of the job would be decreased. With the new trucks and the technology being introduced into them, the drivers would no longer be required to know how to operate things like manual transmissions or heavily monitored cruise controls. However, it should be noted that the previously noted knowledge on how to operate manual transmissions, cruise controls, etc. should still be taught and learned by drivers in case of failures and if needed situations. For the most part on the highway they would be monitoring the environment, truck and the truck systems as the trucks would control the acceleration and deceleration, lane centering, steering, etc.

All of this means that new drivers can enter the field, be trained on the systems and truck they are going to operate, and then start driving routes. What this is skipping is the amount of training and skill needed to handle the functions that the semi-autonomous systems cover, though that skill would still be needed when not driving on the highways (when the systems are not generally

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in use). This ease of use removes, or will help remove or reduce, any perceptions that someone might have of the difficulties of entering the field. It could also be referred to as an improvement in working conditions for the driver as the systems make the job easier.

Possible Resistance

The majority of the resistance that would be brought against this solution to the driver shortage would be from current drivers. The current drivers would argue that the semiautonomous technology would be harming their jobs in the sense of image and ability, not just in regards to reducing the skill level needed but also the trajectory of the technology for the future in full automation where their jobs would potentially be completely eliminated. (The unions are also opposed the automation for the same reasons (Weber 2017).) The alternative here would be to change the driver job into a new or different role. This could be something of a change to a more managerial or conductor type of role over the autonomous trucks.

Another possible reason for resistance would be in the field of safety. While safety is an argument to implement the semiautonomous features, it could also be an argument against it. If the drivers have fewer tasks/processes in the cab while driving, they could potentially either lose focus or fall asleep. This would leave the systems without any sort of supervision or monitoring.

Going further into full autonomy, if there is not a driver in the cab to monitor everything and a system fails, no one would be able to provide last minute corrections or safety measures to protect the vehicle and other people that are driving on the road. However, there is still time to find solutions to these situations for fully autonomous systems.

Lowering the Interstate Commercial Driver Age of Entry to 18

Currently the federally mandated minimum age to obtain an interstate commercial driving license is 21 years of age. This age standard was put into place for safety reasons as trucking for

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long distances is not the same as driving a commercial truck for shorter distances within a state.

The potential driver would have years to mature and then when they reach 21 years of age, they would be able to handle the training, testing and responsibility of driving commercially throughout the country. However, the problem that is seen to be occurring is that between the time of graduating high school, around 18 years old, and the age of 21 is when the people that would be able to enter the trucking profession are lost to other jobs, college, or trade schools.

There are arguments saying that if the age was reduced, those new entrants would help the driver shortage. Counter arguments include issues about safety in regards to the young age.

Arguments in Favor

The main argument in favor for the lowering of the driver age limit, as stated previously, is that job opportunities would open up to the recent high school graduates that would pay more than being only able to drive intrastate. Essentially it would be a higher paying alternative compared to attending college or trade school and accruing student loans. The new entrants would be able to train and start a career that could be used to provide for themselves and their families for their entire lives. More importantly it is a career in a field that strongly needs long- haul drivers ( 2019).

Another point in the argument in favor of lowering the driving age is that because the majority of states allow for 18-year olds to drive commercially intrastate, it would only take a small amount of training more for them to be able to drive interstate. The drivers would already know the basics of the job: working the equipment and driving, so they would only need to obtain the knowledge that comes with driving interstate. Those topics would include various

DOT and IFTA regulations and other interstate commercial regulation (i.e weight regulations and agricultural transportation regulations) knowledge that the drivers would need.

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Arguments Against

Arguments against this proposition usually form around the concerns for safety. The logic behind that argument is that lowering the driver age for interstate driving would just lower standards for safety. Also, drivers between the ages of 18 and 21 are more likely to cause or be involved in accidents due to their inexperience in driving and maturity compared to drivers who are 21 years of age and older (Long 2018). Adding younger drivers to the workforce would not be the smart solution to end the shortage, but instead the drivers would need even more training and experience to bring them up to a safe level of skill. Essentially it would just be a band aid to a bigger long-term problem.

Another argument against the lowering of the age limit is in regards to pay. The new younger entrants would accept lower pay for the work than what the current drivers are being paid; therefore, potentially lowering the pay for the experienced drivers. In addition, the already existent drivers could lose out on work due to the new entrants being preferred for the lower pay.

Also, with the increase in drivers and the reduction of the shortage, the demand for drivers would reduce, which would also be reflected in the pay. The older group of drivers would see the new younger drivers as a threat to their jobs.

Driver

Another solution to aid in the driver shortage and to help with retention would be to increase training for new drivers through apprenticeship programs. According to the US Department of

Labor, apprenticeships are paid training jobs that give experience and instruction to workers to learn on the job for a skilled career (2020). A person is hired on as an apprentice, and then given all of the instruction and training needed (through actual work experience) to perform the skilled job after the program is completed.

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Going further, there are two types of apprenticeships: union and non-union. With the union sponsored apprenticeship programs the potential driver would have to apply to a union that covers the truck driving profession and then apply for the union’s apprenticeship program.

When the driver completes the program, they would stay in the union and then start working at a union job. This is compared the to non-union apprenticeship programs that do not require union involvement. The potential driver would apply directly to the apprenticeship program. If the apprentice program is conducted through a school, then after completion they would have to find a driving position, if one is not offered in the program. However, if the apprenticeship program is offered through a company such as Swift or Knight, then after completion the apprenticeship would potentially transition into a job. (The choice the potential driver would have to make would be largely based on that person’s views of a union, perceived benefits, and available options.)

Benefits

An apprenticeship program allows for drivers to have better skill sets than if they would just complete the basic/minimal requirements to obtain their commercial driver’s license. The programs would advertise a more professional looking career to the prospective drivers, making easier. In addition, it would be able to provide for better training. The drivers would be able to receive a more formal and hands on training with another driver to prepare them for their career ahead. They would be confronted with real-world scenarios and problems that they would face when they are alone on their jobs after the program. More importantly, the training would not only cover the driving, but also the background knowledge and academic portion of it.

This will lead to drivers being able to create professional networks for themselves that will/could act as a support system.

TRUCK DRIVER RETENTION 32

The apprenticeship programs would help with driver retention and the reduction of turnover.

After exiting the apprenticeship programs, drivers would have real-world trucking experience along with training to bring to their job, which would then require commensurate pay. With the level of pay and the heavy into the driver as an employee, the driver would have an attachment or sense of loyalty to the company. This would potentially help with the current problem of drivers joining companies for experience and pay, and then constantly leaving those companies for the next better opportunity they receive or perceive is there.

Another driver retention benefit from apprenticeships is that it is similar to a probationary period for the new driver. If the driver in the apprenticeship does not like the job or realizes everything that the job entails, the driver is able to leave and/or quit the apprenticeship. While it may hurt the company to lose a new driver in the apprenticeship, that is a better situation than losing a driver with an assigned route and freight needing to be delivered. The apprenticeships would identify the drivers that would stay in the field and continue with the profession and the ones that are not suited for the work.

The solution would also help with the driver age problem as discussed previously. With an apprenticeship, the drivers would be able to start training/the apprenticeship before they reach the 21 years of age mark to obtain their commercial driver’s license. Instead of the potential drivers having to wait until they reach 21 years of age or being lost as drivers to other career fields, they automatically would start in the profession. There would need to be laws and regulations implemented to allow for this, and overall it would benefit not only recruitment but also retention.

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Implementation

The implementation of this plan would need to be with uniform standards to the apprenticeships. There should be a general set of rules, regulations and curriculum that would apply so that there would be consistency, at some level, for everyone (something that is similar to public school standards). This would also ensure the quality of education and training that each new driver would receive; that each driver was instructed at least to the minimum standards. Employers then be able to have a better understanding of how the drivers were trained, their potential habits and what kind of driver that they might hire. The uniformity would also prevent the current situation where the commercial driving schools might teach to the minimum standards with questionable instruction. Higher standards would equate to a better class of drivers and better overall retention.

The implementation would also require capital investment in most cases. Just as the unions, would need to create the apprenticeship programs for the drivers, the truck driver schools and the trucking companies would also need to create the programs. This would require most likely hiring staff, creating the curriculum, and running the program. However, the benefits would outweigh the costs as the in the drivers would create better drivers with higher retention, as discussed previously.

Summary

The over the road freight industry is an ever changing and evolving industry; something is always happening. That change and movement is caused by commercial/private industry forces and from government as well. One of those changes is staffing as studied in this paper. The driver staffing trends and retention rates are some of the biggest issues currently facing the industry currently.

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Although there are many factors that contribute to the driver shortage, there are several major factors such as demographics, pay, driver movement into and out of the industry, the lifestyle that the job entails, how the job itself has changed, and the effects of technology on the industry that were studied. The focus was contained on those specific factors since the possible solutions that were/are created for the shortage and retention issues are derived heavily from those areas.

However, it should also be noted that there are factors that could act as a base for other solutions that were not covered in this paper.

Moving from the factors that contribute to the driver shortage to the actual solutions, there were five that were given the most credibility for comparison for the scope of this paper. The first solution that was presented and explained involved a more robust system of pay for the drivers using the newly mandated ELD devices and Hours of Service regulation. The second possible solution presented was the use/introductions of freight brokerage digital applications such as Uber Freight. The third solution studied was the use of semiautonomous trucking in a more frequently applied role. The fourth solution took more of a government regulatory role lowering the interstate driver age from the age of 21 to the age of 18. The final solution that was studied was the expansion of driver apprenticeships in making the job more of a formalized trade or career.

Recommendations

The solutions studied in this paper are by no means meant to be an exhaustive list, or the only possible ones. The solutions presented are several of the possible ones that may have the most success. While a recommendation could be made as to which solution presented would solve the driver staffing and retention problems of today’s industry, there would need to be more studies conducted before a definitive conclusion could be made. Each of the solutions would need to be

TRUCK DRIVER RETENTION 35

tested in the practical world with drivers and companies. This testing would need to be done over a period of time so that enough data could be gathered on staffing levels. Then that data would be able to be compared to the other solution tests as well as the base line of no measures being taken to increase staffing and retention.

The most logical solution to be recommended would be the use of ELD logging devices and the ability of driver managers and companies to better use the data that the devices collect. Due to the ELD mandate, all legally operating tractors would have this equipment already installed with the data already being collected. The change would come with how the drivers are paid, which would require internal policy and process changes within the companies.

The second solution to be recommended would be the creation of apprenticeships, either union or nonunion. The apprenticeship programs would create initial costs for the companies in the beginning when the drivers are hired, but would be beneficial in the long run in retention and the quality of the driver. The programs would need the initial development phases to be completed. While some companies have something similar to an apprenticeship program, the question would be as to where do the current truck driving schools fit.

The other solutions are all feasible; however, they would encounter more resistance and possibly more problems to implement. In addition, they are not as universal as the two primarily recommended. For the solution involving the lowering of the interstate driving age to 18, the main hindrance would be the safety statistics in regards to crashes that occur within that age group. The freight brokerage digital applications solution would not be able to be applied to drivers that are company drivers for entities such as Swift, JB Hunt, or CR England, and are therefore limited to only owner-operators. Lastly, semiautonomous trucking would involve considerable monetary investment from either owner-operators, the road freight companies, and

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the government. The fleets would either need to be upgraded or totally replaced to be able to have this up-to-date technology.

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TRUCK DRIVER RETENTION 42

Appendix 1

Summary of Hours of Service Rules and Regulations

HOURS-OF-SERVICE RULES PASSENGER-CARRYING PROPERTY-CARRYING DRIVERS DRIVERS

11-Hour Driving Limit 10-Hour Driving Limit May drive a maximum of 11 hours after 10 consecutive May drive a maximum of 10 hours hours off duty. after 8 consecutive hours off duty.

15-Hour Limit 14-Hour Limit May not drive after having been on May not drive beyond the 14th consecutive hour after duty for 15 hours, following 8 coming on duty, following 10 consecutive hours off duty. consecutive hours off duty. Off-duty Off-duty time does not extend the 14-hour period. time is not included in the 15-hour period. Rest Breaks May drive only if 8 hours or less have passed since end of driver’s last off-duty or sleeper berth period of at least 30 60/70-Hour Limit minutes. Does not apply to drivers using either of the May not drive after 60/70 hours on short-haul exceptions in 395.1(e). [49 CFR 397.5 duty in 7/8 consecutive days. mandatory “in attendance” time may be included in if no other duties performed] 60/70-Hour Limit Sleeper Berth Provision May not drive after 60/70 hours on duty in 7/8 Drivers using a sleeper berth must consecutive days. A driver may restart a 7/8 consecutive take at least 8 hours in the sleeper day period after taking 34 or more consecutive hours off berth, and may split the sleeper berth duty. time into two periods provided neither is less than 2 hours.

Source: fmcsa.dot.gov

TRUCK DRIVER RETENTION 43

Appendix 2

Results from ELD Crash Reduction Study

Findings: Compliance

 The mandate increased HOS compliance overall.  Overall, the percentage of inspections with intentional violations dropped from 6 percent before the mandate to 3.8 percent during light enforcement, a 37 percent reduction, and then to 2.9 percent during strict enforcement, a 52 percent reduction.  For owner-operators, the percentage of inspections with violations fell from 10.7 percent to 8 percent to 6 percent.  For larger carriers, the percentage of inspections with violations went from 0.85 percent to 0.89 percent to 0.75 percent. Findings: Crashes  The mandate has had no significant effect on crash counts.  Weekly crashes prior to mandate averaged 1,717.  During the light enforcement period, weekly crashes increased to 1,912, or 11.4 percent.  During the strict enforcement period, weekly crashes dropped to 1,703, or 0.8 percent. Findings: Driver behaviors  Owner-operators and drivers for small carriers were cited much more frequently for unsafe driving behaviors after the mandate.  During the light enforcement period, owner-operators committed 22.7 percent more unsafe driving violations.  During the strict enforcement period, owner-operators committed 35.3 percent more unsafe driving violations.  Comparatively, drivers for large carriers saw a 1.8 percent decrease in these violations during light enforcement and a 5.5 percent increase during strict enforcement.

Source: Ashley Coker 2019

TRUCK DRIVER RETENTION 44

Appendix 3

Pay Comparison Charts

LTL Pay Per Mile LTL Pay Per Hour Pay Pay Duration Rate Pay Duration Rate Pay Period Period 100 1 Day $0.56 $56.00 1 Day 8 Hours $25.00 $200.00 Miles 1 500 1 $0.56 $280.00 40 Hours $25.00 $1,000.00 Week Miles Week 1 2,000 1 160 $0.56 $1,120.00 $25.00 $4,000.00 Month Miles Month Hours

OTR Pay Per Mile OTR Pay Per Hour Pay Pay Duration Rate Pay Duration Rate Pay Period Period 660 1 Day $0.56 $369.60 1 Day 11 Hours $25.00 $275.00 Miles 1 3300 1 $0.56 $1,848.00 55 Hours $25.00 $1,375.00 Week Miles Week 1 13,200 1 220 $0.56 $7,392.00 $25.00 $5,500.00 Month Miles Month Hours