THE NORTHERN EARLDOMS

Orkney and from AD 870 to 1470

Barbara E. Crawford

JOHN DONALD

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Contents

List of Plates xiii List of Figures xv Preface and Acknowledgements xvii List of Abbreviations xxi

Introduction 1971—2012 I Earls and Kings 4 Joint Earldoms 6 Bibliographical References for Introduction 8

1 Between and Scotland: Joint Earldoms and Divided Loyalties 10 1.1 Political and Maritime Contexts 10 I.I.I Waterways, lordships and power centres 11 1.2 Earls of Different Kingdoms 18 1.2.1 Peripheral communities 21 1.2.2 Borders and frontiers 23 1.3 Historical Approaches 26 1.3.1 Local historians 28 1.3.2 Genealogies 32 1.4 Lordship 35

2 The Sources of Knowledge about the Joint Earldoms: Documentary Survival and Historical Reality 39 2.1 Evaluation of Jarls' () 39 2.2 Runic Inscriptions 50 2.3 Latin Documents 53 2.4 Norwegian Documents 59 2.5 Scots Documents and the 'Genealogy of the Earls' 62 2.6 Liturgical Fragments 65 viii CONTENTS

2.7 Material Evidence 67 2.7.1 Ecclesiastical foundations 68 2.7.2 Secular residences: and 70 2.7.3 Seals 76

3 Viking Earls: AD 870—1030 80 3.1 Mythical Origin 80 3.1.1 Nordic significance of the origin myth 81 3.1.2 Title of jarl 83 3.2 Creation of the Earldom of 85 3.2.1 Economic interests 87 3.2.2 King and jarl 90 3.3 Earl Sigurd I 'the Mighty' [hinn riki) 92 3.3.1 Sigurd Is death and burial c.892 96 3.3.2 Place-name and archaeological evidence for Norse settlement on the north mainland of Scotland 100 3.4 The Tenth Century - Survival and Accommodation 103 3.4.1 Einar: the one-eyed slave-born earl (fl.900) 105 3.4.2 Struggle for control of Caithness 108 3.4.3 Earldom contacts beyond Caithness and Orkney 111 3.5 Sigurd II Hlodversson 'the Stout' (digri) 113 3.5.1 Expansion south and west 114 3.5.2 Hoards, arm-rings and an earldom economy 120 3.5.3 Earl Sigurd digri's conversion and death 125 3.6 Earl Thorfinn 'the Mighty' (hinn riki) • 129 3.6.1 Relationship with Olaf Haraldsson 131 3.6.2 Caithness contested between Earl and 134 3.6.3 Campaigns to the and internal rivalries 138 3.6.4 Division of the earldoms 141

4 Medieval Earls: 1050—1150 145 4.1 Earl Thorfinn's Founding of the Orkney Bishopric 145 4.2 Military Organisation and Earldom Authority in the West 150 4.2.1 Ross - the southern frontier 152 4.2.2 Thorfinn's 'famous journey' and pilgrimage to Rome 156 4.2.3 Ingibjorg 'Earls'-mother'(/'ar/amo^«r) and problems of chronology 159 4.2.4 Eulogy of Earl Thorfinn and developments after his death 162 4.3 Hierarchy of Power: Magnus Olafsson 'Barelegs\Berfxttr) and the Earls 165 4.3.1 Royal ambitions and the role of the Orkney earldom 167 CONTENTS ix

4.3.2 Rival earls 171 4.4 Twelfth-century Earldom Society 172 4.4.1 Events in Caithness 175 4.4.2 Rognvald Kali Kolsson 177 4.4.3 Frakokk and Clan Moddan, and the Celto-Norse society of Caithness and 179 4.5 Aspiring Earls and Scottish Influence 183 4.6 Aspects of Political Geography in the Twelfth-century Earldoms 188 4.6.1 Scapa Flow 189 4.6.2 Castles 193

5 Saint-Earls and Orkney's Twelfth-century Renaissance 198 5.1 The Killing of Earl Magnus 198 5.2 Growth of the Magnus Cult 199 5.2.1 Preconditions for sanctification 200 5.2.2 Bishop William's role 202 5.2.3 'Elevation' of the relics and 'Translation' to Kirkwall 204 5.2.4 Kol's speech and the building of St Magnus Cathedral 208 5.3 Pilgrimages and an Age of Piety 212 5.3.1 Earl Rognvald: pilgrim, poet and benefactor 214 5.3.2 Earl Rognvald 'the Holy' 219 5.4 The Two Orkney Saints 221 5.5 Architectural Evidence 228 5.5.1 Egilsay and the 228 5.5.2 Parish churches 231 5.6 Orkney's Twelfth-century Renaissance 234

6 Earls Constrained by the Power of Kings in the Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Centuries 238 6.1 Circumstances of Divided Loyalty 238 6.2 Earl Harald Maddadson (1158-1206) 240 6.2.1 The meeting of royal authority in the earldoms 240 6.2.2 Harald's disloyalty and King Sverrir's anger 242 6.3 Harald, and King William 246 6.3.1 Harald 'The Young' (ungi) and the Battle of Wick 248 6.4 Violence in Caithness 250 6.4.1 Earl Harald's attack on the stewards and on Bishop John 251 6.4.2 Punishment: papal penance and royal retribution 254 6.5 Earl Harald's Ultimate Survival 257 6.6 The Last Joint Earls: David and John Haraldsson 261 6.6.1 Repairing relations with the kings of Norway and Scotland 262 X CONTENTS

6.6.2 Loss of Sutherland 264 6.7 Conspiracy in Norway and More Violence in Caithness 267 6.7.1 The burning of Bishop Adam in 1222 268 6.7.2 Royal vengeance 271 6.7.3 Contextualising the evidence about the nature of Caithness society 273 6.8 Murder of Earl John (1230) 274 6.8.1 The end of the old line and the end of an era 276

7 Shadow Earls: 1230s—1370s 278 7.1 The Angus Earls 278 7.1.1 Royal reorganisation in the north 279 7.1.2 Johanna and Matilda, heiresses to the earldom lands 283 7.1.3 The new dynasty's adjustment to the north 286 7.2 Installation as Earls of Orkney - Hirdskra 288 7.2.1 The earls' position 291 7.3 1263 and the Problem of Divided Loyalty 294 7.3.1 King Hakon Hakonsson's motivation and preparation 295 7.3.2 1263 naval expedition west 297 7.3.3 Earl Magnus Gilbertsson's circumstances 299 7.4 The Treaty of Perth 1266 301 7.4.1 Earl Magnus Gilbertsson's reconciliation 1267 303 7.5 A Northern Commonwealth'and the role of the earls 306 7.5.1 The death of the Maid of Norway in Orkney 1290 308 7.5.2 International and national matters: 1295 and after 310 7.5.3 Weland de Stiklaw 312 7.6 Earldom Minorities and Abeyance 314 7.6.1 Trouble between Scots and Norwegians in the islands 314 7.6.2 Malise, earl of Caithness and Orkney c.1330— c.1350 317 7.6.3 Filling the vacuum after Earl Malise's death 320 7.7 Developments Regarding Caithness and the Breaking of the Link with Orkney 325 7.7.1 Alexander of Ard, eldest grandson of Earl Malise and the loser of both earldoms 325 7.7.2 Changes in Caithness: evidence of feudalising influences 329

8 Sinclair Earls: 1379—1470 332 8.1 Earl Henry I (1379-c.1400) 334 8.1.1 Earl Henry's terms of appointment 336 8.2 Earl Henry I's Establishment of his Authority 339 8.2.1 The killing of Bishop William 340 CONTENTS xi

8.2.2 Malise Sperra, the dangerous cousin with a rival claim 342 8.2.3 and the Sinclairs 343 8.2.4 Eal"l Henry I's priorities 345 8.3 Earl Henry II (1400—1420) and his Grandmother Isabella Sinclair 347 8.4 Earl William Sinclair (1420—1470) 349 8.4.1 The rule of David Menzies and the abeyance of the earldom 350 8.4.2 Compiling the 'Genealogy of the Earls' and William's position 352 8.4.3 Earl William's Installation 1434 355 8.4.4 Chancellor of Scotland 1454-1456 and earl of Caithness 356 8.5 The Gathering Storm Clouds 360 8.5.1 Earl William's position in the minority of James III (1460—1468) 361 8.5.2 The marriage treaty and the pledging of Orkney and Shetland (1468-1469) 365 8.5.3 Earl William's renunciation of his right to the earldom of Orkney - the excambion of 1470 368

9 The Aftermath of the Old Earldoms 371 9.1 The Revival of Sinclair Power and Influence in the North 371 9.1.1 Lord Henry Sinclair, 'farmer' and 'leaseholder' 372 9.1.2 Kirkwall's Burgh charter 375 9.1.3 Earl William's family settlement 377 9.2 Sir David Sinclair of Sumburgh 378 9.2.1 Sir David's will of 10 July 1506 381 9.3 Changing Worlds 385 9.3.1 Turbulence in Caithness 386 9.3.2 The Pentland Firth — a barrier at last? 387

Retrospective Summary 389

Bibliography 394 Index 417