Tripati, S, et al. 2020. Recently Discovered Iron Anchors Ancient Asia from , East of . Ancient Asia, 11: 11, pp. 1–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/aa.194

RESEARCH PAPER Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India Sila Tripati*, N. Prabaharan* and Rudra Prasad Behera†

In maritime archaeological studies, anchors made of stone, wood, or metal have played a significant role in shipping, not only acted as a proxy during the period of their use but also suggesting maritime con- nections with other countries. Anchors of different types have discovered all over the world which used in the vessels engaged in carrying cargo, passengers as well as warships. Iron anchors were introduced in India by the European rulers, and later on, were manufactured in different parts of India. Like the stone anchors, different types of iron anchors have been recorded during onshore explorations as well as under- water sites with and without shipwreck remain along the Indian coast. In recent past, coastal explorations along Tamil Nadu coast brought to light two iron anchors at Tuticorin harbour while other two anchors displayed at the Government Museum, Egmore, . Both the iron anchors of Tuticorin harbour belong to Trotman type. In contrast, the iron anchors of the Government Museum, Egmore, belong to Old plan Long shanked Anchor (Admiralty Long Shanked) and Admiralty pattern anchor. This paper details a com- prehensive study of these iron anchors and a comparative survey of the iron anchors of Tamil Nadu as well as India.

Introduction In the course of shipping, several naval battles have The 1076 km long coastline of Tamil Nadu forms part of fought for supremacy, which led to many casualties, and the of the and the Indian numerous ships were lost, along with cargo and anchors. . Tamil Nadu, the peninsular province of India known Similarly, several ships have been wrecked off Tamil Nadu for the maritime activities since 3rd century BCE onwards. coast because of various factors. Evidence regarding ship- , Arikamedu (Poduke), Bandarpattanam, Cud- wrecks are known from the (Venkatesan, dalore, Karaikadu, Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam), Korkai 1988), and CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) (Kayal), Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram), Marakkanam, has collected information on shipwrecks off Tamil Nadu Mayilapore or Mylapore (Madras, Chennai) Nagapatti- coast from marine and other records, which are housed in nam, Palayakayal (Kayal), , (Palaverkadu), archives of India and abroad including Tamil Nadu State Pulicat, Vasavasamudram, , Tarangambadi Archives and libraries, Chennai. Besides shipwrecks, sev- (Tranquebar), and Tuticorin (Figure 1) were the eral cannons, guns and iron anchors have been recorded ancient and medieval ports of Tamil Nadu played a sig- both in underwater and terrestrial sites of Tamil Nadu, nificant role in the maritime trade of India (Shanmugam, and some of them are displayed in museums and open 2010; Rajan, 2019, 1988; Raman, 1988). These ports devel- area. During the recent explorations, four iron anchors oped along the coastline and estuaries had maritime trade were noticed along the Tamil Nadu coast. Among them, contacts with the Romans, the Persian Gulf and Southeast one iron anchor was found in Tuticorin fishing harbour, Asian countries during the early historical period and con- and the other one is in old Tuticorin port. The remaining tinued until the medieval period. Some ports had trade two anchors are displayed in the Government Museum, contacts with the European countries from the 16th and Egmore, Chennai. This finding corroborates the fact that 17th centuries onwards. Among the European countries, Tuticorin and the adjoining regions played a significant Portuguese were the first to arrive at Tuticorin in 1532 CE, role in maritime activities of Tamil Nadu since ancient the Dutch were to establish their trade centre at Pulicat times. This paper details the iron anchors, including their in 1609 CE, followed by the Danes at Tranquebar and the typology, period and importance in the maritime history British East India Company established their settlement of India. Besides, an outline on the iron anchors of India south of Pulicat in 1639. In the later period, European rul- is also discussed. ers left these regions except the British, who ruled until the independence of India. Tuticorin as a port and trade centre Tuticorin is also known as , situated on the southeastern coast of Tamil Nadu, and the region has been * CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, IN known for pearl harvesting and as a trade centre since † Department of Archaeology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, IN ancient times. Korkai, the capital of the early Pandyan Corresponding author: Sila Tripati ([email protected]) Dynasty is often referred to in the Sangam literature, and Art. 11, page 2 of 11 Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India

Figure 1: Ports and maritime trade centres of Tamil Nadu. it was the primary port and trade centre located adjacent Anchors from Tamil Nadu coast to Tuticorin (Arunachalam et al. 2006). While referring to The Maritime Archaeology Centre of the Tamil University, the overseas trade contacts between India and Alexandria, Thanjavur, had carried out onshore and offshore explo- the foremost emporium of the Roman Empire, Ptolemy rations of Tamil Nadu coast to locate the maritime her- specified about Korkai (Kolkhoi) as a pearl trade centre itage of the region. During the investigations between (McCrindle, 1885). Further, the author of Periplus of the off Thondi and Mullai Thivu Island, near Erythraean Sea has stated that Korkai (Kolkhoi) was an coast, two iron anchors, as well as five stone anchors, were emporium of pearl trade; and it is located along the sea- brought to light around the coast of Palk Bay and Gulf of coast to the east of Cape Comorin (Schoff, 1912). Majeed Mannar respectively (Figure 2). The iron, as well as stone (1987), who excavated Korkai, has suggested that Korkai anchors, are presently displayed at Thanjavur Museum, was under the Pandyan kingdom, which stretched from and all the anchors are described briefly. Comari (Kanya Kumari) and extended to Colchi (Korkai), which was the pearl trade region. After the decline of Iron anchor 1 Korkai, Kayal came to limelight; and Marco Polo visited The iron anchor with 2 m long shank and stock was recov- Kayal and referred to it as Cali (Casson, 1989). Tuticorin ered in 1986 from 10 m water depth off Thondi. The was ruled by the Pandyas (7th and 9th centuries CE), Cho- anchor chain is attached with the anchor whereas flukes las (9th and 12th centuries), Vijayanagara as well as Nayak of the anchor corroded. After removal of the marine rulers. Later on, Tuticorin came under the suzerainty of growth from the surface of anchor, it is noticed that the European rule. Among the Europeans, Portuguese ‘GUERIGNY No. 11 P 730 K GX’ and 1864 has engraved were the first to arrive at Tuticorin in 1532 CE, followed on the crown. It is inferred that ‘Guerigny’, could be the by the Dutch in 1609; afterwards the British took over name of manufacturing Company of the anchor in France Tuticorin from the Dutch in 1782 and ruled for centuries. or the anchor could belong to the French Naval vessel and Tuticorin port town received much attention from the rul- 1864 stands for the year of manufacturing of the anchor ers for improving their trade. Even today, Tuticorin is the (Rajamanickam, 1992). There are some more letters, sea gateway of Tamil Nadu, and as a major seaport of India which are illegible, and it is difficult to understand their serves many inland towns and cities of Southern India. significance. Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India Art. 11, page 3 of 11

Figure 2: Anchor finding sites along the Tamil Nadu coast.

Iron anchor 2 Another Indo-Arabian type of anchor, made of granite, The other iron anchor was recovered from 8 m water was found inland, used as a fencing stone near a mosque depth off Mullai Thivu Island, near Rameswaram along at , 5 km west of Mandapam village. Both the rec- the coast. The stock of the anchor resem- tangular lower holes are present; however, the rope hole bles the previous iron anchor, but this anchor is highly of the anchor is not visible. Chisel marks are visible clearly corroded. The length of the shank is 1.5 m, and engravings on the surface of the anchor. The other trapezoidal anchor, not found on this anchor. made of sandstone, has one circular apical hole found in Besides these two iron anchors, five stone anchors have situ, near the backwater of Periapattinam, the coastal vil- recovered during underwater as well as coastal explora- lage. The anchor is weathered; therefore, no chisel marks tions. Among the stone anchors, the first Indo-Arabian are seen (Athiyaman, 2014; and Athiyaman, 2001). stone anchor was discovered from 2.4 m water depth off The mooring stone made of greywacke sandstone, Kursadi Island, on the southwest side of Rameswaram which appears like an anchor, was found at Threspuram, a Island. The anchor was buried in the sediment, and anchor suburb of Tuticorin. This anchor has been erected on the holes noted after the removal of deposited sediment and beach; even today, fishing boats are tied to the anchor. Its marine growth. Chisel marks on the surface of the anchor height is 90 cm, upper section measures 30 × 30 cm, the are worn out because of frequent use. In one of the lower ground level is 50 × 50 cm, and its rope hole measures holes, a groove mark is present, which was made to pro- 11 cm. This mooring stone appears like an Indo-Arabian vide additional grip so that the fluke would not come out type of stone anchor and resembles the stone anchor of quickly. The other Indo-Arabian stone anchor was found Kursadi Island. Most probably, its lower fluke holes are in 10.5 m water depth off Poomarichan Island, west of present and buried, which can be confirmed after removal Kursadi Island. Its two lower holes are present whereas from the ground. the upper hole is missing and made of greywacke sand- stone. The lower portion of the anchor is damaged, which History of Iron anchors of India implies its frequent usage (Athiyaman and Jayakumar, During the early historical and medieval periods, the use 2004). of iron anchors was unknown in India. It appears that Art. 11, page 4 of 11 Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India the Europeans introduced iron anchors in India in the from Sunchi Reef, Sail Rock and Aguada waters off Goa 16th and 17th centuries CE (Qaisar, 1982). Stone anchors (Figure 3a–b) (Sila Tripati et al. 2014a; and Sila Tripati were used before the introduction of iron anchors; conse- et al. 2003), off Tamil Nadu coast (Rajamanickam, 1992; quently, both iron and stone anchors were used for cen- Athiyaman, 2014) and Bangaram Island of Lakshadweep turies together in Indian waters. Even today, traditional (Figure 3c) (Gupchup, 1997; Tripathi, 2004). Besides, iron boatmen use stones as anchors. A significant number anchors have displayed in several museums of India, such of stone anchors have been documented during mari- as Odisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar (Figure 3e–f) time archaeological explorations along the east and west (Sila Tripati et al., 2014b), Archaeological Museum (ASI), of India (Sila Tripati, 2014). Similarly, iron anchors (Figure 3g–h) Old Goa, Goa State Museum, (Figure 3i–j) have been recorded both in shipwrecks and inland sites Panaji, and Lal Bahadur Shastri Nautical and Engineer- of India. For instance, iron anchors have been reported ing College, Mumbai (Figure 3d) (Sila Tripati et al. 2003).

Figure 3: (a–j) Varied types of Iron anchors from different sites of India. Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India Art. 11, page 5 of 11

Moreover, one iron anchor is being worshipped as Lord anchors on the bows having the stock, which were similar Loyaleshwar (Siva) in a small temple at Dabhol jetty, to the European types (Hill, 1958). The line drawings of Maharashtra (Gaur et al. 2009). anchors shown on Purgoo and Patella look identical and During maritime archaeological explorations off make it challenging to distinguish them. Puducherry (Pondicherry), remains of many iron anchors have been recorded in different water depths. Similarly, Iron anchor of the fishing harbour, Tuticorin the local pearl and chunk divers informed that they had (08°47.610’ & 78°09.524’) noticed many iron anchors in varied water depths off The iron anchor (Figure 4a) kept in the fishing harbour of Devipattinam, Pamban and Thondy along the Tamil Nadu Tuticorin, belongs to the Trotman type; its total length of coast. The occurrence of iron anchors suggests that ships the shank is 3.65 m, and square in section. The crescent- might have lost these anchors, or there might be ship- shaped arm is flexible, joined with a bolt and moved up wrecks in the region (Rajamanickam, 1992). However, and downwards. The palms are flat, triangular and fac- local fishermen have marked these sites and avoid fishing ing upward and on its widest end, a flat flange which has in the area. Many iron anchors have been reported from an eye is fixed at a right angle. Two bow-shaped gravity other places of India, which are yet to be documented and shackles are provided which pivot on a bolt just above the studied. arms. The iron stock is 3.60 m in length, circular in sec- Further, Bowery (1905) has mentioned the use of iron tion; tapers towards on one end, spheres on both ends are anchors in Purgoo, the sailing boats of the east coast of corroded. A swivelling ring is provided top of the shank in India, and the endurance of Purgoo in the sea was for a which a shackle is fixed using a pin. long time. Purgoo boats sailed by the English and Dutch The number 1820 has been written with white oil paint between Hugli of Bengal and Pipli and Balasore regions on the anchor. Marks or signs are not found on the anchor, of Odisha. Probably, Purgoo is a corrupted version of and its source is yet to be ascertained. Presently, the Portuguese term Barca (barge). Purgoo boats carry iron anchor has displayed in the open area below a tree near anchors on the stern. The sketch of Purgoo with an iron the compound wall of the office of the Assistant Director anchor and stock published by Bowrey (1905) suggests of Fisheries, Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Being the anchor is dis- that during the 17th century iron anchors were used in played in the open area; hence, the rate of corrosion is the east coast of India. The East India Company had fac- faster, and pitting marks are visible on the anchor. tories at Madapollum and Narsapur on the Coromandel Coast where vessels were built, and iron anchors, bolts and Iron anchor of the old harbour, Tuticorin speeks (spikes) were manufactured. The English and other (8°48.171’ & 78°09.527’) merchants built ships and boats at Madapollum because The iron anchor (Figure 4b) which has been erected on of availability of finest timber and other materials (Bowery, a platform inside the old harbour, Tuticorin, opposite to 1905). It could be inferred that during the 17th century the security post main gate also belongs to the Trotman iron anchors were produced in this region. Besides, Patella, type. The total length of the shank is 1.60 m, its section the flat bottom boats used in Hugly (Hooghly) carry iron is square and octagonal at the centre. Above the arms,

Figure 4: (a–b) Iron anchors found at Tuticorin fishing and old harbour. Art. 11, page 6 of 11 Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India two bow-shaped gravity shackles are provided with a bolt. Right side nut/knob of the stock is present; another side The bolt is connected to the crescent-shaped arm which is one is missing. The collar/notch of the stock is present placed on the platform. The palms are forged along with on the right side, and the stock pin or keep pin is miss- the flange at its widest end. There is no eye on the flat ing, but pinhole is distinct. The collar and stock pin were flange. The length of the iron stock is 1.10 m, circular in provided to hold the stock firmly from sliding of the stock. section; one end of the stock is rounded bend, tapers at Usually, these types of stocks are flexible. The anchor has both ends, and both the nuts/knobs of each end of the the shackle/ring for securing the cable. Though the pre- stock are present (Paasch, 1977) which are prominent. The ventive coat has been applied on the anchor, now it is anchor has been painted with black, and its state is good. eroding. No marks are found on this anchor. Since these The anchor has an inscription on one side at the lower end anchors are kept in the open area, the rate of corrosion is of the shank whereas the other side is blank. The engrav- more. ing on the anchor is not seeable clearly because the anchor has painted; still, DBRI 26193 or 83 and 1 0 0 1 7 are vis- Discussion and Conclusions ible, whereas some other writings are illegible, probably it Anchors of every kind made of stone, wood, lead or iron can be read after the removal of the paint. A plaque has have played a decisive role in maritime trade and ship- been fixed on a platform dedicated to sailors, which states ping. Studies of anchors suggest that in ancient times ‘In the memory of THE SAILORS who lost their lives at sea’. anchors were made of stone and wood, afterwards; lead On the ‘National Maritime Day,’ the anchor was erected on and iron used for making anchors. In India even today tra- the platform. ditional fishermen of Tuticorin and Rameswaram regions of Tamil Nadu, Konark coast of Odisha, Kalingapatnam Description of iron anchors at the Government coast of Andhra Pradesh and other region use stones of Museum, Egmore (13° 04.290’ & 80°15.396’) various shapes as anchors, and this have been continued Both the iron anchors are displayed in the open area since ancient times. Numerous composite, Indo-Arabian, behind the museum building. The display board of the single hole and ring stone anchors have documented anchor reads that ‘the anchor was brought from the old in Indian waters, but iron anchor findings are lesser in Collector office, Chennai in 1953. Its length is 4.57 m, number. With regard to the discovery of iron anchors in thickness 23 cm, length of each prong 190 cm and thick- India, most of them belong to either the Portuguese or ness 10 cm. It weighs about three tons, and the anchor British period. For instance, the Archaeological Museum, might belong to some warship’. Both the arms of the old Goa has housed two Admiralty long shank anchors; anchor are corroded; which are prominent and can be similarly, four iron anchors have been retrieved while seen on the anchor distinctly (Figure 5a). The arms and dredging the mouth of the River Mandovi and these are flukes are flecking because of corrosion; the remaining housed in the Goa State Museum. Among them, one is part of the anchor is good. The shank is round in section, Admiralty long shank anchor, and the other three belongs and it has a provision to fix a wooden stock. No marks or to Admiralty iron stock anchor. Similarly, three Admiralty symbols are noticed on the anchor. A preventive coat has long shank anchors have been found off Sunchi Reef and been applied on the anchor, and no biological growth is Aguada waters (Sila Tripati et al. 2014a; and Sila Tripati present on its surface. et al. 2003). One Admiralty long shank anchor recovered The other iron anchor (Figure 5b) was brought from from Vijaydurg, Maharashtra, now housed in the Indian Kovalam village in district of Tamil Nadu. Maritime University Mumbai Port Campus, Mumbai. Two The length of the shank is 2.89 m; the stock is 3.43 m each Admiralty long shank anchors and Admiralty iron and length of the prong 2.48 m long. One of the flukes is stock anchors, which were found on the bank of the River broken. Pitting marks can be seen on the anchor because Burabalanga in the coastal regions of Balaramgadi in Bal- of corrosion. As usual, the iron stock is plain, tapers on asore district and other two from the bank of River Baita- both the sides and one end of the stock is rounded bend. rani at Chandabali in Bhadrak district, Odisha, at present

Figure 5: (a–b) Iron anchors displayed at the Government Museum, Egmore, Chennai. Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India Art. 11, page 7 of 11 displayed in the Odisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar (Sila and Admiralty iron anchors. Some of the Admiralty long Tripati et al., 2014b). All these anchors belong to the Brit- shank anchors found with wooden stocks. For instance, ish period. During underwater explorations, broken iron the wooden stock of iron anchor of Sydney Cove (1797) anchors noticed in Somnath, Pondicherry and Goa waters. is made of a single piece of teak, approximately 4 m in Further investigations may yield more number of iron length and secured by four iron reinforcing bands (Nash, anchors from inland and underwater sites. Likewise, the 2001). The Cara Merchant ‘built at Surat’ was captured off iron anchors, which are exhibited either in the museums the coast of India by Captain William Kidd, the pirate and and other places of India, should be studied because these sailed the ship to different places, and at last, abandoned are part of our heritage. Unless appropriate care is taken, the vessel at Catalina Island off the southeastern coast we may lose them forever. of Hispaniola en route to New England in 1699; subse- Besides Indian waters, different types of stone and iron quently, the Cara Merchant wrecked. The excavations of anchors have been documented from other parts of the the Cara Merchant includes cannons, many iron anchors world. Archaeological evidence indicates that during the and several tons of scrap iron (Hanselmann and Beeker, historical period, stone anchors were used in the Persian 2008; and Hanselmann and Beeker, 2015). The National Gulf, the Red Sea and realm. The excavations Maritime Museum, England has also displayed Admiralty of Siraf, Iran has brought to light two broken Indo-Arabian long shank anchors with wooden stock, Admiralty iron types of stone anchors datable to the 8th–11th century CE anchors, Porter anchor and Trotman anchors (Upham, (Whitehouse, 1970). Composite, Indo-Arabian, single hole 1983). Even some museums of Australia, Portugal and the and ring stone anchors have documented from Oman UK have collections of iron anchors, which belong to ship- waters (Vosmer, 1999). Composite stone anchors have wrecks or received from other sources. discovered from the coast of Bushehr port in the Persian History of anchor provides information from evolu- Gulf (Tofighian, 2019). Stone anchors, similar to India, tion to development as well as use of stone, wood, lead, have been recovered from the Galle harbour of wrought iron and combination of these for making (Souter, 1998). Composite and Indo-Arabian stone anchors anchors in different periods. Nevertheless, it is critical have recorded from Mombasa, Kenya (Bita and Sila Tripati, to understand why iron used for making anchors, and it 2015), as well as Kilwa Kisiwani and Mogadishu on the east continued for centuries. Iron used because it is compara- African coast (Chittick, 1980). Besides the Indian Ocean tively stronger than lead, stone and wood; easy to weld, region composite and Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors hammering and giving a required shape. Moreover, it is have been discovered from several shipwrecks, ports and cheaper, heavy, tough (lead (Pb) is relatively costly, soft inland sites along the Mediterranean Sea and Red sea and malleable) and comparatively corrosion resistant than coast (Frost, 1963; Raban, 1990; Raban, 2000). Wooden mild steel. Wrought iron is an alloy and content of carbon anchors recorded from China, Japan, Korea, Thailand and is low (less than 0.08%), hence wrought iron is preferred other regions of (Sasaki and Kimura, 2015). for making anchors, bolts, chains, wires including agricul- The distinctive type of grapnel style composite anchor tural implements (Gordon, 1996). Iron anchors discussed (8th and 9th centuries CE) recorded in Belitung shipwreck in this article made of wrought iron that could be forged Tanjung Pandan, made of iron and wood with to shape and hammer welded to complete the form. Once four horizontal arms and this anchor differs in shape from the use of wrought iron started, its demand continuously other anchors (Flecker, 2000; Flecker, 2001; McCann, increased and reached its peak in the late eighteenth and 2020). nineteenth centuries. Studies on the metallurgy, metal- The evolution of iron anchors suggest that primar- lography and manufacturing processes of ancient and ily V-shaped with a rectangular stock iron anchors were modern period iron anchors have been carried out which used in the Roman Republican period, shape wise these suggest that time to time improvements made in the tech- anchors were comparable with wood and lead anchors. niques of fabrication as well as to increase the efficiency of While in the early Roman Imperial period, the arms of the anchors (Eliyahu et al. 2011; Samuels, 1980). iron anchors became rounded and the stock was rectan- Introduction of modern iron anchors precisely cannot be gular. During the Roman Imperial period, the arms of specified, their shape, size and weight differ from ancient the iron anchors were straightened and more horizon- iron anchors onwards; however, probably introduction tal, whereas flukes were marginally raised, and the stock of modern iron anchors started from the fourteenth and was rectangular, which was remained unchanged. During fifteenth centuries. The recorded history of iron anchors the end of the Late Roman period, the local Byzantine are known from the sixteenth century onwards, and their and Islamic periods use of T-shaped anchors began, and arms were curved; whereas larger anchors had straight their arms were straight, right angles to the shank where arms, these anchors used in English vessels. The Seamen’s flukes were inclined upwards. Y-shaped anchors were Directory of Mainwaring (1622) states that the length introduced lastly, which is evident from the Serçe Limani of the shank is twice that of a fluke; similarly, the size shipwreck (1025 CE) (Kapitan, 1984; Eliyahu et al. 2011; of shank and stock is roughly the same. A Sea Grammar Van Doorninck, 2004). Different types of iron anchors by Captain John Smith (1627) provides a list of anchors have documented from shipwrecks of the later period. A which were used in the seventeenth century, further it is few abandoned iron anchors have also reported on the stated that a ship of 500 tons carries an anchor of 907 kg coastal regions. Most of the iron anchors recovered from (Upham, 1983). From this period onwards, iron anchors later period shipwrecks belong to Admiralty long shank have named after the persons who had developed them. Art. 11, page 8 of 11 Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India

Eighteenth century onwards iron anchors were pro- The Admiralty pattern anchor replaced the Admiralty duced from a bundle of iron bars, and rods, which are fas- long shank anchor around 1837. The Admiralty pat- tened together with iron brackets, heated together then tern anchors with curved arms developed in 1841 under forged to make one bar, and shank, stock and flukes made. Admiral William Parker. The proportions of this anchor are Afterwards, shank, stock and fluke are welded one after three to one, for instance, if the arm were 5 feet (1.524 the other along with the other parts. In the absence of m), then the long shank would be 15 feet (4.572 m). technology, flaws and faults remained unchecked for sev- The centre of curvature of the arms is one third, the dis- eral decades; therefore, arms of anchors broke frequently tance up the shank from the crown (Upham, 1983). Iron under severe pressure while lifting and handling. stocks started at the end of the eighteenth century. The The Admiralty Anchors are the reinvention from the anchors can be distinguished from the stock because they classical design, as seen in one of the Nemi ship anchors. differ from anchor to anchor, and every kind of anchor This fundamental design continued unchanged for centu- stock had their role. Wooden stocks with bands used in ries together, subsequently significant changes made on the Admiralty and Rodger type of anchors. These wooden the overall proportions, and there was a change of stocks stocks were straight and tapered on either side. Rodger made of wood to iron stocks in the late 1830s and early wooden stocks had their own merits and demerits. 1840s. The Old plan Long shanked anchors which were The stock of Admiral Pattern anchors was round having also known as the Admiralty long shank anchors used by a collar and stock pin at the centre. The stock put through the Royal Navy and many other merchants and private hole of the shank; the collar and the stock pin hold the vessels until 1840 and became rarer on ships in the 19th shank securely on both sides. The stock of the anchor century. These anchors had the provision for the wooden ascertains that the arms rest vertically on the seabed and stock, that’s why the shank has slicing of edges on the one fluke will dig itself in seabed providing maximum four sides, which help to insert the shank smoothly in the holding power. The Admiral Pattern anchors with its two wooden stock. Wooden stock anchors remain unchanged flukes and the stock at right angles remained unchanged aboard vessels of timber hulls. Cotsell (1856) has stated for many centuries. Further, Cotsell improved the design that more number of the Old plan Long shanked anchors by providing a matching key in the hole of the stock and (Admiralty long shank anchor) were broken because arms for the shank, which prevented dropping of the stock were straight. Palms of Admiralty long shank anchors (Curryer, 1999; Cotsell, 1856). Nevertheless, the Admiralty generally hold a larger area, bury in deep sediment, iron stock differs from other stocks, circular in section and arms break while retrieving, therefore to overcome such tapers towards its ends, and these were flexible. When the defects, Pering introduced curved arms. The advantage of anchor falls on the sea bottom, most of the time the arms Rodger anchors over the Admiralty anchors was because of the anchor will be parallel to the seabed. The stock will of finished palm and length of the arm. In the case of dig into the bottom and force one of its flukes into the holding capacity, Admiralty anchors were more preferred. sea bottom. Once the anchor brought aboard and the pin The holding ability of the anchor depends on the arm. removed from the stock, the stock would become flexible, The angle of the arm is set relative to the shank and posi- then it became easy to handle the anchor, and this was the tion of the palm (Curryer, 1999; Cotsell, 1856). Admiralty most outstanding merit in Admiralty iron stocks. long shank anchors were made in the pre-machine age The Trotman iron anchors were designed and improved and tended to break while being raised; hence Trotman by John Trotman (therefore named Trotman) and he pat- anchors have replaced them (Upham, 1983). ented the anchor in 1852. The Royal Navy and marine The development of iron anchors through the eight- merchant vessels used Trotman anchors. John Trotman eenth century is well documented, including their designs intended to offer better holding capacity and lightweight and manufacturing processes. Several Admiralty long anchor for the merchant ships, which could be handled shank anchors iron anchors of the 18th century have been by a limited number of the crew; therefore, he designed excavated from the shipwrecks in Australia namely HMS the Trotman type of anchor. These anchors were used in Sirius 1790, HMS Pandora 1791 and Sydney Cove 1797, the marine merchant vessels. The stock of these anchors including Indian waters. The shank of these anchors was are similar to the Admiralty anchor; the shank is of rectan- round in section with a gradual tapering towards the ring gular section. These anchors are constructed in two parts: end. The arms of the anchor have attached the crown arms, a crown was one part, and shank ending in a fork about 60 degrees with the shank. The flukes or palms are was the other part. Subsequently, these two parts were welded to the upper surface of the arms (Curryer, 1999). joined together. The crown and arm were held in the fork The anchor chain was absent in Admiralty long shank by a bolt when one arm holds the seabed; the other one anchors, and cables were used made of hemp. The cable put pressure on the shank, thus reducing the height above and the circular ring protected by wrapping tarred canvas ground, and rendering it almost impossible for the cable and fastened with a small rope. Remains of these materials to get entangled around it. The fish buckle was provided have been recovered along with the anchor of the Sydney to stow the anchor. Initially, wooden stocks were provided, Cove shipwreck (Nutley and Smith, 2000; Calligan, 1994; which were subsequently replaced by iron stocks (Curryer, Nash, 1991). The weights and scales of the Admiralty long 1999). shank anchors have been estimated, and several guides In comparison with other types of iron anchors, fewer are available to determine it (Steel, 1978; Curryer, 1999). Trotman of anchors are noticed in India, and these two Tripati et al: Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India Art. 11, page 9 of 11 anchors of Tuticorin are the first findings. The anchor of Nadu. In: Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, the fishing harbour probably belongs to a British mer- 61th Session, Calcutta, pp. 1293–1310. chant ship. The iron anchor of the old harbour of Tuticorin Athiyaman, N. 2014. Ancient and Medieval ports of the probably made for some specific purpose; therefore, wear Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Mari- and tear marks are not noticed, nor the anchor is cor- time Connections across Indian Ocean Countries. In: roded. This anchor is smaller than the anchor placed at Tilburg, HV, Tripati, S, Walker, V, Fahy, B and Kimura, J the fishing harbour. (eds.) Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Con- Anchors were fascinating to the seafarers. Stone ference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Honolulu, anchors with various symbols have been recorded in the Hawaii, 2: 923–936. Mediterranean Sea, which either belongs to ownership or Athiyaman, N and Jayakumar, P. 2004. Ancient anchors makers mark, etc., and this shows the affinity of mariners. off Tamil Nadu coast and Ship tonnage analysis. Cur- Similar characters and symbols not noticed on any stone rent Science, 86(9): 1261–1267. anchors of India but such signs generally not found on iron Bita, C and Tripati, S. 2015. Stone anchors from Mom- anchors. However, iron anchors were worshipped by the basa, Kenya: evidence of maritime contacts with Indian fisherfolk for a safe voyage, which is evident from Dabhol, Ocean countries. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute Maharashtra, west coast of India (Gaur et al. 2009). Similarly, for Maritime Archaeology, 39: 84–91. the Trotman iron anchor of the old harbour of Tuticorin Bowrey, T. 1905. A Geographical Account of Countries has erected in commemoration of mariners. There might Round the Bay of Bengal 1669–79. In: Temple, RC (ed.), be many more such instances, further explorations and vis- London, (reprint, Asian Educational Services: New its to museums may bring them to the limelight. Delhi, 1993). Besides, historical records and other evidence, these Calligan, D. 1994. Cook’s Cannon and Anchor: The Recov- iron anchors emphasise on maritime contacts of India ery and Conservation of Relics from HMB Endeavour. with European countries. The study of iron anchors may Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press. provide an insight into the size ships and period of ship- Casson, L. 1989. The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Princeton: wrecks. Several unexplored shipwrecks are lying in Indian Princeton University Press. waters, which may bring to light many such iron anchors, Chittick, HN. 1980. Stone anchor-shanks in the West- even other varieties, which so far not recorded in India. ern Indian Ocean. International Journal of Nauti- Studies on iron anchors would provide information on cal Archaeology, 9(1): 73–76. DOI: https://doi. the development of technology and their significant role org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1980.tb01278.x in maritime contacts with other countries. Iron anchors Cotsell, G. 1856. Treatise on Ship’s Anchors. London: John are part of our maritime heritage and should be recorded, Weale. studied and preserved for posterity or else we will lose Curryer, BN. 1999. Anchors An Illustrated History. them forever. ­London: Chatham Publishing. Eliyahu, M, Barkai, O, Goren, Y, Eliaz, N, Kahanov, Y Acknowledgements and Ashkenazi, D. 2011. The iron anchors from the Authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-National Insti- Tantura F shipwreck: typological and metallurgical tute of Oceanography for encouragement. We are obliged analyses. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38: 233– to Profs Jon Carpenter, WAMM, Australia, Malcolm Turner, 245. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.08.023 South Africa, and Vijayan Fernando our colleague for Flecker, M. 2000. A 9th-century Arab or Indian shipwreck providing information on iron anchors and Dr V Selva in Indonesian waters. International Journal of Nauti- Kumar, Tamil University for his kind suggestions. Authors cal Archaeology, 29(2): 199–217. DOI: https://doi. are grateful to the authorities of Government Museum, org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2000.tb01452.x Egmore, ­Chennai and Mrs Divya, Curator of Anthropol- Flecker, M. 2001. 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How to cite this article: Tripati, S, Prabaharan, N and Behera, RP. 2020. Recently Discovered Iron Anchors from Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India. Ancient Asia, 11: 11, pp. 1–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/aa.194

Published: 28 December 2020

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