Computing in Higher Education: a Planning Perspective for Administrators

LIWL.VV1L'aVfl il.OUVLJ;J

ED 236 974 HE 016 659

AUTHOR Chachra, Vinod; Heterick, Robert C. TITLE Computing in Higher F3ucation: A Planning Perspective for Administrators. CAUSE Monograph Series. INSTITUTION CAUSE, Boulder, Colo. PUB DATE 82 NOTE 201p. AVAILABLE FROM CAUSE Publications, 737 Twenty-Ninth Street, Boulder, CO 80303 ($6.00, members; $10, nonmember colleges; $20, others). PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055) Viewpoints (120)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Administrative Principles; Administrator Guides; *College Administration; College Planning; *Computer Oriented Programs; Computer Program ;Databases; *Data Processing; Economic Climate; Higher Education *Information Networks; *Management Information Systems; Microcomputers; Minicomputers; Program Administration; Technological Advancement; Word Processing ABSTRACT Options for using computers in managing higher education institutions and technological questions are considered in a collection of nine essays developed by the authors for this monograph. An introduction considers historical developments and provides an overview of computing modes and languages. After considering some of the economic and technological influences under which computing centers of the 1980s will have to operate, attention is directed to the following concerns: the question of whether to do different tasks on the same machine, management techniques, the reporting structure of the information systems department, job shop scheduling versus utility operation, development versus maintenance, and evaluation and audits. Topics concerning software development include models and design of data-based management systems, systems development life cycle, and structured techniques. Operations concerns are also covered, including scheduling, critical paths, service charging, job accounting, and queuing and simulation. The role of the user and the system view are considered, along with perspectives on office systems and word processing, and planning for the automated office. Issues concerning networks and sharing are also discussed, including the impact of the micro/mini computers and software sharing. Perspectives on the future of administrative computing are also considered. (SW)

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MONOGRAPH SERIES Computing In Higher Education: A Planning Perspective For Administrators

By Vinod Chachra and Robert C. lieterick

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PERMISSION TOREPRODUCE HIS NATIONAL. INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION i A -11,1%AI MATERIAL INMICROFICHE ONLY Fil NI °RYA F ION (I VII fli1 RIC I HAS BEEN GRANTEDBY "

1..1.11,1 v.

TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER(ERIC)."

The Professional Association for Development. Use, and Management of Information Systems in Higher Education

ti Library or Congress Cataloging in PublicationData

(. \ ' -

I. i01).II t ,c,I),.r.--1),H (y-,!-: I 11}4--P1 (11111 i r1,,111t1,11 (. 1 . Het_ rick ,obi rC., . I I.Ti .C.,. 8')-2 SI)

Copies of this monographare availabletcstaff of CAUSE member institutions at$6 per copy, to non-member colleges and universitiesat$10,and to othersat$20. Orders should be pre-paid :aid addressedto:

CAUSE Publications 73' Twenty-Ninth Street Boulder, Colorado 80303 (303) 1449-141430

Allrights reserved. No part ofthispublication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any formorbyany means electronic,mechanical, photocopying,recording,orotherwise withoutprior written permission of the authors.

,Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Catalog number82-22989.

3 Preface

A word of explanation isin order for the reader about to embark upon pursuing the contents herein. The reader will discover aloose collectionof essays dealing with what iscommonly called Administrative Data Processing. The collectionhasresultedfrom theoftexpresseddesireto bring together the management of the College or University to discuss the ways, means and idosyncracies of compOer- aided institutional management.

When the opportunitypresenteditselfto conduct a series of professional development seminars dealing with the computer and administrationinhigher education, we drew upon a stock ofpreviousarticlesand positionpapersto construct the nucleus ofthis present work.We both are productsofthe computerrevolution. We have studied, taught and managed educational computing for the entirety ofour-professionalcareers. Our viewpointshavebeen shaped not only by our management experiences (primarily inlargerinstitutionalsettings) but also by our classroom challenges. We have not attempted to produce a -how tomanual, but rather to cast a hostoftechnologicalquestionsin a management perspective. Neitherofusfeelsthereis a -r-rrht way- to conduct administrative data processing, only tl there is-a way- that best compliments and enhances the distinctive management style of a given institution at a particulartimeinitsdevelopment. Because institutional administrationisdynamic,itisuseful, perhaps necessary, to be aware of the range of hardware, development, organization, etc. options for administrative computing. We wish to acknowledc.3e, the financial assistance of the IBM Corporationin providing the support to CAUSE for the Initial distribution of this work. We ,need alsoto acknow- ledge the careful criticism of the style of this work by Julia A. Rudy of CAUSE and the thoughtful construction of the figures by Fred W.Lacerda. The text and figures were produced by the authors us inAPL and SCRIPT as part of a test documentations ystom currently under development. Any errors in the fln:s hed work are solely of our owncon- struction.

V. Chachra R. C. Hnterick Blacksburg, Virginia January 1982

iv About CAUSE

CAUSE, the Professional Associationfor Development, Use, and Management ofInformation Systemsin Higher Educa- tion, helps member institutions strengthen their management capabilities through improved informa;ion systems CAUSE provides member institutionsNith many services to increase the effectiveness of their administrative information systems. These servicesinclude:the Exchange Library, whichis a clearinghousefornon-proprietaryinformation and systems contributedby members; an Information Request Service tolocatespecific systems or information; consulting services to review AIS organization and management plans; organizational publicationsincluding a bi- monthly newsletter,a bi-monthly professional magazine and the CAUSE Monographs; and the CAUSE National Confer- ence. Additional details on the CAUSE organization and activities may be obtained from the CAUSE National Office in Boulder, Colorado.

v About the Authors

Vincd Chachra is the Assistant Provost for Planning and Information Systems at VirginiaTech. Inthisposition, he is responsible for academic planning aswell as directsupervisionoftheUniversity Library,the University Computing Center and the University Registrar. In addition he serves asthedirector for the Center for Library Automation.. He has several professional publications tohis credit andis co-author ofa book on graph theory pub- lishedbyAmerican Elsevier. He was elected as delegatetothe WhiteHouse Conference on Library and Information Sci- ences. Dr. Chachra is a past president of CAUSE.

Robert C. Heterick, Jr.isDirector of the Design AutomationLaboratoryat Virginia Tech. Prior to his current position,Dr. HeterickwasDirectoroftheComputing Center at the University.He has lectured widely oncomputersystemsmanagement and isthe author of several papers on the subjects of resource allocation in computing systems and decision support systems. He hasserved as a consultanttotheIBM Corporation,the Governor of Virginia, the President's Privacy Protection Study Com- mission and numerous universities and pri- vatecorporations on computersystems management and distributedcomputingin networks of microprocessors.

vii Table of Contents

Chapter 1:COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES

Archimedes Lever 1 Ai Brief Look Backward 3

Analog Applications . . . 10 The Modern Computer 11 Architecture of Computing Systems 18

Computer Languages . . . . 23 Modes of Computing

Chapter 2:TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS Cost of Computing 31 Hardware Costs

Hardware Strategies . . . 39 Personnel Problems 43 Software 45 Impact of Software and Personnel 45 Chapter 3:ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING Combined vs. Separate 49 Management Tecfir iques 51 Reporting Structures ...... 56 Job Shop vs. Utility Operation 59 Security and Disaster Plan ning Development vs. Maintenance 64

Evaluation and Audit . . . . . 68

Chapter 4: SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT The Data Base Approach 73

Architecture of DBMS . . 76 Models of DBMS 78 Data Administrator 79 Systems Development Life Cycie 80 Structured Techniques 83 Problem Areas 86 Mamigemerit Information Systems and Beyond 88 Seqiie Design Cnrideline 97 The Data Digraph 101

Chapter 5:OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT Scheduling 103 Critical Path 106 Service Charging 112 Job Accounting 118 Accliting 122 Otieueing and Simulation 125 Security and Privacy 127

Chapter 6:INFORMATION MANAGEMENT ROLES Ihe User 131 The System Perspective 132 Data Ownership 133 Control 134 Planning for Change 138 Software Directions 143 Chapter 7:INTRA-INSTITUTION COMMUNICATION Office Systems in Perspective 147 Word Processing Attitudes 151 Local Networks 155 Terminals for Managers Program 161 Planning for the Automated Office 163 Chapter 8:NETWORKS AND SHARING The Economics of Computing 165 Network Types 169 The Impact of the Micro/Mini 173 Software Sharing 174 The Minicomputer in Networks 176 The Role of the Microcomputer 177 Chapter 9:THE FUTURE Administrative Entropy 179 Adrniinstrative Structure 182 Administrative Innovation 184 Organization 187 Computer Operations 190 Administrative Systems 191 COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES'

-Give me ale /er long enough . . . and Ican move the wci'ld singlehanded." Archimedes

Archimedes Lever

There now existsa ',holegenerationofadults who havelivedtheirliveswithcomputer technology. It is sometimes difficultto view computing inits proper perspective,at the same time taking into account itsold recorded history and today's new headlines. Societyisjustflow beginningto come to grips with the impact ofthe digital computer on our life styles.As with anynei,v technology it has come from the phase of derided laboratory apparatus, through oversoldsaviorof mankind topotential oppressor of human dignity. Like most new technologiesitis viewed somewhat ambivalently,indicating we stillhave farto go before itstotal acceptance. Within the shot span of 25 years, the digital computer hasgonethr'ougrrfourtechnologicalgenerations from large,expensive,hot,vacuum tube devicestoportable, inexpensive (less than the cost of a standard automobile), virtual devices capable of being addressed innear natural language. Ambivalencetoward computers is recognized when we reflect that without them we would not have put a

1 o 2 COMPUT ING PI W.;PEC-1 IVES

man ,an tha ni.ion, wecouldriot operateourcurrent f mammal ini-,titutions, near instantaneous airline reservations v,a-aild be In1H)SSIi)10 and many if our newer structures could net builtoroper,ited. thesametimetheyhave br-oglit usseemingb,irrtcc,nc11,,E,10lullingford ups,sys- teparivinc.ki do not workv, hen the power fails and potential forfiriv,cyito..r:,14,11 en a heretofore undreamedofscale. The positives can be ,ittributed to technology, the negatives to man sabilityto understand arid control that technology. luny f ,ur perceived problemswith computers probably stem mom our attempttousethe new technologyinold a,flinchasvoi installed buggy whips on automobiles at the turn oftheetitur

I he pr t.011t.1.11-fthe computer has been well expressed

ui term, ratmultipliers by . J. NIclxeefery.

nunworkedtomakemultipliers impro% e his ousni strengthandskillbyfactorsof ee,tive or ten. The hoe, the wheel, the bow and ari ,wceprosented 111,(:f'St urns. Then,withthe tridiritrialrevolution,the multipliersbecame ahun- ,Iredtoa thousand Gunpowder,steam power, ossilfuelspit!,hedthe horsepower per personinto raiife arid stretchedhis tray(' comprehension in apprinately these measures. Even today, jet tramsportatioa (lopsnot improve walking by more than

,dlthis,there wines along occasionally a multiplierinthe rangeof a millionto one These lc,%,e been recent stillrelatively rare.The first multiplier Lame earlier inthis century by controlling elect f gistin wires, arid then by wireless, the speed .dtrans11115';1,,f1q.ilnOt!Isin the Order ofa mil- liontooce. Later,throughthe multiplierofmass production ofradio andtelevisionsots,these swift movingmessages wereplaced In millionsofIronies 5;1111111t,1110,Itil

Another major multiplierin the million categoryis nuclear energy,which beganwithshattering ex plo- slimsurthe iorm of bombs, but now,hopefully,will hedi-,Jdoped as controlledfusionforthemajor

W.J. t,lcKeefery, Where are We? A Top Management Perspective, inOrr/cm/fin() forinnovation: Towardsthe Computer futility,ed.R.C. lieterick (Blacksburg: Virginia I ech Computing Center,19/31. CONIPL-I ING PERSPECTIVES 3

energysourceoftheworldspopulation. Today, nuclear' energyrin power plants and marine propulsion Las reached the thousand-fold category.With fusion itwillroach a rnlllion fold and gradually change our way oflife.

Still another important multiplieristhe comp', a . It,too,hasreached the millionfoldcategory. Its combinationofspeed ofcalculationinne,no-second, and its storage capacity make its superiority over man in themillionfoldcategory . We haven'texploited thisleveragefullyyet,butwithminiaturization, portability and the deyolopment of symbolnc languages unfair;withrietwor1.s,these combinedresourceswill produce adorn untieof the vast changes inmankind's wry of doing business.

When weconsiderthepotentialofthecomputerin rit.tw.,r1,s we begin to achieve a million multi- pliumition-1 a mullionmultiplier.The potentialof such an generation to make its true cup,ictfelt t.hrnwo;,,111',P considerthatcommercial iiyuatr tyyuu order, of magnitude impro,ue- rilcuritcu.er walluded, and retie':rim tin',tremendous impact it ha,f. iden airInto,t,lrs and ilemiarehension of the world Hit he awed intryingtor uam- proherualInc.impact u-t the couTiputer. Injustthelast20 th" fu,uuIniuutrua ulennu'unnstrated tour tosly orders of na ! staeri,printing uu.iineuulut iuun.; no; eo:idle af.iu the C,--.St top , r.c.S5 d rid t

A Brief LootBackward

Man benn citimplitinci tortine thousands of years of recorded history. tiestarteditall by learning to count. Beginning withhis fingers and toes as counters, he probably next used runaruf.s,pebbles and progressed to beads. As his needs became more complex he developed symbolic 'nota- tionforrepresentingthe thingshehad counted. Much later,he developed mathematicalsystems for manipulating hissymbols. Withonenotable exception,thea:Dacus(a counting frame developed about 3(100 B.C.), man made very little progress toward the development of mechanical counters until about16'40,when Pascal developeda gear-driven calculator. Itwasriotont 1920tin-:tthe desk calculator was given an electric driv CON1PUTIM; PERSPECTIVES

Figure 1 The improvement of execution speeds

1-1,Jure

F improvement in (,,,f,cutvial costs .770 1747 COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 5

;u re 3 Site effect of technology on storage space

Figure -1 Increases in printing speed 6 COMPUTING PLP,WECTIVES

Figure 5 Decrease of circuit costs

, :0

190:7

10's

Figure 6 10 Increase of packing density

1590 19 70 19::0

--- COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 7

1-) Figure 7 Increase in directly accessed storage capacity

10 10 19E0

STORAGC COST3 IU THCOSANIS ACCESSED 131T5 FER DOLLAR

to6

Figure 8 10 Decrease in directly accessed storage costs MOO 19 TO 1:11.0

-.IL Li,Cb Citlt.11tH IIt:r,itiIrtt HltfI I I t.r;

t I IrJOIH ll HirChoL: cards. 1 he Jacquard loom was tilt of tabulating equipment pioneered Hie theI;H.( :,,usesEitireiiu, In1F,31), , itIt et. teni'jirsto process the ,lata yowl, inn on the idea l .trra, 'lace ai 'niter: 1 hestaricardtabulating d war, tlfl,tcut the ofEngravingfront He f aHitting the old ,:pteen'backdollar',hence Si20 rt, mechanicaldevices,sort- , liaturs, t ard ries,etc. were devel- are! marl ' 1[1,1,:iirp,rration and comprised ti,. ir Hi rintoicati OH, ii..11)the first half

hea irir,halfofthe19thcentury,Charles l'Hibhere rt the icirerunner of our modern electronic iputt 'withsunpiart irHf11the British government and latter itrn I r-fl daughter, Lady Lovelace, he devel- oHd Bt., i terr,,terrtthe ,difference engine and the analyti- -rierr often primarilybecause Jere -.parts could not be IFIOOU- t.,, fora, -' iueingi 1 he analytical engine was built crr 111nN/Oiifl-:,later and worked

he eiir. ! ve.itild. inure numerous arid more complex, twHrid H pro\ plod in definite iinpotus,man applied more Hit rf.`ef tortti ',wardthedevelopmentofmachine and ,,hctricalrind elr-ctronic devices which would assist himin his problem salving efforts. T hose devices which calculate leycoin,eq are called digital devices. ',Linler:rne.,mother way to compute. also.He discov- eed thathe Loold solve Sarneofhisproblems by measuring. Hisfirsteffortsatsuch computation were probably diroct,r. e. ,tne prof:iern was solved by actual measurement the quantity being studied. Later he learned to represent in given system by another winch was similar (or anal yousl n ,,,r10 orinurerespects to theoriginal (or prototype) system. {hese devices he called analogs.Ana- log devices include the sliderule,scale models, computing pumps and calculatingscales. Someofthese devices are direct analogs inthat quantities being measured are of the same type or have the same units asquantities in the sys- tembeing studied, Some areindirectanalogs withmea- sured quantities differing greatly from the desired quantities. CC.;,1PUT INC PERSPECTIVES 9

A reunal 160.),Galllrode% eloped a setofsciailes analog device)foraimingartillerypieces. Thescales served to solve the second order equation ofthe motion of a projectile. About the Siiffietittle,Napier developed logar- 'thins . Scales ruled according to the logarithms of numbers were seonused as analog computers andthesliderule gained the prominence it was to hold until the 19bPs. The cor.tof a hand-heldelect Toniccalculator had dropped to tinder by 1075. Thesecalculatorswerecapableof nearlyallthe operationsof a conventionalslideruleat no -third the price.The last major supplier of slide rules cased production ofthatportionoftheir productlineiu 1,1;c.

In1876,Lord Kelvin and hisbrother, James Thomp- von developed ananalogcomputerforpredictingtides. I he tidal analyser required mechanical apparatus to compute iris Ithe process of integration) and was further refined to solve ordinary differential equations.Later versions of the analyzer capable of harmonic analysis.

I n 1`1130, thebrilliantEnglishmathematician,A.M. Turing, presented alandmark paper in which he described

,1 machine which could simulate any other automaton. The Turing machine consistedonly ofthe conceptofaninfi- nitelylong tape,three symbols and a place marker. He demonstrated thatthis machine could simulate the behavior of any other machine,no matter how largeitssymbol or instruction repertoire. Withthis paper was bornthe field of artificialintelligence and theconceptof thinking machines. One other development of the mid-1940s was particu- larlysignificantinthe evolutionofcomputers. The late Dr. John von Neumann, a mathematician who served both the Atomic EnergyCommission andtheArmy Ordinance Department as aconsultant, was aware ofthe AEC s computational needs and the Army's interest inthe ENIAC. He proposed the ideaof a digital computer which could store both instructions and data internallyinnumeric form and performnumerical operationsupon bothtypesofstored information. Modification of instructions, he reasoned, would make it possible to achieve conditional solutions;i.e. , solutions in which the path through the predefined instruction set could be dependent upon some previously computed result. Dr. von Neumann'sideasparkedseveralnew computerdesignsandthefirstcomputerutilizingthis internal storage of both data and instructions became oper- ationalin1949. The machine which von Neumann proposed was not completed until1952,however. Today all general purpose digital computers have this capability. 10 COMPUTING PlitSPECTIVES

Theterm*cybernetics-was coinedbytheeminent mathematicianis;c,rtiertWienerfromtheGreekwordfor steersman. V.-Hior put forth the bold proposition'

...that society can only be understood through a study ofthe messages and the communicationsfacili- ties which belong toit;and thatin the future development of these messages and communication facilities, messages between man and maciiiiies, between machines and man, and between machine and machine, are destined to play an r-,er-increasing part.

111,,E)r-o,id area of man-machine feedback. mechanismsis subsumed in r,,bernetirsrs well as the more scientific dis- ciplinesofcontrol andcommunicationstheory. Weiner's proph,:i:ywas recognizedinlessthan cne generation from th- timehi' madeit. We think nothing of computers asa constituentpartofthefamilyautomobile,regulatingfuel consumption,exiic,i.:rtemission,etc. Few,ifany,major systems are designed which do not feature some aspect of tilt'(11,111 111.1(.111M, t,,dh,H.h mecildnism.

Analog Applications

The generalpurposeanalogcomputerindustryhas grownrapidly butnotnearly so rapidly asthedigital industry . Thereareseveralreasonsforthedifferent growth rates.For one, the results obtained with the analog computer are not as precise as those fiiom the digital. Thisisnot amatter of concern to engineers orscientists because, generally speaking, the datain problems intheir areas are not exact.Second, evenifthe results of analog computation wereaccurate enough forbusiness operations (bookkeeping, inventory control, etc.), the analog computer doesnothave the data handlingfacilitiesfor performing countingtype operations. Third,theuse ofthe analog computer requires a higher level of mathematical sophist.cation and competence at the introductory level than does the digital computer. The analog computer is an extremely valuable tool for solving certain types of problems, particularly those which are peculiar to engineering. Withit,systems which mioht cost large sums of money to build and test can be simulated at relativelylow cost. Systems which might endanger life

Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings, (New York:Avon Books, 1950), p. 25. 1 .A. COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 11

car] de!,tcticticalciors .pertyif at 0"; tprfd d fill H't,,ult for example,the ctonseguenceof failure ofan re.iiermiental nuclear reactor)rail be siniulated complitiriiiperfectsafety. l heanalog (Tin be p l'fr,unmrdtryrun in a scaled time triode corripres!a-F,ore bards solution t1111(-, With rdind ",pdf- pi,,;,, ,}Hid tiv months duration may

be simulated ;flen or' an expif \,'C type ofaction may be offertR ely sIoi,ed down to permit detailed study. cauputer users have generally belongedto one camp ortheotherwithrespecttotheircomputationalneeds. hei joule,-,orlythatseine types of problems ilEed t, the,111.1L,y, and othersto the digital approach. Morerecently,engineers inparticular-have ha:rid that the best way of solving sonic of their problems tiffl Hf 't htypos of computers. The assemblage of the two typos of comp' 'ers and the necessary linkage iscalled hybrid f

oaseri computru applicatrons are hecorninq (..M111,[1p1,11- r Many ofthese applications utilize computing featuresthat might most appropriately be called hybrA. At a minimum they 'eature analogtodigital and toanakig capabilitiesto sense arid control environ- mental parameters, machine tool speeds, etc.Many modern industrial processeswould be impossiblewithoutsensor-- based,computercontrolled,feedbackmechanisms, It is probablyinthe areaof hybrid applicationsthatthefull potential of the computer will be recognized. Administration n restitutionsof highereducationwill beextensively impacted by the application of analog devices inthe campus computing environment, In additionto the obvious application of wand reading inthe library and bookstore, we can expect more extensive use of the student identification card machine read processes. Graphics, voice recognition and other analog applicationswill become the norm during the next ten years.

The Modern Computer Work on two uniqueelect no-mechanical devices began prior to World WarIIand they became operationalin 1942 and1943, respectively. The first,Dr.Vannevar Bush's Differential Analyzer (ModelII)was builtat MIT and was the firstsuccessful large scale analog computer capable of sufficientaccuracy forengineering and scientificcalcula- tions, -The DifferentialAnalyzercould onlysolvethose problems whichitwas wired to solve it could not change I?(-()MN) I p, ICIIC,Pf L I

thedin-, Don ,rfinformationflowwithout a priorwirtrig iTinge. I he second Dr. Howard Aik- en Mart. I Ailti.i111,1tIC Calculator,built .itii.ir.irrlDnive:-:-.itywith 7', ppllijfrom theInternational Business Machines Dorporatton. Ibis 111,1(11111P used punched Lard eguipment fordata storage andtelephone relays as switchingelements, arid receiveditsinstructions from Hii.ier tape. It was the first successful large scale (Hata' computer and was ,dirttentimesfaster than rho calculators ofthat day. Itwas at thistime that the wird computertookoilitspresent connotation. Bothof thes,- devices could accept data and instructions from a %%iron;,.et inthe analog) aridf corn punched cards and Hi per tape Du the digital) aiid proceed through a;scab Hill,from I.:-)eginninci to recorded solution, without assistance Hy an opro-ator. 1 he ability to store significant amounts of data and rristructhms and to work without human interven- tion rs the(II ,tinguishirnjhallmarkofthecomputer as opposed hi ther ali.ulator or other cum; dting devices.

IH ir, lie- 1 kresperTc.LOrtaridDr.Jr.iiin W. Maur on their Electronic Numerical Inte- grator (.alculator (kNIAC) at the Moore School of Engi- neeringoftheDniversity ofPennsylvania. Theirdigital computer,sponsoredby the Ordinance Departmentofthe Army, was 012 firstto utilize the vacuum tube in place of the slow relayfor switching. The local tabloids suggested thatthe lightsofPhiladelphia would dim when the ENIAC was turned onbecauseofthe;rowerconsumption ofthe lens of thousands of vacuum tubes.Several learned critics suggested that the starting voltage transients would always blow atleast one tube and,asa consequence, the machine could not work.While these fears proved to be not totally correct,itis interestir g to note that early computers of the ENIAC class were operated continuously and powered down onlyfor emergencies. Later machinesinboth the analog and the digitalfields used vacuum tube circuits, then tran- sistor circuits and now integrated circuitsinaneffortto gain computationalspeed. Today general purpose comput- ersofbothtypesareelectronic;theelectro-mechanical types of the 1910s are obsolete.'

' Materialinthisandfollowingsections hasbeen adopted from R.C.Heterick and J.H. Sword, An Intro- duction to Computers and Elementary FORTRAN (Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt Publishers, 1966.) 9 1 M1Pll I IN( It:111-C, 1 IVES 13

II' hl .C71'11,1' --ilelof 11i, r omptihir Nor,

lely 0.111,1 1 ,111j,L1f1`, 11110(0[101.,11 (..impoily in previous ti. th.it !illIlnlletl .r ir wilt... digital eompul

I''fi on, orpor.ition(\Vestiiii11)(itiso) 11)1; I I Ai ...pentmore h.ur Ilimillioninono Lomputer renl,rl,research i.ersiinnel. I he ccimp,my reported .1 rot orti 111,,I,th,in ....2(f indium itsinvristiflent. Similar the pi)r)fildrity of the

untilHitthy,\..1.11iiii; I theompiiter inchif,tryis a Hwane,,s, for overfl.,1f),(1t)f),(M(1,1)(10worthof ,i111),ITIOIltf11.1f I Ilt year. bare ,ire,in operationitthis tune, more than 500,000 Lemputors(exclusiveofmicrocomputers) manufactured by f r.,tatos manufacturers alone. Practicallyallof these mpritorslub.0been manufactured since1964 andallof arofa,. t exporrsrve (In terms ofthe numberof c,Linpuldlii..risperunitofcost) andhavemorestorage capacity than the first electronic computer.Fewer than ten percent (Ifthem rentfor aslittleasS1000 per month and rentalsashighas 5500,000 per monthare predictedfor systems currently under development.Computer rentalsin excess of;50,0A10 per month are commonplace. The majority 1,1 the large scale computer systems are used by government and private research laboratories and by the manufacturing and process industries. While we tend to think of computers as large complex machines we failto realize just how m-nv small (desk top.;o chip size) computers are commonly inuse Computers on a chipforlessthanS100 areavailable. Theinstruction repertoire and storage ofthese micro-processors compares favorably to first generation equipment.The fastest gow- ingsegmentofthe computerindustry is themini-and micro-processingfield. Predictionshavebeen made that the annual sale of micro-processors in1985 will exceed the total production of computers for the previous 30 years.

Although the Hsited Statesisthe world leader inthe manufacture of computers,there are computer industriesin England, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia and Sweden. Still the demand for computers rises.

Computer development was concentratedinuniversity research labs during the five-yea period between the com- I.1 MN1H11 If I lvi

.I, t i of Ir, i ',HA( andtheint: Iiiit1,11 0.f Iii lint miller, 0.110 0.0maiter.th, I. I he ,-.10ftedprouram ..110 opt \ ['hatedaii(I Hideo re0w;tersdeveloped.

111., r.,ir.111,01,11pirir th,, I I)\ 0\(:, theIIl IAL, 110 ',IA N;10\ the tollii\vilig the liamc iorinatof le f ,1 Jed vorl the1,Iniltvinrl,lepI)\/r ilorrii filebuilding upon the Aiken. Concur rem'et fortsin1.11.010,(..ile anal(00) devi«;,thr,Cy0.10ienot the I \, were undertal,en l.y w(1w:try

tr,-,tinstailationof the UNIVAC was nob 10 June, "i was pr00.ed 3250,(100. 1 he first order for the 00uoit0;11. pla(.0001P\the Paireau ofthe(.,r1-.1p.; I or nr.irlyfive years the UNIVAC essen- tially had the electronic computer field to itself. As late as 19.1;--; the I bN1 Corporationhad mddethedecisionnot to 111,11J H the Lomputer Pecanse theyfeltitwould never be rd Idhlo (.(opu,-,1 to effortto develop the700 series of11(N)<0 anputers and the obvious success of that effort will ranf r,nineoftiremajor business success stories In

Ibisfirst(lomordtfon ofcomputers wascharacterized byvacuum tuba menftwies tape storage and punched card input outputdevices. 1 he meantimebetween component failures wasfre1)1.-.C.TIVLS lh

1 he thirdHoilor,itt,ii morl.ed by thaintro

Hietin of the ['Al,tt10line of computers. I hital generation oretoiterstypicallytqliployealmonolithicintegrated circuits 1.01,er thantransistors and\yore chine terized by system .ntral programs called operating sx -terns. I he thirdt.-_1-- ',ration marled the general act eptance ofHine sharing, first in of 1'111 t 1'0,1(101'1),It(111C01111.IPX('S , end Literri`,`:1.1; speed( ten -character-per -second)interar.- tixe s -ternstaannuinnalting over standardtelephonehires teletype-like devices. Significant experimentation took place W1111 (1,1l,1 basesfeaturing onlineinquiryand update. I hindgenerationtechnologyledtoattemptsto ors ,Inkite computing at- tix 'ties, generally expressed as the or, of the cost per unitofstorage and cost per instruction cycle time were considerablyless forthe!artier machines, Dr.Herbert Grc -ch was one of thefirstto observe this phenomena and suggested that a diiltling ofthe price of a computer tended to quadruple its speed. filethirdgeneration marked thetransitionfrom hardware centered computing to our current software devel- ,pment focus. Tire impact ofthistransition on organize t structure, tware development and operations maridgement has been major aridis pursued in detailin sub- sequentsections. Thistransition hasriot been fully absorbed by many computing organizations and continues to be the source of a myriad of development and management problems. The depersonalization of computing in the third generation,accompanied bysignificant advances inlargescale circuitintegration and telecommunications technology,ush- ered in what will probably become known as the fourth (and last?)generation. For ourpurpose, wewillmarkthe fourth generation by the proliferation and acceptance of the mini-andmicro-computers andsignificanteffortstoward distributed computing in networks. The mini-computers of the 1971)s have roughly the same power and storage capacity of first generation computers at a tenth or less of the cost. In fact,some of the pocket size calculators compare favora- blywiththecapabilities of firstgenerationcomputers. Hierarchical networks of computers featuring widespread use of cathode ray tube input devices are probably the hallmark offourth generation systems. Sensor based applications, wandreaders,environmentalautomation,electronicfund transfer,etc. ,are becoming commonplace. The computer has probably reached theleveloftheultimate ub.quitous machine.

9,1 (.()MPIt I ING 1-1V11;

I ire 9 Grosch's Low: poweI increases exponentially with cost

COMPUTER POWER

c;fir-TNT:i

Figure 10 Micro Phenomena: power increases directly with 3 cost COST ( I It!,r1( I IVI !,I/

'TIME

TEE: `,I\APAGT CF ON THE TECH. HH CF ETT

Figure 11 COMPU I It.c. PI Ftt,bE Cl-IVES

Architecture o= Compu'xing Systems

digitalcomputeris.bydefinition, a counting is n-a,ner ofcounting isnot the same as that of he:woven. :\tterfirstbuilding computers using

HiSO ) system, earlycomputer un:ea', Clio dal\ antages inherent in the binary rwrnt.,prsystem. So many of the devices used to er transmit data and numerical instructions are of the state er hu-stable typeitwas inevitable that computer rsw.a, id turn to the binary system. A switch,for chide, iseither unoroff; a cardeitherhas a hole t)n, dies not ;the fluxlines ,ad a aignotaccore areeither clockwise or counter- and so on. Ifwe use the numerals 0 and 1 to nr thetwopossible statesof a binary device and mean.! nee in rows such that the presence of aftin any itioh /ore inthe decimal sense and the presence '\"1! here nis the position number in a given wcwax represer tdecimal numbersin terms oftheir

Such graelpingsofsymbols,orassemblages oftwo- tle, are iced asregistersinthe computer and the rontonts suck registers ma.be combined to perform meitath ri s. the various arithmetic opecations tun bienry number systems justas they do for other averdge computer user is spared the task of Harr ingtheserules, however,becausehe communicates withthe aempute usinghis own language. He may,for example. submit his original instructions and data using the ,lphapt.standardpunctuation symbolsandthefamiliar moralsystem for numericalvalues. The translationto birarx ferm is node by machine.Results or other infoma- ti Honig from the computer totheuser are translated them binary and returned to the user ina form which he is aaanstemed to rearing.

TheAcademicadministratorwillmostlikelyusethe cemputer as a toolfor solving problems related to his spe- cialfieldofinterest. He reallydoesnot need adetailed I now ledge ofthe design or operationof the various parts which ma ke up a computer system.The user should, however. have some general understanding of the flow ofinformation throughthe computer. Theblockdiagramor five-part black box representation! has been widely used to explain the operationof the compuLer.User attention has been focused,and rightlyso,on the input/output proc- COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 19

iiissesailthe model. Hi ivies: er,tech re-Logical developrilleisira r.Cf.c,SOr d,'S1,;11 SIThiricant impact on the economics the input output operations.A subsequent sectionwill ao. era! tnese n y.teahnelogies so that a basis ritt`r coniumics may He PStdb-

r_1 I Hit

he centre) unitisthe dispatcher ofthe system. All 1!1.-;tr,1C1.1, rindOPerft1011 E0111rfla rids are routed throughthisdesireariditcontrolsthe operationofall IFic`r:;o1 ud -\ tCrf i-1110,It dittiCIVjtothesystem. he iiperation aornmands for allsuch equipment are numeric innature andaretriansmittcd and received aselectrical The controlunitisn ut directly accessible tothe ;irogrammer and he or she generally has no specialinterest itse mg itfunctions properly. Aritirnr-tir, and Logic Lint

1 he capability of the machine is,ineffect, Invitedtoaddition,subtraction, multiplication and division newscientific computers have square root capability and other unique operators). The logicalcapacityisthat ofdistinguishing between zero and non -zero and between plus andunits which. when coupled withthe subtraction operation .gives the addedabilityofdetermining whether one numberisdifferent from.another arid,ifso,which is larger.The arithmetic unit also has the capability of shifting numfiers to the right or leftinits registers. Both instructions and data are numeri,: in form and the arithmeticunit may modifyeitherorbothofthem upon command.Also, since alphabetic quantities must be repre- sentedinnumeric fashion,they,too, may he manipulated bythearithmeticunit.Suchoperationsarebinary in nature and they can be accomplishedintimes measured in microseconds (millionths) )or less in modern computers. The smallest unique unitin a computer iscalled abit ( Binary digiT).For addressing purposes,bitsare usually grouped into bytes (typically eight bits) or words (typically

lbto6.1 bits ). Ifan eight-bit byte isused for character representation,256 unique characters (2*8)can be i.--=!e- sented.Thiseasilyprovidesforupper andlowercase alphabets, the decimal numerals, special characters such as S, etc.arid other special characters such as those used in APL(AProgrammingLanguage). Nationaland mternationalstandards groupse;f isttobring some order 20cnrsApin;NC; Pr RSPECTIVES out of the confusion of many different code representations. These differingcode representations are one ofthe first pr,,Herns which !mist be overcome in creating a network of dissimilar computers. (Storage Unit)

Basic working storageinallmodern computersisof the magnetic type and usually consistsof a three-dimen- ',I.Alill array of small ferrite rings called cores or some form ofmcmolithic integratedcircuitry. In thecore type each ringhasa unique address and can be magnetized by the p,c,sageof a currentalong eachoftwowires whichgo through the center of the ring. By appropriate selection of wires and by control of the direction of current flow,any given core element may be addressed and set with a binary I or O.Vhe individual cores (or basic storage units for the rvql -core types)isa binary bit.In some machines the com- putationalunitisa word; other machines permit words to contain a variable number of Pits.In either case, the word may be located by means ofaspecificand unique numeric address which is analogousto a streetaddressorpost office boxnumber.Stillnth- types of computers use an addressable basic unit of the te; words in these machines are generally made up of twcto eight bytes. Access times are extremely fast for modern computers; for some of them, timesare measuredinnanoseconds(billionths),for others rucro,pc.-Thf s. Both data and instructions are stored ina binary form inmemory. Storageinmemoryis considered permanent in that a word storedin a given address willremain there untilitis activelyreplacedby another store operation. Interrogationof a storage addressortheprint-outof informationfromitwill notdestroythecontents.The read-in of information or theredefining ofa value already instorage always destroys the previous contents of a stor- ago address.

Auxiliarystorage may existinmagnetictapeunits, magnetic drums, magnetic disks, punched tape or punched cards. Units equipped with optical scanning devices may, in addition,utilize printed storage. Access time for such units is generallymeasured in milliseconds(thousandths) or slower.Withthemagneticdevices, however,oncethe machine has found apiece ofdata, the transfer rate from auxiliary storage to working storageisquite rapid. These devices may be large enoughtostorepracticallylimitless amountsofinformation(the realconstraint is financial which, of course, must be based upon need and frequency of use).

2Jt- COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 21

Much researcheffortisHeing placed on developing larger and faster computer-storages.There are currently storages available whichwillstore a trillionbits(terabit stores)but),+.ith rather slow accesstimes.Thinfilm and bubble technologyisI)e, orningquite advanced.The laser holds perhaps the grea!astpotentialfor extremelylarge, fast computer ston, s Input Unit

The o;rarnmer- communicates with the computer through the input unit. This unit usuallyisa typewriter or punched tape reader on very small computers (or a tele- typelikeunitinremoteterminals) are-i a punched card reader on medium and large scale systems. There may be intermediateinput devices,also. Larger systemsusually permit programmer access only through magnetictape or disk. 1 he programmer has this punched card information read by asmall computer and stored on magnetic tape or disk for transmittal to the large computer in such systems. There isat presenta growing market for.-ecently introduced keyboard-to-computer systemswhich bypassthe punched card operation altogether. Regardless of the type of input, the input unit senses coded information of some type, translatesit,and sendsit to the computer as a string of timedelectricpulses. It should be rioted that most input devices do not have control functions independent ofthe computer except for operator controlled START and STOP. Punched cards,inparticu- la,cannot berecalledforreading againwithin a given problem solution or program. Operating speeds vary greatly for the various types of input devices, The slowestis of course, the type which depends upon manual operation the typewriter or the teletype unit.The fastest of the types mentioned above are the magnetic disk and drum. The primary characteristicsof both input and output unitsistheir speed differential as compared to the Central Processing Unit.While the CPUiscapable of billions of operationsper-second,typicalI/Ounitsoperateatten characters per second, 300 cards per minute or 1000 lines per minute. So long as these devices are elect ro-mechanical or actuated by humans, this speed differential will continue to exist.

3[)_ 22 COMPUTING PElt;PECTIVES

=3. COMPUTER SYSTEM DIAGRAM r

ARITHMETIC

INPUT OUTPUT

\ , CARDS \ / TF.LETvPE \\\\ v ,/,/ PRINTERS cRT PLOTTERS DIGITIZERS S7ORAGE \ SERVOS SCANNERS \ / MICROFORM TAPE DRUM DISK CACHE

Figure 12 COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 23

Output Unit he computer transmits informationand resultsto the gramme,- by means of magnetic tape, punched paper tape or ca rds,orthe output may go directlyto a printer, a plotter,a CRT or some other device. Regardless ofthe U, pa of output device,informationwillultimately go to the .;erin one of the languages with which he isfamiliar. For academic administrator thiswillusually beinnumeric, alphabetic and/or graphical terms.Again, speeds are quite \. nable.

Computer Languages Each computer isdesigned toaccept certain combina- tions ofelectricalpulseswhich can beinterpreted as numerical characters.The computer isessentially a symbol m a n i p u l a t i n g machine. I tdoesnot matteratalltothe computer what the binary digits represent so long as man can develop the necessary systems of unambiguous symbols. The code for a machine, consistingof symbols recognizable tothe programmer and which,whenreadfrom punched cards or transmitted from aterminal, create the necessary electricalpulsechains, iscalled a language. Languages exist at four levels and are classified asfollows. Lich' lie Language

The basiccombination ofcodes accepted by a given machine isunique. This combination, written by the programmer innumeric form,iscalled machine language. Pro- gramming in machine language is very exacting and time-consuming.Such programs requirea separate step for' each computer operation and programming steps must be in the order of execution.The orogrammer must specify exact locationsin memory for each separate piece of information and must take care not touse the same locationfor two separate values. As an example of machine language programming, con- siderthe following system (used with apopular machine of several yearsago). instructions to the machine were of the form:

OPERATION DATA ADDRESS OF NEXT CODE ADDRESS INSTRUCTION Solving such asimple problem as X,A4B-C required a sequenceofsteps as follows(where GOisthecodefor 2.1 COMPU TING 11[1-251TC-1 I VES

Cledrl 11,ja register Mid adding toIt ,G5 ITIQatIS add without clodrA tic), 70meanssAbtractwithoutclearing, 8(1 means store u1 memory and the four-digit groups are addresses of storage lor.ations 1:

LOCATION INSTRUCTION (4100 GO 2050 0500 0;00 65 1201;0 0510 0510 7(1 2070 0520 11520 30 2030 0530 etc. Hire the program c:ould be executed, the programmer hadto store the pi-ur-din steps and datainthe assigned addresses( thesecond operationinstoragelocation 0500, the thirdinlocation 0510,etc. )and sendthe machine to the airs( stop( location (1300) by means of switch settings on tiro IlLiChIlle console.( Note that the small program segment does hot Lontarn instructions for obtaining the result of the (iicwiatioris, this would require additional instructions. ) Needless to say, such programming techniques did not provetobe popular withproblemsolvers. Today,this typeofprogrammingisthe provinceoftheprofessional progrdminer who isinvolved incomputer development or in development of languages.

A s f!Ill[)1 y I .1 r t. Liqj C

Because ofthe difficulty which programmers had with bookkeeping operations, assembly languages which accepted symbolic addresses and operation commands were developed. Machine language prop ramscalledassemblers,writtenby professionalprogrammers, causethecomputertoaccept symbolic names fornumericaladdresses,convertthose names to addresses and to build an index of locations used. The assembler is also designed to accept mnemonic operation commands . The programs have to be translated to machine languageforexecution. I heprogram submittedby the programmeriscalled a source program;theinstructions generatedby the computer constitutean object prog ram. Such programsstillrequire one instruction per computer operation. Although not as time-consuming to the programmer as machine language, such programming istedious and generally less efficient inits exercise of machine resources. Using an assembly language the example problem above rr ;ht be written (where CLA means clear and add, etc. ): 3' COMPUTING PERSPECTIVES 25

C: LA A ADD B `.-,1 lP, C I X

Note thattheasseinhly languagehasthe same basic structure as the [oar lune language whichitreplaces and is th,refore machine dependent. I his,too,is unpopular with prLLulem solvers because they are not accustomed to breaking their problems into such minute operations. Thereis one procedure which has been popular with V.110 must program inassembly languages. Certain qr.upsofoperations Whichfrequently occur together can be grouped andthe entiregroupcalledtostep-by-step execution by a single command. Suchan instruction is rolleda macro- assembly instruction.The use of such commands was the forerunner of the procedure language. Procedure Language There hac been many attempts to make programming easier- by permitting the programmer to writeina language relatedtosome methodorprocedure with whichhe was al readyfamiliar'. The FORTRAN (FORmulaTRANslation) language isperhaps the most successful of those attempts; certainlyit is themost widelyused. The programmer writes a source programinthe FORTRAN language and submitsto the computer first a machine language program called a compilerand thenthesou rce program. The machine,under thedirection ofthecompiler,willeither translate(or compile) the source program intoa machine language program(called an objectprogram) orintoan assembly language whichis then translated. The program is then executable. The advantage of this approach isthat one FORTRAN statement can represent many machine language steps.Our previous example would appear ina FORTRAN program as X=A'B-C Thereis a penaltyinincreased computer time required but that penalty is more than offset by the sav- ings of programmer time and the ease with which the language canbe learned. It isgenerallyagreedthatthe procedurelanguage is bestforbeginningprogrammers; indeed,itisadequate forthe needs of most professional programmers.

Procedurelanguagesoffertheaddedadvantageof being machine independent. The compiler which translates the sou rce programis mach ine dependent, of course,but ?1, 11'111 I1.1 1'1ICrIll C I IVTS the ..onrLe language limy he used to write Prligr.111V; for the 111,11 P1111" different manufacturers. Mirror' ,« iirhut,generally speaking, FORTRAN type program., cr. a givenlevelarecompatible between niachines v Heil operate ritthat level

Phildf,111I arliphino In certain spot:tallied areas where everyone working on particular type of problem islikely to use the same standard approach,languages have beenwritten inwhich a particular symbolic name may call fortha complete sequence of oriel-Alums trinalnitousto solving a group of equations or FOR I RAN type statements) and deliver results in some pre- definedformat. l he structureand terminologyofsuch languagesisdictated by the type of problem being solved. I hey aror ailed problem oriented languages and are usually written using a procedure type language such as I (1B 1 RAN.

,irnplo,;ofsuchlanguages may befoundinmany diitorentproblem areas. 1 here are, forexample, a S J RUctu r;11Design Language called STRUDL; an Electronic Circuit Analysis Program called [CAP; a COordinate GeOme- try program called COCO; adiscrete system simulation program called Cr SS and many others.

Modes of Computing Three principal modes of computer usage are usually identified. Theyarebatch,interactiveand realtime Batch systems were the rule during the first three generations but are rapidly being supplanted by interactive and realtime applicationsinthe fourth.Most procedure languages were developed for execution on batch systems, APL and BASIC being the two dominant exceptions.

Ina batch system the programmer prepares the source program and data, typically on punched cards, and deposits themat a pickupstation. The cardsarereadinto a computer system and temporarily stored on disk or tape, a process sometimes termedspooling. A job processing scheduling algorithm, part of the computer's operating system,reviews the spool queue and selects jobs for processing.

rL (Ill IIfJC; IV;ITC 1VFS 27

P -12. ;"-i'

SPDDL INPUT

SFr(_ FUR CPU NPUT

S(11-';F::YjLE' F1P .SC3 UTFU JCD PREAKD'YNIJ

Figure 13 ll ( l I PI R...1'1 II VI

\Viler'the1,fihasbet i . clei tealand proi.e, seditis ainplat cifoilili .l toavolitSi !windingfor outputto a printer,plotter.and I,inich .ir other output media.A job output algorithm arr.hes,the, queue and selei t the job's output for priii.essing. I ypic.,11 turn timestor a lobrimy he from threetotwelve her!, I heL.it( h 1.; a four-step hiletlits iont.11It1 ,11,11,11' rotFro f prl liniijr,11sittel lu he (-mite inefficient of the progrommer stime when new Lodeisbeing written and tosici 1,partliallarl,'whentheJobaborts dries to a key pulli.litreiortri '1."'H',1111111111!) error Mid the pro

In order to overcome those delays di:in()the program devidoprniuit phase, timesnaring wasdeveloped. Time -.11,1ririqallowstheuser aninteractive mode of computer permitting many simultaneous users to feel as though they tai h had control of the computer.-1his effectis possible you consider the speed differential between the Lompriter sproi,essuigability and thereactiontimeofthe programmer typing at a keyboard. Well designed interac- tivelanguageswillscdriinputlinesforsyntaxerr ins, allowing immediate correction of typing and trivial prog 'am- ming mistakes. A welldesigned interactivelanguage will also facilitate a desk calculator rnode, permitting many ooer- at len-,v,.itheilt the necessity of coding a multi-step progi .1r11 In aninteractivesystem a dispatchingalgorithmlooks throughthe queue ofterminals connected to see whichis ready for service and gives some small quantum of timeto eachina round robin fashion.Several hundred terminals could be connected, each having the appearance of controlling the computer.Typical response times for an interactive system would be in the one-to-five second range.While riot asefficientinutilizationofmachine resourcesasbat,.h, programmer productivityisgreatly increased(probably at least ten-to-one)overbatchsystems. Theinteractive environment leads immediately to thoughts of electronic message switching and office automation.A subsequent section will discuss text editing and transmission in greater detail.

Realtime systems were developed for military command and control applications,the SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) systemforballisticmissilewarningbeing implemented in the 1950s.The space program made heavy use of real time systems.Among the many applications was vehicle guidance, which required the results of over 15,000 serial computations to calculate and make flight path corrections. Obviously some form of round robin computer shar-

3 7 COM1111 I IN(; PF11(.-;PECTIVLS 29

ingsin 11 mtor,i(,t1\ stems lust would not do. I he / hal at torr;tirofrealtime appin athons IS thatthey S(1 1111H11.111, that t111,\,' nor- ;tt,11.1 allother .pf the oinpu ter tris ofproaess automation ly relyiiporirealtrine1,1111,11t1'1.systenri. Most Holed iscild transit.y:t('111',rerluire!;()III0

IpJ1hilly I ,1[11Ilter

t.111plItifl.were(ILIA,Irt0(.1 plHif tr,itod,itwas hgicalthat attempts would he made to linkthem into networks. I he examples of currently existing power grids 111,1 telephone Sy!,terlISVY(.I'ea persuasive impetus. Partici] lack.in resear( h and fduaation, programming .% as somewhat ot a 'atage industry. How tousethecode writtenby someone atanother computer sitehas been aproblem for

computer users since the days of UNIVAC I. Additionally, ale form of networking would allow local specialization and the advantages of a market economy in computer services. I he development oftime sharing provided the majority of the teloca,mmun 'cation s technology necessary to create networks (,( (.omputersabove networks ofterminals. Some techniques neededto be developedto overcome the error rate inconventional telephone service, about two errors in every 10*5 bits transmitted. The currently favored approachispacket switching where datais sent between computers in small packets of about 1000 bits. These pack- etsmay be sent between computers byseveraldifferent routes,each intermediate computer storing, checking, then forwarding the packet on through the network,with erro- neous packets simply being re-transmitted.Upon arrival at the final destination the packets are re-assembled, placed in propersequentialorderand presented tothetarget computer system. Allofthisnetworkactivityrequires Ionic whichisprovided by small computers acting as front ends to the major computer systems in the network. Most researchin computer networks has been concen- trated in communicationstechnology. In ordertoget higher transmission speeds at reduced costs digital communications companies have been chartered in competition with theBell System'sanalognetwork. Inresponsetothese initiatives the Bell System isimplementing Data Under Voice (DUV)serviceutilizingunder-loadedvoicelinestopass digitalinformation. Typicaltransmissionrates vary from 2000bits/second(ordinarytelephoneservice)to50,000 bits /second,Computer data has been sent by laser, micro- wave, and increasingly by satellite.Several large suppliers of computer services currently have their ownsatellitesin orbit.Even more exotic technology such as millimeter wave

3S to (( ) N A P t i II VI

1011.1t11.; .11111 1111111,11 wave guide 111 11U111111111111',It1rn, C.11.111111`1', (1,111 he .;11,11'u(1 Or 11111It1 1111nXnd 11`.;01',by t11110,11V1!11111 (much as the 111H(` o111,11,01111ln', are ',,hired)tIrf reglioluN .1ivisiu 2(100 hp.,lino lIkly 1,1, ! hy .111, t `,1 ,()() I he potential of(i,)iiiptiter network.; has ledto spectila lionII11111t 1,11:,11 111d11,1tO11.11 LuMplIttnr drOl1111,/1111.1tkill11t111' ties. OM, 111,111W C01111,11trr outwork,theAftPA (Advanced Itesear.:11Projects ~Agencyofthe Department ofDeferf':,e), direddy links over 10 major universities and research laboratories on themainlaii(1viatelephone circditsan(1 viatheAl (fflAsdtellite. 1Ve can oxpect tosee contimittiq growth off_t)UNC. 1and the further development of local and rmilormlresourcesharingnetworksinhighereducation. t he development arid widespread use of networking technology should mal.e the use of computersin academic adruinis t rat loll ex ( rolllf.ly Of fOCtIvu.

" For an ima)inative look at the future see James Mar- tin, Future Developments in Telecommunications (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1971). 33 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS

"Every problem contains within itself the seeds to its own solution." WI

Cost of Computing The purpose of this chapter isto examine some of the economic and technological influences under which computing centersofthe80swillhavetooperate.' TheFall 1979 EDUCOM Bulletincontains an article that projects the cost of computing in the next de- ode under the following simple assumptions:

Hardware costswillcontinueto decreaseat the rate of a year Software and personnel costswill continue to increase at K, a year Under these assumptions we may conclude that for no growth computing, by1989 thecostofhardware willbe approximately ofthetotalcostofcomputing. This

5 Thischapter appearedalmostinitsentiretyin CAUSE IEFFECT, November 1981, pp. 12-19.

4b 32 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS means that approximately95',oftotal computing costswill be attributedtosoftware and personnel. Projected costs forsoftware and personnel showaneven more dramatic increase and consume a greater percentage of the budget if 15''annual growth is assumed (see Figures 14 and 15). i he purpose of this sectionis twofold: first to deter- mineifthe above assumptions and conclusions are valid; st,condto outline management strategies that should be nod to cope with and to take advantage of the changing situation

Hardware Costs The previous chapter discussed the major components t 11,1 t I- tire computer system. A large portion of the it., i!fcomputer ha rdware can be a ttributeato two omponents : thecentralprocessorunit(CPU) andthe memory. I includingmain memory andsecondary storage). innsitrnimputers areto continue to drop inprices, these ;-,1-IrC' dropsmust comefromlowercostsforCPU and nrieini-nry. Lowercostscan beachievedeitherthrough Impr ved performance of the component or through reduced unit rihinufiictu ring costs.

Let us examine the CPU per i,,Hria nce issue One measure,,fthe speed ofthe computeristhe machine cycle time Cycle timeisthe timeintervalin which a computer n.inperform agiven number of operations A large commercial computer today has a cycle time varying between 12 ,,rid FM nanoseconds (a nanosecond is1,000,000,000th frAc- Imui of asecond) . The fastest computer today has a cycle (line of approximately five nanoseconds. A 20°0 price drop user the next decade will require a 50 fold improvement in performance; i e . computers with a cycle time of 1/10 nano- sen.orid would be required. Isit possible to produce such a 11,,iCHim(' or have we reached the limits of the technology?

Douglas E. Van Houweling, "Meeting the Challenge of Diversity and Change: CornellComputingServices," DLICOM Bulletin,Fall1979, p.5. 41 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 33

12'J Figure 14

1CC

I5C

LC15 19'30

COMPUHI,IG COST PFSOJECTION 15. PERC. ANZILIAL 520 0 CCE.I7AFI7,3

9C.7

100 Figure 15

1980 He 1 11'3(

44, 31 TECHNOLOCHCAL TRENDS

wis Branscomb examinesthis question from the per specti \.,eof physics.He argues that the speed of light issuch thatittravels about three centimeters in1/10 ofa nanosecond. Thus computerswith a cycletimeof1/10 nanosecond cannot beLargerthansay a one-inchcube. I hisiseiii_oo raging inthe sense that the smaller the pack- age the lower its requirements for power and the cheaper its production costs. Ifthe computer has 300,000 circuits thenitwillgenerate about one kilowatt of heat. Today's technology will not permit us to extract one kilowatt of heat from one inch cube space without damage. Thus itis likely that semiconductor technology will not be theanswer- to the requirements thatwe might have towards the endofthe decade. However, a new technology, calledJosephson Junction technology( named after Nobel Prize winner Brian Josephson )holds alot of promise.Josephson junctions use rich).111(yscooledinliquidhelium to 4.2 degrees above absolutele1.0. Atthistemperaturethemetalsbecome superconductingand losetheirresistancetoelectricity. Circ,Ints built with this technology have switching speeds in excess of 20 trillionths of a second.Thus Josephson junc- tiontechnology,presentlyintheresearchlabs, holds promise for the future, but much needs to be done before the functions become a viable commercial product. The silicon -based technology that we are using today isby no means dead,as substantial improvements are still possible. Todays technology allows around 30,000 transis- tors on a chip. Itis estimated that half a million transis- tors can be put on a chip by 1985 and about ten million by 1990.8Full computers on achip should be areality by the mid- 1980s.

Another cost-saving approach inthe manufactureof computersistheuseofgatearrays. Large-scaleinte- grated circuits are made on silicon waferi:.The circuitry is fabricated onthe wafers by amultiple step process called masking(typicallya completed waferhas seven or eight masks). The gate array is a partially complete wafer that awaits the customer's logicrequirements. The user simply provides the logic information for the last two masks.This process -educes the overall cost of the wafer and also has- tens the design of the chip. Extensive use of gate arrays

Lewis Ni. Branscomb,"Information: theUltimate Frontier-," SCIENCE 203 (12 January 1979) :144.

Edward K.Yasaki,"Markets," Datamation(Special Edition) ,December 1980, p.10. TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 35

possibly cut the cost of the system by a factor of four. Itis , therefore, notunreasonabletoexpectthatsilicon based technologywillcontinueto provide substantialcost riltiLtions for at least five years, perhaps longer-.

'' Hot(.1't.%!;irlCMTIpllterS are very taiit with L)Lle times as low as five nanoseconds and getting taster. iLlatisriotwidely 1 110WriIsthatthey are very consistent with reciardto error rate,already as low as one in one trillion. IfJosephson junction technology becomes widiy used,itwillbe sate tosaythat the computers Of tomorrow vial! be Sony cold indeed.Thus computers may he beini; fast, consistent. cold and dumb. On the other hand humans areslow,inconsistent,warm and brilliant. hherealchallengeistogetthetwo working together using the optimalmixofthecapabilitiesofthe and the talents of the human.

nry system,:areknpire:i;pace withtiledevelop- Moratsint he(:PI area. Nlain memory priceshave shown ci war tdropwiththeintroductionof -1K, then 16K hips. I herererit[rice dropsm the 16Kchipmarket indiLate thatperhaps chipsareready foruse,withh r 31.`r7li H;_. t nittoo distant future.

i this t t I fl ofprniecLed time frames. i he larger density chips (ire both less expensive arid rnnr.tt1,11)10,

1 he developmentsin theareaofsecondarystor-age hio. e Honm trvrt,dramatic. Thefirstmagneticrecorder dates back to the year- 1900 when Danish engineer Valdernar- l'auHen demonstrated a device inthe Paris Exposition.' The inreition ofthe dm, um tub,- amplifierin19211 gave abig boost to the weak signals from the magnetic recorders, and in1(J23, Thomas Edison built the phonograph.Whereas the male memoryofthecomputerisbased onsemiconductor the secondary memory, so far,is based primarily on magnetic disks. In magnetic disks, the reading and writing of data isaccomplished by a read/write head which isan electromagnetic device that resembles the head ofa home tape recorder.The head positions itself on a specific position on Irotating disk made of magnetic material. Each head position corresponds to a concentric circle on the disk called a track.Data are read from and written on tracks.

'Robert Ni.White, -Disk Storage Technology," Scien- tific American, August 1980, pp. 138-148. 36 TECHNOL OGICAL-'. RENDS

The most commonly used technology for disk drives iscalled the Winchester technology,introduced by IBM in1973 for their 3310 disk drives. Inthis technology the read 'write herd consistsofthreerails. Idle outer tworailsgovern theflov,of and allow the head tofloat 17 microinches ,:urf aceotthe disk. by comparison a smoke part,Lleis10(1 min:rowdiesin diameter and a human hairis -t:,00nut r unc.he s. I he tailend of the .center railhas the read Write head built on it.

I he amount of datathat can he stored on adiskis detarmined number of tracks per inch of radiusof the tht, date that can be stored per inch alp rigthetrack fireWinchesterheadallcoNs for 10110 tracks per inch witha recording density of 10,000 bits per inch along the track. A Winchester diskisbetween eight and 1,1 inahosin diameter and is contained ina sealed unit toI. pep duct HirtideS.

1 material un the surface of the magnetic disksis iron osig i gistst;itot.t.'thatitmetalliccobalt were used insteadc,f iron mode,greater storagedensities could be ac hie\ ed. Another areaofimprovement isthe read/write head itself. -1 he new. 331'0 disk drives introduced by IBM use a thinfilmhead. ] hisheadismade of permailoy, a mi ',tit reof ruc..I-T1and iron. Unlike the Winchester headit has no coil of wire inits electromagnet;it uses a spiral film of electrical conductor to form the electromagnet. Compared to the 10,000 bits per inch for the Winchester technology, thefilarhead,canrecordat a density of15,000 bits per inch today and has a potential of going up to 25,0011 bits per inch in the future.

There is yetanotherpossibilityofimprovingthe rec,-,rding density on the disk driver,.At present, data are recorded along the surface of the disk. Ithas been suggested that data could be stored on end, perpendicular to the surface of the disk. The technology to do thisis yet to he discovered. Botha suitable magnetic medium and a read/write head capable of doing this will have to be developed. Ifthis can be done, improvements in recording density are possible by a factor of ten. Optical Disks

A relatively new medium for computer datastorage is the optical system.Conceptually, optical systems are very similar to magnetic systems inthat both require disk med- mm for storing data and read/write heads for storing and retrieving data. Both systemsrequire similar mechanisms

43 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 37

ps!s!tionthe herds ontrat.l.sand the necessary logic to ro,hand decode data suitab!e for storage and error recovery. Apart from thefactthat one uses electromagnetism andt he otheruseslaser optics.theimportant difference Tet!...--rithetwo systems is that inopticalsystems the iisedto detect the preserua or absence of abit is 'sternal to the stcoage medium. 1- he storage medium the disk simply acts as flus allows for much greater storage densities.The simplest form of optical diskis one which dataisstored onthe surface of the disk by a I rser beam burning minisculeholes onthe surface. The storage densityis extremely high about 100,00) bits

. A stan.tari! 1.1 inr h ,list is capableofstoring approx imately Iallum bitsof information. Clearly, thoinz;1),the storage ofdata usingthis techniqueisnon-

Optir.al disk devices are rapidly becoming a mass con- sumer pc-cfuct. Because of the high volume that is possible Int.orisninr products,the costs of optical disksfor data storage tan have allimprovement ofa factor of 10, 000 over (ouyentional magnetic media.Further,the entire recording modern is removable allowing for the flexibility of removable disks or tapes. Effortsto ,HVf`lop an erasable optical medium that can be reused (ist.,updatablej have,so far,been unsuccess- ful. Opticaldisksholdthepotentialofimprovingprice performance by a factor much greater than100and are thuswellwithinthe 2(Y;) a year(forthe whole decade) criteria we areexamining. Themagnetic mediumisnot deadby any means. The projectedimprovementsinthe conventional magnetic disk technology willcontinue to sus- tain,for several years, the price performance figures that we are seeking. Bubble Memory Bubble memory will play an important role inthe storage and retrieval of computer data.What exactly are magnetic bubbles?For our purposes,itwill suffice to say that magnetic bubbles areverysmallandcylindricalmagnetic regions about 1/25,000th inch in diameter. These so called bubbles- are found to have a stable existenceincertain materials like orthoferrite or garnet.Further, the bubbles can be made to move along the surface of material by the application of aproper magnetic field.The stability of the bubble and its controlled movement along the surface of the storage materialforms the basisof bubble memory. (An excellent exposition of magnetic bubbles can be found in the August 1980 edition of Scientific American). 38 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS

DATA PACMNG DENSITY IN 51T3 PER SO...ARE INCH Figure 16

crficAL RECORDING,

VERTIC.11. RECORDING__

THIN-FILM, METALLIC MEDIUMS HEADS d'INCH DISKS RIGID DISKS

FERRITE HEAD, FLEXIBLE DISKS i;-INCH DlilCS

4 ,sec ,070 :050

MEMORY-SYSTEMS PRICE, PERFORMANCE IN DOLLARS PER 51T FOR SECOND OF ACCESS TIME

BIPOLAR RAM MCO RAM ;0' CCDAVD MAGNETIC BUBHILI DRUM DISC TAPE EXPECTED 196` PERFORMANCE

Figure 17 OPTICAL DISK

kCCESS

7 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 39

he greatadvantageofbubblememoryoverdisk memory is thatithasno movingparts. Hills,unlike ineLharural devices,itrequires no maintenance. Itisesti- mated that bubble memory hasa capacity ofretaining data er MO years. 1 his long term stability of data compares veryfavorably with the estimated lifeofdata on magnetic tapes. 1 he error rate for magnetic bubble memory is about nne in WO trillionbin ;thus bubble memory has anerror rate two orders of maHnitude better than CPUs. Compared to disk drives bubble memory has much higher data densities and also hassuperior accesstimes. The only disad- \, anbige of bubble memory isa slower data transfer- rates.

1 he priceperformanceofbubblememory is very attractive; 10U bitsofdata can bestored for about one cent. Figure 16 shows the location of bubble memory in the price performance graph. Clearly,bubble memorysfill a rather large gap between main memory anddisk memory. The two very important featuresof bubble memories low maintenance and longtermstability willmakethem extremely popular.The initial manufacturing probiems with bubble memories have been overcome. According to Ven- tureDevelopment Corporation,bubble memorieswillbe a 226 million dollar busubrss by 1085. 10

Because(rubble memory is pricednigher thendisk systems (includirg floppy disk systems) and because ithas poorer accesstimes compared tomain memory,theinitial apr: hcations of bubble memory have been in the areas where moving disk memories are not suitable,like factory floors, or where resistance to shockisrequired,for example,in automobiles and portable terminals. As the costof bubble memory decreases,it will surely be used as a substitute for semiconductor and disk memory systems.

Hardware Strategies

What doesallthis men? First,itisimperative that directors ofuniversity computing facilities maintaina very flexible position withrespect to installed equipment. Equipmentshouldbeleased,andleasesshouldbeshort term. Purchase of equipment should be avoided whenever possible.

" See Computer Business News,22 September 1980, 21. 10 F1 Cliran oGicAt TFILNDS

Figure 13 11,CHNOTOGICAL TRENDS 41

.\11I1j,lo H anr valuatean i.riii,eduret..PV,1111,1t('the It'A;t`\ f`I',11`;W11'111,15;1.. (10,:1!;1,11 ispresentedin [111.11'0

1 `,11,\ ';the Lestof 010.1.1,111t. purchase. I he HAI.' 11,1';(`tirit.e of the iniiiipmentis a little over 52 million. If :,11,111',.'d,tilt` ;111r1110flt1.,II10`,with a year's warranty arid nerve there are H1,1110.011,111(f.Iltr!,ts(i111111()the first ymir. I he planning horizonistakento He five yearsfor atotal

.,2.1)(12 . Curve 2 shows afive-year toast. pure Hse agreement using a third-party lease. Curve shows a straightleasecost over a five-yearperiod. Notmethatthe lease costincludesmaintenance. The area 3.A corresponds totheaccrualswhichare hewn t,,r oar period. If we make the very conser- \ itiVe that prices a re gong to drop I'301:, over a two-year period,thenthe purchase price of the equip- mentatthattimewill be approximately 51.4 million. The a«.ruals are 5936,000 during thatperiod, making thenet purchasepricelessthanhalf a million. Ifthissumis financed o\, er the next three years, we will see a reduction u. cash flow shown in curve 4b.On the other hand,if we maintain the same cash flow the machine becomes fully paid for atthe mid of Om third year.Years four and five sim- plyhovethe maintenance costs, asshown incurve 4a. This analysis was doneforan actualprocurement during the summer of 1979. The recommendation,based onthe analysis,was tolease,with the strategycaratif within two years the price dropped atleast 39, to go ahead and buy themachine unlessnewevidencedictated a different strategy.

Second,tin?usefullifeof computer equipment should never be taken to be more than five years, with four years more reasonable,and three years perhaps more accurate. Depreciation allowances, where permitted,should be based on36-or48-monthschedules. Replacementallowances should also be based on similar schedules. Iflocal,state orfederalregulationsprohibittheseschedules,efforts should be directed at changing these regulation's. Third, charging schemes for computer usage that are basedon a usage charge of6 2/3",per year shouldbe abandoned and replaced by more suitable and realistic figures. A 6 2/3°o rate inherently2. ssurnesa 15-year equip- mentlife. No computerisexpectedto have such a life. Even thoughcomputersaretheoreticallybuiltto last forever,factor'sliketechnologicalobsolescence,increased maintenance andoperationalcosts preclude a longuseful life. Forinstance,thepowerrequirementsofan IBM 370/158 are five times as much (22.8 KVA) as the IBM 4341 (4.4 KVA).It also generates five times the amount of heat it? I I LI !film! f Wit( Al I H()s,

.1,uou Ifili aiimpareil 1:fi.;;Po Hietotal In i ioit C.11,1 in t,1.1N, ; 1.,111 br

ill N,

ii' we Hop; alriacp partofHi ireri iimtrit In',irk ;,,,f-trf11111, V.111 (.)m. from !;1,11(t. I , UHL. ii%i`rrli1111,1 aiireieloration d,i other-- v.. thieai thathave "1 Ifirvr' I"ff"fif 1,11 Hp ,-)f

fifth,thei!r,rtn.,trifriardeareaes n t he industry allHiltrigataii ripaa l,, Ia.,. Vloch statesthat twice the;ire Hip cfour tunfs (..prupiltor. (.111.1'010k", tiir0,1111.'01,wcomputer power.smaller computers no ci ire(\ ' I than lacier computers_ Isitbetter to buy large smaller c.omptiters, or asmall number of kit ger r answer tothisinufstonisnotso .tral ;lir it Sider!;IS itIlsed to be.

fi.ii :Pole or-anal:ritrinher of large computers 111 III' icp-ficy ofrnar.hine and per ok pfe andshirred sof Pii re. ,Arnongstthe oflargerriv -.toms are ,;r,if overhead,Lir ;red t f,rimpm-ltof ripnprnont 1,1 i; ;1,1 (WO t'd dro. Aswillfwseenlater,thecostof (--mfortiferwill Ho governednotbyliarciv..arrcostsbut atloir peciaiririol.softwareandccrnrminicationcosts. W-tred-.thi-rl'IsIli)cli.far -cut recommendation for a general case,ifr an fie shown that minir:rimputors arre, extremely cost ffei tier'if thov inbe dedicated tosingleapplication I ximplesin administrativeproressinr]might be library iutrrtnotlerr. foodSi'; vice mana(aerrieritormedical r,r.ondy, Nitric thatflorieofthese applicationsrequires any deg ref, of data sharing with other institutional ?ipplica- ticinslit e roll,student records, etc.

th, as dusk memory systems become cheaperthe f unction of tapesystemsforstoringuser datawillbe greatly reduced. Tape systems will be used primarilyfor backup and archival purposes.All operational systems will run from disk.Therefore, existinguser jobs that heavily depend on tape drives should be re-examined with a view to moving them to disk systems.The argument against a tape system for anything other than backup and archivalis twofold: itrequiresoperatorinterventiontherebyslowing down system operation; and, most ofall,itrequires additional personnel resourcesto manage the tape library,to verify the quality and readibility of the tape and to assign

5 1 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 43 tind.11Inc.itotapes 1 he )prrtillini system resides ui irtiralmemory theriserprogramresides in virtual nu ; perhaps thetine'is s nn corning when we should Ire Hammer for data to roside urv irtual memory.

Personno IProblems

-irrfar we hae. iiscusr.ed the drop in hardware prices aml its impact on the management of computing. The other' halt figure 1.1 deals with software and personnel costs. I hese aosts areprofected to increase atan annual rate of

I etus examine the H'i'N,-,1111P1situation first. A report entitled,Science and F nqineering Education for the I and Beyond. released by the Office of mai1 ethnology onOctober14, 11180 paintsa very bleak peAure on the availability of computer professionals. 1 heshortages,thereport predicts,willcontinue through the i 1 he very obvious solutionto the problem isto train computer professionalsinourinstitutionsofhigher learning and thereinlies the biggest problem. There are hiPh.D. ,;rantingcomputersciencedepartments in the S.and Accordingtothe Snowbirdreport,in 1980 there were 1300 fobs advertised for only 200 graduates withPh .0.degrees. To .make matters worse forhigher education, of the 200 Ph.D. graduates, 100 were lured away toindustry withpotentially better researchfacilitiesand certainly better salaries.This has resulted ina very acute shortage of teachers and researchers to teach computer science.

1hereis another significantand alarming trend. In 1975 there were 256 Ph.D. graduatesincomputer science. By 1080 this number had dropped to 200. Itis extremely difficultfor computer science departments to attract students to the Masters and Ph.D. programs. Also according to the Snowbird Report, bachelor degree holders get start- ingindustrialsalaries averagi igS20,000, Masters 526.000 aridPh.D.'s 532,000. '1 With the very tempting salaries for H.S.degree holders- itisincreasingly difficulttoattract students tothe graduate programs. The lack of graduate students ultimatelyisreducingthe number ofindividuals

" Peter J.Denning, ed.,"The Snowbirdreport:A DisciplineinCrisis,-Communicationsofthe ACM, June 1981, pp. 370 -374.

5'} 4.1 II CIINOI (g,1( Al IIII NDS capable ofteaching computersi ifii(.1!,thereby cord ril)tit ing t() the inabilityto train mare undergraduate!: to meet market demands.

It.1Pi'0,11-.that itc;titlitipie; f Itiylter education (ire not iiii.i1(11( U pr.a lin 1.the requisite number of grade ate.:to(fleettire demands, but there isalso some question of whether the graduates who do ('titerthe job market have theproper hackgrouridaridsl

In(,), amining statistics published by IBM we find that before 19(.0 only 1H, of the employees working inthe information sys t(Tin areacome with a computerscience background;theremaining 8-1`:, came frombusiness,finance, arid other (hscipiines(with over 25`(, from inath . of theemployees came from

( arid from other disciplines ( awe from rnath 1. statistics,thoughriot fat!). c the itehintryas a whole.do poiatto a ;ion. !('F'n(1. ((old to informationsystems is H'C,',1f1111,/ complex thatitis increw:ingly important to hire on-115, idu Is specialized training. The pool of graduates choca:o t rcq11 isthereforesmallerthanitusedtobe, rth0-,171(4 thisyetanotherfautarthatcontributestothe !--,hortag, pr.Pc,sl000ls

hisa(1(0,:.(r.hort,-(qeof personnelis projectedto con- tiue far several years at least through the mid-eighties. The shortageisalready pushing salaries higher. Studies how thatsalariesare expected toincrease between 2(1to f rem19/9 80to1981 :82.'"This leaves no doubt that

Philip J.Gill,"University Shortcomings called fac- torinPersonnel Shortage," Information Systems News,26 January 1931.

" WilliamR.Bradshaw, Jr., "IBM Examines itsPer- sonnelPlanning,"Information Systems News,26 January 1981, p 45. " DunhillPersonnel System,"Career Outlook'81,- Information Systems News, 26 Jauary 1981, p. 40. I I ( 111\1(11(11dt,\ I IItt ri

1 -II, 1, 1 t thy \".'ill 11. {1111 I 15 Ill III, I ;,.1 j,11 111,1

ti...1Ce

t, \. tobe a vei y labor. ItIloty,t t Pt", t"' AJ\ t", \-.11',"It'vt'ltPlitt'lltIP( It Have 1,1111'11Iii 1,1.111111 .1,1%,11 w, n1 thin 1,1,',11'

. tisity, Ill all the adver tc.ml tookavailable in themarfietpldrii has lint 1,1 ..(ileitdriti 111,. Indiitr,mitimiitesindicdte erd(iii(it d..1tv.re very t Imp (,111-,iirmiriJand wkii!;ivt I hug, St/t t1N,11'1' v cask. I here is iiiitatile(.5 we findt hatapplication software for ei relativelyinexpensiy(-. 1 his is true the Idr(ie Fir.itetiti,11solescifsoftvore fornii(:ro(.(i(npilters ,endbecause d 1,1r(:te portion ofthe orriputer(,(itt\vdreisdevelriped by holdiyistsintheir' !itidre time. Itisa cottiirt(- industry. Since ,,ottvare costsire linked very closelyto personnel co-ds,itIs expected that itsrite of increase will follow petdarnel (.(,ts atleast until ;11110 advanced software development tools become available.

Impact of Software and Personnel What then will be the impact of increasing software and personnel costs on the management of computingin higher education? Whatstrategiesshouldbe developedto cope with the changing situation? First, and perhaps foremost, lies the need to make the salaries available to computer professionals inhigher education more competitive.This problem is particularly acute in state supported institutions.Several states are re-examin- ingtheir compensation programs with a view tobringing them more inline with therealities of the business world. Failuretodothiswillsimply make ourinstitutions the training groundsforthose abletooffer more attractive compensation packages.The salary issue has yet another dimension. The salary commanded by asystemsanalyst may easily exceed that of a tenured associate professor or, say,the director of personnel. Data processing directors command even higher salaries sometimes as high as the president of asmall institution.These higher salaries can

51 ii CItNUI ()E,R.Al1 RENDS

dir,-sonousdiscontentamongst the ranks of other inthe institution.Salary structuresinsome ar upabletodealwiththese differences. These Or some institutions Ht 'Ifl,3for the mananernent of their computer facilities. ,c.torreceives a insulting fee andhiresthe to, 'dualsto provide the services. The mstitu- ther-,-foce, does not have tii,arry these disproportion ,tak,higher -,aid individuals on its payroll.

we mustre-examinethe jobs(notthejob Wpb I)of cur computer professionals to determine what ;,resent assignments does not require any k.1-- cola trqf talents. these unrelatedassignments/ tkiould '-)e reassigned to other individuals. Basically cdtc ofcomputer professionalsto otherstaffinthe I din- niterwill,of necessity,decline. Plans should indk, pperoto with this changed mix.

din trainingandretentionprogramsshouldbe ,,ciiprH ienitutmaisGin offer-special eciucatonal oppor- iestoits,_,nrol,yi-=,atmarginalcosts. keeping an orrni, der;eid and trainedreduces the possibilityof

ourth,efforts should be made to reduce or eliminate ,k ,ruiiensi, e tasks. Labor- intensive tasks should be dis- anciged te, firstprovidingalternate servicesandthen .r-iclrH the ',bort intensive services artificially high.Thus pi, nchingshould be discouraged by providing develop- im'ntterminalsto programmers ,bythe designofbetter ftv.uresystems,by captii ring H online,and through the use of optical scan Lans. i'nLak of operator inter- erition requi rements. . 'e use of tap, fc- application pro- grains shouldbeHis race ' -nounting special terms. bursting mill-. ,H f,rit'he use ofthe ;.rinti-r itself should

f- ifth ,it isbr .ming nadwa-e vendors will e allefforts to -'duce stem software

support oastsand c, pr . ..:meatin that nftw. a re. Thus be a ii'intiing -.rendfor ven- dorsfief soft.ne support",taffatuser sites but r,it11,.n pr,vido the sery through a response

fun, might be tempter' to argue that -keypunching- h; nota productive use id the programmer's time but actual experience indicates that online programming isindeed more productive. TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS 47 center. Further,new releases ofsoftware willcome with greaterfrequencythanbefore. Boththesefactct swill m.iHitrnore difficult aridmore expensive to maintain user inn Hid mods 1to vendor supplied operating systm s-r Hence asystem-,tic plan must be developed ry alllocalneedsssith ay lowofeliminating them. I heusertw,Hifwatiorisslated forelmundtionshouldbe staged for rernosal frnm the system with the installation of each new release so asto reduce the user impact. In any rxise-is rnore arid more operating system functions get built Int,' the hardware or micro ode,the luxury of making local mods, may cease to exist.

in alb, inehvironm-n should becreatedinwhich users can do more and more oftheir own computer-related ,..ork, This would apply bothto the operation of information s' sterns and to the development of software.

Insummary.the economics of computing promises to Huge arid change significantly.A larger and larger portion oftotal crests of computing will come not from hardware Hit from software andpersonnel. Energies are therefore better expendedinarrestingthegrowthoftheselatter Losts. Lower hardware costs willnecessarily resultinthe ;in' aiteratiLini,fc-r1;;.,11tors. this,in itself,isnot bad,for computers are notknowntopollute the environment,use any significant amounts of scarce resources (the world has an abundant supply of silicon) or cause any exotic ailments. On the other hand they do hold apromise a promise of r;reatei- productivity and lower costs both essential ingre- dients in restoring faithin our economy. ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING

IIN ...some minds are stronger and apter to mark the differences of things, IEN others to mark their resembiances." Francis Bacon

Combined vs. Separate

Eversincewe discovered we couldusethe same computer forkeepingstudentrecords and teaching high energy physics we have been locked onthe dilemmaof whether we should attemptto do both tasks on the same machine. The proponents of combined computer operations point to Grosch's Law to support their point of view on the basisofeconomies ofscale. The proponentsof separate operationspointtothedifference inmachineresource requirementsforcompute bound andinput/output bound tasks to support the position thata machine that does one task well must, perforce, do a poor job at the other. The argument isexacerbated by security issues.The impact of data integrity, security and privacy on administrative operations iskeenly felt and generally talked about ifnot actu- allymonitored. Whilesecurityissuesare everybit as important in the academic community, too few faculty recog- nizejust how significant an impact a security breach(or laxsecurityprovisions ingeneral)couldhave ontheir instructional or research efforts. I rift I ING

i are new 1111,,1 is, 4h ll,74l.1%ilre and hardware, is constantly, lidionioi pararn-tor t,oftheargument. Thegeneral ..c. eSs cnu;l has brow, erred ,tr,turn-Ht See the 111,-0-111ile asa data !,, in \de It (.,,illi/Illdt1011,11 device,corn HIP! !Hi!pr. ttr,tinine(iin I(_)k 1- RAN; arid those iew thrnac hure as Oh automaticcentroldesice, -tt sttt,)11rid and programmed in assembler. A new ;lir,illeilof(i)tilplIler users wearied on graphics, interac- e1,11)4;itftgtts AtL or very high level,interpretod dmining sttit. prolmlilyseesitasallthree. Iillof view,thechlt: rtrihtirts \:etv,,c,arking,once viewedasthe solution, lodrly hasonlymoved the domainofthe problemfrorrr ;iittware.

I he ofcombinedvs.separate hashistorically f to.,:trof combined,untilsuch time as a capacity has beendeveloped. Atthat point,theprnm.pect of migrating to a new system withdittirentcontrolkiniptage,access methods, language 1.rP1:.,!;an inertiaagaiwit chantio.On the Cherhand.t-rit ragi rigchangeis the prospect of more powerful compilers-,special purpose peripherals,or whatever. Ifa13(1- year historyis any indication, most organi- zationscanlookforwardto a continuingdebate,first resoly),,d in favor of one concept, and then the other.

I he firstthree generationsof computers broughtus f rom slow, heads -on, small storage, limitedperipheral illVICe systemstofast,interactive,mass storage systems. In the process of this transition the computer system began tobeseenindepersonalized,assembly lineterms. This transition predictablyleftthe user feelingdisenfranchised and estranged from the whole process of computing. The mystique of thecompute Cfrlii n developed and was accompanied by an increasing anxiety on the Part of those people who depended on theresults ofdata processing but were not computer literate.With increasing numbers of business people trained in computing as part of their university education we can expect to see an amplifs_ation of the pressure for using computers as we use the telephone an increase inthesupportfordistributed(networked) computational capacity.

Coming hand- in diandwiththequestionof combined vs.separate isthe issue of where to settlein the centralized "decentralized spectrum. Thisisriot a hardware issue ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 51

butrather a question ofhow most effectivelyto develop and tthlize software.At this stage of computer technology thisis probably the more important question.Many of the on-ms. ale, transferabilityofdata, .,tenofttenipherak impactthedecision on tit' thlatittn. ['att. c,t (a.orridingimportance,iremanage- mente.:aiia. \%11110 it isusefulto speakoftheeffect on the bottorllling (q1t he ate Htioll(_,0 sheet,infact, the ont malita t ion isseldom ever translatabletosuch SIM- Ilflit711,Mp101is terms (and itisnot clear that many um- 11,0.'1' tom lure expressed 'n dollar terms).To v. hatex tentto decontralizeismore typically a question of in t ,t`, pity. In administratively, ' Jnahz -rdanizati,,ns one 0:11Id expectto see acorn- Hatteetary tleLentralized software development structure and just the optsite for highly centrahzed organizations.

Imre lanot an optimallevelofsoftware development ntrahlation for allorganizations,but rather an appropri- atele,at 1.trany given organization which bestsuitsits managerialstructure. Top management personalities.r.ittatv,,,Ilich is a Ric aside),the university tr.o,he vitte,t-din several perspectives. Functionallyit may tear !tii-; (.1!'n;,11..; !;ollinc; a product enterprise of diversified 'tiesai;.,eratireJ over a wide geographic region.It may alsobe seenasa high technology,research and development enterprise with supporting manufacturing and information dissemination arms.And so on, for a number of other part,eptioris ofthe university,allheld by different people at the same tune. These viewpoints might lead to any number of configurations for software development and program support. In many universities, data processing has ended up in accounting or the controller's orfice because of the histori- calaccidentthatthefirstdata processingeffortsbegan there.Whatever she ultimate choice, for whatever reasons, t Mt. int,reasinglylikelyhat there willbe some university data processing staff with at least oversight responsibility. This seems not only unavoidable, but justified,in the light of CC,171;cutin9expenditures which commonly amount to five percent or more of the operating budget.

Management Techniques

TOn /141,1ydata processing t,ystems are counted asfail- ures. -fins statement applies equally to the hardware complex as well as specificsoftwaredevelopmentprojects. oHL,Arniir. !Oh (WK.( 1 ING

,inure is !Treasured u. 111,1 Hy way, s, budr.jetoverruns, hdille slippage,poorresponsE_-time,inadequatesystem mss, ex( hardv.are downtime,and soon. The ;men .tatinil IISP1' 131 SSat1Si aCt1011withthe din.t ered. I d,e, note,ork renvironnientonly dr, babe;the perception orfailure. Ifitisfrustrating ,111 t,,1[.to afniovvleclgeirble 111111;111P 11..1.. 111111Ii 111,11.1. .1.1./ when you are atthe ether end or 111110 teleph,-me line and all you can get is .1 lei.,

I or imiloh,g rue',wellheattherootof many,ifnot 11: \51.. ha\ 1. 1,a11-; ,tricegraduated datato a \ world ofinformation s stems. Itis 0 dangerous anachronismto referto what takesplaceintheuniversity computing complexas data ni re.suig I he processing of datainthe historical con tr t or the phrase makes up a very small subset of the lar- er preblemofmanaginginformationsystems. To many tie-/computer-complexis totallytransparent(even in\ and ',Peri only as a high speed printer, or only as 0 text editor, ,r rrnlyas an archive,or only asa cash re raster, nr-oril asa switching device,or only as... ;.r /./1/1, ;et t %lama-remold must learn to see tho r in;.Otl'r networkillthe S,11111.light asitis viewed by a nV reed ofdisparate users as an information system,not gistsomething \-duch processes data. We feelso strongly about this point that we shallhereafter refer to the totality if hardware, software and peopleasan information system and attempt to deal with the question of information systems management . one ofthe frustrationsof managing inforrnation systems is theuser-sseemingintolerancefor, andlackof understanding of hardware problems.The fact that 9n of thesystem is /T17,erdtlflg perfectlyhardlyplacatesthose users who needto use the thatisdown. If one is a believerin \lurphys Laws, then the which is down will 'Herd at 11.,11;t 1r, ofthe population. Any well designed stem should provide some levelofhardware redundancy commensurate %,,iththe probability offailure and mean time torepairofhardware components. Thisis particularly critical in a teleprocessingenvironmentwhere a dozen five t,er.ond failures are significantly more disastrous than a srrigi''?I1 -minute outage. The terminal user who seesthe system go downtwice a week duringhis connectionwill understandably view the entire system a failure.

\\Thinthenumber ofhardware systems perceivedas flopsisa well kept secret, software failures are a constant

Gr) ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 53

coffeetullegossip. Softwarefailuresare iortandyeasnititoidentifyand more pervasive intheir ymibl manifestations. Onereasonforthismaybe our ai plan. if', ao l ,etpi-irtormance standards ei minions detail for aftwarip systems. klyir failure Timidcriteria(11'0 Inmany cases,performance criteria t the Hardware iiimplexhave never been and tailure Judged tively rather than objec- t!" ely

betore dn.-wising formal organizational structureitis iinly bur toriitlect en the structure that actually dominates `i"eihayeallheardthatitisreallythe runthe Army andthesecretaries who ruin the iitticeind thereismore than a littletruthto both obsoryations.

I be analogiestcthe businessorganizationare itravinfrorn biology.The organization islikea living i-irininism. Simi, ofthe cells are dying and being replen- ,i,i.d, tiler tom-Am/is are atrophying from lack of exercise, snie cell, are out of control and must eventually be excised for the good ofthe v.'hole organism. So itiswith business

Irrespectiveof a person's slot in theorganization chart,his or her influence and capabilities are seldom dis- cernible by measuring the number oflevels removed from the top of the chart.Personalities, 'politics and persuasion allcontribute togetting the project approved,funded and properly completed.The discerning manager finds ways to useallthree_ inconcertwiththeformalorganizational structure, to accomplish the task at hand. One of the hallmarks of the successful information systems manager is the abilityto identify the underlying informal organization and to bringitto bear on the problem at hand. Itseemsthatlarge organizationsaredestinedto hecorne ciimplei, and bureaucratic,The capability ofutiliz- ingthe informa'organizationissometimesreferredto as "cutting red tape" orbypassing the bureaucracy.-In any case, thelargertheorganization the morecritical it becomes to understand the informal organization andto be able to mobilize it

Mostcontemporary managementstructuresarehier- archical,that isthereportingstructure is a pyramid. Complementary,compatibleorcoextensivefunctionsare grouped together inso far as the top of any sub-portion of the pyramid isable to coordinate and administer' the activi-

6 Olt(, /.011/1t1(, I (()N1P11 1 ING

figs. Ihis. lithith,r1is generallyref erred to as span of whichis t measured in terms of the n umber if-,jr,,rdinara.;a -,,iporvisor- L.111control. Optimally thisis eight or rlo-,c.rritoi,) the ripper limit ofeft,- tix econ tr ol. I hispro, ess repeatedvertically ir.Til ..trigle tIp ro,i,e l here the pyramid.

freipientlyinnurture and titigs ipologists postulate thatitrs the natural organizational reforman. Peoplejoin infamilies,familiesin (.1,1risin nati urs,etc. -I he prevalence of hierarchical manager'', structures hasledto the terminologyoftop, are!inciTi mil management, .liere we distinguish top mariariemerit its longr.ange viewpoint; functional mdria,jemont by itslocal,short term view; and middle man agemeni as information filters and facilitators passing infor illationIce and forth between the other twoproviding a fr.ed!,10. r.oritrol The operations(console operators,tape librarian,printer operator-s,etc. ) sectionof a C.,,m;oiter (.enterisan area within the Information Systems l)epar tmerit where hierarchical organization has worked well.

The difficultywithhierarchicalorganizationsis the la/T,. Itir,,,n1,1111/rit 1,Il wide the fr,agmentary nature ofinformation possessed byitsemployees, particularly those at lower levelsin the pyramid. Thisis one of thefactor'scontributingtothelackofunderstanding of information sterns in the organization at large. One of the hallmarks of software development has been itsinabilitytodeliver asuccessful product under normal hierarchn alIna nagernent structures. Mostmajorsoftware development projects currently feature some form of development team. Employees may be members ofseveral con- currently active teams,leadingtoa management structure inwhichthe organizationchartis morelike a table or matrix than itislike a pyramid. I he structure probably developed asa consequence of the early, extreme specialization of people inthe computer field. Scientific and commercial programmers quickly parted company over the issues of programming language and storage requirements. The controlsoftware programmers are quickly parted from them both.The rise of data base management systems, teleprocessing systems, networks of teleprocessing hardware, etc. have all contributed to fragmentation through specialization.

6 ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 55

13,

SC.FTWATE

19.fig 1:170 HCfl

THE 'Y SOFTY/ARE DEVELOPMENT TO !t,!CTEA.`3E AS TE-',E iN TOTAL OPERAT!NO COSTS

ri,Jure 19

BIJDCiET

ZEM.) 5i ViAL

21.17,

TEE

CENTER L

Figure 20

. 63 ()P,t ()MN; IINC,

ditt,, inoior nif 11,1r1,,%ar,- ri.,,,,.1-;rrieJritof fort that iipri -quire the j.J1, sirermiliJ,tJ, drawn

F .i ire a ;kir tinn,. ! hiltover. a ri!,J.ttairi

il in I Ile' 111(..11 mariagnirierit

11 1 t"11,111'H'. cur In lrnipiirai y, 11t .1! f I .1 s.,11'1.111t if 111.1;'111-rit, 1; jI'..V11,.flt

',!!'.11t t

IS:prartanr; t tune:.

I he seemt- twitIi em.methralsfor-deterriiiiiin!) the10,r-illation Systems Depart leen t ron r. someJinni rtatilovice president who is ;err! au ai5lto put up with the headaches, the th.. rationalreportingpoint sod thus, One observes ,,f t.,rnirinthe latter.CertainlyInfiarm,ttioriSys- tems n i!eitinire,to thetotalorgailizatinn can be stifled It !Joss whoisra,it her re it,vledriodblenorsyrilliatIletIC. ;,,f the ,fr:t1%. 1., 1', tai to 1.111del'I;torld the prolderris,rrinti,irry HtPlithil SaltVillS on up the maim Loudly apparent are the disadvantages of reporting toa boss caught ino backwater ofthe university %%Ito uria!ilr t i !firingto Hear the concernsofhispeers forI ritorrnabraiSys terns problems,no matter- how syrripa- thotin. he may !tr.to Information Systems related problems.

niirmI.I....I.atto whom and where the computing triter r prk, rop,,,rts mill soy alot about how much Information Systems can, on- shouldattemptto,accomplish. While Information Systems are the backbone of many universities, there are as many more whe,'eitsrole isless fundamental. Ambitiousprojects requirestrong Mil (1.19ernent backing, some! lung which may ra-Abe possibleto procure insitua- tions whereInformationSystems has a weak reporting structure orisnot perceived in the mainstream of the university enterprise.

he mformation processing function cangenerally he identified asexisting within one of threetypical organization structures. Most large organizations are already over- burdened with staff reportingdirectly to the chief ex l:l1 tiVe officers. Newly established data processing operations .irerornli.ntly placed inthe staff role, however. As the ,7)per,ItHrl grows arid rnaturesitis generally spun offto ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 57

or, or more oftheline(.t;etratingdivisions tlfereis a trendto revivethisrelationshipfortheorganizational I ',formation Coordinator (arid perhaps asmall staff ) Hi programming, systems analysis,Ind operations report- ingto establediedlinemanagers. Inthose organizations andiiist riesw here Information Systems is ex tremely um, ortant , there is an irc.reasingtendencytoward the -,tablir.:hmentofa Vice Presidency for Information Systems Y11(..11 title. the more typical environment is one in luchtheI n formationSystems organizationex istsatthe partmentlevel. Extreme managerialliaisonandunder- lie necessary to pursue aservice center role IIItill'. tronincui t One ofthe contributing sources oflack of good com- municationboty.oaoInformation Systems and users isthe

tru, into ifthe information Systems Deparment. A glance t theorgan' ri chart of the Information Systems Department will generally be sufficient to predict the status ot lufnrntatlonSystems/userrelationships. Surprisingly, 111.110,. information Systems Departments have no formal user aontact point anywhere intheir structure. This situation ,,,'emsroughlyequivalentto a computervendorhaving ,;II,engineering and manufacturing divisions but nary a trace of asales force.(Come to thin k ofit, we believe we have dealt with a few like that. )

Theultimate,ifnotusuallyimmediate,consumerof nformationSystems services is locatedexternal tothe Information Systems Department.Some provision for formal contact must be madeinthe structure ofthe Information Systems Department,the higher inthe structure the better. Ingeneral,we could argue that a -sales" or "con- sumer affairs'position should exist at the level immediately below top Information Systems management. As this posi- tionbecomesfurtherremoved fromtopmanagement,the user correctly perceives his influence degraded and senses that his opinions and needs count for little. One of the real sadnesses of many computer organiza- tionsistheir almost totalintrosPection. They operate as though ina vacuum, totally div ed from the needs, aspi- rationsand expectationsoftherestoftheuniversity. T his estrangement frequently surfaces when machine utiliza- tionrecordsarereviewed. Theintrospectivecomputer departmentfrequentlyaccountsfor 50'), ofallcomputer resource utilization, While thismay be evidence of poor managementinmany cases,itisalwaysevidenceofan internally focused operating philosophy.

63 ORGANIZINGI ok GONINJ I ING

SECUEIT7

El IDENTIFY POTENTIAL SOCIROL'IS A RISING CREEKS 4ND FL:CODING OF MACHINE ROOM 3 APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS CAUSING 3-STEM CRASH C OPERATOR MOILINTING WRONG FORMS EVALUATE DOWN-TIME COSTS AND C7,SEO. 'DAMAGES A 1.330.000 DOLLARS 3 I.OGC :N DOLLARS 300 :N DOLLARS ES TIMArE, PROBABILITFIRE:GU-I:NOY OF DOC:,.:PRE:'.10E, 0.0(00C OCCO: 3 0.0C: C 0.0005 CCMPUT:: °E:..AT1VE. COST OF PROTECTION

A. 4.00C.000 0.000.7;00C: 0.034 03 DOLLARS 3 1.000 0.00: 1.000 DOLLARS C 330 0.0305 - 0.150 DOLLARS

Figure 21

TYPICAL PLANNING HOP,IZON

ANALvSISFEASIBILITY E TO WEEK TO DESIGN WEEKS N1G:ITHS 6 WEEKSTO E\ 0 MONTHS CON STROC 1-ICN \ F 0 WEEKS TO 0 MONTHS \ TESTING I WEEK TO Z MCNTNS I'FIOJECT MILE:SI-ONES "

A UNABRIDGED CrTINAISM 5 'JNC11:7"' .,.,.7CEPTANCE C WILD TCT,A

SEAD".: . = :VJILTY THE INNOCENT AND PROMOTION THE NCNRARTIMANTS

WITH ArCLOOLEI TO R.C. CANWITIO

Figure 22 6" OlCANI/ING FOR COMPUTING 59

I lw; 1.0nd ,t an operational philosophy acts a lusik.t Ili \ ,111\, C,111pIltOr applications and foilsto exploitthe

ilt iif the flood fostered the In tarruation stems of gam/at:on that sees itself as a ofresources and o fokilitator or catalystintk! 111,01 111,11111111' .0,Ilt.f,i1'.111 I ht. 1 t.W111,101' tO SW;11 an open plilliiciphyI.,that we should soon "lac. ,the inmates(-mi- nim) theInstitut cai . 1 he t:tarnpede 011 some organizations flip personal nncrc0 111110 IS lit tlo More tl0,rnthe user xokt with lug, fort, Pre!--,singhisfeelingsi-ecjiimliricipoor ,,.wire It'0111 t 11V 11110C111,1t1011 Systems Deportment,

Job Shop vs.Utility Operation \todospread acceptance of networking willlikely render 111.Pot t111 1`-.`,111 of Job shop vs. cost center operations.Our 111111,11 (11, f (70111p1ItOrusage V;i1Sprobably most akinto that ofa library. -k he emergence of the microcomputer will prolcild,. engender a resurgence of demand forthis nand, on use of computers. However, where economics of scale has e indicated the need for ala-ge scale system,the ikilkate over%Ole then to opPrAtisitfor hardware or people "ma lankywillcontinue. 1 11" manufacturing industryhas rather conclusively demonstrated that where the machine is thecriticalresource,jobshop schedulingtechniques can p, °ducesignificant economiesinproduction. For those of is1n computing the criticalquestionrevolves around the assumptionthatthe machine(inourcase,thecomputer hardware) isthe critical resource.All recent industry statistics show quite clearly that software and software devel- opmentcosts are increasingsignificantly,while hardware costs asa percentage oftotal operating costs are decreas- ing. Infact, many industry observers suggest that soft- warecosts alreadyexceed hardwarecosts andshould shortlyrepresent something onthe orderof 751:, oftotal operating costs, Ifthisbethe case,job shop operation withscheduled runtimes,pre-specified resource requirements and predetermined priorities make less and less of an impact on cost reduction efforts. To significantly reduce the costs (or improve efficiency of the total operation), we need tofirst attack those areas where the expanditures are largest software development. Hussuggeststhatratherthanoptimizinghardware we should be optimizing the efforts of the people who write the software. Such a point of view permits aless optimal use ofthehardwareresourceifthatconsequentlypermits improved efficiencyinsoftware development. Such a mode of operationiscommonly termed acost center priorities

87 GO om.ANI/It,(. I()It( mipti IiNc, ifeterniiiiiiil by burl hic.iiiiiIn 1,0111,101w;rmuurf 1", Id t..the ',oiliest so to speak more on this va"-.11, e WI he e-ff,iinotto ,,ith the idea ofI oiying hardware kitema oagemer t p ro! dem. I imt ntOr1/1,1'rif

11011 h, if II,)f 111 111.111..111,11ta ,Mtr,,l t11,111 liiiii operation'

A:11111,11.,t1n. t \newpw;ti)(.I,ruhlenr niiifhthe t (AIL(a deCi',1)11 !Ht IIIwinIini the of operotion is redogoire;taomptiter system regui reumnts . Such a matrix r.oulda oniiler theimportaime (weight)of the ri.ipiiremeritto iierall resiifiri.es as well as tyllich m''!of operation lrahartes most to the stisfoctior, of any particularsystemre iiiireinmit. I heresultsof..iich an analysts v..111 invariahlyfavorthecostcenterorutility approac.li . Perhaps the most difficult problem faced by Information `.-,ysterns iinagment ispreparation and defense of budgets. Iris I 10(1,,eritiy happensbecausetop managementsees Information Systems tohe somehow outside the normal rrian- aimment ctrur to re . rertinly for' computer intensive organ- iiacionsitishard' es iirpossibletosell support Hvein at anywhereneartheexpectationsof InformationSystems users. Thisf rust ration frequently leaves Information Sys- te. management in the precarious position of viewing their' users asthe "enemy, Ouite the oppositeshould be the case. This pent -up demand on the part of the users should he the strongest weaponinthe budgetary arsenalofthe Information Systems manager. Those operations run as cost centers should additionally be able to harness user c:ompeti- tine for priority of service as an additional selling point for expanded Information Systems operations.

To ensure equitable Information Systems budgets,itis probably appropriate for theInformation Systems cr.eager tosee that computingneeds are viewedinthe con of total university operations at budget time.Being apart of theusual pushandshove ofbudgetmakinghasmany advantages, but perhaps the greatestisthe latent demand of users which ran be used to create a strong case for better budgetary consideration. Information Systems manage- mentshouldexercisesome restraintindealingwiththe issue sure to rise:"Why can't we spend our money err outside services,or for paper clips?". Unless the computer operationcan bank profit( notnormally recommended in most intra-university operations),ithas no way toadjust

6 a? ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 61

arid planning ,ties nen itsnormally captive CnStOrnerSare t',,,.a!,f11In r,y7,,arci.itospending theirI n for- Ian:gets r.,-msistentwiththe ilaroiderr-ritpioloi.opti,of the university, computing hndabli, for other dollars andv ice

toriir,viiiing Information Systems se ices nno. reMany Enid varied. Itisbecoming I\, rnr, n nto purchase both spcif is purpose sort- . 1, c.en. ices. The'not invented here- ss Ti- t., pr:,tothe realitiesof f b, t p,:icligesare companies riot intheindult minebusiness. ci.nt tvireIs frequently contracted forf rem nsisfiich SpeCillie Inspecific sectrneritsof the ns Mari otplac.e. Less typicalis the use of inn bureausinlieuofin-house data ,fII1 IN., rminagement contracts for the operation n Llitr, i-na,veVer,the national time sharing 111 of the fastest growing segments Iii, Mari et; P. Hifact, m.-my tine tit inint('.r,,ctive or online IIthrtime sh,ii -iiinetw-rIcs.

It elythatthecostconscious \!-.tomsrrwin,,ptr v.IliIn ,kto the speciality sup- v harTv. are andsoftwareservicesthathelacks f'(A.it H,11 mass of user to support. Itiscuri- the number of Information Systems managers in, interactive servicesto their users on the th,,tt heyLadsthehardware or controlsoftwareto a't n. s,stmte, Many such managers will see their mt iost to a plot kora of micros and minisif they do not me way to satisfytheuser's increasingly voracious tit,'for ",mine systems.

i.onvnti,,nlbatchInformationSystems modeof Was trodin,ed withthe first generation machines In tilld195US, to complement thisnode of operation, c.hprocessing languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN ih,v elopedand wellestablished by 1960. Itrapidly en apparentthatthefullpotentialoftke computer not begintobe realized sers were on personal access to the system with ,atural,or least more interactive, programming Hr By 1970 the teleby peroot- and CRT had become reliabie I/O devices ina time sharing 'node on most larger systems.About the tune.interactive languages such as JOSS, BASIC

GJ 62 of(GANIZINCf ()P COMPUTING and API. werede \ eloped tofacilitatetheman- rnachine

i)ur,tHjthe; t1111" rICA , siqrur want advancesin tie. use .ifthe computer as i time- monitor and control r, ,c, fiCe thin,exceptional advances have mddein /Mi.)rovinnjtheonerealweaknessofthe ciimputf'r It S input outputcapabilities. Plotters,wand

, computer-output aucroforms, digitizers, mark reader;,remote ser,sors and even voice recognition equip- rmrit are on the market which arereliable and cost effec- tn.e_ iinforrunatiy, particularly among the smaller

, I tms we;tillsee the philosophy to;:hm,-,ues t,o PI::(1.-;being applied to the problems of the 19SUs.

Security and Disaster Planning

Information Systems Departmentslack a specifi- ,,iiiy longrange planningfunction. Thisis frequently attributable to the small size of the Depart- ruit, butf reguPntly isthe L,-r, because everyone assumes someoneelseisdoingthe planning.While we couldnot overemphasize the importance of'3 uch a designated position inthe organization,we mustneverthelessrecognizethat such a position probably does not exist.

Information Systems softwareexhibits oneofthe extreme formsoftechnologicalobsolescence. Mostmajor software effortsrequire from two tosEx years to complete andtheirtimetotechnological obsolescenceis aboutthe same. Whilethisdoesnot seemtohaveinhibited many software developmentprojectsitcertainlycreatessevere problems inthe planning area. Evenifsoftware development efforts are amortized overa five-year period(which may begood bookkeepingpractice)weare hardlyever ready to begin major system re-designin so short aperiod of time.

li.fact,many good software projectswillattempt to anticipate the state of the art several years hence so as to prolong the useful (or economical)life of the project. Even so, we are dealing with hundreds of thousands,if not millions. of dollars of development effort.The optimum payoff to the university willriotoccurifthese software developments are not married to the enterprise's long range plans. One could not emphasize too strongly the desirability (if not necessity)of having theInformation Systems staff represented at university planning sessions. ORGANIZING FOR COMPUTING 63

:5-7-STEM FROSAE,1:7.1

TASr, DISPATCHER COMMUNICATIONS 0-7 SOFTWARE

FUNCTIONS IF lrPL.CATICNs _ SE.RIAL SOFTWARE PROGRAM AND HARDWARE CCOPOI:ENI-3 ARE REOLMED TO cxtrtecrLY DEVICE OPERATE A PROCESS ;.'iTIL CONTRO,.. SL UL COMPLETION. _EACH COI HAS + FROSASIL.7, OF CORRECTLY OPERATING CF .4444J. T

TME'l 1111, triE rrto5ADIL:Tv OF A SU CC GSSF ULPROCESS 107`.7.943 "EIC.

FOR A FTTO DP DILITv OF .9999, 07.:,90 7ERC. .3999

Figure 23

DEC:SIC:1-!VIAr.:NG ORCA;1IZAT;CIJAL 3FAC: F'F.RSPECTIVE:

TCP LOWS CUTS;DE MANAGEMENT THE ORGANIZATION

FACILITATES MIDDLE CO:ALIUNICAT;CNS MANAGEMENT WITHIN T:-IE ORGANIZATION

L'FF-RATIDNAL TASr- D +"-TO-DAY CRIENTE9 DEC: GUS orER ATI ()NAL AND MANAGEMENT N.ARRCW

Figure 24 6-1 (MOAN 111No l(lP COMPU 1I NG

-f1H. th tr;ireritrtirin provides r ;ruin ,r)_;,stonesstaffthe.o; rtuniityto l't2,1Ct. t4) ,. ii111, `;Hetor.- tko, base frozenin the ; r . eirit;kiri theritl.).-- end,the posi- t; onti. r.,t.,the be at halal f1'0111 11110 :11 r, 1, d,!,,,! ho phrIS :111(1 t .;, ni 111.1.1,111,tlt ,1Fi(1 (911Hitily so it1,,111.;,t

otthe .Leaning proUlems which typically isnot he'a.ed has ; vothdisasters. 1 he definition of Her r, wh, isItIll,ihte(i and may range from a the.Hiss .Iri \.-stothetotal destruc- Th. barHo..t f e. Lither endofthe His ,stet.;pec,trilie \%itliitthe potentialofdriving ii1J1\,Pr'SltV ,.)11t oflousiness,oratleastcreating Hf,!,1:,is..lt dislocation in its scheduled operations.

t par( ofplanning responses to disasters is ,1). thatfatalproblems donotrequire cata- ,o orhardware. The probability of serious loss dissath-died `o,r111,1 Low upon revenge, poor physical and improper k,sliperr. itirilarid planned systems or op. Lliangs Ingner.Consequently, disaster planning should attempt to assess not only the magnitude of theloss randthecost ofconsequent recovery)but the probability that such a loss might occur.One of the iro- nies. of1,110 pr,.,fe.ssi,r)isthe Information Systems operation that l,acl.s itscritical filesin atleast three impregnable \ dolts esarid has backup provisions to use any one UT three otherinstallation's hardwareinthe event of a catastrophe w loleallowing unknown visitors to roam the irm.aementing no software securitylevels d s stain chich rain be accessed by anyone who happens tohie, oL. Less to the public phone system.

r.liceildalso reco5n 17e that exposure may be equally atal as destruction.Security and privacy are concerns t h a t go hand i n hand. It is stillconsiderablyeasierto acLess sensitive informationin some users trash can thanit isto tap the data links orLoon horseyour way into the computer system.

Development vs. Maintenance One ofthe most frequently heard complaints ofInfor- mdt ion S-s toms Departments isthat they canriot get anything done because they are always -fighting fires. One could o!,serve that the fires probably represent the work of CmCiAN / ING FOR COMPUTING 65

e.; o ,ben.treptirf if it ',41}

t , ee,,o 1 11e t Iref n;i1t rfe: 1-1,1:11 ter.o'pett,-! 1.-ft. theI riforino

the ff , r. hd I I) h ,1.111,1t 1C,11 Chdle;t,lie

fe. it ri I Jt, 1 ri .11 ere. elope of

the 1 ini; Iriddii platesystem -blew .e thelef,et.!:, .t rt ftrather than d.11,1f110, I :rtreolts ,P11.e'r from ,Litd entry to f-rtthepr ess a Iny555'rytothe 0 o l c o ri t r f P fi t o stot h e p cob

on lilt fluteregress, . fi fir, 0, do not have time to 1111t1, ttl'1 v. 11 leods morefires, it',fttuff,.t.r. systemdesign, which or H.to.011. haust-tim. An organization 1 f deeply miredin, nr:I ,1111. .1 1175 iortri term project ifitis 1 he tire I tittuf ftsyndromrt con he pre

rfo !tar fiV.or" 1, , 1,I ,It1 H .,11H,J011 ate; unexpected 1,-1.,11t: (ton% orsionfrom In,,t,lbalitlk-s and lust plain

.1- theprincipalreasonsfor f ire de% el-pun-tit ofsyoterns that,ireintention II. ,trylrun by computer pro- Depdrtmon tinterface with the system 1 anitail to a formatted sheet for hand entered ririE..'q110 conglomerate output sheet thatyield:, \Iblestatus ofthesystem. This design fir tlyfostered by the letus doitfor dt'i 0 dtt bide S,74110riitionalein the 1050s ff Ins`-rtnothfn`.,, stems wos trynu:}to prove Itself,but t Hon el"p11,.,0 de for th"

f-0.these and many other reasons, the computeroper- ation 1-.)17.C,-",rne'S totallyimmersedinmainterience (and opera- its incidentrun books,etc. )to the almost total f day elopment . Such obsolete,patched- ui.) sys breed Son9f, Mentc1hty en the part of the I1.1, ,1-111,1t1, r S stems SUlf. f One non- solutionfrequently fferld that viP v.111 undertakeno new development ,r,t1lw.ftfn-t(airt ftrront shop frt good order."Referring to Htele,11(.,11 d system whichisriot discarding its Li, and(n,,l1nrii (ha, in,)cells .and concomitantly generating flex rt.ide replocernents, will soon perish. 73 ( I (()%11,il 1

SI.SIDIi..117

F igu re2`,)

INFORMATION l',STEMS

c.'ERATICNS .:7EM SESVICES DEVELOrVENT

OrE.,.P.TIC°4 CONSULTING 3,1TEM ANAL,SIS

MAINTENAICE ELM-A-ION API'LCATICN rnccInuimitirc

3 7!:`.1 DOCUMENTATION DATA 5A3 E MANAGFAIENT

AtIALvIIS PLANNING AND :iinoJEcnoN

Figure 26

7- ()RC, Al\J /ING FOR CO.lPUT ING 67

I I I , '-t;111', )n11 stif f erfrom .1 I !legInt.rtare i.iththeir (He, teiner!--. What inter e. user I -Hni ternial lines -1 ;;:T.iIi!1I.;ri i If I'.if k h, 111ide Illthe ,1 tr r Ip,r.itlI,11 \ t11,01,1,11111,1t1IIII t11,, it t 11,1M,I tf,r,theInformation Der Iart be educating themit the cipt1 i,. i ; ,1 hrr:

',III`, IlptIlt. 1),1`.'0 p.i ting at .1 highles el,which the 1 .f1t,,nn! (;,'\'-1.,Hnenifvviththe Inforind- n I iepartment. ! (location and consulting should t. he hallmark,. etthis group. Perhaps the Hest model we . I re! be thetime sharimii companies. In -house .,,rrm on .1 c.,,(.11cschedule,should provide ,f :I, if71..t \ 1110;irls opernnyjCOMIT1HrlIci-Ition nate.. ii ,,,rra 5'.sti.....11 Id be short. an hour or two .thorr!.1,for a week. 1 hp topic

t 11111i1,,11,itIdy IfI Of the c, the target departments. I he clIc-ace of tens c rib( ,,heitid not necessarilyfallto the noyldg,,,hlr,in tile; ,,irt rtopic. The -.11,,uld c,,rcflrllychosen withan eyefor ocindlit.,, eili.ourage open discussionandf rank in .1 f morellx ,itinosphi.?re.

I he I ser !,rvir es Division should also maintain a con- norstation(.ue!phone number) .hereknowledgeable membors oftheInf.-a-m0.ton Systems Department sc)end their toiltune.pceb,rod to answer questionsprovide consulta- ti on (..n ';\,storn problems experienced, and generally ratetheDepartment'sdesiretobe as helpful as p-,ssibletoitscustomers. Again,the most knowledgeable ;,fHlt neLessdrilythe best consultants tdct and -nr-te,-.ytn.ty be even more important than raw knowledge. A cortsult,,nt or consulting group will frequently Iden- tify ,r'-blernsbefore theybec,ornedisasters. They should bein an excellent positionto suggest modifications tothe operating system or procedure libraries based on their con tin antact with user problems.

Surnmar-yinformation on system performance ought to be made available to users as well as top management. This might takethe form ofa wellconceived annualreport or some simplemonthlyorbim:)nthlynewsletter. Ineither case. -news or successful applications may do alot Gtt ()too\ HI/ Irrr, I ()It ( ()Mitt/ IINC,

ri t E fIr ;Illthii ifi refthe .!; Ho: tht have holding up Inf,wm,itHon sy"-.2,>(r)

IlI'. rrEir .11thitthe I-o, Stein',I)optirlrnent iril'Err IHIEr ire the ;r1r,r, rr,,rri itsiferforini-ince,

.rrit rttr r iiitle,se situate:al; where top manacjerrlent will nl it Liitiliff!tfiritto. In outside evaluation r,arduepl atleastonce every three years and i-oromen Ieruig.,t x ten , iHorti; I heiiiitsidri An her rrie ofEhr. rn,rsEprrEirrIE\VE'rlpr,I1S the 11110111ItIOE1 systm.; manager earlif.,Idalbilf_liettime aswell ashelping rirr.rr Jr.! I Hi)tlfrilOrst,mdtrrq nilthe part of top 1111,flt if'11r,orr bopnts.

r ;rr'irititr riltrriErirrnr evaluation team could be Yr IIrI HirE bytheInforniiitiunSystems

I tr.., r management `,,i,veralofthe big eight nel.g hit(I.,thy, b.1,[ ,irIV ilirtiHrrotconsultantsorfirms ,rlr an out...tarelingek,. ItLonipiititivf_f pressures p,emut Irr rr rr., r,tr,rr, tir,rE1,1,;irr'Sofuniversities of

the:.aineg,neral r liaeactere.tn wileoreresponsiblefor nail -rr operatoms roristrtute on excellent source. The rompr,ohensive outsideevaluation is Loriiiiiir oil brwifitsitwill likely produce.

I ho shi university goals, performance standard,.,Indsys: and operationalprocedures. The .,editors ,uld He encouraged to identifyoperational tren:;ths as .II as weaknesses. Such an evaluation :Ho ak! alsoonc-n its-tlfwith budget, reporting structure and cake!' management concerns.We are always amazed at howthe o!itsnler catch the attention ofthe air ,;(.1[urn vidsioi!ina problem which we have been him alyaitfor years.A good audit will generally investigatesecurityand backupprovisions,compensation lexels andstaffandusersatisfaction. While one never oNpectsto escapeunscathed fromthiskindofsearching '11,11111'y operation will be perceived as just that Anilrtrfiy he a plus to identifyareas thatneed rilr,rrernini:),;erfiont Atention. Is wellas encouraging external review ofInformation ofiorittifins ,,mute; case can be made for continuing internal ovonaght.Unlike external audit,this function 01.U;AN 17 ING f-Ok COMPUTING

.t r Hit r ril ')Ic( h halgroup., err,, t ,1111111tit,f,,,, .1;11,it 111.;t;1 rather than per

mutat I t 1,. r.ly t, and bad dH, t .`,11,111 tilt. .t1.111, 11..t11.01.'r 1 i.H1 t It, membership oldbe 111,111 nr,ru,rgr nu ntrrii mile '1,11110 or.Ilic.;lier !heInt( ....at !-,,...,tems Manager.. f reguenc.y of \.,111 rl. .of` (.)1'ridtt.(1 with thele,,,e1ofnew "If` C,f 11; Ilt,r f.por-,ttioii. 1110 01,m-iliac) ihmit tee notde,.{ ()ridt.,time

I el.Hitrather( (oia.erfr;lt,;(11 r-,itir;)..and ;,erf.,rrnanc.c, standards. 71...wager H theI lif 1,,r1 \,,Tht111111. [)(11),-Irt.111elltshould ,i;rn.inyHeard,; of directors are tired 1..1 titbit.ex parisi.(ri to delineate priorities .(Id thep(,rf,rmatic-)...;tari.birciscspectedofthe ,r:iirt.r 1 ,ir

1 rt 1,1t, Ii .H.:1111 1,1' .111 1'1,11() force 1 11 Opt-111111g f ir.ri..i .t Iotri,r tri .tr...i t,l; inthis com- mit ...e r (a(!eri the.Irntornlati inSystems Manag- er ;WI h_rHi,r1 of tin' organization, as well as 111.-\,-, I1111'1' 111,111,-Hjel'S. perceptionsofthe nn; r.rt,rnce and ribut vitt ifInformation Systemstothe thecommitteecouldconsider i1<1111: .1', the impactofa new teleprocessing system 'H;,,,tfrIthilfirt-gati,,,r, impactoilexisting systems and strruirivr-oc,efor the necessity ofhards...... e t.-. a,.,(1(-) degradationofcurrentsystems. ;le ( ,mmiltee(-add help(),-,1 Inc per fro-mance standards(a 11111i1111,11

Kenneth Kolence, developer of the [PE and CUE soft- wire muniturs,has characterized the field of computer performance measurementas"asetofnumbersindesperate unif imp principles, -1' We find ourselves not only ,adaindd by howtomeasurebutalso,unfortunately, whatf,1111.,1/FP. vin given some intuitive sense of what

KennethKolorice. "SoftwarePhysics and Computer Pc,rf ormance !Measurement, Pocec,,dingsofthe ACM 25th Votonul Conference, August 1912. 7 7 i() Hit( \ r I ( 1)!,11'11I INC,

I,IrrIr II 'vv, 1 Iirrnu .r.III

i.!tti;' 11.irdv,..areor r.rrn f tl, nl IrX trrthe r,r1r, .111,1 sys

I Irrtrl l II, r LrrIllpr rulfflt (H III((. Hrrr IHr H,;. I- rN..1111Ittr the perfor r/Hrhatra1111ShafIdliMi IIr; IS III 1.1.1h11 dIrr.rCtprodrui.tof r,r .I;ii 0,Iialcauistatutes rued(r.,(1111r), rrr tr r'l utlon,sparing use ofstor'- IIatail Ho)) oftic-sr- relatedto

f f !..Mt ,,1100t7

iif !I-v.traittheirstairlii:hriiiintofr,riter willimpli- It rjr,ds I11 Hill. personnel.If we rod, produced per week, we will

hr r trr'Orr (hat the output of our programmers tip tf;rtIrirweek) begins to increase. At roe ...rime not He rairphIS(rd to see our run time rIrrs,H1frrlISbegin to increase corn-

, (Ira alirtIrHirSinthe 11,u-d- ont rolf.f0 .ttwariaigrertsofthe computer rfl r.riri.pStr-;that we should exercise more af, Ii(H Ir..in mat ing the if, decision on measure-

[refit r riter I,r oioi! to avoid measuring -things" because ti/ are rrar.r,tIIllrrarrIII.1rf.revery bitas much as we need to .e.-e! itreira ie.. things- because they are difficultto iroiairoie

liirrasrlrolilrht 1110) Initself he a science,the use %%he h tieintini)topot the measurements ishardly so r. 'r.'1' willengageinmany subjective irioartir.ire what the economist would callutil- needtobeestablishedin a frameworkof irrot, we wir.h tooptimizearidthisinferssubjective 11;. f.;emen t \,`,r' L.,mtwtoafsly Heedtodifferentiate hetire-in doing thethingright and"doingtheright

larger computer systemshave some interface to tire r darer system to permit capture of data at the dis- Ir Lino ler.elof the system. IBM's SMIT istypical of what Iti i.roi..)-r!bythe vendor. Ingeneral,these interfaces .'re toaccess raw counts of basicsoft- ware -per .dons,but providelittleor no analysis. Since the iarialwarritself Isnormallynot monitored,conclusions about the betray haof the hardware need to be drawn infer- 111,,,V\ OR (.0(.11)t) 1 INC;i

I IP' Opt :t ;. II HO.; I111: 1:;111t1:,111: I II' .1 ,t,il1t1,11 (..iroplox it y ;lit' Ihi,. 1 1001 17 !. inHp. phial -r v.11: :op; .11111 AI 11111t1tH ", 111., 1.r 1n11 rf,1t inc; tI,1'I t11 ..;,.rat Li! hi...;r lit' 1.,;tr.,t11\, tIo .t1l1r. 11.i \.,t,I .,;iorr,itill I tilp f-r man, 'LH III tho',0rhea ,,f,t :hot ot 1 II o l.s,It' it '.tf PO, It 11'. pro, ttIPIr mama!) .Hm. .trail ran(.s, natur \, thud IIIto! PI'. monitors. th 111,t ottolptirot .iti ."'n1 r I t.

..t Li, (11 t Hal rr Vot: ICJ. r ( y

unt; 1. f. t(11 IIIIIIIII11111cost for (DC.

inn Itl,1x1111111I IPIP;thfir a Hr eti s ['Hie time, an

I le, ,,f ,.-;tand11rd5 readily litor nodding ii(:,itiairitanceof we'llrlITIirPSPIlt.'911,11',Ifitf 5s to whi(Jiarosupportedtiydist rihuted .71,1s; sopli t1.:11O', If not al;, .(11 imply.itin the do.;ii-in of the var appin `,1.1(.11 standards should riot be Hitrat her i1r,COrit,11,10perfor It. U1, rpitex;".c.tanyapplausefork...irtt.,,ring ...Flom., !Hittip sure thilt afailuretr,Inert them will focus a ditto:Mt of unfriendly criticismor; you Rerriciriber that thre (.,-,rri;,-,riprits, 0,1(.11 with a PIP, probability i-/,itHrodfor of hemp thesuccessfulc.ompletiorlof a t., th.re bpless th11n ( . rdeting ...ix .9 )chance of

sotifniacro standards one can t111.(', 'irlrip)rospecif lc, internal (ireso goals. ,Ijh1 ti(1,(todusgoals Or standards

'79 ukt.Aff1/1(ii. Ililt « )1\11'1111NC;

wily id 1111 theirinteraatiiiiiwithntlifn- ar ili1C110,.111i moil',

ilx(1,11'1,.., I nn 1101, lt 1,1,1 MI' ;Ili 1;11I Ili i, Iiici-or-s tape and arm/ , err, .111 Sri tr,rntirrn'',;r( InImes, 1 , printerpeforriiiince,etc. aile t rad 11' (.111l,,tvt,p:mirE1111 At1Hpr,,,;I (ie\

r t etc.

Allthi,[mai. o measurementswillbeestablishedto intetimiteei for pertairmance improvement which ron nr,n roperforirmiicestandards. We tr 1. , nip Alin;the c-tteele. ate the desire ofminimizing ,rm on the disk drives tothe lex el of 0 riertormaince standard.Itis,after 011,a problem optimization that has a rather unclear impact on the optimization ;,robleiraWe need to see the total sys- t'in .1 and people in much the same ter a.1 illti ..dein,i.e. , only as strong asIts weakest aompon-i. ihr job shot, mode is probaI-aly best handled H.unit L01.11,r-. 1,11 tr.'r iew of the output ales t r.rittr'rr,rns,,ices ;,ranted,ledger items posted, etc. It h chdrililc; methodology were rigorously adhered to i,se surmise thatmuch of the internecine warfare between theI nt oremtion Systems Department and its customerscould inan 1iit iiided. Itneedsto beclear toboth parties impliedcontra,: inst what the conditionsofthecontract ,100. ill' ,:om Systems Department cannot guarantee or be heldr-esp He for the accuracy of outpirt reports. 1Mo,,(..trl,and dild be, held responsible for the accurate and timelypri,essing of data, Late submissions cannot be ex pocted to be correctedbythe InformationSystems Department, Poormanagement practicesin user departments cannot be corrected bygood (even excellent) man- agementoftheInformation Systems Department any more thin the reverse.1 he dismal history of the data processing FA, Shcp leaves uswonderingifitisa mode of operation thatwill ever work smoothly in any but thesmallest of romouter centers. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

"Man's mind stretched by a new idea never goes back to its original dimensions." Oliver Wendell Holmes

The Data Base Approach

Bata baseconceptsarerelativelynew. They were firstintroducedinthe late sixties. Itwasnotuntilthe inic:-seventiesthat data bases started being widelyused. Today hardly anybody would consider the development ofa management information system withcut the use of the data base approach. Since information systems so heavily (Hpriduponthedatabase approach wewillbeginby defining cndatrntal conceptsabout dataand data bases. hisinformationispresented primarilyasback- ground fa.-- the discussion toward the end of this chapter. A data base is nothing more than acollection of data that can be accessed by aset of computer programs.This is a very basicdefinitionof a database which we will refine somewhat laterin this chapter.The smallest identifiable unit of data is called a data item.A data item is also calleda field or a data element however the term data item isthe one thatisbecoming more widely accepted. A data item might be an employee name or student grade. Gener- ally data items are grouped together to forma record. It

81 1)01I \,1,1\111 HI VI I i)11111 11I nli'l11t tor I', hi.. 11,,J1(.11 lu!MM.,' together student '-tudent imm,owe-0 number, uoillea(.1 edits and di .01,etoform aroi.ordtobe used inthe reporting .tem A rained ro data itene, lullthe recordis erl .I irtiont Int hedhos 0e, tuaywishto 11111111)0C 'a t alH11 ,irado hmde seg- rmudisapart It tie;ttith'Ilt .1 'whorl of ,rri and aSI,Jinelitwill ha, ip,pri -plain the data model and siihmodm.

I,.11,I baseinna),ernent Is a systematicapproachto iro;,,naiating and Hata rontainedin adata Imsi, hedot.)I)st, approach consists (-11 two, co-existing arts: approach tothedevelopmentof information ti stems and the use ofa special set of toolsinthe devel- opmenti,rco,r.s. The database approach emphasizes the nr eels: /rite.qot,d;/,terus: The data base approach insiststhat integratedsystemsshouldbe builtformaximumef fi- 1enc,, I hi, wr ',I1,011,1not have allaccounting system thatIS lith0,10to rp,fatsand controls withthe payroll, personnel and purchasingsystems. Integrated system implies that each system hasfull knowledge of the existence of the other systems.Systems are not built in isolation. Systems that do not share data,like cafeteria rnarnigement and student records, need not be integrated. Data redundancy he controlled and reduced: This means that, whenever possible,a data item is stored only once. for instance,ifemployee nameiskept inthe personnel system,itshould not be repeated in the payroll system. Each time the payroll system needs the employee nameit fetchesitfrom the personnel system. This methodof non-redundant storage avoids inconsistenciesinthe data Lase. Corrections are easier as they have to be made in location only and automatically become available toall users. The data base be' treated as a resource: The handling and treatment of the data ina data base should be simi- larto ether important resourceslike space ar.d money. I artier the data base shouldbetreatedas a shared resource. The individual assigned to manage the resourceiscalled a Data Base Administrator. Treating the data asa resource emphasizes the point that thedata capturedwithin anygivensystem(likethepayroll system) has value to the organization that goes far beyond the confines of that particular system. C ) ,.)LVELOPMENT 75

r, itisr).-us--,ibleto ,nci,ards ofdata, th,!duta,with

1 ,b h 1,, . i1 inlie do% t-loped \ cry 11117,1,1 t illt n;;17 Ilt

F, int,

hsted arovery appr fl.-)%vever, a.,-.,prc,acliIs tI. ,Lita Independence? insucha waythatit trip .:atu thatis stored, iff1(..7of .t- (!0..1(..C the!,It 17,.11 '..17,1 C.-, l.H,ifl<7C`d C)C the t pr, has toHe thA no changes are ,ucHtt'cisof new I! .1/,:t1onof data In the I the increasing 1.1 Chapter I?thus ,-.cricialincruiltaminc,-, the software sN, stems.

Thedat.,7:tease approach I flt(.:7C,Iti'd":,y,:tpirisin %';M the Administrator (DP,A), 14.e non- redundancyof data, better standards, t most ofall ,data indepen- .-.H,out impliedinthe above dis- m a software system called a tistem t hat helps accomplish the the data approach. The term unet lines used as a synonym for Data .,tern

S.3 I \,7,4,1:i '4I

it.-2,:t;.rre of D12;'.':,

._.1 , 1.,ri

: The pbs

# 1 t., n, t''T',t',1!Ht;,,, . ;1' .1nd Tili t!! ,1 .T ! /it...1., t THq/111/;,. ,1 tt.'111 : tT T, 1,,t,11`, 11 11'.,f It n..!'.111,;11 t/Itprt,),;rdrriis per- ,: .!r, t .'it datd 111J! iifar eatrli to -'s ,H`,. Ti ! FT!,,f1 Sit the datathatitneeds use. it even exist fur the p hog ram. ii umnin.lealbr, the data sulairadel .2;.; I ti' thi- Harm ft"(i1J(;tS

: I r i i t s v nw of t h edata itsr iif,rnodel lire ret therecitnred .fats. Itfirst translatesthe ...a thatis based on the subincalerl to an equivalent it H. ad. on the data r:1 ,;p1. Using the data modelit (;tma.,.;.,the treg;irstedlata and placesitin the work 0 ;r,,,jr,lititilistoliTr.f. ireprocess IS reversed .1. 1.,t.1 11;,:.1t111,j Thejr,!jr,IIIIpidCeSthe datain sitrre,i and requerfts the DBt1H to the d .1.1H. 1 Ire dataisprocessed through the the 11.1:t11!. P' " # ',1.fr. 1:11! i111,111` for it iii ht pr,_-;r,OninOr Ii 11St-r) no more than the work dr,.1:ink the data DBA hasa broader view ii terolst rum t1;;_-physica! storage tothe data sub- in-h-i fn;i, re shows H tbe DBMS has seven tasks to ing!r numb. rs ri 'te figure correspond withthe nrinitrec;. "le follor.xind list of tasks

..1.1nagini; the .; str,rage cdata.

Accort-T.lis I; ''n. phy.cal stor aqn;:ad the Atm! in; th, detinition of the conceptual model.

t-1)A.--..complish:ng the mapping between the conceptual mcdel and the submodel. ka milting the definition of the submodel.

1) 1 ransformng data between the submudel and the T7Tro9 rim work area. fi,n(.n,;n1rinq the definition of the work area in the V,11RE DEVELOPMENT 77

Figure 27 itt`in)I WAIO 1)1 VI I N I

),ta Base .,itif%%tit', ,f11 ifotiliNas .rapiartrtofthese !hr. 111,It " ' andro-.,cov I h.' ( a se of a system ttt'tirtdataItti'a- :ft I 1 T theii.,e,,fHt. La(.1- up and the 'de' I I 1,`11 ',MCI.'Ile I 't P, have u ihtythat f recr'rd of the updates .1rir! 1. t'at(letothedat -base. 1 Ins t ha records created ByItare

' I,. t .,rd; tothe backup,recovery ha", ',tilde-,for' Hrlt c.,r)trol;Indre';,--)iirce ,ernent

Models of DBMS

I ar fffl!,o ,ni.epttl,-,1modelsfor data orcianiza- r, th.+t p-,p,d arid are inuse atthis time. Ia,ratt.ha and r',I,itional The data in t structure. .del Is straHhtforward. Conceptually, h h,",t.,trt-1'it a hwrarchic data ,,r'L;anizationlookslike a

iirgarnzation chart. ) tree structure with the )1 tio treeitthe very top. The record itself consists that are arranged like people in an organization I hereis a ratherrigidpa rentiichildrelationship the various segments. This organizationisvery l',.,tl'ILtIVOinthat each segment can have only one supe- iii-ir Insome hierarchic organizationstherigidparent/ ()aidridationshipsamongst segments canbe supplemented (but not circumvented) by techniques likelogical relation hlpsand secondary indexing. These techniques allow mul- tiplaccesspaths to a singlesegmentatthecostof complexity. The network modelismore general inthat ri ''cord can have more than one immediate supe- I lierelational of crones closestto the natural way d,.ta inthe form oftables. '7 These tables are 'relations.- Therows in thetablesarecalled are! the columns are called "attributes."All possi-

. ;Ho,. ) online' form the "domain" for that attribute. An impcirtaroci icteristic of the relational modelisthat

t . f (.odd,"A relational model for large shared data bariL,-Communications of the ACM,6 June 1970, pp, 37/-387. Q DEVELOPMENT 79

rep! solely by data tif rc,IT1 a contrition(.1,01111in

011.f..t 11 the ITIOSt. I leirelational the easi-

oid .rrir!the11.rt,;,-,tto implement. 1 illvery rrl.,lek. Implemented we e very ineffr 'Loa tames ta r 1.,,I11p,III`.f; have recently mei!oilthe relational nieJl. here is, ,17 t 1-'1 t (Letato111(!;Ctifthe iniplamentations 1%, ,II. tor' very large systems.

e eitherin, hid, or has theability' bon tire- related softv.iire.-fife ,11,tt;ITI!;tcommonly used to supplement I)P.M`..s. area query facilityi'report gen- t ,a ter-min.-IIcontrailsoftware(thisisrequired trrrin.rls Idrid a i,ata dictionary.The query ,;erier.rtor IrseH directly by the end user. aoritrolfacilityis a programming aidfor the staff. fire DBA cithe major user of tire data

H Co Management 'Lw is«';'11(Ily poV,'- : Inthe 11,11(!!; t the developer-. Itpro-- erir,rro'.irs(..rp.thrIcties; useisessential in the integrated information systems. Sev 'alHata Has. systems are available thriiiagh computerven- ire! ittvoirehouses. Itic.kanci therightcliatil Burnt \,-_,t0111 rs an iri,irartarttresponsibilityofdata .oe; rri,e,,Irreelrit. Itis a subject matter that would tost (A..'fire.!(seas

Data +dmonstrator

11,-- to tell the Diaii.1S what Iletasks include the definition offile content of data storage st ruct ore, the access method, the author- procedure,tireHitchecksaridthebackupand procdures. The Df3A has several toolsto accom- ash these tasks. The foremost amongst these toolsisthe tint,Crir tionary. Tee data dm _,nary contains macro data .r ,!,it.1 data. The diction try allows for definitions of dataitems, cross-referencesof e useofdataitems, (.;sti references of programs using the data and validation coidesfor data items.Other tools available to the DBA are datailetinitionlanguagesthatdefine themodel and sub- ofdata;mapping anddi ..playtoolsusedin the (tab)ha- es;simulationtoolstotest conceptsin monitoring nd tuning tools toensurePrbPel. 7 80 (rlI WAKI IIi VIE ()Pt1E 11,F

t111,11 It isLle,11'that 11-iff Hata Adrinnist- ti finical one. i he .r Li-H,rati te,- finicalflirt ikf.f' of data.

rationthat.top management

i ;I, the ing andr.leizeln Incmati-ii.,,,t.tortis. If ,110 trulytobe r' ,,,r; rtfttt,ttilr,ttthan all ! ,t,t,Loth cumput ,,1.r.,1 1,1,1 f f,,AII; flit,' rliff'/,should be i imaged by the top f rt the administration. Deterrninin,j who should have to what Mita,determining the relative prioritiesof the 11,i,,r 111,Iti,f1 terndevelopmentprocess,determining new the tiri:i.immity are tied together by the

fic-fa.01,,ri . are,illiristitutiori,11hecisionsof some impor' ince. I he highest ranking adinuustratcii responsible t,,,-tinedataresource andprecipatino.thesedecisionsis 'ace. the titleof data ad---mistator." Instatu- hiiiwr educationpreferto ,sethetitleof Vice eii,ritofInformationSystems or'sscciateProvostof ;toms. In managing the information resource, we are yingtwo organizationalneeds. A needto ,c1driissthehit,,L ise management responsibilitiesatthe hilicalhive;and the nerdfor informationresource [min- a-am-etat'Il u, F'T,,111111,i1level.(feminization structures to f ihrate dual needs the stages of eiiperimenation arid discusses this subject matt!- SnIlle greater detail.

have discussed the various components of a Hato Paso Management System. It,aridtherelatedsoft- ware, hum the molor iool inthe development of information -o,stems. we look at the Systems Development Life Hyhe f11, velopment Life Cycle iii ! the related strw to t the techniques used in creating an informot he,e tee-hrugues are discussed next,

Systems Lite Cycle

1 hi.' systems development hicycleis normally defined -insisting of six stages:

1. PriH t I nitiiitc,ri tin'lona' Analysis Liysterris Design Construction Installation Maintenance and ErikL emorit ' A It I1)f ()PmEN 181

t-fthe !m em, drk, kkim ufthe N., I' \, I' kf 1,eiliter,tto%, ..tthe litt theIit,orshould ih.i til V. tilerto .thtit it it ll.lyvihitiithe 11,'111ft tildtthe t. .r iVle I; .nilnotfutlf ("l di;..trtrutiet triosy:;terret

f aitsvor: (lothill h!irittqt.. \.+'r). I not/flankthatthe f.:ththe t He UtSt.1 f.t1,11.t... (r-st, -stems ,;<,+r .:ppr'o\feci .1:111 r lltif'r oddreChit. periodic the exi,tirehturei)stsiot r edwith t tunethestile -.oftht- tititithiti,the otlertitt,icstitthe new

t..f f.t. f.thfff 1..tt .itit'itote!anti loth! inlit:alure. thie ;rtit, t.titt<1 mum,: alit!t.ornpl-te :eittittritl

:hef uric tihaltrite if it aliens,oftl istern. ictit.tt t,,e it,t-ittettin r'Or )1(1HOthe first;hit,e.otie hi 11 thud.H It ,ifie.ti t'hg.irtl.lthjti-e.. "1, t its ttl-ftIterect,11\1,,I\ stief opt 'Wt.] f ludictitcwhat the tic : itmust,t. ,o,ithrittle what the Sy tPrn s \,:;ternhit ,hidedti sure the user the '.0.1! rmthing itwas Hly r totis,tir :,i. Itis,thterefore.truperi-ita -.(rVf`ut t ',tem Very hff ft.tilt"flt Iff

thit tilt:,user interfaces to the system pla ,1 ireftr mtant t.luk.h thought must be given to , wr, 'l:7user he requiredtodoinorder to the Also rtret.it'report, tit:eisfinding imerwillberequiredtoknowinorder to rIk stern wurk F urinstance,I,is not uncommon to r-c --tes m.rrictilurnsinwhichdegreesare ' Iftit,- skr, -,,nines that the Hegis code be put rdu systm iced Crricullimil abbreviation h.I,the ,tuthirtt;ut 0the form), then the,pc.rator has t ht, erwre

efg. L.1, inthe isthe

I la',r,;,,.1 hap.,the singlo tiwre I 111, '; t1.111 ,;;tii it . 1,, 1 1'0 lists throe iii;.iii,1,-,quo,. of dif f ILuity that t:w1){.;NIS H in '1 areat,:eti handle(Hi inges ii adding . . factor's, ar-tding r in rec,,,IH, . r, : b.isofir' airyimpar.t .,r1 theapplicationprogrom i.din,tHargh tHrt r riadditionally handle ofa data item,use.' relationships

; re nits, accessmethods, space rimvertr-",d keys for access without t application ;,!-,-flarams. How aler 'hanger.; that onriot handle the pplic ation programs. Examples In.; ,fat,,itin tr". f1''V. record, net .a and tIdO(J1119 , r. H. ..s,..t .,rd I his le:tis r\,. means Sour de. It sh there1,-Itn.,importance

jr1 . Itnot only determines .errrtls, todo now, italsoinfluences .,{ (L)in the future. Itisfor be . tl,t! ,!1t,1 ',ternprojectshould Iras 1;r,!'!'.01 ,;1 iii,atter t thought and planning

(HO tHdi I ,1 the data base desigr, , t..r,dve the Errsign reviewed by peers. I, forces the demaner toarticulatethe ,' the de-,iran and allows the reviewers tc, suggest i...1-11,ips I t. ter,Ippr,),1CileStotr,e design pro- is toallow tic , nperienca.iiirlwatesthatit useful age for sumotirmi. rsrrally the designer is able to think up something th,-it overlooked or is able to find a go-cign.

ritin!,ef thedrfsic,ii should be riparts. These (..ire".H.OosIn partial implementation. An aspectinf!,rpro,Hr ,,mmirvaofthe systemisits

,rrOl" . F f-h time an error occurs in the sternit isimpor tantthdt the program completely specify

f wing ',()i1S.7.11kE DI. LOMENT 83

111IIIt11 ,I.1111.1(1(1

1 11.! 1,1 (

1,f ,(11 1111t!,1,1 (1111111(Jthe to.

, '1.'1 t11, ,!.14111 11.1-, (.1i (III I (11';'1(f 1111y iiiipleineritcd, rri .1 th.

1,!!!(111'. t.( 1,0 (1 nl I 11,1t1 111 111(111\ 1111!t(111(1t1P1111S, /0., .,11111,11 '1'1,11t 11 (1(t1( t!( National hotto,iriur.11 lower. I here,,,ro two partial t pr-H urw rol (jarui.,,t,orialsolution II 1r, c,,t,r- 6. i lor is relat,d tothe

P i l ,iltt11111(111,!,d11(t,LISS(1(_1( Liter 11111)110\,(C! 111.II'i.(III,I:, Il1ty 1)1 fit, t(11(/(1/1' (1111s. S11111p1- 1J11,1-' (11(1(0,10111,,(11110S, It(If(11 111(11(11111C'll!

1,1!,111!11 I 11(, ,111 if!III:".(111.!!!!! ,,f/1111t(!fi.1(1(,, (1 (`.111 `, (111(1 ,!,1/(1111.,(15(1' l'11(11,11fle! f"!`ilt '.111(1,1,111(111t ( ,'111111t111(1111 t,. 11('W (.1(111,;(11(Jp- 111(.11t (I 11 (I"; rint away horn 111 t!! 111(!(!t 111e (111,!(1119 donna oils for- 111(1 lit ,1111111 pro(;rainc, r)11,1ric.ed and Polycr ti-oality v.111 (..00tintif theri(;11tpriori

tht -11,;11 1'.1[,11s I is to develop, IfItl, 111!I! t111.:( 111(.0'1' sh old He aro! Lod 11.

Structu, ed Techniques

\,.. Sr view that ,to11t,11,r11(.11t11,,!7'11 11,11'111f/1. t his was the beginning of a new rri,th,,dology called structured techniques. ,,,-:tared programming was (he first of these techniques to rile,r.to the :nainstrearn of the profe!-,'.-,ion. The last three oar'.Hisseentherapiddovelopment anduse (.f t likestructured analysis,structurec and stru(.ture

Str ' p,(1111',1/71111111115 Is '..nodofpro,,:p-arnmirig atf,s110,..,. outlined ni IF VII (Whitti I

three 1r,r.lc.t1 Ilt

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;ram ( r eat I) rat herthanciebta(jthan ir ((.,) correct- 11111. therelative error ratesfounciin

r andopet'atioms. Itclearly

I. ate , tll, nr atatit0,1part ofthe (!evol..pmeht Desiftn(,rrorsfoundinoperations to,Pp.thr tliest. Intrirmationsystems management sh,ruld',brillsitsatten'irrintothisarea and should try to odur. e the orr.ar.iothis c.0te(Jory.

t,t1 ri;,,turedanalysis rs basedon two'Key elements. hef a s t0101110/It 1'; the burbling of agraphical model (also iihit 1-111-1 mddel) oft he system to he burls. i he second Ki-ment rs ri erbal description oftiitcr system objectives and itraints. l'heriraphicalmodelis anexcellent way of Sil_..y.ingthetitter exactly what the systemissupposed to Thisalbor:jwithth-_,verbal description ofconstraints .11(.es ic.r a concisedescriptionofrequirements. Ths th,11 sod to determine what pertions of the system aret,,he:eftImmlial and what portions will have development i-rrioriticit, over others.

Structured designisa mechanism which permitsthe draphicialdiricparn of the systemto be converted into small mbdules. Lich nodule should have the property of communicating witha minimum number of other modules. Thisis achieved by iirranging the modules ina hierarchy such that each module c ommunicates either withits immediate superior its'aimed', to r rdinate andwithnoother module. 1 hishierarchy can achieved by studyingthe flowb; -!ate through theso, ',trim. An example of hierarchic breakdown into modules down in Figure 29. 11 I \A'AI:1I)1 VI OPN11 r1185

r-r, 29

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Problem .1 rea ,

I he technique Ilierfin the ;r1 I, Hir;rr, rr.r.r1 .-,\,(101proLlc. , Itassumes rt kr il. I Irr.V.-; the needsandtherefore isableto , t ham I111., Hattrue. Nlarly users do not know r eguirm!. I InsIs particularly trueoffirsttime -,I,r1-111,1tirrfr sySterriS riOrir!ly throughthree ,lopniekt. i he firststageis a stain, I sub- itntior .trr; rr rr,nIVIr11, -111pliten being mostuseful iranial.rr born, irrrsontly 11,' tirestageofBackfill. her.r Birk rt. 111 appho,gion area, more and l'n,1 e atiame;!,,,r.onic obviousaridthe computer isused in a natural.--,rise. I hethirdstageisoneruwhich not pro- , ass, but the task itself,isanalyzed to deter-mine how best tfer aompu ter btiii.Most organizations are inthe backfill andtheter.h:riguesdescribedpreviouslyareall struatur,,r1 toanalyzeandautomateexistingprocesses. f,!torecognize toooftenisthat many ofthe roosting ra( esses were designed for an entirely different tee Hrel: c-p, idbroom, computers were available. Automa- tionIs,:re, t,lert,,, hat we needis innovation with automa- ta-. ,n ce.pati applications will only be possible if we can tr,ir oursolvi,s a.afrom the existing processes and examine the broad o:a)er.tivesthat we need to achieve arid then as Ise roar,- esses that more fullyutilize the tremendous cern- at laalSand prrri..r....,sincjcapabilities of tre computer.

TI. System Development life Cycle as defined has too man,- -.1eirs Ittakes entirely coo long between the discus- sr a,or objeatise-, and the de:ivery of the product.In light the 1nel-easing personnel costs this large time frame will ;rive manysystem development groups outofbusiness. he present development process has too many "communication'stepsinit writing progr ammine,s ,ocafications(aria- st to programme), writing func'gona! specifications oalystto use), writing design specificot,ons(analyst to 9 ' I \NA10 I `.01 'I I ()Pt\II N I P.,/

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11.11111`r .11.1I`,``.t . f,flmirlii.,01.)tt. ',I t,1 JtJL.,t1-ri.:. ,irt!,, -111IflIjIIII;Itjor.Lh17` SI1.1rtlid 71"I'!..41-.`. t 111`,..1\ .`111,`Ilt H the;rt...7;7.' inthe pr :i- ,t'.![11,t'tI1i.iiri,i1,,,!--,t SH,iiid hr'.,I.JI, ' ;1(cc.,te .

II .tin. t 1 .71 '.``''t`.".'rt.'11pr'.),;,,1111rTIOrS ..11yStSisoften It '',Ir% H :.1 il rf.! t`),(7,ptinthr`r11, ;Gildoferviron Inr`flt.ir.rIlrlIr'lltc, tildt.11'11,11'r';( :11d(t.t.Tlitrieti,where i.r";rWIrri"rIrl 7..trItinthepr(i)),ctisrut possu- HI, IL,filoie,.-it .;11,-.er Id irr,pthei)r,totypirtrt ter.nr-Hro,Pto .:t-nl!)-'11to the use and ti.epr,-_)Lt.r.irri-

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(nee tv v 1!p,, ovv., (1( fly tat irr rill tv. viinvn lor! vvt(vm (t,11',I It1, III.111,011`1111tInfrrrnratrIiiby stern yH,11It 1,fl,lt 11,1,111,) i data Illf11).1,)(111(.11t 7M Hit,1 11,t 11.0,111 tint r,ne 11,I'; .1 ;ri,lit Or Willi()tilt,(Lit ,1 r1 ,t f /.t !) HoltIf1ilr

We (vas( perspective and needs )fin,1[1,1,jomont. Attheoperations tearsto be performer-1 are rather welldt.'tllied fri 1"',or milted. Theregistrationprocess,the aUrni .I r, pear the gradereporting process, the Hire, larsingflowsareallprocess oriented. IfIreprI,: 'eer H the( anyone!" to help perform these .1 r !t Hrruitotl (hail(nor cti;inq marragemont int ,..nation ii'' I II ,t nrie m1111St !me 0.) point outthat 111,,,rttherrutbmationofthese(a-rationalsysterns,itis ,tpry; ; to build a !of-or-mat ton system. The is (Lit .1 that 1-v uci in ITI,II1,1(JOF1lent informationsystems a sensethen, gtle,no,1 111 th c(pel (itionalsystems. In marra,rarroultilav yr:tinny()s.tterns presuppose the existence of vsl tonivited vvytervitnalai systems.

I Vienext level of management, generallycalled middle not necessar- . has rivedfor information that is 11ypt,, -rcessrelated M.O. generally process generated. Exam- plesofthisre tormatie,,,Hr.(' answersto questions like: How mans female und t'grarliratesdo we haveinthe college of elejue,,einrC ran' actual expenditures compare with Helgerarnonntsforhilltimeon -campusfacultysalaries? .\ ridtv, un 1 hoso (yoest vialsare answered by aggregating the del ail data that c-,, gerafrated in the operationalsystem. I histype of informationisused fon very well defined and direr! dear sirens. A system that provides this informa- in the right time, and can rea- H, , the right . Huai, at onablf,inif.urethatIt rs vie.v.orato and unambiguous can be termed inf Prnuti,ri yr, t.71ormanagement information .5y5tr.m. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 89

ei; it,:;1i...,;H11;: :-_-, 7-1 inin nj ="2.

..11-(1 ar.r1

Figure 30

PC,F.D''1.33

Figure 31

9 90 SOF 1WARI VIH_OPMENT

\lorerecently,startinginthe mid-seventies, a new term has e (Divedin the vocabulary of information systems. This termisdecision support system (DSS) " Some consider decision support systems as merely another name for Marlagemen tInformationSystems . However, thereis an Inplieddifference between the two;the differenceispri- marily of emphasis and of scope rather than content. Deci- sion support systems try toaddress theneeds of higher management in making relatively unstructured decisions. In addition to the data generated inoperational systems, typically theyrequire the use of data external to the normal processesofthe or9ankiation(like the state of the economy, ora growthf actors, the cost of power) and the use ofsimulation, modeling aridother' analyticaltools. Whentheanalyticaltoolsarebuiltintotheinformation system and canbeusedin a flexibleandunstructured fashion we have decision suppert system.Because of the complexity ofthe decisions to be made and the unpredicta- 1ilf requirementsfor external andinternaldata,systems with decisionsupport capabilityare extremelydifficultto bin Any system can be defined in terms of input, process and output. riot, re31 showsthe differences amongst a data processing system, a management informationsystem arida decision support system using the input-process-output model. " A data processing system takes data on single entitiesas input and usesprocesseslikeselect,change, sort,etc.toproduce informationonsingle entities(like gradereports) as output. The managementinformation system begins where a DPS ends, taking as input informa- bon on entities. The processisusually aggregation along and across systems. The output ofan MISisintegrated statisticsI generallycalled fighting-statistics). Decision support systems start withinternal and externalstatistics as input and use procr';Ses like modeling and forecasting to pr.-Thice decisio alternatives as output.

The September 1982 issueof CAUSE/EFFECT is dedicate dto the topic of decision support systems. Along with severalarticlesitcontains a usefulbibliography for thosewishing toexplorethesubjectmatteringreater

" The rest ofthissectionisbased on "Anatomy of Decision Support Systems," by V. Chachra and R.C. Het crick, CAUSE/EFFECT, September 1982. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 91

A DPSIscharacterized by an operational perspective ur winchthe informationisprestructured and reportingis p rear heduled Thedecision process isgenerally rule rh mven and subjecttoprior optimization. An MIS onthe ether hand takes a tactical perspective and strives to pro- % irhe .1,11-- demi+ nd, hit predefined,information. Itsuseis 111,reinteractive than IDOS. A DSS tries to address the :rdhoe information need forstrategicplanning. The regui rementsare unstructured and generallyundefined aheadoftime. The system therefore has to adopttothe user and allow for asubjective decision process.Figure 32 sormmarizes these characteristics.

Itisnot necessarythattheonlyusersofdecision support systems be the top management of the instituiton. The integrationof analyticaltools with information systems makes a decision support system. Examples can be found niinstitution swhere such systemsexistfor-alllevelsof rn,H1,1

How doinstitutionsofhigher educationstack upin rP1,-Iti,mtothisprogressionofsystems? Most institutions have many of their normal processessee FICHE list ,in Fig- (' 331 automated. Several have rathersophisticated information systems.Modeling techniques have been inuse nn campuses for a longtime. The mostpc., 'filarof these model s were the student Flow Model and Resource Require- ments Prediction Model,both developed at NCHEMS. More recently,therehasbeen a growinginterestinEDUCOM financial Planning Model (EFPM) . However, most implemen- tations ofthese modelshave been manual-inthe sense that the data to support the model were laboriously entered intothe model. Ira order to make effective use ofrnodels for institutional planningitisimportant that proper inter- facesbebuilt'dratallowinstitutional operationaldatato directly feed the models that use them.

9 92 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

DSS CH AACTEr. .

DM-A MAN AG ENID.' T DECISION INFCC,MA SUPPORT SY TENNI SYS rEMIt SYSTEMS

User SYSTEM apIu to A DAF TS system TO USER

CHJFC ft."E oubJe,;tto DE=E;'.3ED prior don Cl 00 FUNCTI but not DUPIICT UT LIT Y prudotineu DECIS:ON or b-npk)- PRC,CES3 montstlort

RoI0 bu PER TONAL: PP.C..CET:3 CVS,IECT,CE objective

SIN A TEC2:C

On l'rorzcno,;...f.o71 AD HOC

Figure 32 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 93

PLANNING, MANAGEMENT AND 1NS-1-11 UTIONAL RESEARCH Budget Forecasting rngigger1 Preparation3r crparation

1 3 Budget Analysis 1- 4Bridget Position Control

1 5 Institutional Cost Studies i Faculty Salary Analysi,-.

1 Support Staff Salary Analysis

1 rarulty Activity Arnaivsis Support Staf' Salary ArLnlysis

1 it)Induced Staff Activity Analysis

1 11 Resource Requirements Modeling

1 12 Student Flow Modeling

1 13 Long Range Planning

1 1.1 Enrollment Forecasting

1 lnr HEGIS Reporting 1r; eta Element Dictionary

1 1iInstitutional Coding Structures FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT APPLICA 1 IONS

2- 1 General Fund Ledger 2- 2General Fund Expenditure Accounting 2.3 Departmental Expenditure Accounting 2- -1 General Accounts ReceivaLe 2- 5Student Accounts Receivble 2- (3 Accounts Payable iPayroll Lmployee Benefit Accounting 9 Retirement System Accurniting 3 -1(1 Bank Account Recr.nrnciliation 9-11 rash Flow Projection 2 -12 Investment Records 2-13Investment Evaluation 2-14Grant and Contract Administration 9-15Research Project Accounting 2-1G Research Proposal Monitoring 2-11Financial Aid Accounting 2 -13 Tuition and Fee Accounting 2 19Residence Hall Accounting Stores Accounting 2-21 Telephone Accounting

Figure 33 FICHE Application List

10 : 94 SOFTWARE: Dr VFLOPMENT

G[ii:AL AnmiNisT RAT IVE SER\'ICE APPLICATION5.

3 Facilities Inventory (Space) 3- 2 Hicilite)s Utilization- vnalysis (Spe) 3- 3 Classroom Analysts 3- 4Personnel Records 3- 5Personnel Evaluation 3 Personnel Placement 3- iHLW Corrphance keportinc) 'Stiff Ethnic Group Repot-1.1mi7 ail Son-vr r P,,situm 1-;ec:urds SERVICE APPLILA (IONS

1 Eurulty Stuff Directory 1 .iroulty CluE) -1- 3 Residence - Assignment Student Direc;tury Preparation Student Goosing Reports 1,r,ud Service %1eriu Planninq and Inventor y P,,cdsstore Inventory and Operations DC IsI ICS AtiD RILMED SERVICES

1 Purchase Order rolkm-up 2 Purch,-ISIF1(:)Information System 3 Vendor Informution System -1 Stores Inventory ) 5 Office Machine Repair Control Eyopment Inventory Autorip-bile Registration 8 Parking Lot Space ssir:-Erm-,Elt Trdf fic Violation Records Crime Repot-1E1(E

1 1 Cdr P,01 Match Motor Pcgd Records

riqur,. 33 (continued) SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 95

P11' SICAlPI ANT OPERATIONS

1 Physical Hard Accounting 2 Physical Plant Jo!) Schm tiding 3 Poulding N1,-Iiriternince Ccrsts -1 Equipment Preventativ Nlaintenance 5 Key Inventory

ADMISSIONS AND RECORDS MANAGEMENT

1 tindergradwite Admissions Procc,ssing 2 Graduate Admissions Processing 7- 3High School Testing Records 1 Course Muster Records (Catalog)

`,-) Schedule of Classes Preparation i- Strident Cass Scheduling (idiot) and Fee Assessment ;- nStudent Registration Processing P Class Rosters )() Term Student Records and Reports 7-11 Course Add:Drop Processing r -12 Enrollment Reporting i -13Enrollment Statistics i-1.1 Student Ethnic Group Reporting i-15Term Grade Reporting 7-12Honors Program Records 7 -17 Student Transcript Master Records 7-18 Degree Regur:ements Evaluation ;19 Correspondence Course Records FINANCIAL AID ADMINISTRATION

3- 1 I manciol Aid Evaluation 8 2 Einancial Awards 3 Student Empinymont Records Work Study Records

Figure 33 (continued) 96 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

LIBRARY APPI ICA LIONS

9- 1 Acquisitions 9- 2Cataloging 9 3 Card and Material Preparation and Control 9- 4Circulation Control 9- 5Serials Holdings 9- 6Bibliographical Search Service 5- 7 Fugitive (Ephemeral) Material Indexing o EducationalEbucdooridi Services (Thicp, Ar3i,,HNisRA-1 ivE AI PLICA i IONS

1H- 1 Alumni Records 10 2 Foundation and Gift Records 10- 3 1 est Scoring and Analysis III- 4Curriculum Planning 10- 5fea(dier Evaluation

16- - 1 i ar.her' Flaccrnent 10- 7 H-aternity Sorority Rush Records 10- 8Strident Counseling Records 10- 9Student Psychological Testing 1(1-1(1 Athletic Event -picket System HOSPITAL APPLICATIONS

11- 1 Patient Registration `Admissions 11- 2Hospital Census 11- 3Medical Records 11- 4Appointments and Scheduling

I 5 Central Supply Inventory 11- 6Communications and Order Entry 11-7 Dietary, ( ood Service 11- 8Honsekeeping 11 9 Laboratory Information System 11-10Radiology Information System 11 11 Pharmacy Information System 11-12Nursing Station Support System 11 13 Physician Support System 11-14 Patient Billing:Accounts Receivable 11-15 Eionital Financial Information System

Figure 33 (continued) SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 97

Some Design Guidelines There are some very important design principles which if usedin the design of information systems will result in a more effective operation and insure greater success for the system. Source point data capture.Data should be captured inmachine readableformat thepointofitsorigin. A transactioneflecinga copying charge should be put into machine re adable form in the copy center. A student wish- ing to process a drop or add should be able to do so at the departmental of fice per haps in the presence of the course advisor. Accountingtransactionsshouldbe inmachine readable form at the department originating the transaction. This applies to pre- registration, wage cards, purchase orders or any other- presently used input form. Notice that the objective not necessarilytoplace the data into the data base at the point of origin but at least to capture itin machine readable form. Ifit updates the data base fine; ifnot,atleastthedata is inmachinereadableform. Sourcepoint datac pture avoidsduplicationof work.It triestoeliminatethedatatranslationprocess(punching cards from forms, enteringinto terminals from forms) and the errors inherent inthe duplicate handling of the data. Combined withonline updating,source point data capture becomes a very powerful mechanism for getting accurate and timely information into the computer system.

The ideaexpressed hereis a simple one. Ifimple- mented,itsimpact onthe designofthe system and the operation of the institutionwill be fa -reaching.It breaks down the traditional boundaries that now exist for the handling and processing ofinstitutional data. Italso changes the role of the administrativeofficepioneering this approach. These new roles are important and are discussed in Chapter G. Value added data handling.Data should flow directly from the source (origin) )to theindividual adding value to thedata. Thelastindividualaddingvaluetothedata should have the responsibility of updating the data baseif the databasedoesnotal readycontaintheinformation. Thus afinancial transaction that originates from a department might havevalueaddedtoitbytheaccounting department that assigns an expenditure code toit. Notice the emphasis is on adding value, not control. Controls can be directly implemented in the data entry procedure par- ticulaly ifitis an online procedure.

Po 5 98 SOFTWARE: Di VFLOPMENT

Theflowoftransactions shouldbeexamined. This can be done by examining -document flows. All thestops" intheflow should be identified. The question to ask at each stop isthe following:assuming that the transaction is within prespecified guidelines (does not require exceptional handling), what value is added to the transaction(not control)at each stop? If no valueis added thenitis safe to assumethatthetransactionflowsthroughtheparticular stop only for informational purposes. Insuch acase, the stop should be a good candidate for elimination inthr fo- ward flow ofthe transaction.Forward flowis'.he flow of information prior to completion of the transaction. Informa- tion requirements should be Met by the reverse flow i .e. actions that are subsequent to transaction completion.For- ward flow may be considered astheflowto the computer before and during the transaction processinglife.Reverse flowisthe flow of information from the computer after the transaction processing is complete.

Destination point document generation. Thisisper- haps the most important and counter- intuitive strategy for system d e s i g n . I thas already been recommended that the data should be captured atitssource, and that only those individuals who add value toit should handleitin itsfor- ward flow.What about the paper documentation? the auditors? Conventional wisdom isto generate the document that supports the transactionat the source ofthe transaction. The source of the transactionisvery likelyto be distri- butedacrosscampus or over a largergeographicarea. Generating the transaction at the source requiresthat the forms and the required equipment (printersor other hard copy devices )also be distributed. The better approach is to capture the transaction on aterminal at the source and generate any required document or paper trail or confirmation slip at the destination and returnitto the source. In this way the destination becomes the single point of docu meritgeneration.Thisallows the destinationtousehigh speed printing and processingt-chniquesto generate the required document.This idea has been used very successfully by stockbrokersintransacting financial business for theircustomers. Electronicfundtransfer systems also depend upon this method of transaction confirmation. One important point about this approach is that signatures can no longer be the method for controlling the validity of the transaction.Since the document is generated at the destination t`.--.ereisno paper atthe sourcetosign. Other methods have to beused instead oftirotraditional signature Midi v id ualized passwords, magnetic credit cards, electronic signature verifications, post processing confirma- SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 99 tions are amongst the techniques usedfor subsitutionof signatures.More options willsu rely he developedas time goes on. Meanwhile, the adoption of destination point document generation can be amoney saving and usefulproce- dure. Online versus batch.The economics of computing are suchthat onlinesystemsare more costeffectivetoday. Terminalsaregettinginexpensiveas aredata storage devices. There is greater overall efficiency inusing online procedures even though the proponents of keypunch ing will be quick to point out that keypunching takes less time than direct online data entry. Itis,of course,true that keypunching takeslesstime. However,in online data entry, validity checks can be m :de at the time ofentry insuring that data are handled once and only once.This isnot true ofa batch operation where error handling procedu resare themselves error prone and cumbersome at best. From an overall system perspective,itismore costeffective to do as much of the process online as possible even though the data entry portion may appear to be cheaper by keypunching.

There isan ongoingbelief amongst dataprocessing profes:ionals that some operations are inherently batch and othersinherentlyonline. This is nottrue. ltihether a function isbetter performedin anonline mode or batch mode dependsentirelyon howthe operational systemis conceived. Grade reporting is generally considereda batch operation, but several schemes can be devised in which this function would be better performed online. Assume for the moment thatallstudentshave terminals anassumption thatis not too far fetched considering that Carnegie Mellon willsoonbe requiringallitsstudentstohave personal computers.Given terminals, grade reporting does not need tobe a batch process.Students can simplyreview them online without the need for the grades to be printed. As we said earlier,the rapid changes in technology compel us toexamine andperiodically re-examine the cu rrent processes to insure that we continue to make effective use of the tools available to us. Operational responsibility and control. The computer isa tool, no more special thana telephone or a typewriter. Itis different but no more special. Ifitis to be viewed as atool,itshould be used as one.Administrators should integrate thistool into their operations just as they have integrated other general purpose tools into their operations. The daytoday operatingresponsibilityofthesystem shouldrest with the office charged with carrying out the 100 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT function. Thus,theregistrarsofficeshouldrunthe registrationsystem,theaccountingofficethe accounting system and so on. Itis entirely too easy in most organizational structures in existence today to blame the computing center for missing grades or !ate checks or other mishaps. It is nolongernecessaryfortheinstitution'sservice departments to delegate computer related operational responsibilities to the administrative data processing group. With the increasing complexity of our information systems, knowledge ofthe applicationareahas become atleast as important, and perhaps more important, than knowledge of thecomputersystem. Thuscentralizingtheoperations function of administrative information systemsis no longer a satisfactory or- cost effective mode of operation. The decentralization of computer talent into the operational areascan onlybe achievedifthesystemsare designed .y:th this objective in mind.The systems have to be designed on the assumption that those individuals havina responsibility for their operation willhave no knowledge orat Ur:7A a very minimal knowledge of computers and computing. i hisassumptionnecessarilyresults in the development of systems thathave very clear man-machine interfaces.Such systems willultimately result in the total decentralization of the administrative data processing group. Simplicity.Simplicity isthe key to the development of successful MIS.Keep the data structures simple, keep the displays uncluttered and simple,keep the process,imple. Build complex ity where needed through the use of numerous interconnected simple components and concepts. One of the major problems inthis area has been the data base management system itself.The DBMS in the market today vary in degree of complexity but areallquite complex. IMS isthe most popular amongst DBMS and perhaps the most complex to use. Data base systems currentlyin use are based on either the hierarchical or the network models. There is a simpler, easier to understand and more elegant model, due to E.F.Codd, called the relational data model." The relational model consists of d: torepresented intablesinnor- malized form.Originally Cocd defined three normal forms ofdataaridnamed themfirst(INF),second(2NF)and third (3NF) normal forms.These normal forms help insure that the tables are reducedtotheir smallest and simplest components without any loss of data or associations amongst thedataitems. Subsequently,Fagindefinedthefourth

2° Codd, pp. 377-387. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT 101

retilform (-1Ni= ) .2 'The great advantage of the relational in,!el isthat data is representedintabular form;it is easih,understood andis very easy to manipulate.All data FOP rf' sem t ed inthe exact same form so that there isno le -)d complexity' v.ith increases in size or volume.

here areatleasttwo commemcallyavailable DBMS ,,eL:,-;esthat are based On the relational model.The first packageOracle, ( RelationalSoftwareInc. ,Menlo Park, ald-rnia 1,became publicly availableinJuly of 198(1. A b)wmonthslater, in December1980, Ingres ( Relational Technologies,Inc. 1became available. It appears that Ora- is d f,pirlfff. of W..1 srelational projectcalled System R 10 industrywatchers. Morerecently,severalhardware endorshave announcedtheirown relationaldatabase s stems. The relational data baseis an emerging technology that has great potentialifthe associated performance roblem),are worked out One major challenge facingthe ;.rJf 13a the mig cationf rem existing systems to a tin base system, At present,relationaldata bases offer the only hope ofrecovering from the losingbattle ofsoftware develop- ue-ht . Because they are easy and simple to visualize, they carrythepotentialofuser developedsoftware. Ifthis does materialize,itwill have arevolutionary impact on the use and risers of computers.

The Data Digraph

The data digraphisa model for the designof online (!)-) JI access systems, " The modelis based on representing allthe data as an interconnected graph.Graphs are dia- o mansconsktire.ofnodesandarcs. Ifthearcshave directional orientation then the graphs are called digraphs, 1- he smallestunit of data ina data digraphisa screen, up tolblinesof data thatare logicallylinked togetherand de=.blay ed asa unit.A node of the digraph consists of one

R, Fagin,"MultivaluedDependencies and a New NormalForm forRelationalDataBases, IBMResearch Report RJ 1312 (July 1976) ,

" This sectionisbased on some ideas used in design of a library system describedin DesignPrinciplesfor a CJ--)mprehensive LibrarySystem"byTamerUluakar, A. Poarce and V. Chachra, Journal of Library Automation 14(2 June 1081)78-89. ni 102 501-rwAREhI Vf I OPIALNT or more screens.The arcsin thf IHraph are the online commandst hatpermit the user at one nodetoaccess data

node by moving to it. 1 he implementation of a data digraph reguires aset of online commands . All online commands are either global or Global commands may be entered at any tune for any reason. A local C,-.Ft1111,1Fld IS 10C11 tothe node or screen currently being displayed. Global commands are oftwo types: search commands andproc,e,singccrnmands. Processing commandsinitiate pr,,i,es!..eslifedrop curses, courses,deletename, ch,-ingesect,it y.setH1'erroters,etc. Search commands display a screenofinformationthatsatisfiesthesearch argnmelit.

oi f '11)111,111(1s an. ofthreetypes: traverse Corn- ;,-;1H A,isorne a global IF'h ,;(1[1:11,]is W,<_] screenof T In loualtraverse C0111111d ridsthen take the userto other related screens of data allowing the user to access a network of screens lielonging to different nodes. Traverse Lommands Hier,-take you from node to node. Paging commands make upthe temporarylocalfilingsystemforthe user. There are three commandsthatare,-ecommended, Those are NS( for nest screen ),PS( for previous screen) and show (for'displaying the present Each time the amount of data to be displayed exceeds the space on a sr Teenitisbroken down into pages that are accessed by using the NS command. The PS command acts as the local memory and allowstheuser togo back alongthe search path eithertoref reshhismemory orto choose alternate sr -arch direction. The show command displaysthe current screen andis very useful after the -help" command. Itis also useful after data entry when the present screenisno longerinview. T ransact ionsactivateroutines to, delete, addor-modifyt he dataofthe currently accessed screen. Systems designed with this concept are as easy to use as a highway map, which they were designed to simulate. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

"Here's a good rule of thumb; Too clever is dumb." Ogden Nash

Scheduling

ery mitt s, siem Has-,es..erallevels of nflPhcitsf.H-dollog trms Periphz-rald,--,aces ono t- nrs ,(H;L e.tc. ) be -,Hiedulc.ci for access in mol- ti prrxjrdmrnnq et, v r0Pruon ,>. y rrtual storage systems must schedule real storage for occupancy by applications for discrete timeslicesor establishsome priorityofinterrupts. there isalwaN, s an implicit scheduling of applicationto be processed by the Central Processing Unit.

Alltheseimplicit schedules arequite explicittothe designers of the control software.Infact,their construc- tionisone of the primary concernsinthe design of the operating system. The overall processing efficiency of the computersystem is dependent on their"intelligence". Poorly conceptualized scheduling algorithms can even create lock-outs whichwillbring processinginthe systemto a standstill. In virtual storage systems, poor dispatching or swapping algorithms may lead to "thrashing" which so mag- nifies the system overhead that productive work on applications drops almost to zero. 11 101 011: k A I NlAt"/Acd MENT

I hr '.011 CLIStnITI tailored 1,, r,Hit rather develops default lit,Julim;in terms of perceives thesystt,rfl willhe pr, ".1(!!--; the user *o aL:ess aridrnr,,:tf the,+.,tault requently, these app..ar t rol language where pC(IvI- ";I.'Il ,p,er (10f011it V.It II. ',III!, ;..,1,itlyofthe defaults are ,.',a1,1 ',II-H.atthe tim,the!-,-;tentisinitiallyinstall(cl theiristallti,ai l,ystent stiff. Some ofthe algot only 1,)\,' rnn,ln yang the ontr1 -,oitvire H, the.cigar. 1- hislast course ,II ttI'r- .Irefult.n1ISIdiCtt Inn u, It nr lode (.1,11 droppingof 11,,t1trivial C_.11IplICiltlInnti In ifthe ,perating system and a signi 11, aHt -.,0tv,tre rmenteliatice pr,-,1)1(-111.

the

as ,:,;n I a T11.11 thelar,;,[ theiiiiinher,the hic;herthe , inner .1111I's and apriority, that.0 ',her ate thatitistwice t IC MI ,0011151 It isIlInC(' 1:1";...r ',on;H..1f1 t.c.[ Vnt.11I

I 11'11.,tur -r t, n hanlviri,issm.')thatwe e.,;u.11 en the r I,r,r applwati,01 t %,[i lob CcInI)C1'....I'S nt..ny tISI" P n the printer-,,i(Huirtrigreal

,,r ., etc.. h i 1:. tH r,+,,,4it IS nit optimize t t ;.,LS '...,1t11;it.101.1 f iritrd( offs. ourfirst amidpi,-o, , pri,)rity and (h 0-.r.(,111;,11c11. ),ilswillI.,install.iti,01dependent and shouldreflectthe 110.'1'111,0.1,C PHIS pill InSnplly and 111/InaglInlelltintentions t tuturr;anization. Ihatis,theyprobably should ;etby theInt co'n),Ity,r) .stemsIepartrnenl ,done, !wt. bythe111.111.1I/P111('Ilt the universityin con m.ert witht he Irit,rinati,o) Systems Departliwnt.

If theInformationSystemsDepartment,orat least ofit isSeel'as a ;oh shop then prs-hic.tionscheduling !iy.ef [11. Inmany casesthe prs..luctvoi schedule may be IlInSt usefullyanalyzedby it as a pr,,iectnetwork andusingcriticalpath ter.hnimes. In any case.itwillhe necessary toidentify OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 105 theH'.,; .1,--t1\,ItleS)thatMA(' uptheproduction

Hebruilinguponthe \.\.1-1. c,,.me in the I fOrilliit en anti ht'j+111.111,'Ilt(and hi't h-1.It,,pOri-iteson a ,even

, three,heft d,,ybasis I,thelengthof a priuect s..hedularil He established. I hescheduleistypically fir a week olthoudhsome operationsprefer a m All if the activitiesto be operated upon during the schedule twist be enumerated. This generally is f,..,;"-,diteci by n.iniinq the generic aLtivities ( payroll, accountsreceebible, purchase orders,etc. )and sub-num- i,,r1/1H Ifithe rjt'TICrICchair. The totalityof 1-m:owe,: pro- the payroll might be PAY 101 through PA`i 123 23 discrete activities involved in process- If1,-;the t,e need next to establish the precedence requi:ements

1-1 .c to. Ines , , whichactivities must precede this v.111..h t untilitiscompleted,and execute,: independentlyofthe executionof ties casesthisanalysiswillexposeall mannerc ffliv,sin the design of'HIPsystem, or at leastin the in,,,b..watioi stiarahave keennude sinceitwas mitally

At the same tune wo need to identifythose resources lug ,111 sho;-,. Suchresources mightinclude datactrs, both input and verification),run control, CPU Hruitind,breakdown,distribution,etc Each schedule wrist be taggedisto the resources It A'1,1111HtlAY, we must estimate the quantity of c.,(11 available during thetime period of our pro- ductiraiscliednle. Realistic estimates of resource availabil- itywill Lie seri .,itiveto equipment downtime,operator effectiveness (nobody actually works eight hours ina 9 to 5 day I.etc. With boththe activityprecedences andthe resource quantitiesdetermined, we nextproceedtoestimatethe resources consumed by each activity asitis processed. If this informationisriot currently availableit will need to be developed by tracking the activities through several cycles ofthe production schedule. We needto be carefulnot to be overly optimistic as much as to avoid always planning for the worst. Keenin mind the point that the schedule isa plan,riot an observed fact.The schedule is not immune to slippage, but shouldhelp pinpoint criticalactivitiesinthe processing chain and more clearly show the future impact of current slippage. tot;OPE.RA I PM!, MANACFMLNT

Critical Path reguently,the result,:of theinit,1 production sched- hie aro quite per ile.Lover thatto order to make cur deadlin is we nerd to use [mire of particular resource 'liven day thanisavailable. often \\Odiscover that rs utilizationir,quite v,,ruble through the period of the production schedule. I hisleadsto p(iakload staffing sigm f wantundorotil czat ionof resourcesin orderto 111,(.'tIrl!)

Whatvpineedis a Strately fOr load balancing which hai,efe,Lir minimal;roil.ar ton disidlines. Ifwe coato asuniform roy.ourc.o nu; we must be preparedtoadjustthe time whenactivitiesarepro- , iHrbhictto not slipping the deadlines that establish the hehile. I his ispossible onlyifthere existsslack timeillerei or more of the activities makiiRJ up the sched- on1rHo,c. o,. oflife m-eivince us that there is h"H (i V 11 H IrH the 0.,r,..11,11'y nit :roo schor.111H toat uses infr of the

i he:o...1)1orn,.anhe,,tt,-1(.1.ocl1,, constructing adaily s Ilt111/.1t1,01 pintortablefor- theperiodof the for ,iachresource. I hisplotwilltypically show pie Pa and %alleys no peak can be larger than 111(0 or the si he,lule is riot feasible. A relative measure of the -esource utilization Emlance isthe SUill of the squares of the resource 1111117,10,m forthe periodoftheschedule. :riStarn.0,suppose we have a three-day schedule with :isrium.0utilizationsof5, 11 arid 8onthethree days. I lion Ha 5 llx 11 ;-:',x8 21111 is a measure ofthe resource hhzati n bill.-111co, Anyschedule with a lower sum of,guar-es isa superior schedule In terms of balancing therosr.,urcr,loadir.g. For instance, a scheduleofG, 10 and 8(Cod') Phi, It) 8x F; = 2001is better and a schedule of and 2( 192)isbestofall. Withthe criteria of min- 11111/1injthe SUM ofsciu,ir we could begin shifting activities around so as to achievebetter load balancing. However, we runthe riskofbalancing resource X atthe expense of greatly unbalancing resources Y arid Z.As the tracteris become more ,:omplex ,it probably behooves us tofund mere forma! technique which can be written asa r_, m:ei ter algorithm. 2'

" Joseph Moder and Cecil Phillips, Project Management with CPM and PLIZT (New'I (irk,N.Y.: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1905). OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 107

TAPACIT':

OS SC 75 ,Co

PEG 291 FUR '.04

FAY 104 PEG 291 :1 FUR :04 FUR :06 ALU

t 103:!HEG 2911REG :1711PUR 1041

00 GPO 11e ?CM 20'3

3rJ ii PAY au I FA v 312 r1,[

PV.EFARE A RESaurECE UTIL:ZATIO:1 GRAPH 3AC.;1,1:10- VP FROM PROJECT DEADL:NES

Figure 34

RESOURCE FREOU:F.EMENTS

SCHEDULES REQUIRING MORE THAN 100 PCT. ARE NOT FEASIBLE SHIFT ACTIVITIES SC AS 70 ACHEVE A FEASIBLE SCHEDULE SHIFT ACTIVITIES SO AS 10 ACHIEVE A BETTER BALANCE

SS = 1:x:1 8x8 2:0

08 OS = iCx;10 8x8 2.00

= 8x8 8)( 8x8 :92 8 8 8

Figure 35

113 11)4 0PE ft.A I kill!, MAN ,A)4 MI NI

\Lint `.c,1 1.#111'1 ,ire II roprt"..1Itf'd I. isPrirt

'ct the t init',lrui [111.0 III;I[;lt.11L1[1,.',, ,,(11)';11111'([ inthe

; . \tve will(,5tItt`ilt sith cl 111,crl' it theyrelate tO t f11,111,1,',1'111Ilt icrIcc( t 111,l he 1;1;1.;1.ail,,it the slim which the proiect, Might !)(' (A/Wild project, isthe business night be thought ifisthe Hum iifprojects. the divisionis arbitrary and for the1.;)(1V('111(`111-,(ofthe aririlyst. Sirrnl,irly,the .1, be I mposed from tivitiesarid pri. It our ,itonlytv\.,-.

' .1 ti \; (I\ 1[ Description [We' SHOP((lilt,' keystroke roister dcr..ouritfile updates brodLcHits [11(1.':-,10;[ rant weekly (11,(,,..,11(1[ compensation rermrt. (, ',11r1(I1.1'-;[('I'file Update II Nnn exception report.iiimiister fits Prepare new master Hie kir A k system J kuri pip; roll cher..ks the .1(.tivities milking up the project rimy be thought of as graph \\Oh nodes,representing the end points (mile- stones)ofactivities and directed,connectinglinesrepro- serting the ar.tivities themselves.The resulting graph then slowsthe precedence requirements ofthe network. Con- siderthefollowing description ofa network for the activities shown ctivit; Schedule keguirements

1 2 M;iy begin with the project

1 3 1:w9in with the project 1. ')5 MaybeginafterAcompletes "2-4 \laybeginafterAcompletes

E. MaybeginafterCa D complete F MaybeginsifterDcompletes 3 -6 Nr1,-ty beginsifterBcompletes MayL-iginafterBcompletes AlaybeginafterIA completes MaybeginafterG, F i,E complete OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 109

' iJiI 213 ?A'' 300 r -7

AV 211 ,..., ?A' :0; PA' .3''-'-'-' PA'' C.Y. ,--- I 0 0 .- j----

?A' 103 PA' -117 'c eTT-1 TflT

ItCTIVITIES NAME TIME SCHEDULE

KE7'SCROSF.: TIME SHEETS PAYICI ;

KE-YsCROKE. MASTER UPDATES

RUN ACCOUNTS AFTER 9REAKOUTS PATan. F'Av101

RUN TIME SHEET AFTER PAY101 EXCEPTIONS Pi:Y.213 5

PRINTWEEKL? AFTERPA'211 SUMMARIES 10 AND PA"213 RUN OVERTIME AFTER PAv213 COIAPE.NSATICN

RUN MASTER P,A.Y."415 AFTER ?AvIC:5 UPDATES a

RUN MASTER AF7'R PAy103 X.CF_PTIOIIS PA'117 16

PREPARE NEW MASTER PA\,',162 6 AFTERl'Av117 AFTERPAY301. ?RINI PAY302 PAYROL: CHE1D:cS 2ID PAY4:6

Figure 36 117 110 H1'111,1..11( Ir.'.11,1:\11:0 I

1 !hi',1,11 , 111. 1 r. 1111 111

tt111 111 11111111.01 ! II.'',tart 1 11 hitli11 t H .1.I'.1'.. 11111 10.! ..that

1 1 ', I, 1111 1. A 1 , .1.0'.!.

11. 111,1,t 1 11.' 1

11 1 1 ) 1 111.. 8111H. 1.111 . 111..111 11 II', .11 1 1 11..1 11111, h. 1 1,, 1 ..1.1( .t1:11..11.111 I',111.! tit

111 ,1 r 11.1 I 11, 'Ill.! 111.1.1 111.1 11', -1 r',. t..

111 ?ht 1 1111, 1 . 1'1.,1 1,d. n,1 , .11i. 111 ,

. 11

,111 111. 11 .1 ,i 1'}11.

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1 ,. . I 1 :1111. i. r 1,, 1r .rr IL! 1 ,t, 1..1t, H. V

,11, .1 1 1 t..rritto1 rt,ur:tile time

1 1 1 ,1 11 1 , .11 : 1 1 1 ,t01

11111. 111.11 ,i1, 11 .1 1.1 ,.!..11 'III 1.11.t1.'11'. .11 CO' cull. t1 11 .11 I .10: those 1... 111.1', .11 !..`..! 11.11,..!Ili1H. .111,11 ,

If ruish 111.!, I'l." 1!1..1'.. tvo. 1,,11o151 t,( hirlyresof orl,H .1 It th,, .11101 .1, 111,,t1h.t110 t,01,11 111(11.111 (r:11%1 1. .1,11"1,111 11 ,..! .111,1.1.110 ( 1'011 11 1,1..1.11,, If tht,.:r. 411.tr., r. 1,11oly C., 11,etheP1,0jr,1111fv,rlu,1 111,!1;0\ IP. 111111 1110 11 t ICpro..e- .Hr.., 1.)11111 0 I mi.:tom,such as norurnirm tlnlrti.

1 he srrriple-f,t r .,sr,I,(:P.',1 Z hI II(''..),,,,rilotryarid

Hr.1.1 nr; 1!,1110tune (sdy 1 (1)as theIIIItl,lltune, deter-ft:1mo till .,Irltr-sttimes for 11, thelatest tvetvillcallthe 11 n11Ir''trillt rear.hed: ()11rPreu.e.lerrce rerrurresthat H.);101 \'Ity1/1.)111 1111t11 .111 ItSpit'11.1,(CPSS...)t'S have 10(4111 111.0111- plflted, 1.!11)(`St;kith till'network beir19 the path. 1 heedrl, "-.t artofthe nodes iseasily

(.1yeir some tarrietr.ornidetiriri tim0,ve Could determine the latef Hush timesior each .R.tryit y .1sto meet the tar r-rc.t time. This could be ac.J.omplisherlley creatinr:3a -dual" ofour-arlystarthim:to-dr 1-)ackvarcisthrou.gh the rwtv,'*.

11 j ()PI It, AI ION:; NI,ANArd N1LNJ IIII

1, 1111 h,trill ..1.1( I ten,. iht . I he fl,..itr, 1111,i. II' 1..li I\ '11,1!", (1 theLit(' 4111(1 I il' to.r1,,- tlit. i .1, tli.it 11,1 tlmt ar, j.,1111 tei

1.1isedt o (;I'N)lire; tee th je.,-,11111e IS to 0 p!'ioe/ 11';1),111, inthe term ofe\porierice) I 11 oinpoto:. \%,11111 \je'rleie;,' riminiejthe .111,w !;t,Ite (..f,ilinine_.('the Cl L.! time requfro(I rum the nes,tp.e, the other the ,11',;110that ('1(111of hisj-,r,)jec.ts .0,i1!,1,!:.,itsactis die's)represent uew,tit-Hutu, auk Ia probabilistic estimateis more dH.tri!,iitroncuuM e'jeS.led\ .1Ihemill IS 111111 (.iltir;e.ter I In nest estimates are made pooph re,t familiar statistics, a simi)11- te0. tlo, Om, a(.ter ofthel'.eta distribti- ti.)ha-, !wen dos the,tentor is asked to sil!:1(.jest for po!;sirukticarid a most1lkely oxre--,tedtimeariditsstandarddeviationare then is the sum ,-)1the outinlistic, pessmustic and 1,ur thee most all divided by six, and the f)(,s simi..;tic minus the co -stitni-,tic divided by six.

lnne anal \/...;isofthe networkis then performed with 11,,,T,c1 I lieoxp..,00dtimes computed asabove. If we ,ssume that path isa chain of independent activities, tieirmly L,kethe' variance of the path to be the sum of the ariancesofindividualacti\Hties m,ekinejupthe path,the moan timeforthe pathtobetheSlimoftheactivity ,,,,pectedtunes,indthe distribution of the path tune to be

We may now deal with questions such asWhat isthe probability the projectwilltake more than N time units?". One must remember that we have considered only theGrit- NA path,We could also investigate alternate paths through the network.

I p.135. 119 I f 10\ I bill', NiArl ALI f,11ri

Pro11,i in t r si l o, I ',o111.( e tool lndille is time I lie Hine , itly working

i i . I %%aid I to the Ii, tr, I nr, 11IP 11,, 1" MI111'10,11 1110 `,111,1(1111011' !illort(111

Irk 11101'. I 111 1'1111..11 bath illtem r. acti'ties aineiI Hat tai kjner.illythink I wry to

,my Ii'. it y i t e t o f iiit p i s . I n f,rcl,this iimerallty u the underlying reason we ,''squirea larger ,Lila rite. Ilie pis iihti; c)1

( ,i,irteiling the e lit ILAH111-1I',(..1111,1

.[ 1111,r..tlu.oiH 1 I111 1Pf trail

I Hi 1111'1111if .1I1 ,ii tivity

1.1.11Il 11 is t.11,1T111..1 th.it . 1 lw; ionm if 111) never how thinparticular- t..the ,itthe vdiele proteit.t. rAn altf,rna- t ie methodofproatep-angan activityimiyallowItto he 111011'ht1 !Hitat 111'0,11.01' We C0111(1 IISeibis PII-olt1 '11.` IlHt11, .11

I ( 1Ip r II (.'.1 tiltm ,(11r 111.111.11,111\re.,,for (,, p/(11111111 1.11(1 1,C11011111(1 (aridtheir' 1(111.111111(1 the 1-111,11111V1' inipl'uve, the

I IleMori'dif built (,f tirco r,mit °Lanes when the rm.' f ixod size. Multiple activities con tiinding for thprf111t,I1r-r.r. 111.1y 1-111111rethatsome itlist he (10f frric1 for proLossinq, which drags it Hie schedule. I hereexist rindtllern.-itiG,:il algorithms v.htt..hwill.1s!;istin ilevelupind the Borst out schect nil,. 1 hey,ire si)inewhritliey,)nd our golif,rallevelof cis- ( as-ri T1 1,11t are irtibediled in most Cf)f,1 algorithms implemented on computers .

Service Charging ceiisiderateansand organizational dynamics have led many nunrors!tiosto conclude that there are significant economiesofscaleIncomputinginstallationsas wellas desirable organizational efficiencies experienced by centrali- zation of responsibility for the total computationalf unction.

I orreasonspreviouslydiscussed,thiscentralizing move hardly everresults m asingle large scale computer forthesatisfaction of the totaluniversityinformation systems needs. Far more likelyisthe developmentofa central authority controlling alocal network featuring multiple CPUs, multiple I/O devices and generally anarray of ItA I lotkMANA(,l MINI I Ili

,f f.1fff,f;fff. f.flf 1,1'11111,11 tiff \ i, 1 If I 111.iIIN ,If11111111'. 1I ,.if, fr ff;f ,fiffilf ff1111.11l/fff 11111\,f1''.1111..., lot- for

fililif ff r, q, I ,Ill;' t II .111,'1..1'111 1'1'111.11f'lid,' illIffIlt, rfill, if. tf f lll, I.fff11. i

.,rinani...itiote.tine tor edv.1111 the...line plethora of m wag-merit pi-Hems . are manyratheir ie.tomers. Not ileiaue 01'1I iff'ilfdr, fltfIff'. phyur and entore-, La.:nine;riigoi andtherie«- sayof .ir ff1ly 151'ne.t ye,,. HII1)1,t;u tificainnr 1',f1,0 i 11,,,,J,HI,, ..11(Ir r,nn;,u'.0r Illthtfl'Itli'Sis ,1 111,111,1,11' Ifff'fft frl hHi

r,the data elements inlieront to the ilecasionpine Icy are r lame the service purveyed, .111,1 f lh, If. icepurveying the hulkofthe service dem.li., . a memory rindisconstantly monitoring itself,an I,\ i,an r-air suggests itself.Why riot cost the items

fIffC ,StIllyf111\ iIllf_fl'Ii`f; 011f.,1 rttltiltLaudsofservices Ff1',0; If if fd. 111 scheduling techniques and direr tls addressing the rin.countrilelity informationproblem? Many would argue that the overhead andcomplexity of operationrisa cost centeristoohigh101'smaller- centers and consernuantly an 1111VOW and uneconomicdecision. Oth- ers v.,onldrebut thata system so configured must then be iniif (wield nand uneconomic) from the standpointof econom IS in our purp.pses here, suffice itto say that computer services chars-ilia:1is generally efficient and desir- aide for medium to large installations andsmaller installations could lieso accounted if they subscribed to a network at least one larger installation.

any site1(1'.;t.,11(dt1f-M, ifservice (inthe computer- sense)is not the primary motivation for the computer opt-in-Anon,computer services charging will have less desir- . I he typical comparisons drawn betweencomputing centers and productionlines,libraries,or power utilities might make a strongcaseforstipulatingthatallcentral computer operationsshould beintheutility or job shop Illef(k` and single user minis in the library mode.

This section is adoptedfrom R. C. Heterick, "Sxrsterns Management and AllocationofResources -Techni- que," Economic ConsiderationsinManaging the Computer Irl.tallation,A s socki t ionfor Computing Machinery Proceed ings, 1971. 1 2, I1.1 011 ItA I INN'. MANANI N I

It::: :T/t:( ;..O ::NTIF1 ALt rAAit: A' A rtI ,li:FIVITY.

ACIFIVIT1

A:71:7/1 TiV.F. TI!::(

IF THE N 6FF:IET tv( REDUCED t.I'VERHEAD CC'S THENir EETEC:TIVE to CRASH THE ACTIVITY.

Figure 37 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 115

computing systemconfiguredsomewhat as h :mistcomputerservices chargingaccorn- h- I his(in isprobably Nest viewed in termsof Irivok.C.1.1 constituencies: the university hierarchy, the users of the computing center ;,rn,-mt .1 the c,.htr itself.

servh:es charging scheme impliesa money -mil distribution system an economy. Other of computer credit- systems have been devised, but useof dollarsystem remainsprevalentprobably :use itis more comprehensible to administrators who may rot iiiiif,rstand Lempuler systems jargon. No one in ,tin:;user communities willbe without an under- of a(fcllar charge, asthis form of money management is. exactly .hatthey a -eaccustomedtointheir rdriit,11 outlay, and .''they budgets.In fact,for .-me rh,partineritsin the organization, the computer budget may e coed timetotal of all otner budgets.Consistent with unisera policyin managi.ig other budgetary items,corn- sliould be seen as liquid assets, exchangeable otherthan computing on a dollarfordollar Pa'as.

Thisis,ofcourse,oneofthe majorrationalesfor tt,(-JJhsid.--computerservicescharging. To managers intheadministrativehier- archy,the distributionand controlofcomputer- services funds, should conform as nearly as possible to the adminis- trativehierarchyitself. Theimplicationisthat he who givesC,.11-1 also take away.

Insuch a budgetary system,allaccounts point to a fundingaccountwith no particularhierarchyassumed. Consequently, the funding and accounting structure embod- ied in time jobaccountingsystemparallelsexactlythe organizational management structure.Embedded within this administrative accounting structure shouldbe some proyi- skam for extracting program related accounting data. As higher levels of management aggregation are reached, program rather than administrative budgeting may become more attractive c-rational, Only end users may actually pur- chasecomputerservices withtheirfunds. All other accounts exist solely for the purpose of money management and accounting. Competition for credit allotments to purchase thelimited computer resourceismonitored by the variouslevels ofadministratorswithintheuniversity. Administrators are able to control the allocation of fundsin all accounts directly funded by them (shifting,adding to, or reducing funds) and indirectlyinfluenceall accountsin their chain of authority.

1 116 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

PRESIDEN

VICE PRESIDE-:;T ^, DEAN ,1 ACCOUNTS L EXISTS FOR MONEY MANAGEMENT

ACCOUNTS ACTUALLY PURCHASES sTIIDENts 1 COMPUTER SERVICES

Figure 38

12)1i OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 117

mpti torsere. pae charging t be successful must be realpitw.equitalale.arc!imposedtorecovercosts(and prow,. Irather than artatrarily discriminate service classes. h'ealpit(i(Thaws pricingto ov or both direct and indirect ,perritingcosts. Hipital(lopp. olvos appropriately defining 'pts in termsotdifferential system resources. I he ,Jsrismuch oncerned with equity but only slightly throalism. I tinter management,on the other hand, s grfailvciapier nod with recovering totaloperating costs. Lh'ir!_ntL; tore.C.,VE.,r costs satisfies auditors and, generally, rntr rn,ll operatIng divisions within the university structure. Arlutrarilvdiscriminating services classes willlikely create pHihans ,;ph (;11% t ci[Hi ridpossibly with internal ,ItHrtmr; staffs. We are often bemused by the information systems manager who Hants to hislow rates as justification for service levels achieved. Frequently,indirectcosts suchasfloor space,custodial services,air conditioning arid electric service, etc. are not figured into the rate structure.In fact, if most universities appropriately evaluated the cost of floor space (particularly on urban campuses) we would expect to see the computing center somewhere r he far environs of the Cdrrlr-USrather thanin the main ac. (1st ration building. Itisnot uncommon to see equipment costs amortized over a fifteen-year period wher the economicliteof the CPU is hardlyaver (Imrethanthree years and mostperipherals seldom more than six. Given typical budgeting procedures rollowed in compu- tationalintensive organizations(universities,research and development firms,financial enterprisesetc.),itislikely thatthedataprocessing budgetislittlerelatedtothe potential demand for computing. Where there exists some external demand forservices, an arbitrarymultiplier (greater than 1.0) of the internal rate might be applied. The user wishes to have a technique whereby he can influence the allocationof computer resourcesto hisjobs. Computer services charging admits of thisinfluence within theconstraintsoftotalfundsavailable tothe user. Charging removesthe arbitrary constraints of job classes, timelimits,storage constraints, and thelike. Itimposes thealterniitive burden of money management onthe user. xperience indicates the user prefers the money management problem asitfocuses his selling job on his administrative superior rather than onthose-unknowledgeables-inthe computing center.This shifting of managerial responsibility backto the administrative structureisregarded somewhat ambivalently by administrators. Strong administrators wel- 118 OPFRA 1IOW, MANAUd ^,1FiNT come it; many regard it as a mixed blessing.The ability to influence turnaroundtimeis a necessary prerequisite for 115:1' acceptance, Itadditionallycontributestoimproved ft,t1oficincf.

the 5tJimrfp,,ftt of the ,quputing renter itself, computerser\ime, charging presents d confusing dichotomy. Whilegrfiti liedtoberelies ed of scheduling and resource allocation problems( which they are probably not well quali- fiedtomake) , efficiencyofutilization ofthecomputer resource is also removed from their direct control.A high levelofunderstanding and commuriication between center management arid top manager-limitof the university is essential. -1 op management must be convincedthatsomething approaching luai, efficiency of computer resource usage does not imply maximum resource allocation to optimizing the university i)biective functions( whatever they are) . Parallels between the use of the motor pool,office space,etc. must be drawn arid understood. The mystique of 100, utilization must dispelled,or center management isconfronted by tin resoivabieconflictsthatwillobviatethe advantagesof cost center operation.

Job Accounting

Iire cost center concept ismost easily implemented by a service utility oriented computing organization.This ser- viceorientationimplies a managementthat seemstobe increasinglytypicalofinstallationmanagersinthelarge corporate arid institutional computing complexes.An installation management that views itself as providing information systems services arid considers the internal design of soft- wareand operationofhardware as secondaryreadily accepts the cost center concept.Centralized "make or buy" decisionsimmediately raisethequestionsof in-housevs. external costs in the satisfaction of organizational computing needs. These cost trade-offs are meaningful only ifthe center is aware of its"real" costs of operation.For those centers not operated as a separate corporation, the overhead (elec- tricity,physical plant,external administration, etc.) attributable to the center must be distributed toit and made an integral part of its pricing and "make or buy" decision process. Those organizations that encourage the dispersal of data preparation,program submittal,and output checking backtothe operating departmentsshouldbe capable of developing more realistic and equitable charge rates. For highly decentralized organizations such as universities,this

12 OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 119

distrtl.)ution may be 12W,ofthe actualhardware buid;or For cent ralized organizations, these overhead \, 1)-hill",or more ofthe hardware budget. In r o t, tor high k, iiit computir-ir)operations, the ,i,,Lert,i111111Pfltof -1,--,;11- Mayleadtostrong i.(fflo1111(. in ,1 type of 11.

hefiirHire3of aii,.Jst renter operation canpresent ihf f multiproblemsto C1,111plItOC crater management. Itis Hrrhtrul whether acost center approach will work if make orHi',',iocision?,ore not vested solelyintheinstallation manager iirinformal ion systems (ion !mat, ir. the additional Has tir ofdear -aridLind itsancillary cashflow problems ) generated by permitting non- information systems administrators carte blanche to decide whether to buy inside or out, is a riiindibleproblemaccompaniedbyan absenceof ptdlLit.`,1 I-111CCOSSeS. Sincethecomputingcapabilityis stieit( atleastinthe 90to18()day short run)inthe tareof a variabledemand, probablythebestfunding proreini re .+11 -off the top- rninimuni pledge by all operating dlItilr,11;offiirids which willhe transferred to the center,irrespective oflesser demand. The elasticity ofsales and ha riivipi re trine p r, _ ) 1 ( T 1 1 S : are thereby alleviated. I n t heirplaceissubstituted thenecessityfor the center to predict accurately the number of units of chargeable icems Ii!toinsure p irldadequate cost recoveries.Under or over recoveries ofIfr, should present nininrilproblems. Deviations of more than11r, can create seriousdislocations. Inordertoavoidtheproblemof under or overrecovery,suggestionshave been madeto engageinretrospective chargingbased onserviceunits actin-illysupplied during aweer. or month, This would of coursebetotallyimpracticalfor commercialtimesharing services aridseems an unfair abdication of center management responsibilityinnoncompetitive situations. The user should riot be faced with variable costs,totally beyond his control, simply to relievemanagementof its planning responsibility. A techniqueofanticipatoryratherthan retrospective rate setting seems more reasonable.

In a cost recovery,servicechargingenvironment, user liabilityisor can be a serious concern. The most effective way tolimit user liabilityfor unauthorized use of his accountismultiple levels of account protection. These levels of protection can range from routing output through locked boxes to typical account password protection. Additionally,the account structure may be established on acredit balance principle.The user isliable only for 120 OPERA I IONS MANAGFMENT

t 11 tr11,111Itofmoney ur his OCC01111t aridanyitteinptsto ajob generating charges inPXCeSS ofhis account III he ,111L,111,1tICi-Illy flushed from the system.

Itisvoirth mentioning that charges must be roproduc- iblet., user equity. Asinthe caseof e the user should not be Subjected to r cussingC.,';tsbeyondhiscontrol. Sufficient difftu-entiatianoftier \ 1(11_'charges should negate most ofthe arguments dd defraying varni[cle system overhead user

ha .tr, ider h d for-m.111,2,m for lidn- dling ,Ind SV`Ae!TIS ,-111,11ySIS t hit manyuni- versities do not currently follow.As charges are made for theseservices allocation of theprogrammingresource 1)Or 4,111er, KIj111,, affected byuser demand. The technique thatseemsto have [-wenuniversally acceptedtominimize thisimpactisthe RFP( Request forProposal) procedure. in trivialrequestsforprOcjrZirllchangesorsystems rpaiordW d proposalf romthecenter-tothe roguestur with tune,personnel,aridcost constraintsindi- cated. This proposalisnegotiated until such time as there is mutual agreement upon a statement of effort. Many ofthe currently extant accounting packages do prolectratherth.m aLL,aintin!j. 1 hisisparticularly, true ofthe batch packages. Project accounting represents on aggregation or accumulation of job accounting information but in practice cannot substitute for job accounting.If the useristo assume the burden of money (machine resource) inanagement, he needs areal timebill for services associated with each job processed. Thisisparticularly the case in highly decentralized programming environments.

Once aninstallationhas embar-1,:c.Hupona courseof computerserviceschargingtofacilitatebetterresource allocation ,itisconfronted withthe questionof how much andforwhattocharge. Given the architectureof most current hard \Nare and typicalsystem usage,the following categories of charge sire generally settled upon: Central Processor Unit Record Devices Se:up Devices Storage Media Priority Personnel Time Communication Support

k 12 OPCRATIONS MANAGEMENT 121

fb...ara%

kental f ipmerit %.1airiteriarwo

Ingeneral, (vomiting overhead is distributed to these ate,, .re,sin !;.,111t. re.i.onabb,equitable bnthion Operating ,echead ..nter administrative salaries,dis- tributedorlanizataaaialoVIsrhOild ,aridrillcenterservices vylikth pr,,vided at no ,Direct charge to the user. Such f'fl.,01' servicesfrequentlyinclude in-houseconsulting, generaluserpuHlications,and contributedstafftimeto extra- center organizational committees and tasks. For the !rink'pro.; stern,central processor charges are generallyrir,rieInthree catm:awies(i.e. execution time, I 0 events, and core time).Unit record charges are generally made for cards read,cards punched,lines printed, ami plotlinos or time. Setup device charges areusually iiiipw,ed fortete of demountable tape and disk units, special trans and print trains, special plotter setups, etc. Storage char,-;esare imposed on tape and diskfiles(generallyto include b.r,o.r.ry of library mainter,ance cost) Some form of a priority of service charge needs to be implementedto develop user acceptance of the cost center' technique. For mostusers,turnaroundtimewillbethe most important resource they can purchase.Several alter- nativesare available. Cost differentialscan be associated v.ith prime or non-prime shifts, or ahierarchy offirst in- first out( FIFO) job queues may be supported.The FIFO job queuesisby far the simplest method to implement and easiest to support.Turnaround time itselfisnot sold, but ratherrelativeposition inthejobqueueis purchased. Personnel charges for programming and systems analysis are generally straightforward and easily arrivedat. Itseems generally preferable to build operations personnel costs into appropriate hardwareservicecategories. Itisgenerally necessarytorecover communicationscontroldevicecosts through a line connect time charge. Remote batch computing charges can be computedinthe same manner aslocal hatch. Timesharing users should probably be charged for thesame categoriesas batchusers,butat a relatively higher(or the highest)priorityrate. Software charging presents a new dimensionto computer services charging. Many installationsrecognize proprietarysoftware costsof from NY:, to25`;, of hardware costs.The simplest approach to software chargingison aper accessbasis. For many installations growing slowly into online management information systemssuch a charging scheme may need to be aug- mented by me form of subsidy until a sufficient number of users are online,to create more reasonable charge rates.

129 112 OPERA Ilow,MANAGEMENT

Auditing

heactualdetermination ofunitprices canbe quite complex in practice.A general isto determine a unit price Erased upon annual servicec liarje (ASC) divided poiJtedannual demand(i.AH). Tireannualservice charge isLiimputeif the sum reLt h irdw;re (lease or aim)rtiied value) plus indirect hardware software plus direct prsonnel phis percentage of total overhead.

Un thebaxittofpastdata and SOME'extrapolationof demand, the EAD is determined. rhe unit charge isthen i'-terainra_.d and roundeditiisired.Rates are generally notadjuster mere frequently thaneverytwelve months to provide t.omostabilityf or usersintheir money

n.i

lvhde the operating.5 yS ternisreading. a job submitted tothest, stern,certainjob accounting routines verify that the job's account number iseligibleto use the system and thattint; am omit has funds to pay for the requested processing hisinformationis available from a job accounting diskfilecontainingrecordsforeach account holder. Iffunds are not available the job willbe flushed andriotprocessed. Ifthejot)passesallinitialtests,it willenter the appropriate job queue or go immediatelyto i.roLessirl;ifitis a bineF.naringJoh. After the jobhas beenproceslaftl,otherjob iCCOLl 11 tlflE1 routinescollectall billing information frcm the operating system,calculate the associated charges, and update the proper account record. I-hefinal page of printed output can be adetail billshow- ingthe current balance before processing,allcostsfor computer resources, including a surcharge or rebate for the selected priority, and the current balance after processing. A billfor each job run isa necessity if the user is to manage wisely those computer funds allocated to him. Each account record might have several hundred fields ofinformation. The jobaccountingroutinesupdate the datainall appropriate fields. Allof these fields of information can be available for immediate access by aterminal (a typewriter or CRT terminalinthe center administrative offices )and for any report generating programsinbatch mode. f heterminal, withits own command language, can be used to open, close,refund, adjust, and query accounts as well as handle fund transfers from funding accounts to user accounts and vice-versa.The report generating programs are principally usedto create end-of-monthreports for the university management structu re,computing center administration and individual account holders. OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 123

RATE DETERMINATION

PE-ED1(;TED ANNUAL LEND PAD

PAD

YEAR

CE:TirR UVEPnITY F':%.0.1EC FRO ERH=2:-.D

Figure 39

_13 "! OH PA I 10H!, mANArd NI H

Lolliir11101' (.11.11',111111 1/1.11.,'S dt1(11t11/11,11 l','Sj'ollSt1/111t1,'S uponthecompir brigi furter. turecif the center must prsivide danly t t railsand reasonably rat, risive!,er irrity provi!-;1IS 1111111'1' '-;111la a system, when autter washes to operi an account with the center, heSUL/- 11111s fcirin indicating thef 'rods he allocated hemini signed H y trodtio; m writ holder. stating the amount offonds allocated,the user establishes an upper limitof Tir whir IIhe may he lulled. Upon opening 01 the ar omit, the user isa>, sinned an acc.ount number- and a post or tea, box 11111111,1'1'. 1111' hov C.,111 be a typical postoff ice !rm.,.ith a1.0) 1.'1J.. Post off ice boxes can be located at tnif enter ani!to r ,111, '11,1t1UnSSCdttet'Qd throughout the 1.,1111;11;r; r he user summits 111'.; 101:1 With 0 job name that dOS1(111,1teS thestationandboxnumberthathisoutput should be routed to.This eliminates the need for operators to m Mate inputwithoutput priortoreturningittothe user. I he riser may protect his account by referencing his ara,ount 111111111erto his station -box number. While this does riot preilude other-s front using his account number,it does prohibit t111.111 from receiving the job output, thereby elimi- natinganyady antageofusing anotheraccount number. Additionally, the user may create and change athis discre- oi passwords for his account number. Failureto use the correct account number station-box numbe:passwod combi- nationwillflush the job from the system. Numerous other tv:ar'hardware (-1-,1L,11,1111tS may be imposed by the riser- ,rnhr ,ere,- ,writ. Jogs r .1(1 feetrine,storage,total cost,or hardware resource limited at the users discretion. Extracted summary data fromthe jobaccountingfile may be keptin inonlineinstallationmanagement system ailablefor query from aterminal.Typically,summaries of accounting information by remote site, program budgeted categories,totalcost recoveries,etc. ,may be maintained. The job accounting file may be used to monitor continuously recovery rates and toreview macroscopically the adequacy of the rate structure. The primary variable being optimized by the priority feature of a job accounting systemis turnaround time. By selecting his own priority,the user can control turnaround time to the extent he feels he can afford to pay.However, designingstrictlyfor turnaround time cangreatlyaffect throughput and system utilization.Some techniques can be used to amelioratethis conflict.In order to accomplish a better balance ofuser turnaround time and system utilization, Hiepriorityscheduler could performtwo auxiliary functions calledjob aging and pass-ove. Jobs inlower queues can be aged, or bumped up, to a hioher job queue ()pi kAI()tr; MAHAL I t11It1I I: ";

..r in 'clad toi 11,,ett amountof tem.,ee m,t \ selm fedtor sem. e. A jobseleation ahiei itemfir '.t temptstoselect 1.Itsforprorestdrigarum tpqh,. ma,taming !,01/tatioriis ,tu.,ttn.t outyptItinprior it thetollet,t,iret ,n It let ties t he selm ted ,r1,1vio(,11r,rott urently alqoritem rill a,.',set'111,,t teb.111d';.11'01lhr queue

tt, /1I' H lIt t l'1'S11('1.1.; I .,111.1H10 1141`, tf1(,,,:;then the soonetttto mpleted Jet; tirrteritk byeon thesystem. I ins allov,;yin kind t;intrallysmallslur

, use these othert,t,I iireisedresources, \tithaart nto ,tattIt,atter tile;flu.,turn,trourHt hrilior priority Jobs twitiqpdtp_ted In 01'(1,01' tI)pl'/vIdl!anauditofJob ,icaouritingtransactions,particularlyforreconcilhiguser ,H1,111:;, aII,111, reportis produced 1.0lustail detail trans lions hare !led Py the system. 'I hose transactions include rt-tttriklire online transactions, but those handled by tir ,(!minv,t1,,tivt? fry Lr,)(fdlirriiof misc,..d- 1,111(,,ii!..;,,t,,,ort,1arid pre;),ir.itiori(.11,-tr(jcs.

Ououcting and Simulation

Perhaps the most directvv,k,to attackthe scheduling prehlemisthrough theory. At every pointinthe system H (Thome must be made asto winchtasf_ occurs next, a yucuo develops. (-rilecould then view the sched- Problitm tt`st fin _lingthe optimal strategy for servict,ig toleites. Inordertosubject a waitingline or queueing prot,lem to formal analysis we will need to know,find uut, or makerealistic assumptions aboutthe parameter-; of the C,I1P1.1e. We must identify the population of potential castomers for service.Correspondingly, we must identif, the one or more server's who will provide the service. Ifallthe se- ,.trsare busy then queues will begin to develop.We must know the arrivalpatternof customers desiringservicein the system and tie distribution of times required to service customers. We expect that fromthisinformation and the mathematics of queueing theory we will be able to estimate F110ii 11 wailing tune inthe queue or system, mean number of customers waiting for any particular service and the mean number of customers in the system. Thisis hardly the place for an exposition of queueing theory, bill we could investigate some simplistic applications to provide aflavor for how queueing models might help us I.'1) ()PI RA IIt fit. MAN ALI MI N I

111,1 \, 11 ; ..t no., IIthe.)y'.ta-inha).an \ pd.,, per minute entering, andifthininter arl 11, 11111,". irele.H11111111ally ,1111t [11;11(1111 (a r)11111111)

.1(1 , 1,11.1111.11 111111'11 11 .1J1111, v,ilIlf,11,..111111;( h.11I (liaris a that

(io, 1,1,111 eater (101 11 1.t1111 ,I1 any minute. Ifthe l'1 11\, 11t111,'.1,1, ;1.1y ,;1,1101' (11,111 (11)11 we col;

1'11 (11,11 1,1,1,1 \1,111 1,1,1,111(.11111.011.p ,11'\, 1111111111,11,1 01111

1111 (,1111.1;1111, 111, 111/1,1t1t111.11,1hellIld time for all Jobs.

(?lieu, neitheiu-ywillalsotell us interestinglacy, in,efii)ct.fofscale. Ifwe double the mean arrival 11,1t,,ridthe mean,,eric.ft time we halve theriloan tan- but e (11;1Illf,111,;11011,"11:(11111111;11He,1,\;,p1\,;;(ri

hi 1/r/11 t he;11:11111;e; (1 '2.110(111i; (,1Jh \.1.1;111.11.1.;;;;1 t,; t cc L,1111111terS (11;1C11 11;11f the speed ofthe hiuger system)the mean wailing V.111 1'111141111 t.11( same,hut the mean ii trim, will di)nble one r1101.1.1 weapon in the arsenal of tlr ,se vvi, taint lanier machines

e,,ultsofqueueing theoryproblems,and some thatarenoi capableof q1111110M9 analysis,may alsobe obtained through simulation.Simulation carries withitthe penaltyofincreasedproblem setuptimeandfrequently extensiveutilizationof a computatirmalresource toeffect tiresolution. i here areseveralexcellent simulationlan- e,11;cies,GPSS (I bf\ksGeneralPurposeSystem Simulator) tieing-irif)ot the easiest to learn and 11Se.

In theterminologyof GPSS a transaction(inour example, a job)must be GENERATEd,passthroughthe system OULUEing forfacilities(inour example,the server),SEIZEingand ADVANCEingthroughthefacilities, RELEASEingthefacility,andfinally,TERMINATEingor leaving the system. The system isstructured around a clock.A time for thenexttransactiontoenterthesystemisset by the GE NCRATE command. The currenttransactionis moved forward untilitis required to wait, either for a busy facil- ityor the necessityto beserviced. The status of each transactionis keptin a tableshowingitsnexttimeto move, where to moveto,anditscurrentlocation. Upon encounteringthe TERMINATE commandthetransaction is removed from the table.Each transaction may be assigned a priority and queueing disciplines are effected bythe priority.We could similarly create FIFO(first in-first out), LIFO (last in-first out) or any other discipline we wish.

Perhapsthebest waytogaininsightinpredicting system performance and attempting a priori analysis of the

1 Mel IZA I 'MN'S, MANIAC,' MI N I[21

III1j,,ii thr,11111'.1111111.111,,ii. I hor are ,t iinrnlr I .,hr i,(,Iry.Htware 1,1,1111,1' th0111.111 rl III(hr IIe en.1111111,1t,1111 HAW. I(r the basic: hardvore oilip-nent.. tlin it u,treguntly usefultohave 11 1.1.po, I ytill.' 11 Ill } I, tit tod I !, I I 1.11,'I 01'0,h.1,;11..,1 the 11111p1I11.1' ,Ipp11( Hrulld () [Hum,' routines liata movement

I ilo tualatire) mpil,,tHal and evoi utc 1111pliLlt1,11 and also kernels for

I Lit,1111.111.1,11.111('Ilt I oler,1111111111(.,0011`2;

Itestart arid recovery Hardware and softw,Ire protection. once aregimen ofstatistics gathering has been established one can begin to seriously consider simulation of the system. The inputtothe simulationmodel can be drawn ru,r11 ddt,i ht'r(0 forpi! ofporfur'marice ev ti (Ion. In many instances, the data needed for model verifi- cationwillalsobe found amongst the statistics developed for performance evaluation.

Security and Privacy One ofthe best waysto improve communication with bothusers andmanagers is toprovidethem meaningful information on theworkloadand theresponseofthe computer system.Such information is oflittle valueifnot presentedintermsitsintendedaudience canunderstand and deal with. Likemost managers, theinformation systems managerissomewhat dubiousofan openpolicy regarding performance information.This potentially damag- ing information may,infact,not even be available to the information systems manager.

As to the latter,itisdifficult to sympathize with the manager who attempts to control and direct his operations (often with annual budget in the hundreds of thousands, or millions)byintuitionandvisceralreaction. Charging, bA I 'WV, f1A(JAll III

11,,11111f1,1 In.1 .01 .1t1,1 ,11111 1110 l'14.114 111.111tIt 111` 111'.1' Ill 11,`Iit Il

I 0.ftwf1' 'Nil" ir,111,1 1114' 4., .111I \\ 11.0 it. holy 111,11 e the H,rritflat therit d1111f11Hr l'ilr(Ais1111/Ii1V111. 111 1111. r,lard, ItMayhe a ideal06erppriiiii'.1111 .11, Niit11111'1 r.more .1 tiiisymonocl,. thou areportinwhir 11he V.1(ie thruuyh twelve {,ages

111 V.1111.11 two,it, iusit 11'.1i1111 1111(11-111.1tliill. I (111ally ,tre,ti'1111 the t'.1111fr111 form whichceguireri rim,un ndm+,o Hoke 1, iphtialov.yer" to tf.1) simimary reports li t tl e11!1` IS r.,1[ I1S and [ant"; for am rim t I ,k(Alltk)rirop,,f.tHtri tvorl rn.oforaideif c,111,1evol.yet top 111111,1t)OrIWIltto stop and define the so that the e copt ion s could he identifier]. Manage_ meri t'.11frIftlarlefiore nearly always better exl,rassed inper ia.rit 1.33t113-r than a1-,soluta taints. 111 thisrespect,s]mi, miiiiitma non nitheKIvidt graph 1111iilitha anrdaal way to p rr.; sa .133.331 highly summarized

I , but :et. lynotleast, an effectivetracking syy, tom should address security issues.We might categorize security in two ways ;physical and software.Of the two, thelatter is directly theprovinceof theInformation ,opArtffit'fit ,the HUNIr rHHIrtiii < dial of cooperation throughout the whole organization.

Physical securityissomewhat easier to implement once top management gets over the feeling thatitmust display, usually behindglasswalls,itscomputer operation. That may notSeern like much ofa concernfor-those ofus who have never gotten out of the basement, but the-1 tt it ude is more harmful thanthe physical exposure. Accessto the machine room should be limitedto operations staff and those members of the systems programming staff who are specifi- cally needed to correct problems which have been identified bythe operationsstaff. Tours,ifone must have them, should be scheduled wellin advance and carefully planned for. Even better,toursshouldbe conductedviavideo tape. Entrance to the machine room can be controlled by inexpensive badge reading and combination lock devices.

ncreased usageofremotebatch andteleprocessing should help to strengthen therealsecuritysoftspots of input and output. In ateleprocessing environment, sensitive input forms and output reports never exist as physical itemsinthe informationsystems department. Once users

I-I' OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 129

:airolcirize themselves with the ubiquity of onlineupdate arid u. ,Wiry,the need for so many input and output formsis dr,,itk.reduced. For the user office,much ofthisdata itst rtner (B. C. before computer's) sensitivity and much more carefully in their own office.

t%.,1r security-is complex and expensive, but under hetetalcontroloftheInformation SystemsDepartment. acre -usedusage ofteleprocessingsubstantiallyraisesthe flti'Jforsoftwaresecurity. As notedby 012 vendor tosti the issue,thisisoneofthe weakest rfeir,ido points in most oiperating systems. Password control, I the eiistest forms of security to implement,is one of leasteffective SeCIlf itymeasu -esunlesstreated quite seriously by allusers Sensitive data in large files should hi protected by the data base managementsystem as well as !h operating system. In many casesit may be worthwhile erifnr, security not only by password, but by physical fey Ir. address. The physical devices can be furthercon- tr . requiringa key or special magnetic card to be turning onthe device.One can thinkof other r.urityfeatures,such asdata encryptation,butinthe absence ofreal security concerns on the part ofall users 0W aki, i; circumvented. A good security -c)ucationarid through with INFORMATION MANAGEMENT ROLES

ME INN "If a man is willing to go as far as he can see, he will be able to see farther when he gets there."

The User

I n thesectiondealingwithSoftwareDevelopment a "user' was defined as the individual who paid thebillfor the systems development process.That definition is correct but inadequate. Developinga system like theregistration system affects not only the registrar's office but the entire community students,faculty,staff at the institution. We, therefore, have to broaden our definition of the user. A user must not only paythebillbut also must be an individualwithsufficientmanagement responsibilityand management perspective to insure that new systems do not changeinstitutionalpolicywithoutproper review and approval. Thatisnotto say that on occasioninstitutional policy does not merit change it does, but such changes in policy should be properly considered and approved and not be implemented by system default. Notice that so far we havesaidnothingabout procedures.Innovativesystems design will indeed require that, from time to time, operating procedures berevisedor changedaltogether. The user must havesufficientadministrativeclouttoapprove and implementnew procedu resifand whenitisconsidered

1 3 S 132 INFORMA 1 ION MANAGEMENT ROLES desirable to doso. The definitionofour "user" becomes an indiIdual who pays thebill,hassufficient management responsibilitytoinsurethatinstitutionalpolicy is not changed without proper review andhas sufficient cloutto implement new proceduresifsuch new procedures are justified by the new method of operation. How much computing background does a user have to hdve? Clearly familiarity with computers and computing will not be a handicap to the user; however, the user does not necessarily have to have any computer background. Man- agementofinformationhandling may require a different perspective but doesnot require exotic or complex techniques . Time andtime again,it hasbeen demonstrated that simple and sensible management techniques aresuffi- cient. Some ofthe perspectives important toinformation systems management are discussed in the following sections.

The System Perspective Information systems are "a complex interacting network of people, procedures and machines. "2' No amount ot auto- mitionis going to come I etel y rernovo the human part of the system equation. Thus,indealing with systems we must deal both with the automated pa rts and the manual parts of the system. Subsequent to successful implementation, most systemfailuresoccur because themanualportionof the system was found to be operating below the level required for system success. A system perspective also comes about by understanding the interdependencies amongst the various systems. A purchasing system must examine the accounting data base to seeiffunds are available before apurchase orderissent to the vendor and the purchase encumbered. The accounting system must depend upon thepurchasing modulesto provide the proper encumbrancessothatthe accounting statoments are accurate.Similar relationships can be shown toexist between student records and housing,personnel and budgeting andpositioncontrol and so on. Ifthese associations andinterrelationships didnotexist,itwould have been unnecessarytodesignthem as integrated systems. An excellent visual demonstration of the interre- lationships was presented in a recent issue of

" Jeff reyS. Lazarus , "On ExecutiveInvolvementin Administrative Computing, CAUSE /EFFECT, November 1981, inside back cover. 13J INFORMATION MANAGEMENT ROLES 133

CAUSE EFFECT .2 Thusit is theresponsibilityofeach administrativeofficetoinsurethatthere is substantial understandingof thebigpictureandtheirrole and responsibilityinit.Failure to do so willresult inperiodic fingerpointingbetiAren theadministrativedepartments, each am-up-Tie] the other for its woes.

Itistheresponsibilityoftop management toinsure that each of the department heads has a larger perspective, perspectivebasedon institutionalprioritiesand needs which most likelyare different from thelocalpriorities of each department. This problem becomes particularly acute ifa ,riven department is considuced theownerof a certain data item thciughitisnotthe only user of that particular data :tern. Unlesstopmanagementclearlyoutlinesits expectations of the various data owners and excercises the necessaryauthorityto carry out these expectations,the Ss,;t0111isdecried to failure. Integrated systems require a level of cooperation and coordination. Iflocalpoliticsare characterized by confrontations,the chances for asuccess- fuliritt.,;rdtpd system will be greatly reduced.

Data Ownership The manager who isclosest to the origination point of the data item is generally considered the owner of the data. Ownership of data comes with an implied responsibility the responsibility to insure thatitis availableina timely fashion arid that itis accurate.In most cases the owner of the data isalso itsheaviest user and has the best grasp of its significance. Because of integrated data base management systems,the routineaccess ofalldataincreases tremen- dously. Greater use insuresbetterquality ofdata. Greater accessalso brings to surface many ofthe discon- tinuitiesininformation gathering and information handling. Henceitisimpossible toclearly define ownership. The ownership ofdatawillnecessarily be dispersed throughout the organization;failure to define the responsibility for the data can only result in what willlater appear to be lack of coordination.

27 Jack Steingraber and DouglasKunkel, AnInte- gratedUniversityOnline/DataBaseSystem: A Reality,- CAUSEIEFFECT, May 1982, pp. 12 -13.

149 131 INFORMA LION MANAGEMENT ROLES

Control Any system can be represented by a model consisting ofinput,process and output.l he three stajesof system sophistication,DI'S,MIS, and 055, were shown as a black box modelinFigure Theinput consistsof the raw materialused, theoutputdefinestheobjectiveofthe system and the process issome transformation that converts theinputtothe output. This modelisvery simple and very general. It can be applied to a component, toa sub- system or to the entire system.Models of subsystems used recursively define the model of the system. In Chapter-1 we Saw that the black box model can be appliedto the three levels of systems we discussed. In a dataprocessing system theinputisdata about a single entity,the outputisinformation about asingle entity and theprocessconsistsofselecting,sortingand otherwise handling records dealing with single entities.At the information systemlevel,the inputis information on entities, the outputisintegrated statistics and the process consists of aggregation along and across subsystems. In the case of decision support systems,theinputisbothinternal and externalstatistics, theprocess is ones ofanalysisand modeling and the output is decision alternatives. Control systems vary only slightly from the black box model previously shown.Control isa three-part process: Setting of standards of performance Measuring deviations from the standards Correcting deviations. In the control cycle the first responsibility of manage meritisthesettingofstandardsfortheoutputofthe system. Itshould clearly identifythe expected outcomes. Next, a setof management reports must be designedto point out thedeviations from the statedstan''..frds. The measurement of deviation varies from system to system and depends largely on what isperceived to be the outputof the system.Two important methods of measuring deviation are through the use of error reports or exception reports. Correcting deviationsisa management role. Infact, cor- rectingdeviationsismanagement. A key elementinthe control processisfeedback. Feedbackis the recycling of information, new or old,so that inputs and processes may be adjustedto better,or more closely,meet the desired outputs or objectives. Itir iMMA HON MANAGEMENT ROLES 135

In dynamic organizations,external influences like market conditions or government regulations might require that the outputs be changed from those previously defined. thou the S, Stt'Ill111,1y be (,pf'1',1t1119as designed, 1Utjaltti tald hence 1110(1111'1C-a ti,m,ofthe s \stem. A colTrCtive action would be needed through the control process. As stated prev iously, deviations from expected results are, or should be, reported to management at the appropri- atelevels ofthe organization. Corrective action canonly takenifsomeone reads the reports, understands that a ieyiation has t,4 enplirr.e and initiates the corrective action by proper feedback Into the input process.If the reports are not read, the process can never be controlled.

In sever. al cases itispossible to measure the deviation of theortput take some predeterminedcorrective action, f hose casas are candidates for automatic feedback aHitrol muchas a home thermostat providesautomatic Liao c l Automaticallyblocking a studentfrom t-tiler i ',ration when the OCI drops below a satisfac- 1". tomattccontrol. Dropping a student's raririg npio, rcerg f f--,us automatic control.If,err

ri nand. Palo,: that.say, rJU . ofthe students have'been dr-aped from theirclassesfor nonpayment of fees,then poi-haps there bug inthe program or the procesi-, that aoiniiletes this task. Control isa function for alllevels of management at all stagesofthepriaLess. -11rereare usually three types of Lontrols: PrriventivP controls

Ala rtms or' controls for detection Corrective controls.

The objective ofpreventive controlsisto reduce the frequency of error and hence reduce the exposure due to theseerrors. Thefrequencyoferror is reducedby reducing the opportunity for error and by proper training of the staff. In the development stages of the information system, preventive controls come from project management techniques. Theuser'smajor responsibilityisto insure thatthesystem being designedwillfulfillallthe agreed upon needs. This is done by close and continuous interac- tion with the development team. INFORNIA I ION NIANACFMENT ROLES

Preventivecontrolsarei,c;ilyappliedtotheinput. 1 hisis done by edit checks errformats and ranges and by contLilled valuesofdata. 1 here are certainerrorsthat carincit he contrialed Nv the ,n instance, assume that a data record contaips the odes F aridNi for the sex ofthe student. Further suppo,,ii that the admissions office finds that they have no immediate need for the data on sex. erthey have a pressingneedtodistinguish betweenstudents who applyfor freshmenadmissionand those who applyfor admissionstothemastersprogram. r-)uitrarbitrarily they decide to use F for- freshmen and M for masters.'Fire edit routines willriot catch this change,

E- ard NIare both valid codes for thesy stern. Clearly the integrity the datahas been completely compromised for another user (say the housing office)unaware ofthis local change. Itis therefore essentialthat each user use the:,ystem as designed. Thisisthe most important pre- \ iintive control. Changes tothe system or toits intended use should go through normal change processes.

Preventive controlsinthe output stage relate to matters of security arid exposures therefrom.In a batch mode where results,reports,checks and othersensitive documents arerrinted, itrimyreguirethatspecialhandling procedures be implemented anddocumented. Controlled distribution procedures should be used.In online systems, varioussecurity,procedurescan bebuilt. Accessto the data :-equires that proper DBMS conventions and procedures be followed. This knowledge, orlack thereof.forms the firstlevel of security.The second level of security comes from the data submodel.The applicaton program or programmer knows about and works with only that subset of data thatisneeded tofulfillthe jobrequirements. The third level of security comes about by controlling the terminal access to data.This type of sacurityisata function level. The Registrar's terminal for instance, cansee student data but not payroll data.The fourth level of secur- ityisat the data level. Data level security comesin two forms: individual security and group security. Itmight be desirabletopermit only one or two individualsinthe payrollofficeto change salaries. Forindividualsecurity the restriction is not on the value of the data but rather on theindividualthat wishestoaccessit. In the caseof group security,the restrictionis on the value of the data that might be displayed.For example it might be appropri- atetoallowalldepartmentstolookataccountingdata. Terminals in the departments would accordingly be author- ized to lookat accounting data.But afurther restriction mighthethatMechanicalEngineering canlookonlyat MechanicalEngineering dataandElectrical Engineeringat INN ORMA HON MANAGEMENT ROLES 137

flor.t ipore-,erioe, ckita and the [foam of f can lootitall I reniu,erinr; dat,t Hot not Arts and Sciences data, I histyre rr-triLtPulisen the of data being dis- plar, 1. ri ttie- type ,,trrata on display.

.\ t ;it tIttiq In the101'111 of ormr rIIrt; .1f1(11,(.t.H.1"11 I hey ,ilso come from re,.erdrig the contorts rnr,liortIdef Ileslike suspense files rle.irinc;dcrolints. Ittherontentsofsuspense files (..Intinneto!rise.,,, it is a 511reIndtrationoftrouble. If non;arr000ts threatennottoclear,thenwe have a aomais ar.comitirig problem. It is the managers r,,,p-1,..110111,toH.-6 tier a ,ilarinstrid r;orrec.trve ri.

\ controls LI-ritrels thatare built into the ..\,.tintohelpidentifyt.ieproblem,riotcorrectit In ombuterpr.,;raile:an errorstatementthatspecifiesthe n,Itnro oftiro error, where inthe program the error occur- ank the error occurred isall example of a correc- tiso tr Lorreclive armtrois anticipate the occurrence ,a the err and preplan the dathering of data for its rose- lotr

Ilit er,.t orrortis,o,control is theaudit trad.Aridrt trails are records that contain enough informa- tiontipermitthe1.,-.0r)st ructionofpastevents. Audit trails;)r.,vid.th,ability tofollow a giventransaction thr.mrgh the71 v,.tem at,.'Jfferent pointsintime or to examine Bali transar ternsinthesystemat a given pointintime. Mostapplicationsystems maintainan audittrailoftheir own. 1 his is mosthelpfulforerrorcorrectionorfor detectingsystemIIIISUSP. In additiontotheapplication audittrail,the data base management system has a system logthatacts as anaudittraileven thoughitisprimarily designed for recovery (i.e.reconstruction) purposes.

In summary, then, a data basesystemshould be secure. Furssecuritycomes fromitsabilitytoprevent improper and unauthorizeduse;itsabilitytomaintain a comprehensive audit trail; and itsability to recover from an inadvertentorintentionaldamage. Thesecharacteristics ar-epossibleifmanagement exercisesthe proper controls anti the users of the system are identifiable and the system monitors their activities through audit trails. 1311 INI 0I1MA I ION MANAr4.N.11 N IROLES

Planning for Change

,;oftv,,irrttechnologychangesradically inthe t ear, the,te\, elopmeut otinformation sy sterns %%ill ntunit,r..fry dov,.and expeie.ivf` to ;,,Ik ofthe Institut pdy, over dr)(,..torided period d 1:1,1.;terpldn int ormidtonsystems shouldbe hi' plan ShoOld be based Ona desired orating Iiiit environment. 1 he aspirations for au ;'rating environmentinthe future must be based on perspective whit tie future willlooklike. Iftire ma,,ter planisprised concepts, equipment arid technology

ttiat terta , the to,the timetheF,`, stems,ireimple- timctortttrewillbe outofdote andrelativelyspeaking wet ficiont becauseoftherapidlychangingtechnology, the 'mister plan has to lie an anticipatory plan based on the of thefuture, riottheconditions andrequire- nects ofthe past. f urther,the plan should be reviewed and rev periodically to reflect the changes in the erivi r,mrcent trint..ethe planninghorizon forsuch a planis toOl. yndiS,itis important that the plan be an evolutionary plan thatspecifies not only where the institution Of'elIStobe inthe future but also how the future component-,dr.r. Ps1',i. 0>il!-Alt1,;systems and irro«-.dure,. I hispldnwill beextremelyusefultothe system designers and the user's alike.

The nextstepinthe planning processisto identify the areasthat play a criticalroleinthe success of the planor havethemostimmediatebenefits. These areas should be outlinedfoir initialimplementation. Most institutions proceed sequentially through the implementation plans, tilingone system as a pilotandschedulingtheother sequentiallybehindthefirst. Thisprocess has many hazards. Requirementsofothersystemsarenoteasily available and therefore cannot be plannedfor'inthepilot project.More importantly, however,ifit seems appropriate tobuy a softwaresystem(such as a studentrecords system; thenthis procurement will proceedinisolation.A vendor supplied system that may be very re.sable from a single application viewpoint might be totally noidequate from a total systems viewpoint.

Itisrecommended that three or four areas of develop- mentbe chosen as criticalapplications. Thefunctional requirements of these areas should be completely defined. Armed with these functional requirements one may now proceed with the implementation of apilot project in one of the areas. Shoulditbe considered appropriate to acquire the software from outside,thenatleastthe proper questions INLORMATION MANAGEMENT ROLES 139

(:,in Ho is Led aboutinterfaceswithrelatedsystemsand rlidde Sul the rosn(0 n;rti,

h tr:f.lrVoe c;,1141 t hat a imn-derplan should he r!,e. eloped. I his master plan anticipate future tech- tdogN,aril br !;i1HJOut review's. A core group of fonctionalareas shouldheidentifiedforimplementation. I he functional requirements of these areas should be specified. ,\ rieed with this information we should proceed with the 111,11-,nA ('I'S HS buy deCi s ion .

1 he JecIshritodevelop thesoftware in-house or to Iep,It e, an important one. I hereis no clearcut answer. ooliticc ofthe local environment will be the rigor determinants intinsdecision. The alternatives to In house developmentare: Iittwore exchange, either directly with another institution

joint ,inent with another institution Purchase from a vendor.

Allthe'c'alternatives should be examined. In- house development promisesto be time consuming and expensive. Outside software generally cannot addressallthe requirements or peculiarities of the institution.Each institution is distinctiveand shouldbe. We donotneed a monolithic education system. Whereas institutionsare indeed differ- some oftheadministrativeprocessesarecommon. I has there isa great potential for acquiring very satisfactory software form the outside. Regretably most,though notall ofthevendorsuppliedapplicationsoftwarefor institutionsis based on outmoded technology and operating procedures. Itwould be fairtosay thatifsomeone gave away a completelybatchstudentrecordoraccounting system,itwould not be worth taking,foritsprice inthe long run would equalitsvalue. This statement should not be construed asa complete denunciation of batch systems. Some applications work very well in the batch environment like automobile registration or food service menu planning. They work better in the online environment but the benefits areHotas dramatic,asinthe case oflibraries,student records or accounting.

28 CAUSE isthe professionalassociationforthose engaged inthe development, use and management of information systems in higher education. I.10 INI ORNIA 1 lob MANAC;INWN I. ROLES

In Chapter -I we pointed out the deficiencyin the present development prices. The major deficiencyisrelated to thelevel ofinvolvement ofthe userinthe entire pro- f he !milguestion istofind an optimalrnix of individuals intheprojectconsistingofbothusersand Lompu ter professionals that will together achieve the project objectives ina reasonable taineframe at affordable costs. An attempt was made to model software manpower costs" asso- amted withthe development ofsoftware. The model took several variables into considerationincludingovertime mists,costs ofinteraction withusers and others, administrative and other nondirect costs, average duration of work interruptions,average timeto regainthetrainof thought after an interruption and so on. Whereas we do not neces- sarilyagree withthe methodology usedinthe paper,its conclusions are far more acceptable and agree with some of our own management experiences. The paper concludes that the cost of a project increases exponentially with the number of programmers assigned toit. 30 Indeed, one of the challenges of systems design and project managementisto keep costslinear,bothwith the sizeoftheproject and with its complexity. The paper also concludes that inall cases project costs are minimized by a projectteam of one. This conclusion says nothing about the completion time of the project. Our experience indicates teat for complex projectsa very small and very competent team gives the best overall results.

inlightofthe previousdiscussions a project team Id be organized as follows: One user representative assigned exclusively to the project One or two computer professionals assigned exclusively to the project

One individual fromdataadministrationassignedonly when needed to the project.

2°See Bob Esterling, -Software Manpower Costs: A Datamation, March 1980. ° The reader is referred to the now classical book by Frederick P.Brooks, Jr., The Mythical Man-Month (Read- ing, Mass. :Addison-Wesley, 1975). INf ORMA LION MANAGEMENT ROLES 111

1 he resporisilitlity the user representative isto art sjicTesiminfor the ir;orneeds. Itis the responsibility otthe; individual to tall,to the various groups to determine their reguii and I.eep them informed about the direction in otthe pros r t. In .1 ,aur.o,thisindivid- u.al n. theinterfaceto the-outsideworld." Complete r.-,porc.ihilityfor Duna tionalspar dications, 11501'HI,C11111011L1 Sflo,101)111,,ir, user training should he with this Moreos er,the 111(11% 1(111.11 should he very hued- ,,%ith the area 1111E101' consideration for aiitortkithin.

1 he computerprofessionalsshouldwork torapidly implement the osseritial operating components ofthe system reportsandfell:, rune! whistlesforlater. 1- hey should be working directly with the user withoutany written design or programming specifications. Written material Hrk; he used only whenitis deemed necessary to clarify situationthatverbal andpictorial(hand drawn) means couldriot. Fhese individuals should also act as channels throughwhichadditionalresourcesarefunneledtothe p term Cd hoc basis. I he data administration group should he involved dur- ingthedatah,I,design',td!IPS 1-heyshouldalsobe no...1,.editnew dataIt erns are introduced into existing data bases and ifthe values and the uses of existing data items are to he changed.Considerations of security and author- ized use ofdata are also itemsin which the data adminis- trationgrr.,,,shouldbeinvolvedwith thedevelopment team. Finally,it shouldbetheresponsibilityofdata administrationtoseethatthe auditorsare appropriately involved. .The system should meet the auditability requirements.However, under no circumstances should the auditors be designingthe system.They should be evaluating the proposed designfor possible exposures and potential risks.The decision to take the risksisa decision of management: a decision properly made bythe user andthe uoveloper. Periodic project reviews should be held with the mem- orsofthe usersgroup andwith other members ofthe system development group. These reviews should provide previewsofthesystem whenever possible. The overall strategy is to reduce the cost and increase the

It is onlyfair topointoutthattheopinion expressedhereinisnotuniversallysubscribedto.For example, see Tobey L.Miller, -Applications Development: A Wholistic Approach,- CAUSE IEFFECT, July 1982, p. 13, 25. s I1 ' I NI ( )10\1A I BM NIAN,\(;1 MIN 1I:01 E.!I

f ,( ,r very ti tI \ ,`rieweet the des elobinepi 0.'.by Hi\ nnr tl) Hine) parte";InViiiVi'd with the iirAlto( hid It alllilt reioient Hitregular: basis ;.hirey.itlIthemHie prmire .d theproim t; j,ip ; Hit laila Ira.eu ree.only when iieeded t design and qui( implement .1 'turn

rimet he I ..Jerii in ,iwr.itl()11 pit to the report', and other (ndt hoods and tvithoufwhii.1)it not he a prii(ileitIVO system.

ire emariplete.theo:aralloilalresponsibilityfor the t tr theIn.ori. I heuser should do everything thatisrequired ana day-to-day basis to make the system work. 1 his includes data entry,updates and herinining ofscheduled and ad hoc reports. The user of Imo should have one or two computer professionalson their staff to help coordinate the operations of the system. orgarrirai ewally Hun],the information system activities should be s rippor tli -fie units:

I lie im.er mpleto or-rational restiinrsihility arid with 111111,/r The systemsdevelopment staffwithresponsibilitiesfor new systems development and major systemmodifications but with no day-to-day operational responsibility. The Computing Center which provides the raw compute pawn:- and acts like a computer utility. In addition to these three groups there is a need for a fourth group calledthe DataBaseAdministrationgroup. Thislattergroup should beresponsibile forallthe data within the organization for its availability,it security and its integrity.They should also act as technical consultants for the user groups that are managing their own systems. Theindividualsassignedtotheuserofficesshouldbe responsible for that portion of the data that they "own." The Data Base Administrator should have global responsibility for the entire data resource. Notice that the Data Base Administrator isa support group and at the same time a control group for the decentralized operations group. User developed applications are written intothe future of computing. Itis the only way software cankeep up with hardware. Hardwareis moving too rapidly for present software techniques and practicestoremain viable. The IrJI ()10,1AI 'MN N1ANJAC,1 MI NJI Ito)!I kki

He( iultralirat the operational rt".iiiirealiility Jr o adminr.t rat' \ r y,f elm, prop.irimi the tutnre software Piro( tient.

M.ct helangliages ines, 'sten( etoday, it least thicw langiragr, Thatare used,+ttlidata base maim( iimiruit st ems , arepeiii idii reorientedlanguagesinth,rtthf'y y 1;tf'r,by paint ill-atop what the computer needs,r) (1,), it 1,, therigorl,ttlrr,priii,edure that makes writing set t-o..ire Olt lir liltarid I boreI!, a fie\vei.gener,iti'in (,I 1,111H11,1,1,-, ni-,ed withdatab,r,r,systemsrallrr1 iiiinproredural 01 I hrtie languages do hd\'' procedure lIdt"I)IYind macro or Ior,.11'.en sr'. 1 hey lickthedetail ofspecificity reghired inlanguages lila- VC)RTRAN and CL)tl()1_. 1 lie nonprocedural languages,also called fourth gen- rdl d'(` popular. x,inrplesof !;01110 ofthetc,,Irthqyrwr,,ti,,rilanguagesareFOCUS, NOMAD, I;A 115 aridINQUIRE.. We hive already said that the direc- t ien D,It l'ero-%lame i.-ment krldti,didl (.,fict'plAiril ityrind ease ofuse can easily make it a;)civ,,erfultoo!inthe hands ofthe computer professional and the user. A combination of a powerful fourth generation language withrelational data base will go along way toward:, addressing some of our software r)roblems.

Theliteraturereportstrulydramaticperformance improvementsthatarepossible bythe useoftheselan- guages. The Rank of America has 500 NOMAD applications running,allofthorn user developed with the help of a few consultants. 12 FOCUS,too,has shown that cinch improve meritispossiLle with fourth generation languages. FOCUS has a language that contains a wide range of English verbs and Friglish syntax. " FOCUS also supports an "integrated" relational data base. Integratedisdefined to mean "that every single relation in the data bank can communicate with every other relation via any like key field or data field. "

" Daniel D. McCracken,'Software in the 80's: Perils and Promises,- ComputerWorld, 17 September 1980. " We are not sure if that isa good idea. " N.S. Read and D.L. Harmon, -Assuring MIS success," Datamation, February 1981.

1 5 g I-1-1 IN FORMA I ION MANAGEMENT ROLES

It 'rifledto be used directly by the user. Ithas an gra;rhonspar!, age that alle,wsresultsto be plot- h 'ermo ease as prrnting them.

,orr.tir tir-Aron lanr; j are inefficient in their ,mprit; r resr hAy may takeanywhere r11,-/ri` lifpOnd onhow ;tre request ,rnd the slip;-)urtinu data match up.But mplifer costs dropping this sheuld not he a concern

tin c_lkira-:tormanipulations arenoteasilyper- Prk 1.u.,prage,s, Application,,that require this e to depend onthe CDHOL, PL/1 or For- he rnost important feature of these newer languages t permit interactive development- or prototyp-

I rl I 1;.erspellsout a requirement and can seeitin couple of (Jays or less and decideifit meets lent. Ifitdoes not,itissimple to go through du err and anothertill a satisfactoryresult is resultlaay.iriarue the goes- fast:to ler, ,)r ral trr ;,inertnet pistil, tine

with thesetor.risis,asvet.%, cry !un- rrkr'ralresults arccirmnatus, nightsa.-,r.,n have de,, erring ourselves ogr- a,riler to techn,,rlogv. A art thf-.11 a-, INTRA-INSTITUTION COMMUNICATION

"... That society can only beunderstood through the messages and communications facilities which belong to it." Norbert Weiner

Communicationsisan important aspect ofinstitutional administration. The ultimate product ofaninstitutionof higher education isknowledge knowledge thatitcreates and knowledge thatitimparts to others.The written and the spoken word remainasthe prima ry means of communi- catingthisknowledge. Thecostofcreating,storing, retrieving,transmitting and readingthe words and text generated on campus isreaching frightening levels. Stan- ford University reports a 535 million a year costintext processing and communication alone. This does not include the cost of the author's time tocreate the material and the reader stune to digestit.The cost of photocopying alone at Virginia Tech exceeds $1million a year.Nationwide, the cost figures on information transferare even more stagger- ing: 5129 billiona re spent annually on communications of which 5.1.billion are for typing alone. What has thisto do with university data processing? Everything!The issue is one of productivity and ofeffec- tiveness.A student recruitment program thatcan send out highqualitypersonalizedletterstoprospectivestudents standsa better chance at recruitment thanone that mails out an uppercase only computer printed letteror, worse, a form that checks the applicable options. A fund- raising / 5 1.16 V.;1 hA ltd I II U 1 ION COMMUNICATION

be relatively ineffective without r n would rtulings.There are similar ainpk, n hein The faculty spend numerous hour: r ,,,Htry; o-,r1- oftheirsecretaries.During each a!intha unmet preparationprocess they have to .!!! u,,ittng clian ;,isto improve the Hidil,i0Sto additional retyp- r.,orrtaries spend numerous hours ; orthesecretary. itis red,ingthc. versions of the same documenttill These are onlye few examples ofthe mad -id Out. that now how.;am:the unnecessary and duplicate work onin our institutions. Experience indicates that auto- e! harilluai,,sistorrishave ailImportant place in our r' nmant....here used in aneffective manner they reduce the tunefur document preparation, reducethe work i.lated!,inthit,and producea better quality document. ',IIthe; to result in better productivity. ,hose automated systems cost-effective?There are no.ols.ed here. The firstissueis one of @co- 1 i!.t average letterismore thansix littl thro,o less than chanci the way Hie our [nail,thei..osts,iresuretocontinueto qe tile,, are tii,di!irer.tlytopersonnel costs. ornPritin productivityisthe only hope Lontalinng theserising costs.The second issueisan dt necessity. Most institutions arefacing hard times. are[unitedand pc,sitions,even more so. Improve- thr-iqu-ility ofour programs will comeonlyif we This anal t,mi,re productive use ofall our human resources. applies equallyto faculty,professionals and clericalstaff. tpilt an institutionismeasured by the output of naLulty. At present, based on avery small sample, the personnel distributioninan institutionisabout one third ta,.,,Ity, one third professional and onethird clerical staff. ap;au.',Ittonof text processing toolshas the potential of ratio of this distribution or increasing ether chancung the the hee ordllfacultyoutput.andproductivitykeeping same ratio. The growthinfarm productivityhas been adirect of technology.An average farm worker is backedby ii1),(,(i)incapitalequipment and machinery. An average factory V r e rhas aninvestment varying betweenS25,000 and S10,000(depending upontheindustry)backinghis In the case of the white collarworker, the average c..1; Imi is reported as being only S2,000. IN FRA INSTITUTION COMMUNICATION 117

Nayrn..-atdi-se o sham argues thatiferrinvestment is made atutal ecolitauont needed in the oftrce environment, this w produce a greaterreturnthanthe same ,e...e..tmeritin thefarmor inthefactory. '5 A 55,000 V.111 increase the capital investment for afactory ..r1 er butthe,t1kadditionalinvestment isnot lt, i ret,ult 21r,increase in productivity. On the .ther hand a investment in an office environment will notrik,deuble the present investment but will also change ent,re approach to the work done in the office.We will ban, inatonlyhow we do things butalso what we do. i he, can he trill.-tiThificarit as large number-s of people are ripiot, ,!ui t f envircriment. Already50':,ofthe neratedto,'the white collar labor force.In excess of 13 '.ofthe total labor forceis white collar-. Clearly 'at-9e Hstentialforsignificant improvement exists.The percent- ag even more attractive in the academic world.Their ppahn I v.( a-ds certainly lends itselfto this technology. Planning foroff we automation may indeed be the most cru- taal area intrl ;tit tl tinildi planning.

IIi remainderofthis chapter examines the various f ,nni f ,--nnormition and the sical mtns oftr.Aw-muttnnl the text and messages generated r.ross the institution.

Office Systems in Perspective the fiiiii.tions performed inan office environment may be ,p.oup,tal into five bread catagories: I ext process,ws) 1 ext dintril,uticn

Text reprodUCt 10(1 ki`CrLIS Administrative support.

15 Raymond Kens han President,Management Assis- tance Inc.New York, N.Y. .15.I ) 118 IN i ItA I I III FION COMMUNICATION

A text system will be construed to consist of the first ate,Hrtes' textprocessingand textdistribution, 'c ax.tprcic.',1f1,1isthe function of reading,writing,revis- t Him; retre, ingtext. In Order fora systemto It MOS to HP'.Atliavailableand easytouse. that the caimnuters supporting the pro- bo and that enough terminals be available so that a u-;er-hasriaa:esstothe computer system. The writing of textinvolves the entry ofnew text, merging of new text with iad text or merging of old text with old text to form a new text. I he abilityto write inmathematical notations or foreign languages implies the existence of special fonts and ( Hata- tar "frevising of the text depends birgeb,or the editing capabilities ofthe system. The ease with which a given line, page or word can be found deter- eurie-.the pcwyer of the editor.Once found, the ease with wire innew tex tcan be added and old altered determines the produc..tivitv of the user.The reading of textis facilitated bynistification,hyphenation,spacing,etc.ofthe text. T he uditIld proC.eSSis helped by automatic aids like checking spHimq, niiin!,orirvj tables and figures, and automatic foot ri mg arid generating a table of contents. Filing le. t two parts ofretrievalandsecurity. I HIS d filing system should easy to use for the author- ized user and difficult to use for an unauthorized user.

Textdistribution may be accomplishedintwo ways: onlineandoffline distribution. Offlinedistributiondeals with copying,printing arid mailing. Itrequires computer support for maintaining mailing lists and producing mailing labels. These are functionsthat we arealltoofamiliar with. Onlinedistribution deserves some careful analysis. There are two types of systems dealing with online distribution electronicmailsystemsandelectronicmessage systems. Electronic mailsystems arepoint-to-point communication systems. They transmit info:ration from a source to a destination whereitis printed. At present electronic mail is a 52 billionindustry dominated by WesternUnion and ITT. There are two basic types of systems for electronic mail: teletypewriter systems and facsimile systems. Tele- ty systems can only transmit characters of information. facsimile systems,onthe other hand, can transmit graphicsinformation thusletterheads,signaturesand

harts of the next two sections have appeared previously in variousconsultingreports prepared by the authors. IN 11-1A INSTITUTION CON1N1UNTS.ATION 149

f Hures can be insulated a I,ng with the tetit. Naturally, facsimile sN, stems require much largerbandwidths and theret,,re trIC,re ipPrISIe to use. 1,:tronic message systeirr, deal with all aspects of text pr, 4.0.,';111,L Ina,idition di;t rihn tile.)the rint-age,they are prw.Hding tnimit headr information,time stamps,distributionhotsaridacknowledgements when the message isreceived and read;of redirecting the messages after additionsor alterations;and of browsing,including and reining.The size orthetextinthe message is d fl importantfactc,r n determiningthekindofsystem !;11;.;,:rtthe ac.ti If Ow of the textis strall.rtis d M!". (Me HT, t re files. Since the messages are small, the computer configura- tion ii-,H,rt mg a messagedistributionfacilityisnotas ritual I fla Hie distribution facilit\ .Online file distribution can be a problem creating large bottlenecks inthe netwot k,J111,ss adequate plans are mi-rie for it.The problem relateEn, theii111011f1 tof datato be transferred arid the capacity of the network to support 'he data.Let us analyse He, poiiilom.

1here,irethree component:;in a textsystem:the co :nrputer, the storage disk and toe terminal. Examine for a moment the datatransfer amongst these components. The human interfacetothesysterais throughtheterminal. Comparedtothe computer's abilitytotransfer data,the abilityofthe humantoreadisverylimited. The data transferrequirements are constrained by thereader and hence pose no significant loadon thesystem. Thelink between the computer and the terminal does not have to be a veryhighspeedlink;up to2400 baudfor character information and up to 19,200 baud for graphics dataseem to be quite sufficient. Half these speeds are also adequate. Thus the link between the computer and the terminalposes no problems atall.The transfer of data between computer and disk isa high speed transfer. Disk drives are typically located near the computer and hence pose nonew or significant problems for high speed transfer between them. Now consider transferring afilefrom one user to another. This impliesthat the datawill be transferred from the disk of the sender to the disk of the recipient.This disk-to-disk transferwilltake placeathighspeedifeither boththe usershave theirdisks(notnecessarily theirterminals) located at close proximity to each other(i.e., centralized) orifthenetwork that connectsthe two disks allowsfor high speed data transmission. Unless the files are centralized,filetransfer assumes the existenceof a high speed

.1".3 I50IN I RA IN', !Ill/110H LONINItIN IC A [ION data ttansinmsion P("PS of d a c t r it o t t e d\ v o r r ! processing equip- ; a i n t I t - f t i f f re- ment it t,-J great ant h e network Hie (ran .ter ifestred. `.--,111t70 we are moving 11101'n mereti.w,trii; 011,, meat, network JP limitations odd be a prIfIl- fri th,iitt eriviriitimerit.i he requirement a.,_.11 IdtriN,',0' )1"(1 prru.e;s.ing.

I hereare severalcommercially availableelectrenic 11,,"..,,P1P systems. i are Tymnet'S untyme, Telenet's ,!rtrir,f1 and f),itapat. sf rioy100. Message systems are also if networks: 3 in the gereration cemmrcial vi:;trtr: r.-i!;!-;),XPrOX Jelecu,rnmunications Network ( ten 1and AT Js ACS. The development of mes- .ett, systems have been quite rapid and, as isgenerally the Any new product area,there areno standards. `-uveralstandardsare neededifmessage systems areto gaininb,.pularity and use.First, there are no standards for mes..agt structure. The problemofstandardsinthis area oriplimited by the potential use of multi-media mes- ,:,,,,jes, mixing)textwithvoice,video and graphics. ,,,id,there ne standard way ofhandling the undehv ered message. An undelivered telephone call (busy signal) er an undelivered letter gives anindicationto the sender, but thisis not true,at present,in the case of an undelivered message. Third,unlike the telephone directory, there isno universal directory foridentifying the individuals to o hom the message is sent. flyer) though there are no standards today,standards work is underway. In fact,thereareseveralgroups working onit: the teletex group of CCITT (Comite Con- sultatifInternationale),the working Group 6.5ofI FIPS ( Intonational Federation of Information ProcessingSocieties) and ANSI .\1Al2 working group 4 are alladdressing this subject matter. Reproductionconcernsitselfwith thecopyingand printingfunction. In keepingwiththephilosophyof source point data capture, manyinstitutions are acquiring typesetting equipment that isdriven either online or offline fromtIvJ.rwordprocessingoperations. Thisconnection eliminatesthe work,delays and expenses associatedwith manual typesetting.There isalso atrend to use the high speed printers connectedtocomputers ascopiers. Itis easierto have theline printer or page printer print the required number of copies rather than producing one copy from the computer and xeroxing the rest. Budgetary considerations and charging algorithms might, however,be the final determinant of how the document is produced.

1 I N I R A INS II ILJT ION COMMUNICATION 151

in, ,..11,,le area ,H1111111StrAlVe data processing aildr,i..st'ioltt,,recurds management. Recordscriariagct- men(includesPuthio-qmpirter records andpaper records e lot ter",ot re flellelei,lt.1 rrs,plirt,IlaSe orders,etc. ). Italsoin( hidesthe permanentarchiving ofthe computer ematek i Iiiiise of(11e ciiiiiputer opens the pos- sibilityforautomatic arch' \-11andretrievalofarchived

Akrniel stra t opt support deals withthings like calendars herhilesi t.n dit y scheduling (conference rooms),travel remitidiu.it and related office chores. Whereas all t donewiththe help of a computerized tliecc ot, a matter/-i( privacy and control that must Poaddressed. Byplacingthecalcmdar on a computer os stem one in\ es up the liberty of determining which meet rig to schedule; .e. ,itallows someone else to control ij I t his unknown assault onthe calendar' liciliavior,thisparticular' applicationisnot Iif elytoPe very popular. Theprivacyquestion,of situthe tact that the calendar is available for .theris se, Whereas -a. berries can be devisek tolimit the I r j ;,re i,ruptInc;.I,j,,rithrns to Ma) or may riotse,' your calendar,itisnot clear thatthe (unctionwillbecome popular anytime soon, However', these functions will indeed be indispensable if and when the w Hite collar labor force becomes a cottage industry .Chapter 9 describes an interesting scenario associated withthi-, possibile migration.

Inthissection we havetriedto outlinethe various unctions that would be necessary in a properly automated office. .1 he key pointto noteisthat office automationis murethanwordprocessing. We also made a distinction betweenelectronic'nailand electronicmessagesystems. The rest ofthis chapter will deal with different aspects of word processing and with the facilitating network to transfer the data around campus.

Word Processing Attitudes

VirginiaTechrecentlyconducted a studyon the nature ariduse of word processing on campus." The study was directed at department heads and secretaries and was

17 This sectionisadopted from Virginia Tech Systems Development Technical Report Number 80-004-001, May 15, 1930. 152 IN 1 f(A IN11111110H f:OMMUNICATION cimdurted by astructured interview processin whichthe d,;,.11-tirent head was interviewed. This was followed by an inter % iew with the departmental secretary.

he studypointedout !-0 alle veryinterestingfacts. 1T5',ofthe departmentheadsir.licatedthattheir sfmretaris knew ionsto use the centralized word processing facilityf CMS S(_IM)),tietonly 11.-V:,ofthesecretaries indicated that they had ever used the facility. This clearly points out that many department headslike to think that theyareusingalltheavailabletools,though inreality, they may \, MA be. Several disciplinesinan institution do notha eany needfordirector obviousapplicationof computers . Itisgenerallyinthese disciplinesthatthe chiefadministratorhasnoexposuretocomputers orto computing. Fhey depend entirely upon their assistants or' se/ retariesto use the data processing capabilities. Itis, therefore, riot surprising that equipment procurement requests caming from these departments are basedlargely onthee,,periences ofthesecretariesoradministrative as,adant .in the departments. It is,therefore, inthe inter',t co the lie.titution to expose the department heads to theapafokte)s of the s.oirious alternativesin wordp'OCeSS- ir,(1 andoutlinethetradeoffsinvolved inchoosingone system ox er the others.

)- he department heads were also askedifthey would pre tinier own stand-alone system rather than using the ur ita a central facility. Over 871,indicated aprefer- cum, tousingtheirownequipment becausethecentral facility was "unwieldy and unreliable" for their purposes. I-heremaining13`:, preferred the centralfacility because of -downtime" of their own equipment, This observation must be viewed inlight of the fact that only 417`:ofthe departments were even aware of the existence of centralized facilities, 35':,thoughttheirsecretariesusedit, 17`l, ofthe secretaries actually useditand only 9'1,of the department headshadfirsthand experience withwordprocessing. Further analysis of the results of the survey showed that, by andlarge,thedepartment headsthat didnot have stand-alone systems preferred stand-alone systems because "they wouldbemorereliable"andthosethatdidhave stand-alone systems preferred thecentralized system becau Seit"worn Id be more reliable."Clearly good service andnotequipment locationisthe chieffactorinfluencing preference. Various output samples were also presented to department heads. They were asked to choose the samples they liked best. From the samples chosen, the results suggest IN 1 f:A INS ITUTION COMMUNICATION 153

tlidttinty tieof,,,per is a ne titipert.intdi`t(-II1111,11Itof ;girt ;,retorem Hintthett, ,,fprinter..

A ,tendr tmerit sent ettthe aver,ejin ,h(Jettee \',t'r, r;, hilit ded I tr, d mid X11111.1M of5311,(iilit i hi. thattAi.ri. tr, linertly 111011t1,)(10(1, in imitertdm t.t, ere ds tellewte

I sills rem) text editor

odpatelityt,ritdridlii special symbols

nierced ithlollr; Heil) fiist :.rioter

%tire 1110111, iry

j ;,ranter tcrrninal lists for tiiostitiircis.

Amen, Ht. the einiTIeH,Weits ef theVinftnia1 itch suety was one that said that stand -alone or shared logic WP systems should acquied only after ithas been demons- trtited that centralizedfacilities were used and found inadequate. 1 hisrec,ommeridatior; isparticularlyinterestingin Hutt of the fact that Sr:,of the department heads indicated a personal preference to acquire their own equipment.

A study A. Stanfordarrivedatsimilarconclusions. Anexcellentreport on textprocessing was published by the Committee on Office Systems and Technology (COST) at Stanford University. The reportisentitled,-A Network- based Text System for Stanford.-According to the report, Stanford consumes throe tons of paper a day. It spends an estimated 535millionin preparing and communicating mes: sages and text.About 52 milliona year ore spent on the ii.buisition of stand-alone word processing equipment. Stanford's study indicatedthat none of the presently availablecommercial systems would meet theirdefined needs. They also concluded that building their own cus- tom made system or having asystem built to their specifications was not afeasible alternative. As a result,their present recommendation isto expand the campus-wide centralized system and,usingitas a base, provide a set of integratedservices to theirfaculty,staff and students. They also recommend that the number of different vendors for stand-alone systems be limited to a very few.A diver-

n S lb.; IN Iit 11 III loft CONIMUN ICA I IONI

1, ,f fordin tribute': nee,led ,111 f11.11t. th of into,;ratl,,11pri,11 lEnt I \'P. I hey es et ouragim; tho 1)T-, Ilt stand-alone .t,ii,are! eta eura ;mg people to thf' centralizer] fatal- I hexbelie\ e thatthe rev 'let ionill (MI' wrurk fsrl not noire; ';,p111';t1C,Ittql Mut rathertrainthe large hedv oftrulivrIduals '1,H,.; 1/1.1'.)10 ,1\ 1(.1", .11Id 1,1(.111hes urn rld

;1'; . AM, MT-,t the staled objectivesof the Stan-

! 'tisto ,tisertimatr, theirreport and seek 'list' tu- ar, i ,11`.111`,`,-thataughtwork cooperativelywith 'antontof urt hetthe object' yesoutlined intheirr.rron.io-

! in recognition efthe present state of the art in word pro, essing technology andtirestated requirement, for Gon- ne, tn, itx outs tthe \ users inaninnditu tional set nu. were( ommend that with a few exceptions,institutions invest inceritc dized and not stand-alone word pro- , v.' apabilit,esfor the followingreasons. First,the t jor'111,;.,I\ ,ti1,1!)h` in start(' -alone word processing equipment not ad,nres'. the totalof r ice automation concept described , pertonal computer; ire becoming extremely 1.,,ebelieve thattheenhanced capabilitiesofthe parsonal computers including text processing willlead these computers and not word processors be an integral part of the office work station ofthe future. We are likely

, !ref-machinesthat exclusively addressword processing teraorne extinct. The more general andversatile personal omputerswillindeed replacethem. Third,stand-alone sx stems mean that word processing would only be available to departments ableto afford/acqui re the equipment; on the other hand a centralized system would be availabletoall tacul tyadministration,staff and students.Fourth,a centralized system would be inless danger of obsolescence as ,tissupported primarily by software.Fifth,any upgrades to the sv stern would be simultaneously available to allusers.

I hestrategyofthecomputingcentershouldbeto provide a very high quality of service tothe user community.This service should be the standard against which the offeringsof stand-alone and others. .terns should be pidgod. This requirementimpliesthat thecentralized sy,,tein would providefullscreeneditor'sthat drive high quality printers that can print oncutsheet stationery and evenuseletterhead stationery. Further,aninterfaceto the printingplant would be desirable. Direct terminalto terminal connections amongst usersisconsidered essential. Capabilities to invoke a variety offunctions like mail, mes- s,ige,data, calendar',reminders, spread sheets, etc.would IN IRA INS l'UTION COMMUNICATION 155

mike the system's [wire valuable to the user corm-nullity. I he need kir po,sible local printing should not 1,1r1(Ared, It iii(1.e(1. thatthe centralized system an not e, addressoilrequirements ofallLISE!I'S Iri ri'0 (.10,1 rly dinr,nr,tr,ited rrITIOlitSthat are 1111d 1.tIl !;)'('111,like the need for some ,p, i'altoutsor ciciroctersets orthe necessityfor t(,rif 1, ifIti,i1\ asinthe(_.i-..eofthePresident's oince a stand ,Ilene system may indeed be very justif HI(

.soo,t, u,r and p(0,,, o. furl contralizod word process- i with hi;11 'itiality print cpability and a connect u1,; f CeATIIIIIIIII(IdtlurIS ISclearly the recommended ,,troteg itthis pointintime.the network that can pro- the WaS 'roil .,4,1!1 be the subject matter of the t ,eation.

Local Networks

,1[111111n1(..i t are two rapidly merging i,,a,;e(s. I he( hstinction betweenthem isallbut ord.:oil. I Itorecentantitrustrulings openthedoorsfor one ery (AIM) opportunities 111 this field.The introduction ofsatellite communications has [nodeitvery simple to send int oranotcon clear across the country. However, the +iff!cult',still hesindistributingtheinformationlocally w henitisreceived. Itis110 exaggeration to say thatitis easier p 'makedata flow from San Francisco to New York usingsatellitesthanit istogetittoflowfromFirst AN mum toFifth Avenue inNew York.A new technology calledlocalarea networkingisemergingas a solutionto thisdilemma. The technology has immediate applicationin our institutions.

Institutions of higher education are,at present,likely t'' have atleast three different networks in operation. The most common networkisthe telephone network. Several institutionshave a cabletelevisionnetworktobroadcast educational materialsto the s rooms and the conference rooms. Institutionswith mputing capacityhave a network that supports tern remote job entry stations and computer-to-computer kiications. Inadditionto these three networks some institutions have a security network and others have or are working towards a network for energy management initsfacilities. This section deals primarily, though not exclusively, with communication networks that may be used to address all the above application areas. rib IN IIt A IN', I I I II I envIMDNICIA I ION

0,'" I ,Ite licit hirthe Hi;,; t pit computing.

I Her areiaiviiral iiiisideratcl"thatleadtoa need ilatwort.. Iirst, a terminal allynotincon- tant use dfld hence ft/Or,'P, fa) ,) )f)Ipllti` irt earIr terminal A port aim getieriilsupport two aridthree terminals. this nrafe,itadvaritii- .j,,,,1`;to[WI/v[11' pest contending capabilities on the intaiter systems, Second,itmakesexceedingly good to create an environmentinwhich any terminal can oily ofthe machines liar,atriclin the computing center, liettcr Lc atfid,,nowhere on the campus. this t Ind i.I's -,r! Of till'terminals and precludes the (wedforanindividualdoing avarietyofcomputing on Hatt eiorit machines to have more than one terminal.

Inthepast,port contentionand generalizedaccess have tioeri provided through the use of dial-up ports on the omputcuisandacousticcouplersontheterminals.The .idscatitaifiiofthis approach was that the existing telephone nis,,oritcouldfietapped forthispurpose. N I-up sup- ort, Clough eery for very remote access,is generally inadequateforterminalslocatedon campus, The sign err1'c''e,citi refor dial-upterminalsiscumbersome at best. the terminalsgenerallyrunatlow speeds of3(10 lord 12111 baud. Transmission athigher speed over voicegradelures isneithercosteffectivenorreliable, rther-icousticallycoupled modemsrunningathigher speedstendtocost more thanthe terminalitself. Most usersliketoruntheir terminals athigher- speeds due to the efficiency that results from it; some users particularly thoseusinggraphics haveto runtheirterminals at higher speeds in order to get any work done.Thus, along with port contention and generalized access,higher speed transmissionbecomes thethirdrequirementforcomputer networks.

wo widelydifferingtechniques maybeusedfor addressing the requirements. Thefirst method employs a data switchto provide thecapabilitiesof automatic speed detect, port contention and accessto multiple machines, A communicationsystem usingthe dataswitchrequires the data switch itself,a modem ateach end,arid a telephone circuit which may either be a leased line or a switched line. The telephone line begins at the terminal and terminates at the data switch.The data switch is connected to the vari- ouc ports on the computers and connects the terminal to the desired service ifitis available.

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I ; u!l-i II.1111/\%1Ilth IIHI ;At-- ,it r,1[1;;(;,,,;,,i; qty i .111,1 ,:1111`' ;;i;t.\, ,,,nit(1(\ 1.;;11111,111; 1,11 (,,if)1,.,

'on; I -I- trail ,riti ion iriohom I he ti-i f I! fa;; ,i; o I IA1I `ortre oop.iii.

I f Fl;!(' of thenetwork nriy tho at certain times ijoyi riloi!to,tho iiitorfari-. I he metwori. interface 11,1;., iMt ;;;;mo that permitslilt- supervised and

, s 1 1 1 0 1 , . 1 1 t ransmirsicinmoilitim.One ofthree generallv usedtosuperviseaccess tothe "e-;rr;%;,itioriorcontention. In polling si 1),171.-.-,the network Lontrollerisconstantly checkingthe rety.ork forroulinstsancithenallocateschanhel tirestothe Rs-,2t-vat depend upon the flO,!('!c.to/II (loss the t ion s medium onlyat pre- !-0-.11e',Iilos Contention !,chernesrequirethe nodes in thefliql`I(.,rkto competefor the networkriled I llr11. Ping networks operating under the contontien scheme use either the slotted ring or the token passing scheme for competing for the medium. fins net,,vorks, on the other hand, use a ti'lu ri;ne called t.S%1,1C.h)I for carrier- sense multiple access with dlision detect)to fnit11,11' contention on the transrms- S'OT1

The whole point ofthe above descriptionisto point nuttl;.itnetworksthatoperateunder the TDMA scheme allowone,.one user-onthenetworkat a time.Different 1 I 1 I! 1111; II( IN( ()%1%1UNIC_ATIO'N

.. [,, . !!. " ,fit dos H" t,JLi"

, .,1 thisteLlinHue are its

' 1. [11.1\ ,11 ir tI j: 111(114,1;,10,,ItH I P11. 4.)..1II,1E0[14,1- 4I.11(0)IllSSmnI.iiIII. ,2,,Itc1 r. .-re 01 [n4404'0114. ririjeaon the , r HIS 4!,, .itiii. t Tho, Pr,

[ /11,H4II

I n beused i ,,th 1,,r,..0.1.1.Jcirid and aPI.'lisedfor inudf, differs !r In4,41' rHo I/1-,.!,17-or1.,ro,d1.),ird trarISIIIISS1041. ,!!!!.'HIS 47,011tr,41 001'1104' V.IreS 4 4-r.ounded by 0.1,1i- iie ,ET a Cam ler`,11'('

1 d 1' .1H111,1:11:111 ,1,11,0 H.-a( 1-; 1,,((flallf(41hitt,4''1 iii ii .ipacat than the 1.01 P-

l.)roadbanclI,,:\1.11caluleiscertainly not a te cables ha e been used for several .. ,H ble ties isvm riitonrks, the gi-eatpotential of

E , calalca,inlocal networksisthatit

: .: 4.01I114141411G14,1,-)11 of telephone, video and data sin,j1(,rCIíi, I his ispossible due to .,an,;,..,dth rarismission is done onchannels irnuitipiexinq. Some channels '',em' for TV transmission arid others fo, voice (.)ver krA(terminals at 0(:)1111 baud nri sir.:i1,, -1" r, limber l even ,,11"I' ,,arlier,there are three possible media that Le 11!-,ed for. Irir.,11 netv.,..mLing.Ofthe three,coaxial 'optics are the most suitedfor transmission !Her optic- cables have extrerTmly -4_ 140 'perilat data rates up to C IF) 01111 ril If 0,jJ0 the ride oft ruin SIM Sc 101)IS0

uneson Cm).1.J.Picato,-Broadband I -Lall\rtworhrigCapability."Data

rucut , tmebruary 1900. INSTITUTION COMMUNICATION 159

elec.tb_.triagnetu interferon, t'din.rnoise. ch.alsignals are passed through the cableit ttr fromill-Halwiretapping,thusprovidingmuch I h, mai-r draw Haat,. of fiber-optical 'Hit.itV. t'It\,tIffit nitto tap the signal. Cables ant; ,11, tr ,c . So far Her It., he-nhingedtohitth'-',pot'd Paint to -point

dr-sigris are based oncoaxial cable let s Ethernet was developedin .trtd the ba,,,barid [node of transmission. Network c , t a l r al Hes operatingin ,1 Uroac.'b.,nd . .1;11,,m;st. rlidax Corporation Corporation.

tir 11,,tisa serial-bus local network thatuses fixed i.oe;t eti,thatcontaindata andheaderinformation ilantit tire location.-T he network can have ; ,,assoitseach withanetwork interface module t rat,..mitsth.Iota on the network. Eth t , he(7.S%1A CD scheme. I trreisno rantralL41IplltOr managing the traffic on the aLh iiidemonitorst hesignalonthenetwork .111:; tr,tm;rnit,.H..0.0only whenrlfinds afree time period. Ittwonn-',esstartto transmitat the same time they both st.,pfor a intervaloftime. Retransmissionis P,';nn attar that interval ifno one eL..,eis on the network.

ii-,perchannel is alsoa comuter-to-computer network ,r!on the._ r,,xialcable that can be multidropped at up 6.1 locationsalong a 111110 ofcaftle. Contention on the in port hannel is handled differently from the Ethernet tech- rie.nio. Initbercharinel dataistransmitted in frames that naryinsize(up to -1K bytes) . Eachtransmittedframe requires a response frame from the receiver. If two nodes transmit at the same time.. thereis110 response frame gen- eratedduetotheerror intransmission. Detectingno thenode with ahigher priorityretransmits the data. 1 ne lower priority node waits its turn. The LocalNet network offered by Network Resources C. irpr, ration (Sytek,Inc. ) isbased on broadband mode of coaxialcable. ''Itsupportsvideo,voice anddataaommari icattons atvarying speedson a single xial cable in a 25-mile radius. Digital data is

LOC, A I. NE 1, NetworkResourcesCorporation, Mountain View, CA for technical details

f:7; IGO IN I RA IN'H II11 I ION COMMUNICATION

tr . -.nuttedurrrrimg itdrireiter_iiiiirities. I he lidret wirtth r-rt the coaxial cable varies between 3(T) and 44)) N1Fiz. I uses PO contiguous 300 kHz channelsforits nety, r f ierrritiritrs. Allunitsc,;(inecrtedtothe network tr.nrerniitritthe 1/iwt.iriii(I rosandreceiveatthe ir-(iiierir ices. Hie tirruirriiirtted ddtd first gOeS to a ,rter t I'd11';Idtr,rHint where the lowband is converted to trighbandf 1..,,;tiert(.ws ridr,,t,urstilitteci. 1 his arrange- tri,ritiscalled a mid-split. I he retransmitted datais captured by the appropriate section of the network intelligence and mitto tie-.connecteddevice. The easeofsystem r!ormit ion itsin-eatflexibilityare major advantagesto the,appr..,,, h net wort 1 hisnetworking scheme can ore-,11\b..intograted with cableIV netyprks providing a riy,i(t I ill P F1S !,_11in connectivity

iiiversityhasrecently completeda study on Hi alrietiworl he study recommends thatthe Uni- versityshanildimplement localnetworkbasedon the Haraiftrand \Gilcable technology Their design consists stem for greater reliability. They trunk cilbles be used to connect Ine facilities'Al campus. One cable would carry the "core sen, ices, and the ether would carry "special or scheduled servwes." xamples ofspecialservices were highresolu- tion graphics and high speed computer to computer connections. Both cables would carry network control, Mdlliti'FI,IFIi` arid security services. The ideaisthat failure m thenormal services cable could be recovered from by tmporarily using the other cable for normal services. The special services would be interruptedtillsuch time as the arilo rrm,alned unavail,r sin

dirplirdtionsofthe network would consist of the

:rrr,or.iurritr,rrtildsafety"

Auti.Wo rryf ire sin-if alarms

Intrusion /arms Romirrte 1W surveillance ,t(. ess ffaut rid

W. Shipp and Fi. Webber,"Final Report: Study Group On rdecommunications and Networks, Brown Uni- versity, 1930. ItiI BA iNST ITUTION COMMUNICATION 161

-%1,1r-'7, ItL1:-.111.1M rIfij

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I 11 area netv:orks are goini:-1to play Sr , increasingly impertantrideiiiour campus communication systems. The use ofbreadband networks furvoice,video and data corn' 111.1'y be the norm inmost institutions by tio.leo ;Hies .

Terminals for Managers Program

The StanfordT erminals for Managers Programwas conceived asa one year experiment . The program provided a terminal and supportingsoftwaretools to selected administrators, with the primary mission ofintro- during new technology to the senior and executive of ficers ofthe university.'''Initially,55 terminals were locatedin the v.orls areas of the individuals involvedin the program. lex tprocessing andelectronic message system were the funrtrenspros a led, alongwith a filing systemand a reminder sy st( cl The standard features of each of these four functions,,sereavailable toallusers. Inaddition, a ,tirectorywasprovidedwhichtranslatedthreecharacter Thiroeabbreviations( initials)intocomputer accounts. A feature for resolving duplications was builtinto the directory function. The directory also allowed the identification ofa commonly used subgroup of individuals receiving messages.

See Cedric, S. Bennett, "Stanford University's Ter- minalsfor Nlanagers Program," CAUSE/EFFECT, May 1981, pp. 22-25. I6-2 IN I kA IN', II IIII ION COMN1UN ICAT ION

"i he project team pro, Heil one to- one education to the ITIM,PjerSinthe program. Several levelsof documentation rrrpm'''.1(!(',falong with an online help feature.In order IT,,;- t 11%01.S microcomfortable withthe system, a irictyrrf *IMO pidY1r19software Star r rek, Adventure, cht.,1 Hari lack, etc :vat., made available. The partici- pationin playing 111Cpped off as work related activi- bas increased "1'1 t he system. I he goals of the experiment wore to improve the communication process,to provide the prs.rnid use of computers for problem solving,to support a a i r ot yref(at it_ o arrangements and to create a friendly and easy truce systorn that would sellitself.Of the four goals I,,,.

fie io.,p0r1111PrIt has met withtremendoussuccess. rom the mitial group of 55, thenumber of users with ter- minalsthat,are participatinginthe programis up to 350. er of these users pay their own bills for the use of tie p, .teem wiien the system wasfirst implemented there averageofhair messagesperpersonper day. he number hassince growntoten messages per person per day,testifyingto theacceptance and success ofthe

Motivated by the success of this experiment, the proj- ectteamisplanning several enhancements to the present offering.1 he software is scheduled for change to improve is efficiency. The decision support toolsthat were excluded from the first experiment are under consideration forinstallation. Accesstospecialized data baseslike the CapitalBudgetfileandtheLegislativeBillsfileisnow

TheStanfordexperiment is significant in thatit refutes the widely held belief that executives and managers will never use the terminal.The key element for the suc- L('SS of the program seemsto be the fact that a very simple,easytouse,convenientanduseful application was providedto themanagers. Itsapparentsuccess has bridged the fear gap that many individualshave whenit (.01110Sto computer systems.The realchallenge willbe to mintinue to build on the base of knowledge andthe behavior pattern that this experimenthas generated. IN 1-RA -IN:-MTUTION COMMUNICATION 163

Planning for the Automated Office

I he automated,aff ice concept isstillconsidered by tutiliast the rate at which technology has been in hi, and thec,ntlnin,;blurringofthedistinction ,iittputing orali.,,M1111111', .itionpc,intl;inevitably to a ininfig work en% I t Ol fief automationis one pro,' :hatr amnia.,v0r111,0.(`a beginning without top management y,I1;,, ,rt KeLdnso a nlinn component of office anti mation is electronic message systems, acritical mass of tiecessiiryto begin the program. Italso needs a th,-,,,ght outtar tlitating network.Both these require- tor to i,tend financialii.uppitirt withoilt which the t

Once top managementii,jj['NM't and supportisavail- theleoid stepisto put together a task forcethat in involved in computing, administrative ter% management,behavorialsciencesand Halo, lug Because a properlyimplemented aunanati office i, t hasthepotentialofradically changing . n irwiririt interact withit,the par- t n iifthec,rr eius members inthe task force is f.iiii cmtr-

twh, the; task force report to? Isthis afunc- tionthatisproperly located in computingor in admmistra- to. e serylf.t'Sor somewhere else?Itdoes notreally matter. f he tas1.force should report to the universityadministrator thathasthe best business sense and believesinthe con-

strategu. plan then needs to be developed thatcon- several aspects of theprocess. First,a conceptual ilanis needed that describesthe scenario ultimately to be acinesied. This will help influence the day-to-day decisions Hit will leadto the stated objective.Second, an organizational approach must be agreedupon. Should the machine intiahijemtedndprocessingcapabilitybecentralizedor deLentralized?Or should a combination of the two be used? Localrealities,the size of the organization and itspresent environmentwilldefinethebestapproach tobetaken. Fhird,the functionality of the system should bedefined. f;,gjaili.liLiittedsystem functions can be planned fora staged implementationisthe user experience, understanding and acceptance grows. if hought must be givento ease of use and ease of learning characteristics.Richness of function must be weighed againstincreasedcomplexity of the system. 1 he design should encourage thefrequency of use Fourth, the hardware approach should be defined. It 16-1 IN I RA IN!. IIII1f ION COMMUNICATION

.171; rtmt sLitidirdIZe ,:/r1 one or two (no more than three)different types ofequipment. This standardization willtendto per-roe the investmentintrainingtime and chow the user to use the system from multiplelocations with the.rino, (et tiverioss . evolutionary implementation 'Ian roast befir. t'loped. It1;ItTlp,rt.intthat mernIfers thet.e.d.. for«, (and some oftheirfriendly peers) along ththo memLiecs of the computing centr.r shouldmake up a pilot group to debug the hardware and thesoftware. Next 1,,r(p enough grc.up from the university communityshould pe chosen torinitialimplementation. Interfaces to normal emmurocation media should be providedso thatthe user gcesr,..111.1%1' to,:11p1 iLdte the work. For example, assume of eight a useryvp.hes tosend a 111"Stiagf' to a group IM!!idu,11s. Only five ofthe eight have terminals ontheir os) ho user should be able to send the message once fife uidn itu,rfswould receiveitontheir terminals,the other flu no would be printed inthe mailroom for haw; \ .inpactofthistechnology is likelytobe .ciderablo. -V,a y'ro,r1 rule, peopledo not resist tech- .gy theyresistsocialchange. The person-to-person orunturm.dtionwillnolonger hethe same, The lackof body languagearidothernonverbalcues in electronic sy sterns will somehow have to becompensated for. Perhaps there will be an increased use ofexplicit verbal clipsin our language patterns.Or multimedia communi- catins using voice with text andgraphics will become thenorm. -Hiesecretary/bossrelationshipwilldefinitely change itisnot clear how. Because of these changes that are 14 ely and other changes that we cannotpredefine, theparticipationofthe behavorialscientistsinthetask force for office automation is very important. NETWORKS AND SHARING

"So, Nat'ralists observe, a Flea Hath smaller Fleas that on him prey.And these have smaller Fleas to bite 'ern. And So proceed ad infinitum." Jonathan Swift

The Economics of Computing Fe the user the roost irni,Lint impact of the computer system becomes the timeittcr.r_!s, from data entry tofin- ished report circulation,to gethis job done." To management the most important considerationisthat the work be processed in order of value tothe institution (and as effi- ciently as thereinpossible). Thesearetwoconflicting criteria and each group must be sensitive to the concern of the other ifthe two concerns are to be brought into some commodious arrangement.This suggests that the institution mightwellestablishan internal externalmarketplacefor data processing services.A marketplace analogy would also suggest the desirabilityofdecentralization and networking as competitive tools.

" Materialinthis and the followingsection has been adopted from R.C.Heterick,editor,Virginia Information Systems Exchange Network Plan,November '974. We are particularly indebtedtoCharles Goetzforhisinsights on the economics of computing. 172 166 NII \11)1t1\

111$.1,-, ICI n any ii( Htit ,111ddiTIPTILli I'L.)r1(1,1111c l'eS011r-CeS be put to more

i r,t le. 1.H. init.,. H nig become more mit fi he notion iit tii whit- resource use is Con

1 ' . 1 1 . . 1 . . 1 1 , 11 1, 1 cif f p t . [ ; 1 e f into 1 , 1 'OR technologicl' imency is the nest 'ray ihtforiiiil. mem+,requiring that thesimile outputins fill,.1 HO pi',J1VeJisithfever inputs;whateverispru

I rinn;t in a technologically resouticf ash 261iirativeet ficiencyasks a inore thorny narte iiiit;iiit(nixshouldbe chosen, i;,1, ,,inn constella- s r f t o.ith anvfixedresource orideiwiticint7 In:aim,efficiencyisdesired both asto how el'5015 prHuced andalsoastoexactly Hi prudijcjirj.

(.0[1H-in [zed man igementis rn t hebestposition to i; uarantio iftn, e efficiencywhen theconditionsfor 11 sisare !-;;11.n.in,l intheirpristine t. aim !Is/ theiiffectiviinessof alternative output noses must Ho susceptible to quantification.However, data ; tinsor \, esa wide spectrum ofextremely disparate uses which arerelatively difficultto compare ina meaning- , ulquantitativefashion. Thisnon-comparability emerges atleast ton major reasons. The first,and most important,isthat the -effectiveness- of the uses will frequently In' sidiject to widely divergent, although perfectly defensi- Hle,sn!ipi.tivoevaluations,evenby-expert- observers. I he other isthat, subjective factors apart, the very diver- sityofthedata processing applications makesitunlikely thatanycentralizedevaluatingagency can realistically amassandcoordinatethehumanexpertisenecessaryto assess properly the consequences ofalternative data processing policies. Upon reflection,it should be recognized that, this twofold economic optimization problem posed by data proce.,sing systems ismerely a special case ofthe technological and allocative questions facing the general economy.This sug- geststhat an analogousallocative regulatedmarket-type network ofcompetitive consumers and suppliers would have advantages.

Ina competitive economy, technological efficiency tends to occur because users have unfettered freedom to gravitate towardleast-costsuppliers. Allocative efficiency emerges when suppliers competitively seek the possible profit oppor-

tunities . ignalled by usersmonetary -bids-for different 173 rdI \,v()P.w.; AND mIARING 167

t uH,, , ,p"0,tr/l the rol,itiveincomes. (-,ipacities f dif ferent ti t'1111 .11 IS tt,nrIn't- t t , t', ,111, ',int I.Olt' !1',tritttl- . ,t1 .t Ho' I "',.? I i .ppir thi. niin, ..it entf'rprise ,ti.. , si. ,r 1114,,- , . , t.p ,111d, inic.trati%(, mari,ejers"

, these tinidireilevels -1,1to,e pt which St1,-)tdcd he

t the' costs,the biddire; prc,(:ess1,y :ute.; i ,,..re( e to aqpreq-ite the me. iniontsofusers andcallforth output

I -1iietv.-rl- lie;isthe promis, the arm-silo- ritie or,.1Inirlf,, t, .111(.% :11;ali.'1";\,'.1('Illis .111 sf flr't\VOrk sis tIrtitinr 1111[ . ..!' ',Iti;nific,,nt

on. !, .en It' nicct ...eenthelPt Hie!the I U devices. tin twtt.... 1.,111 r;()Filr)lerrient entl heCen- t f oat nro siii!r;le CPU with an I .; ate:!,itthe r((ttiotn::ates

iiiStribntinn data 1.-)COCOSSII19

Is tn mm confeiiiratioriCIAessentially , fun, H ''of tin-.central system severaltimes '5,, Itr,a ,1 litfi,iuittnAnticip,iteitsincurnbent nrIripc,-,(;anlyl.sr';'t.doronatintrucationscosts,data !nrat nrat,;, ( s ntotlinds,varying levels f-r1(arHal'a:;,;(rt ya--,a;raphicbrr.a1-.cmitof data ;.r .aanlar ;,rohlems althotnill some ! it...it,(JH(rt,Inita,'so''((satiableittotallyduplicated hardw,tre and( ontrol systorn!a-a. tware ar-e operated at each to

, e ;. 1i n s t t h i sb,,,.1-.ciround,the economic advan- tc.ie a l i t rilinted. network become appar the divisional scheme andto a contralize:lf rir ility. Indeed, the differences between autarchic dIN,IF,Hsri,i1scheme and the central-

"-,1,111 1 ,111 P. as principally differences of thin H.itifrot,, , I- Ind. I \\DItt I.At; ',HA It It:(i

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'tpei It'. ill I t Hytheextentofthe it I Or isicicle. tilarlycriticalincomputer t tii otp,,rtirular types of out

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h. th.it a thnroticallyidealworld of t inC s ds tochnology ariduser preferences, j,(. Lompetitive supply nodes. In ro.,!!..ticcontext.'!--,wever,criticalimportance must ,,ttache ! the perisu, es Of economic Darwinism and the ef ,ectivee.,icepreneurialbehavior. The key, cctofis t Hoc, 11"rf' are rill'(.tlyparallelto those ce!ei. I,t in thedi-ti.tssciwnt r.,f compdrativeefficiency in mackot ocon,ounes ,1111; centrally HdtlflOd socialist econo- mi,. ItOil, wore tr'uly' confident of what to do arid how to

1 t, he market typeadjustment process is clearly chi-iensalcle. However, inthereal world,the apparently crud,- and at times seemingly wasteful groping of the market fr ogn.'intk a necessrty rn order to generate experunen- tallythemt. aimatiog which allowstechnologiesto he corn- Hared ar.d the preferences of consumers to be determined. leveed in thisLoritext, thecompetitiveentrepreneurial f unctions, of the autonomous sui-.-iply nodes loom as compelling ;Ids histype ofsystem rewards, and increases t h er e k iti v e importance o fa supply node which either '''orsec vice with greater technolog-

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N''twor'k Types

I I A dot !nit rifit r 5'. 1. aio!ii to, on..0,0tmnoht..apply Ha :Li V.0 already noted that , ' network. V.ewilt I II of net v.,orl- inc,to those Je-opersion ofllorolwore aridr.lecE-ntrol- ..,ft

1 h i, r o a s t common form ofnr,tworkisfound nn most Lir oompii -.es whore control coinot, tong system r orfuore CPUs) supportson remote input output devices.Most typically these Hp\ re Ck prin Uric; or graphic terminals operating at horocters,iersecond and cardreader,'printei- iiora mgat 1;;(;(i to2000 characterspersecond. I Hi... A 1'1' worolly ottochodViadial-uporleased 111105, tv,.110roshorter' distances(typically less than Poet permit,t hey may be wired directlyto the PI .rit.rolunit orfrontend- COMITIllrIICa- t1,.IiI. i()tit It,t,t t . ',II Alt ILL

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1, ;,r, tall-1 t 11111.1'J 1`11 ''t t' It H.1. (1111-t \ td*Ipir111, 00111.V.111'n'nn d11(.1 H I dile 1111111111,11 \ ptIrtl!-Iein (1'.111,) .ri1;111hIr, it the ,. ,;.. P,nt .)% !( ;1 111 !tar('iiiider";tandirigofthe ,0their datato,the ciitt,,Litytodtty hp (ICJi/OL. r t putformsandriRttre (-fticwritinput 'IC.11100'111/(1 attpii.tacTurit..-; sourcepoint !r, thisform Ifnetworking ericour eot JO Iltt?

t .111 till iriel111 II till. tVi/d reisinure ;0. 1111tOldIflg, brItC.I1 1.1,11 networked environment tt), p I lcdt 1,-)r)areaspecialistsin r-ril,tthnsystemsdto,.eloprmtitgroup. Interactive, eip.tirolIMPrItsiii.'' changed the foulsf rornthe apple to Ow yenerir, processes common toall applica- ,, I he systemsdevelopment groupfinds ;eatitsrPsotirr.es/I remerettrofi (ablyexpended orthe ,Te..loprrorit of goner-al query systems, data base interfaces, JO re;, rtwriter's, and the like.In fact, we frequently the apple ation area spet.ialist moving to the adrninistra- its computerexper- , unit and becoming the nucleus of -1s thefo,:us:Joltstornscheduled,fixed,batch bugteInteractive,in/hoc query the need forsoft .i! .upprt in these .1 cs.cmles extremely pronounced. Itisnotutit.ornm.,r)toseerilllItiple data base management stems andsev ralquery reportwritersystemsirnple- rrenb-d onthe localnetwork. The level ofcomputing self stti ioeto,of administrative units on sorne campusesisthe -ene the dc,idernic units. he extramural network was pioneered by themulti- ; Imptlsuniversitysystems. Itseems strangethat most in-tworkswerebuilt V stifleorinhibitcompetition rather (11,111 hi Lhdrinelitfor the common good. In view of feelings igorous, competitive ,conomy Ni i t, Itivlt ANI) '.)I1AkINC,l il

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II 11 t.ri; .$1,,! (11111pIr;. I1`.1\,.111i) ti ..t 4..11( .indrt.,111,)ernef iton rdd(mic r.it lye alt.i pro( Hy. tiii,i,i11111I'ArdtlVf. iltd

i 1 ,ir;.1111.`litr. r .11t1I1110

t ofthe N,It 1,,t1,11 ' t.i .11101 '`,1,111,1,p,111(MtSystems (N1.111 t,ietr..ns r.-Hint jfor .t tl \ IIIili,;ilfr;,(h;(:;(1,11). Al!)t)f)the ,1 hut itt,,r.1, II r..ti,t1to rildriddl(dsh.tritig unr I AI .r;,rlirrH t.,f,i( the shdriiIrj of,i(ittilltls- tt,..tro t\Y11'P 1,01.11'11CeS rir. trm ofoxtr,unirr.rlnetworE, was frequently .)tit C..iirruterhardw,-ire costs hli! itthe expense of tor lity,Hq1(..,11qr,.,wthdrid ien...,t ion rn.itopoly;ticsoftware syy;tems were systr.rndesirinandhive ;tor;by pttchiriquntilthereismore thatis !iffr''outthinis' the same between campuses. Batch tory-. .ironed scheduled repc.rtini) have continued to I..ri!;otter the ddy-tut,i'if' of interactive systems nee ,-Jo\oth-trunolit groups have pet thr Ietis do itjr oyou , rttitr:de of the 19:Als loos 111,7rti,inr,admirustr,itive unitsfeelingitwas clone"to" them wither thin -"or'them. 313 r 31r1,+"1

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,34/1 LidinJ). emti.1 pi 3;3 OU P.1 I f Tau 3s, 1.13) (3 (3:13, Airiucif,..id ag ;11111;;,. 11,.113 1 a111 .tuaj f 'rf1 VrOl, Al2D '..-_,HAPItC;I i3

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tfl, 111,, tho-, .111 girt

rther rl,rwrr do's and its spe- rtyofcode rrli-rthe trdris- sor.tioriv.ill t},.

rirr Hi rl.,,,r-hrsinoritof ", rrInor, student theywill v.11:thr heused, ifir ril,rir( vs sep-trdte 111 the Itheto toe rirly,rriced ur rt,- tic local re; of the "..licro

Yu. t,hirrh micro and r.tl.er r,orif;guritions for the computing er-rb;icity and d,,t,A may both be dis or, the.,cation where most efh- bir.ilitatedatainterchange 1- tiit-'f, central switching 1- imr;lrttdtnrf someformof Message core. Itdoesriotseem likely thatthe ,up:,I-,t tho Hu; nuy.hine, but r-ether complement it 1!,W111,flt -This scheme scorns to be the :PV,1 Architr,ct orearidis the II,, F. V.I.

r-th

.11 ,tt. ,11111 (apt', ti,.H,Ny it ..1't f..1r1 HS 5 H j:)f),(INH

'1 !.. I . !'1,t1( .1,1.;1011;01' 1,th101 1111. t Iltf.r'`..Th t.1,11 Of HO 11, tI stern on large te', Ian

:fll r ('`, IInto .1'.,' ..1 h'y to--.;ofthe main memory to t'-inrms line (_\..1.1e speeds ,, v.ithmediumsiredCl'UsoftheIPM tI)e some form of B;\SIC s N.'filch places the ;1.e -gramming Current eic.,pmeritisaccelerated fil ha1011

; ', pr1( I.of f111( tI' , id.1111111Pt dr,\L'fiv.',It.(iwhile It 111.; I,,!1 I .flt Intl(' to expand. marketoid as amulti user intine S.1;)i), NM range, Typical

Hr, '10 r6T11 16 to 52 use, in most standard f UOBOL and

; I \lost odt:I if' some Of supervisor it taskSWItC.Allft,jaridinterrupt processing helding s,istero everhead toa minimum. Cycle times ai many f.ivordbly with machines inthe IBM 1.5 class. 'searlyallmajor manufacturers of minicom- t,-,rs data !Jose management system and ipabilityto attach a large rurirl '''tothigh performance type %lost sys!erns iri'designedas Hti,,,itctilimoskit' rp.; Fri,ic.hiites with a background 'oatt-,hiscontrolled by the supersoisor. At the hpoli end of the min,c,:iroputer spectrumitisii;asicallyonlytinii.;design fea- ton,., that separates them from other mainframes.

Software Sharing

Perhapsthemostimportantimpactofnetworkson dd1.1proc..--,s:,-,inqhas been the realization that sott,,,,1 dtVOI(prlit'llt 1; np,-.)rtantLHoension. For' any.iiirlificaritlevel of software sharing to take place,itis '41PV)Kkr.., H. INC 175

7 H

d t. '11, off. and a, c.,.;,ted

d -id,iiisr'. iiitiiirj tend ..10

11.StItUt1,11'.; I

; r : /11,T..re Is

1.' .15a (1.110.,ill,`[1( that 1,-. thes.epormtionofinput, t,, pr",\ IdC!the ' s.:0-tv.dremcif:Ten ,.Hr..ndl 51.Hit,.(1

.11drifl.; . .,t .. frtinf.r. 111-.dif ICd .f f tv.are

. , ci uly, ii}rj t-,rce tire t

inn' L.-. Iq115 [illy, ',. .d s.,f ty.,-irein 1`.0. H, ;intor if tthisruco;e

n nt (!,\ d I F, f, r a ITIrijoru in I: n1:71 jnt nnf thou's.ire,1,,ofdollars. f Ire ii -steinishardly even alone than , of ,irlr;tc.limp along with an ot)so- - th.1,0 d.r.,.1(Jil Gwen these it I., -1,, Ii Slynicer the ;,ment f f rorilits isle,Ii11,11Hly ,if ever, change.

Iii'- 7. th,- technological obsolescence p-oHem t c , l i e faced i s t h e programing lan 1 '+° in.,1,-,rityofacl,misustt-ativesift I il,.-,doped 17, Idri,111,1731, developedinthe H t. t first5;l.r10,; . m p li t ir l ( j t e t , h n o l o c i y . The Ian is otionted to Patch difficult to learn and \, ,ffmientinexecution. Theprospectof II,liiteldLtive, more powerful I.inguage is suf lentto in l'nnjr.11111-11n1,;rnon,igersInto astate of

130 I I1t,(lfil

rm.:ogler('that ; puttoHi,. to rr. ..tadmirastratis f.Sy';t0ITISitiill Ji it, 11 1,1Hjt1,1(j(-_'1; on

ht r`iliinstornptitiirur ts:etiwot

I e Hist ear:. brought explosive growth use of ;le inadministrative systems.

',awl 'I . t h e I n t e r e s ti n min morinititars has been fostered aliletworla . Obvious t H r st, plaritrind .;11,);,. Inthese 010.11.,,:1111enttit11('rt'11,1,'r been signifi antfirhipai ada antagos tor source ir,rintdata captureor' 1.11, 1,1,1111 -III

both IIIiraryaridbookstorehave costeffective %.,,,tfldreadirej used in check out and inven- e,iriiraise there c.xists the need to comma ate ,.entral facilityto interface with He masterdatabase. r raringitrrrist.nitisdaysthe advantages ofSensor (,,Irtr.)Iand rnieirejernent of the heating and air condi ulna) systemshas large monetary payoffs. Linking the t-xteditingsystemswiththeprintingplant economics in re-draftingarid re-proofing text

allcases, communicatic,--slinkwiththe ent 1..11far.ilityisnecessary in order to update a master file diritc,hriteto p,a)vide an archive or back up for local filesandtrr,tueuflytofacilitateloadingthe filesofthe rillniccmput,-r A common operational mode isto "down load- t he files or portions of the files from the campus facility to the minicomputer. Atnight,the minicomputer spoolsits transactionstothe campus facilitywhere the master data base updatedtoreflecttheday'stransactions. This process1,,.epeated on adaily basis. The minicomputer is used in something approaching areal time control environment Scheduled F,pplications program, Arerun. against the mister data base on the campus facility In these en; ihnnments the minicomputer isusually controlled by an operating system, supp rting eight to 32 ter- rain. Is, printers, wand readers, etc. The data base managrments \ stern onthe minicomputerislikelytobe differ, fr thatusedfor the master data base onthe ampus inunc,'puter isriot used to solve the

14,E II11',01:1\ RING 171

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tlt 1"r1', t F111111

. ''t hi' t ilt

IIt f rtri It! 'Hs, Ita 0,e--.y otti;.e r,ur rein; the

t1, 1.. M111,11,111('Ilt ritOtrIS, Sli!)11..ttc,trf,citJEsn' h-cr , to\\,.,r,itine lent ofreal ' stiffs tie,,,Mnriistrative ,11)putisrfanlity v.111 ! Id, r,t1,,.,,tthe cintral 1,1(.11-

111, 1;ole of the Mir ro, omputor

impa( t , .1,10 (---)tm,f the 1.o- \Hat the maforityetterrnlnals Horn; ; hasp 1110 stepfrom 1 r Sirnplo r eught,. ht 1;1,, tI idorsisr. hen willthe .,it It. -smart terminaltothe n -nilthe phenomenal Apple, the timeis now.

piofsophistication t ,t the exr.eerl ;tin it , rently re,lurrr'd of ' t mrriti Whether Hi, t!, -.,-,holdtot-PaLli hir:11rsr urrentl,,being debated. dptItind ..hemicro be'down rh.rinel arid supported v, a Jilt ;Tian ;n:Ichmr, dialogue. In r1,rrr,,,definition r)os,,ible theml if,,nly Hbredintermsr.t the trim the larger:PlItr.11 Ithas the i.fnot puttinr; systerri out of ,1111:"-.1 1ri Il..ritLill

I.Q I , I Altliw;

.,11f1111' ,id'114, thefill' (P\ ',`,11tr:tho ,b lo 1.11J t file -;:. c,ftho tht' itiiiihtilitd theuser His d itL. ,,,,,ttor.!.. ilipet pads ,!a host of s.Hric,j de\ mes. AVe ekt. t to see r,C,ITIFTI011i_IlitCe 1.1I1'.11.ChltPCJS, etc. lie ale! ,losesiners He,tiLlyJlt,11P,ice: iL enters

; ,1.1rt .;ilwiAti-11-on'nted termindl device.

11'),.:or pl/ri,)" /1/ICrc:, IS the heart of word pr, IHAvfIHlidingthetuarkit, tv1.inyusers ti_, 1,1e;, 111111.h their ce,e3riii,that their appetite ericoriirijosses the need to access ityn,ct,t\ ran the stdri- ;,,, '',%tf.111',-, thl 111;111,l 't. It IS ,1 tt)i ai ,11111.111q inmicro -Based \i.hichiswit user prucjrciturnable and coriutitiminations IZZSZi==- THE FUTURE ',41941114

only tool you have isa H miner, J to see every problem as anail." Abraham N1Z11,i0W P,14-M4M!.

drtuni:itmltivt, Entropy

utthe tom)atthe century a ':1`-'ve1 English suggo".tedi wa beat the sec- ca! ot 1 hermo,; \r WS. he Secon : Iaw hasto do entropy the of the unavailability ofuseful a increase Withtune when the .,11 -1 tateno.for0,-,e11. said inaffect H t , H,(rrilpi miph rase) Imagine a Demen, ii veryintelligent creature who can setamolecules. the bome,, as the custodian of agate between toocontainers of gasatequal temperature and pressure. by careful ripening arid closing of the gate the Demon allows Iii'aster moleculestoItiny' to onecontainer,the slower niclocul.o. t, the (.thrir. (-F, firtime, one container ci.As hot- anel'heothercooler, tliuioincreasingtheavailable ioeon; m HIP as 111,', Hiredbythetemperature

hi r 'hi :111"P t"I.appeared inR.C.Heterick, -Aciennistrativ(- aupport Services, CAUSEIL-.Vr ECT Novem- ber 19S1. pp. Q I';',0 IIIf f I;I 1).1

t 11et \`,o ,.ont,urlrs. 1 Iii increasein r, eiiirijytothe smart Donlon) and we haver iri

that I t h ,Si-i i \

171, 1', 11.e1111 ill 1.'0' 1.--ha..0\',1 1.,111 nt,I,Jet,1.11- Ee111,11 a Hi 1 [flor 1'1101 fdyti;'the 1,11'10.

111 nr ii -I 1titi.11.11 syatern. It :-,f'efIlS t hat 11111 le" ,1'1' rip" Tor the intrercitictionof a111T1011 oftheir irit,itrieirin t(1.1,jt`IIIt'fit i")11110S11/1./11 \, and structure. Itis intentot tem surrirestistintform such r1 111,1 11 itv.ould t admtnistratIrariin

ailmentsare predicated upon two major obscr- ic;ar dim; thi climate firhigher education betve-en are!the turn H the century First, wean observe a ofreducedFederal,State and perhaps puie kriariciaIsupportfor higher education. This iation e\aa,rHited by continuing double Ileires and universities will orictrur lionwillto 111Cru,ls- in*, !Ire ;Try plantmaintenance, idarh,tor older- stricTes, promises to he excirbitant.

f he Ofinstitutionstoreact tonow educational ir.eopreirtenities willbe significantly attenuated. Such ..e flexibilitywillke particularlypronounced and l ntialli.devastating for Many institutions.The dynamics it iiiiication are moving inexoraiTy away from inten- -ax a res i'antinstruction,partially dueto He s ime eco- lornii miler-ate-ars impactingour public as well as

As we irWrea.S11Thkvimix entire states and even larger -;- araaS ,our constituency and perceive the need toiii inir ed1:11,1t1o11.d11\ pert/Se to the people, the cost of ',in oornsto Ho increasing exponentially. More and mere the unix ru-sity will be,rightfully, viewed asa network ofraograblhreillydispersed andincreasinglyreliantupon eiffer.tiveadministrativeandpublic communications. This briiii;s us tothe i:ciand major observation. Institutions are -mire;noticeably,More informationintrusive. Our role lieu always been to discover, develop and disseminate information but our internaloperations have ney, cbeenso Tepondent upon effect" information purveying as they are riw. nicreasinr-ie T'be. As the institution growsin complicipty as it toreach out geographically,as itsinxiik ementsinsponsored research and public service reachHeinerlevelsofactivity,the demandforprompt, 1 HI 1If IllfE 181

.11,.!it',I...A elteLti%,' .t

.1iI111 t) fl'.1111111';t rol till ,/10;11 ItLif I I .11111, 1.1`, .ippetit f for inforimition ...,uppprtsr rs I he ii,P)te,',to ,,11,J,Jestpuj slime ways miff te, liolory maimgenwrit ..11 proc.esses 11.1- rtdlji Ir the t ,I,1:111111StreltIVO support ti'su.;,;-..t. tillcirltiPs hails live, t the or,s that unglit Hips, .111 , ikisor of possiPle Mitic lytheI,Scitinu opportunity an univer 111 this t,!evade.

t 1 sith(,111A)t 1.!,];,tl (.It ,1twtIt ;)t-themselves 11.;!}.IIn .tril, po'rLoptiqi '11,\ that the ,,,h , rt.l ,011(.1,1y to,or evento oppo:tur chanylrigeducational

1' -\ Pt`rIEflrlf ill!I:1H I` h. t l't`'-o CIt ;di \it supportserviceshavekept.pace ar,dentrepreneurshipofour ifmanyleadinginstitutionsis flour tHs the time ispropitious 7!, ros sthis apparently corn- :lifters that HMV(' guirkiy and suc- !,rpi,ithou- supportsot. vicesto .,t`,h, Ir ,111! stmt potential should be most ItionedIs use these coiningleanyears as a and f grerder ror. rjnition and service.

( temis,ity prdu. ,It °d upon the presumption thrit haveexperienced increase in irwre,iso ,;1the under-utilization of their use ul i ho raIs riePh inall or(jarptations t ,t1,z;, ever captures100`:,ofits ()ur 11,"'. he employedtorelease !Hislot,nt LhdrinolIt .,varu our institutional pur-

gs tttt tr 111111,,mt;r.rtifir Ittill tHrlitti ...tr. (Ili ,t',y stem rtithat Alit'11, thlrrrp 1,1r tut ir tr t f'111

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I ,!r re(mist pro\ vie among the w ettilthe parts and thi. purpose. he glue or the,t otiplingistiet If-dfdfl -Ulf illIhip infer

1 Itmlo.,tr.lto.:: ort should

, t,.t1t Itr,tHipitt tri VVIiit111 pt11111h.

f' 11;ft , I t,11.ibl, inho-Indt!!!!;, s ekrhanr7erl exc:11,11 .1!)!!.!!!!tf) ,!-!!!-!!!t!..!!!yid!!!!!1,,t.iv f!!!!!)!Ickrmachinisrrisart]. t,. 1,th the p irt., and the ir,lrpc,SC.

h!, ,-n!fintnistrdt Ivosupport isan lung . .ilystc IIenvironmentinwhich rs, or making,atallLe.,eis,is reathk, available. Whatfollows are t 1011S how such an information e stcuctlf r a could be developed.

,%,t,Ittnnistrative Structure

I .!, I. . !r!!!,,inti.! ! ,11.11 !,tractor!'ends syjnalsto ind 'Her tdcilitates or filtersinfor Milt! -.() :fut. Hesignalsemanatintifrommany -,trotctltr,ts ..'ilimistr,,tiveoff icesare nr..od. Onthe

flit' f ,rttilt's,' have regulatory or at least

, responsibilitiestendto fot.usLore ,rn t.,Jonization. We havein mind-ff,res1,uch as Per t, Put-chasing,Accounting, ;,ridSafety.etc. where dominantconcernsare

I I ederalregulations,internaland external audi- t, her haw!, theseot-ficescontrolllc- !i turnofintormatuirtthat isthe verylifeblood of III!I U I'..!11

I :;i1

I 11111 v,11111,,

Iilt I rl ic

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.cc c'fli c.t!

c c,,,l1,' t icc)t ,1111i. tillIll jll.1ttitwilsir.t1 structitriliti the ct tic thttolcjil rio(.(6s-irytos-'tif'

I lit. 11111.1!1 n uitt,r11.)%/f. mitver-.;ity,

tut- ottlrqitip,:m, It ,ttihbihty 111t(5

I! .11111 1110 11111 1111 r t ()(1(;16 ,If v. ;-. Whfc, rt. t,5c.pp- .1h:cd;)(thr rtrt;\.,it,H. problem fil,t1I ItttItiloSo (InLI( t), till:, IS r)(ItHwy; itisto .ft(1), .111d ( th.ittie Hill., 'It .ii;.;)()I'tSP!' SII))111(1 t10 firin 1,,rrild tion

,t rI;( tar,' HI ItlstitL:',1II ;hcillId -1-th. 1.11-111 y in 111(' fl) In

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01' ''rilM111111,r411"11 r 11,1[1111'1!, 111!r!1'.(.1, 111'. 1,1t, t110 i '.1( al .111 IfIter1;1,1t t!it';1. 0,111!1!,I.,t1 I11111;ti`IS .I;, . I 0e,t, f'f1SI'S,11111'11't ti e (11.:.1 tit Ill,;et.tt,,re. I (11,rn

,'t V(' h t)1,1),;ht,t$,(!yin en:,\,,Iti.t) tit,11rill !bf evr 10rft . UP. t, 111r, I )),. 'c'tth..de..,11,11.nhty ;dal, trierly 111,111- not tt:ut 11,1e, t ,ttefil ran Hf' put ie need e 1).1(a. r,Iluroments should be iteil Sifdt:Is t'f'gtHrt'dby 11;ot, rfdleVe \`..'11.1t promisesto the 1111 .0 prelderm; ofthene...t decade for re,

I heono.er \, Het workele.le l: ;I' inr leHes ph y ,.5r ,11111 facilitit-s; raltair new (.,r1stru(,tieri;rrhunt,riance; and a ether ccmcerristhat %yd.; tal-:ertfor- granted new , SI that C. 41f;errl rrmybe focused on several

11f theideas ! . fe(..tman, t h0t.V.Ill ;,e,..d..j.)0(1, IS thepre-,11111pti.)11ofthe e\istence 0 dtlf/f1 campus already has htferoht ,,p(etatinr1 themost takei- ,;r.int-H ir;tieteH;)l,eni- ,,(1,!Ition,most have the t111 it 0 (,ilHe rIlld an "hti.+lly i/iii1,11111j 11.rnplItPrnetWOrk . It IS easyto .,

9 1[11 I I; I Ilit!

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,ir r ,!, ,.1111.1r,!1,(! 7"t I .111, 111,111 ,I11,! 1111, ; 11111,flt tIttt' II r , ; ,tt.. ,1 t 1;1;1 tttt't I11111".. It"

' ;1 t1tItt ; Itt,1 t 11111,i ,tI111-. 1 111' 1.. 111,1 ttsito1.-, lit ;,,)tIttlt1,11

t t 1 t . 1 1 11 t.t1 .1t1 \ 111111 II H H I I ,1111i'I H 1 tt111111 I !,.,;!)!Hr,, ;nit 1:,Irtt If 11' I I It'.I)t ' t ut tlt.rittIlltt1( .'.111 11 ro.11"tt.11,11;(Ill ,', t.tII''I Ifv, ", ' 1I II III!!III.11,!!!,!!III, tun!, ,

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1 9 ') 18f; litf Ill 01;1

,t-,,,,,m1.,t(y s,,,,,arefeetOf ;Icor space,then ,irmther LIP)S(j,i.11. tot .-pat.;t,isavailable for expansion. We Hit l'.11,11 \ c1111P11..-; , butt hf potentialfor imprc)v- our rntrnl (ornimuimations, our-effective-

and r mfruirustrativo costs is truly !want. .would have to confess thatthe foregoing examples, m!hterlk,hundredsofother,we 1111,j11 t mention,are rather ila-,strian. letus consider several examples that int,potential of changing significantly our operational hdHlt,. Proper application oftechnology,as we said ear- li chancy,Si' w ,, do things butalsowhat go. Itis a tivaighnot inexpens ve)matter to pb,icle library searches from a faculty member s desk or a -.tuderiCsdormitory rocun. Combined with an effective gelb.em, s st,rnthevehicular and pedestriantrafficpat- terns and utiltintiOn aspects ofthe campus could be I-idroticactIN, Lhanged. Even more radical changes are pos- abl coroemplab the prospect ofplacing the contents Po T., MriChl fie readable format, On many HO t riLijitVhave alreadybj rTld king their lec- cr, not,-; atIable to the student via computer text files.

I very prf -rn 9 aroundthe library orthe ,_enter)requires approximatelybillsquare feet. P,h °nusers ran 1(:(1,S5 the services of the library, or what without the necessity to physically travel to and thou- s.hicle, tens to hundreds of thousands of prime, r,11 ,trf ofspace on campus can easily be fried r,,t ff1.11t101 rt capturingthe personneltrinelostin tran.gt.

rouldfieLIer, directlyf rUln t ilffinal shop production electronically. Fir t'f,t,!jt 0;e. mg of c.,)mputer output prows(by, itwillropre,.ontt7i)' oftotal copy- mg/ rc vb11h,necessary to connect thP k,opy center-,to the center'. A large volume ofthe graphics cur- produced on campus comes from the computer. t is possible to produce slides directly from the computer. n factthebulkof commercialillustration(nearlyallTV .',Inmt-rn,ilsfor' instance) are produced by computer. DUr- UP; the n\t ten years most illustrative work on campus will svpb,h to b,,ir.cs computer generated. The integration of the television and the learning resources center isat; untanPed p,,tential on most campuses. f he theme of this sectionis information technology and admi ustrativesupportservices. We feel,quitestrongly, that the future of higher education isintimately intertwined THE FUTURE 1E1

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pr,wessinC;Hr.;I(:. Ifthisisto be aciaamplishedit means that the en,.t(.1jeriorotionof administrative software systems willneed to be(.bfiCel,ttl,11!),'re- designed as well as re-pro- gcarnmed. i he burden of this ef tortwill need to be :hared much more equallybetweenthtInformation Systems group aridthe hpartments than has been the caseinthe Lontrollingthisdynamic.environmentwillrequire re -thud- mg the role ofthe central campus facility as well. herewillneedto besignificantchargesinmanagement roctu re, operations procedures, network design and intra -institutionalcommunicationprocesses. We intendto prate this arbit ran,separation of topics for further discus- It',hook! be Porno In mind thatthey ;we part and parcH comprehensive, integrated development for the future. `.f,e b.dieve the nest ten years will seea major restruc- turingof the organizationalchartof many institutions of bigher education, As institutions begin torecognize their increasingd,,periderlayon computerrelatedactivitiesfor da,to day operation, and as the identifiable comput- ingrelated share ofthe budget exceeds ten percent,the for a more cfiststent,global viewof computing Millbef ;tile insistent. We see two possible scenarios asthe most pr,obable organizational response, The first scenario, and we think least likely-, presumes the widespread acceptance of microcomputer by users and develop a reasonably strong capacity to use and program them. itdoes not seem Unreasonable to es pertlfinnl;and up main storages and cycle timesof MO inthe next two generations of micros. Should tip iJi-,ercommunity derideto moveIIIthisdirectionItis 1;1,',11tc.predict the reduced impact of the central facility user proaesses andthe copse guest attenuationofthe em,mt,,nce computin,-; centersinthe general scheme of institution management structures. In such an rr,ironment we can expect to see the Information Systems assume an operational role much on the lines of most her administrative departments the campus print shop or H el'plant might be,r10,-)dCa,M!paCISeeS. Inthis event we 0,,suld expectto see thecomputingoperationunderan Administrative Vice President ata reportinglevel such as baiildingsandC,rounds,Central Stores,thePrint Shop, etc.

Far- more likely,atle.-istfor the next decade or two, be the desire oftop managementto centralize,focus on,arid attempttr,capitalize on, information related activities,mrc,ss the entire spectrum ofthe educationalinstitu-

I. THE FUTURE 189

SW,{1 ,irlt'll \ iI'1!Ilt"flt0,1 W(.1(11d (-, see the item c.onsoli ofinformation related activi- iltingin a re- ahrirrinerit of vice presidencies and the ti Prt";Ht'fICV feuIntern,.1tion SySteMS, l he ri ill[anent-e.ei think most ITT ely nettire iilve I j t t'r IL,C,11'', ern rf1111L1 r Center Ship ciipyLento,.

miter Criaphic and %Imre graphics (Sentraliiric! Archival Records group ,ountsfor 10-20", of the institu- tionalmaintenance and operations budget.With the expo- non H,i1gri.i,,thofthe useofinformation technologiesthis etii.eurse,on accountingprocedures) can to (!oubie in the next 20-year period.

eitherscenario,we expecttosee greateruser i-1,0',F),-)111y fl,tindependence. The user willinsist upon his ri,rinputine, icing done in an environment paralleling theway he uses the telephone network.lie will also insist upon the samelevelof transparency asto howhisprocessingis i-ffectral. The demise ofmass transit systemsin the ;,arsenal automobile was heralded by the advent thr artwork. Computer communication networks are elyto have the same impart on user preferencesas to the:sty le of,ite! enyironment ,4,hich he does his pro- re. in,;.

1 hiaiinpaLt of either scenario on the computing opera- tionisnritlikek,to be so pronounced.The need to operate ,t computu:, 'imalitywillcontinue, although we expi-ii.ttoseemarry, ifriotall,ofthelaborintensive plit output operations move out of the central facility and intouser offices. Correspondingly,we expecttoseea much expanded rolefor the user services divisionof the r,omputinc;operation. At the same time willcomea much ori maintenance and other field service operations. 11ur hofthis new emphasis will be directed toward theteleprocessing andnetwork aspectsofthe computer operation. The software development arm of the information systems.;coupwillbecome moreinvolvedindeveloping broadly used software products as opposed to thecurrent, rnorespecific,focus on devekiping a-total- system for a M.; THE [lit 111(1 givenuseroffice. A suchmore ryntaHebat coo hardware and software talent can 'pe expe :ted to emerge in all computer facility

Computer Operations

Triofuture should bring iniiiorchangesincomputer operations.We expect to see the central ,mputing facility move rapidlytoward becoming the "916 SWITCH inthe campus informationsystems network. rViore andtnorethe ci.inputinq center will serve afacilitating role,less and less 1 computing resourceride. The predominant load onthe centralsy stern i;artbe expected to be network control,data storage and switching. The central facilitywill become only one node innet- work ofinformationprocessingfacilities. Itwillfeature those verylargo,highly shared resources which would not Fe costcTfc-Ltiveifnot shared among alarge number of users. I he centralfacilitywillcontain large mass stores (over one trillionbits) which will be used as medium term (2 weeksto 2years') archives and as backup fora whole host of software and data distributed through the network. Inthe near term,itwillprovide large scale (20,000 Iprn) laser printing, although we would expect this activity to be assumed by the campus print or copy shops over the longer run. Inthe shorter run, we would also expect to see the central facility deve'op some in -house micrographic capabil- ityifit does not already have it. 'ilhe computer resource thatwillneedtobe supplied by the central facilitywillbe high speed -number crunch- ing." Campuses withouta heavy research orientation may finditcost effective to acquire this service, on those occa- sions when itis needed, from some external supplier. Even when the campus facility supplies thisservice there willbe need for expanded linkages (corn the central system to outside computing sources. It should be possible for any on- campus user to connect to the central system, and through itto effect ahigh speed connection(50 KB or higher)to some other computer system not located on the campus. As the central facility moves into this -BIG SWI TCH' modeitwillbe necessaryto develop much higher volume communication channels thanare nowthenorm. This is particularly evidentifthe centralfacilityisto serve asa repositoryfor large data bases and's a short to medium termarchivefordecentralizeddatabasesandsoftware systems. With presently foreseeable technology and costs

1:3, THE FUTURE 191

thiswallriliiiire the campus withcoaxialcab!es. h an effort will be e\ pensive hit havemaror payoffs to tro,infoymaticrn toms network. Itwillpermit tole olei.tronic documents ompriter :fat:"

he operationof ther-.entralfacility'will become rnore an...!more likethe opration of alarge,:rowerutility. 1 he ricorn ric.t.!re with specific risers or specific tasks but rather withtotalload andtotaldemand. The Comv)titing nectarwillriotonly runoser rops but,infact,willnot rnv(11 %%liltisr'll1;111f)(1on thes \.,tern. Just as tarp,w.r 1,111.'

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tHit si..trio elri;rocateoil tr..w .i.lininco.1 rat Ivoproc.es,,er;thorni.ols, osarehi iyto r.haiirre. \,..vo assume that therewill be greater -connectivity the implementation oflocal networking and'.at there bo C1111(1kr(,,)[1111111rlic.,Itica)sdue to the curiaet ity, , i he fit"-timpact, we believe,will come in the substi- tutionc.fpaper flow by electronic document flow. Systems will ha rto be deso:;ned that not only capture the contents of the dor.timent presentlyinuse but also capture itsflow throughthe organization. lust as nest offices time-stamp all incomm9 mail, so also most electr-mic transactions will be time-stamped in order to provide abetter tracking mechanism. Further, independent of the data contents, there will 01necessity bea complete and independent audittrailso thatactions bythe system can be verified,audited and "I? 1 III IIJI tiPI r rcoris,tructedifnecessary . Itwallhe necessary for soft '.ari steins to be able to reconstruct adata picture" and a transaction ,,ilypointIIIthe past. Complementing thr dislityto go Hoint Inthe b:1`.1-.,ItWill be neces- aryfor,-;oft.V011'e k.)('pri'f!1(t IVOSi, aStb be able ;'11e1te f,,rany tiny in the future. At the presont time,the major obstacle toa complete replacement of paper' s.nrnents by electronic meansisthe necessitypresentlyplaced onsignatures. I he signature v.asdesignedas dillednsforsubstantiating written documents. Its use inthe electronic age isvery limited. The eloctircrin. VerItHlteal1111,1011I10, we belleye,isnot thecnt-rectapproach toviirr. liltingelectronicdocuments. hissimply taKes a method ofverification from an older technolodo,tpai.,r) and tries to force itto work ina newer t,', fired rortunatoly,the signatur-e barrier is breaking down. Stock rimi-Letordersareexecutedbytelephone Si.ilary checks have comssuter printed signatures and lectron,. lord transfers have no signatures at all a seT- retpass...yardis thatisused. Institutionswill have, to acceptotter-nateInednsofsatisfyingauditrequirem(nts. Signatures ondocumentscan nolongersurvive as the accepted means for serifn.ation as the originating documents thernsok es are tieing eliminated

Itr';ObVIOUS that ;Imamsofinputintothe computer sy 1-'111 chmnin(j. gave,,raytoopticalforms inturn are being replaced by terminals. The output sideisnow readyfor some dramatic change. As memory de\ Ines,et!MLA Or andsmallerand asmore andmore loth Hinds iv: quire personal computers itis very likely that ,,r hOne of us will carry with usa memory bank, perhaps thesite of a(it-editcard whichwillpluginto the various computer outletsfor the computing ofdata specificto us, his meinc,ny kwill tokento Mb' hone devices outputs .indlysis or rex low. i ;Ake a specific example, I hi,iirliscirsit \,distributesV,IrIL,11tiTor:wren ts such as class tickets,grade reports,etc.byprintingand mailingthe documents. We willcallthis an "active distribution- rnode. As more and more individuals have their own devices and can carryaround small ruemory banksthatpluginto computer outlets, the ;node of distribution will becomepas sive distribution. ,.fin a certaindate theuniversitywill make available the grades or classtickets. Studentswill eitheruse theircredit cardsite memory banks withthe computer outletsto capture their data or simplydialinto compute system and getitonline. A clear shiftwill take place in the responsiHility for distribution.At present the University sends out the documents,inthe future the

1 ,9 THE FUTURE 193

1,1 rma t he made available and the users (students, faculty I v.. have ccessitif and when they need it A wittie;pread use t.:t1this concept ofinformation chstri- birt.vinv, illrequire arh,,nge inour' treatment ...ofsecurity. 1-,etkinty systernsv.illhay,. to be modified drarm,tically. At prer.r pitdti t( thefdGt thatonly a limited / numberof individuals live r.111,tctakcess to computerized datasecur- measurescan beplacedat a tasklevel. Thatis, individuals,forrosatiplo, [nayf,epermittedto workwith personnel data !tutriot,say, with student data. However, as everybody b4.curis to hive access to the data bases itwill ner. essaryto drovidre .otrarrityriotonly on the tasks that an Ind; m permitted to perform but also on the subset ofdatathattheindividual rs permittedtoreview modify. 1 Ions anindividualmay bepermittedtoaccesssis data and not student data implying task security.I urther,the same individual may be limitedto looking rtersonnoldatathatbelongsonlytohisdepartment. 1- inn; the securityis further subdivided within the task and isdeterminednotbythefunctionbeingperformedby rather by ther.lata being accessed. 1 hislevel of security, of course.ismuch harder-to implement thin the previous level. Newer sy.,ternswillhave to1-0 developedto handle the new requirements for- security. The concept of passive distribution of information can be extended alittle farther to suggest that we are heading toyards acottage industry of data processing professions. Examine thelibr'ar'y. In a research library andinmost institutionallibrariesover kW,ofthecollectionisnever used. Another 2(r,isused only once. -1 hisclearly leads ustodesire a systeminMuch atextis published only whenitisfirstrequired. f he termforthisconceptis on demand printing. At leastfor modern publications we areokttortfar away'from on demand publishing. ['rooks arid maga,' He articles are wiltten on word processing equipment andhence inmachine readable form. Thereis nothingthatpreventsusfrom simplykeepingitinthat formtill we realize the first request for that material. At thattime theuser- can requestthematerialeitherin machinereadable formor in printed form. Ifit is requested inprinted form the library simply prints a copy arid givesitto the user.One nay even debate the merits of requiring the user to bring the material. Ifthe user is not requiredto bring thematerial back, thenthe distinc- tionbetweenthelibrary and the bookstore beginsto get veryblurred. Inany casesuch a distributionscheme places the present role of the publisher in jeopardy. Per- haps the publishers will become more like record companies. We will just have to wait and see. 2 (vi 191 IIII.1 Of 111,,I

In any ..,Ise,itv, ill be possible one way or another to have document delivery systems that are based primarily on ele,.tronic media. Ifdocuments can he delivered electroni- calk'then yhyininstance,do typists( not secretaries) ata! data input opecats,rs have to co010 work at all.[rem tIecony enionceoftheirhometheycandothe desired ,Ye-k. I hehorni-11..-;01,0(10111eStheplace of work, making further useofthephysicalplantthatisalreadythere. he same reasoning can be extended for systems programmers and application programmers and others who contribute services thatultimately resultin changing the contents of r.omputer ,!ata banks.This cottage industry resulting from e-rsue;inth, llomehas an (int d,:je commuting telecnirmiting, saving time and energy. 1 he concept of distributing work and fragmenting the wo-1- eny ironmerit Ly,not only permitting but requiring Ger-- taw irid, to work from their homes fitswell with the ideaof a geographically disperseduniversity. Once we Hann ,I[trifoite the daily work through the use of tele- proc, ssing.an important communications barrier is broken. Priortotheinveritiqnofthe telephone,instant(meaning without delay )communication was possible only when people gottogether.the telephone very successfully broke the spatial barrier. Howey er,as evidenced by ringing phones and busy signals, the temporal barrierstillexists. Tele- cornmu ',Inc; or the use of computer and communications pormiL, usto eliminateriotonly the spatial butalso the temporalrrpuremontforinstantcommunications. This uP a new degree offreedom andits impact will soon be felt LHearly many things are possible.How desirable these possibilities; are to hnalth and well being of our institutions IS amatter thatour administrators,willbe mailed uponto address arid . I heColl I-Sethey Chartwill,inthe Haigrun,determinethe course ofsocietyitself. Higher erlu, at ionmust continuoti,maintain theroleofthinkers, evperimenters and III nr, vdtoi s.