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The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School The College of Communications COMPARING THE COVERAGE OF VIRTUAL MARCHES AND HACKTIVISM OVER SIXTEEN YEARS: A QUALITATIVE FRAME ANALYSIS OF NEWS DISCOURSE A Dissertation in Mass Communications by Sarah Clare Worley © 2016 Sarah Clare Worley Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2016 The dissertation of Sarah Clare Worley was reviewed and approved* by the following: Patrick R. Parsons Don Davis Professor of Ethics and Telecommunications Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee C. Michael Elavsky Associate Professor of Media Studies John D. McCarthy Distinguished Professor of Sociology Michelle Rodino-Colocino Associate Professor of Film-Video and Media Studies Associate Professor of Women’s Studies Ford Risley Associate Dean for Undergraduate and Graduate Education in the College of Communications * Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii ABSTRACT Using a combination of qualitative frame and discourse analysis methods, this research analyzes sixteen total years of news coverage related to the online direct action tactics of virtual march and hacktivism. The discourse of mainstream news media analyzed in this study favored the normative ideal of Habermas’s public sphere by framing emerging online direct action tactics like virtual marches and hacktivism as ineffectual or illegitimate forms of political participation. The findings of this research suggest that despite being different in their contentious nature, the external attention these two protest tactics have received in the form of media discourse serves to delegitimize, marginalize and stigmatize participants and movements, as well as the online direct action tactics they employ. When viewed through proposed revisions to the public sphere, such as the public screen or the networked public sphere, however, the potential effectiveness and legitimacy of online direct action tactics like virtual marches and hacktivism may be framed differently, suggesting that a revision to the public sphere ideal is necessary if online direct action tactics are ever to be viewed as legitimate forms of political participation. The use of the internet to facilitate online direct action tactics raises normative questions for democratic societies on a number of different levels. Having a better understanding of how and if these normative concerns are being used as framing devices by the media helps to reveal those issues, and could influence the shape and tone of political and public discourse regarding their use. This research has the potential to offer a starting point from which to make sense of this period of experimentation, a critical juncture in media communication that will influence the shape that discourse, public opinion and policy regarding how, when and if social movements use online direct action tactics like virtual marches and hacktivism in the future. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..…v List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….…...vi Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….…..vii INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..…………..….1 LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………..……..….9 Revising the Public Sphere…………………………………………………..…9 A Critical/Cultural Perspective on Resistance………………………………...15 Relationship between Social Movements and Mainstream Mass Media……...19 Technology and Society……………………………………………………….25 Social Movements and the Internet……………………………………………28 Online Direct Action Tactics: Virtual March and Hacktivism………………...35 METHODOLOGY….……………………………………………………..……….…49 Combing Frame and Discourse Analysis……………………………………....49 Selection and Treatment of Media Texts………………………………………55 ANALYSIS OF VIRTUAL MARCH COVERAGE……………………………......63 Summary of Virtual March Coverage……………………………………….…63 Analyzing the Dimensions of News Discourse for Virtual Marches…………..69 Influence of Placement and Headlines…………………………………………76 Findings for Virtual Marches…………………………………………………..79 ANALYSIS OF HACKTIVISM COVERAGE…………………………………..…82 Summary of Hacktivism Coverage…………………………………………….82 Analyzing the Dimensions of News Discourse for Hacktivism………………..90 Influence of Placement and Headlines………………………………………...108 Findings for Hacktivism……………………………………………………….110 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION…………………………………………...……112 Comparing News Discourse……………………………………………………112 Discussion of Online Direct Action Tactics……………………………………118 Discussion of the Public Sphere………………………………………………..122 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………….………....125 Appendix: List of Virtual Marches Found in Coverage……………………………......129 Works Cited.…………………………………………………………………………....132 iv LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1. Examples of virtual marches found through a Google search in August, 2014……...39 2. Breakdown of the number of articles analyzed by media outlet and search term…....58 3. Headlines from virtual march articles in sample coded as thematic………………....67 4. List of virtual march events found in sample listed in chronological order.................68 5. Sample of quotes from virtual march coverage suggesting potential implications of the internet organized by theme…………………………………………………………….71 6. Headlines from hacktivism articles in sample coded as thematic……………………87 7. All hacktivism related headlines in sample from 2000………………………………89 8. Definitions and explanations of the word “hacktivist” found in sample…………......92 9. Examples of references made to the age and gender of hacktivism actors …………..95 10. Quotes from hacktivism coverage suggesting potential implications the internet organized by theme…………………………………………………………..................101 11. Examples of David and Goliath comparisons found in hacktivism coverage…..….107 v LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES 1. Number of virtual march stories from sample listed by source…………………….65 2. Number of virtual march stories from sample by year……………………….……..66 3. Types of sources quoted across all virtual march stories in sample.………………..73 4. Placement of virtual march stories from sample found in print news by section.......77 5. Word cloud created using the text of newspaper headlines from virtual march sample…………………………………………………………………...79 6. Number of hacktivism stories in sample listed by source …………………………..83 7. Number of hacktivism stories in sample by year…………………………….………88 8. Types of sources quoted across all hacktivism stories in sample…………………...103 9. Number of hacktivism stories in sample by section or type of story……………......109 10. Word cloud created using the text of from newspaper headlines from hacktivism sample………………………………………………………………………………..…110 11. Comparison by gender of the sources used in virtual march coverage versus hacktivism coverage…………………………………………………………………….115 vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It has been said that it takes a village to raise a child. I would argue that the same is true of completing a dissertation. I am grateful to the many family members, friends, colleagues and students who have offered their support and encouragement to me towards this goal. Your words and acts of support gave me the confidence and energy needed to see it through. There are a few people whom I would like to thank specifically. Thank you to the Chair of my committee, Dr. Patrick Parsons, as well as the other members of my committee, Dr. Rodino-Colocinio, Dr. Elavsky and Dr. McCarthy for your insightful guidance, and patience. Thank you to my former Provost, Jim Lakso, for taking a risk on me and giving me the opportunity to discover my passion for teaching. Thank you to my Juniata colleagues, Grace Fala and Lynn Cockett for creating a supportive and energizing atmosphere in which to work, and for your help and many words of encouragement. Thank you to my friend and mentor, Donna Weimer. You have been there for the best and worst of it all. I am grateful for the time and energy you committed to helping me finish what I started. Thank you to my parents, Clarejean Haury and Mark Worley for instilling in me a love of learning and the courage to ask big questions. Many aspects of this project were influenced by the democratic values you modeled for and taught me. Thank you to my sister, Vanessa Worley for being my best friend. Your unconditional love is my source of energy. Thank you to my husband, Ryan Wetzel, my partner, my confidant, and my champion. I am grateful for your loving and gentle support. I could never have done this without you. vii I dedicate this work to my sons, Owen and Elliott. You inspire me to be and do my best. viii INTRODUCTION History offers many examples of individuals and groups who have sought to effect change within the society and communities of which they are a part by organizing acts of contentious collective action and resistance. These efforts include, but are not limited to the use of various forms of protest and civil disobedience. The ultimate goal of these actions is to bring attention to and expose the injustices perpetuated by the unjust laws and policies of governments and corporations, and are utilized in an effort to change the system. In a broad sense, this type of resistance has been said to be “as old as the Hebrew midwives’ defiance of Pharaoh,” and can be seen in other Biblical examples as well: “Moses was a wanted man, and David an outlaw; Isaiah and Jeremiah were both accused of conspiracy and treason…[and] Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego are known only for their divine disobedience,” not to mention Jesus himself (Suber 110, Coffin 1). From at least the time of Jesus to more recent leaders like Thoreau, Gandhi and Martin Luther King, and