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Advanced MR Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Including Diffusion Imaging

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Advanced MR Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Including Diffusion Imaging 179 Advanced MR Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Including Diffusion Imaging Theodoros Soldatos, MD, PhD1 Stephen Fisher, MD2 Sirisha Karri, MD3 Abdulrahman Ramzi, MD4 Rohit Sharma, MD5 Avneesh Chhabra, MD2 1 Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, Mediterraneo Address for correspondence Theodoros Soldatos, MD, PhD, Hospital, Athens, Greece Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, Mediterraneo 2 Department of Radiology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Hospital, Athens, Greece (e-mail: [email protected]). Dallas, Texas 3 Department of Medical Oncology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 4 Department of Radiation Oncology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 5 Department of Surgery, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2015;19:179–190. Abstract Peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) are neoplasms derived from neoplastic Keywords Schwann cells or their precursors. Whereas benign PNSTs are relatively common and ► peripheral nerve considered curable lesions, their malignant counterparts are rare but highly aggressive sheath tumor and require early diagnosis and treatment. MR imaging has been the modality of choice ► magnetic resonance for noninvasive evaluation of PNSTs. This article discusses the features of PNSTs in imaging conventional and advanced MR imaging, and it emphasizes the features that help ► magnetic resonance differentiate benign and malignant variants. neurography ► diffusion-weighted imaging ► diffusion tensor imaging Peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) are defined as neo- MR imaging has been the modality of choice for noninva- plasms that clearly arise from an identifiable peripheral nerve sive evaluation of PNSTs and has been used as a tool for or whose component cells show evidence of nerve sheath cell presurgical planning and image-guided biopsies of these differentiation.1 PNSTs can form in the peripheral nerve lesions. Moreover, MR imaging has been suggested as a network anywhere in the body. They may arise either spo- screening tool in individuals with NF1 for the early diagnosis radically (with an incidence of 1 per 100,000 individuals of malignant degeneration in preexisting PNSTs to avoid per year; they are most common in individuals 20 to 50 years unnecessary biopsy.4 This article discusses the features of of age, but without sex or racial predilection) or in relation to PNSTs in conventional and advanced MR imaging, and it This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. neurocutaneous syndromes including neurofibromatosis emphasizes the features that assist in differentiating benign type 1 (NF1), neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2), and schwan- from malignant variants. nomatosis.2,3 The major types of these neoplasms include fi neuro bromas, schwannomas, and perineuriomas, which are Neurofibromas benign lesions that usually require only symptomatic treat- ment. Malignant PNSTs (MPNSTs) are aggressive lesions that Neurofibromas arise from Schwann cells but exhibit multiple require rapid diagnosis and treatment because of their high additional cell types including neuronal axons, fibroblasts, rate of local recurrence and distant metastasis. mast cells, macrophages, perineural cells, and extracellular Issue Theme Advanced Imaging of Copyright © 2015 by Thieme Medical DOI http://dx.doi.org/ Peripheral Nerves; Guest Editor, Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, 10.1055/s-0035-1546823. Avneesh Chhabra, MD New York, NY 10001, USA. ISSN 1089-7860. Tel: +1(212) 584-4662. 180 MR Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors Soldatos et al. matrix materials such as collagen.5 Neurofibromas account On MR imaging, solitary neurofibromas appear as unen- for 5% of all benign soft tissue tumors, and they can occur both capsulated, fusiform, or round soft tissue masses that are sporadically (95%) and in NF1.6 These lesions are usually typically < 5 cm in size and demonstrate intermediate (simi- inseparable from normal nerves, and therefore complete lar to muscle) signal intensity on T1-weighted images and surgical excision must include at least some part of the heterogeneously high signal intensity on T2-weighted im- involved nerves.6 Three types of neurofibromas are ages. After contrast administration, small lesions feature described. intense and homogeneous or targetoid enhancement, where- Solitary neurofibromas (also known as localized, sporadic, as larger ones can show predominantly peripheral, central, or or nodular) are most common (90%) and most often encoun- heterogeneous nodular enhancement.6 Additional MR imag- tered in patients who do not have NF1. These tumors occur in ing features, which indicate the neurogenic origin of a soft young to middle-aged individuals and manifest as slow- tissue mass, and are common, although not pathognomonic, growing masses that are discovered incidentally or present of solitary neurofibroma include the following. with mild to moderate sensorimotor symptoms. Solitary neurofibromas are usually cutaneous or subcutaneous, al- Location in the Region of a Major Nerve/Tail Sign though deep-seated lesions with involvement of larger 1. On MR images, oriented along the long axis of a lesion, the nerves also occur. They also tend to be larger, multiple, and involved nerve can be seen entering and/or exiting the deeper in location in the setting of NF1.7,8 neoplasm, resembling a tail coming off the tumor. Virtually Diffuse neurofibroma is an uncommon but distinct variety pathognomonic for PNSTs, this feature is usually easy to that primarily affects children and young adults. It most detect in lesions affecting large deep nerves, but it is often frequently involves the subcutaneous tissues of the head difficult or impossible to assess in superficial or in small and neck. lesions.4,12 This feature is seen in both benign PNSTs Plexiform neurofibromas are composed of the same cell (BPNSTs) and MPNSTs. In most cases, PNSTs also acquire types as localized ones but have an expanded extracellular a fusiform shape that is related to the growth along the matrix. Plexiform neurofibromas may involve multiple fas- course of the affected nerve. In addition, visualization of a cicles, nerves, or even plexuses, and they grow along the nerve eccentrically entering a mass must be considered a nerve sheath, spreading the axons as the abnormal cells strong indicator of a schwannoma13 (►Fig. 1). proliferate and increased extracellular matrix is deposited. Plexiform neurofibromas can arise in various regions of the Split-Fat Sign body. In NF1, the most common location is in the trunk 1. Because neurovascular bundles are normally surrounded including the paraspinal region (41%), followed by the by fat, benign masses arising in relation to these structures neck/upper trunk (24%), and the extremities (17%). They usually maintain a complete thin rim of fat about them as may be present at birth or become apparent later in life, they slowly enlarge and remodel the surrounding fat usually preceding cutaneous neurofibromas.9 Overall, 15 to plane. In intramuscular PNSTs, this rim is best depicted 30% of plexiform neurofibromas are isolated to the head and on T1-weighted images oriented along the long axis of the neck.6 At early stages, nerve expansion might only be caused lesions. The rim separates the tumor from the surrounding by an increased amount of endoneurial material. Later, the muscle tissue and appears more prominent at the tapering lesions typically extend beyond the epineurium and spill into margins of the neoplasm. Known as the split-fat sign, this the surrounding soft tissues. When involving an entire limb, configuration suggests a tumor origin in the intermuscular plexiform neurofibroma might induce elephantiasis neuro- space about the neurovascular bundle, and neurogenic matosa, a condition associated with enlargement of the neoplasms are the most frequent cause.12 The sign is affected extremity, hypertrophy of bone, and redundant frequent in neurofibroma, but less common in schwan- skin.10 Plexiform neurofibromas are difficult to manage noma or other slow-growing lesions, and MPNSTs, al- clinically because they can cause pain, disfigurement, and though in the latter neoplasms, the rim of fat is typically This document was downloaded for personal use only. Unauthorized distribution is strictly prohibited. neurologic dysfunction, and can progress to malignant sarco- incomplete reflecting their infiltrative growth pattern.8 mas.6 Diffuse and plexiform neurofibromas are more likely to be found in NF1.6 Target Sign Managing solitary neurofibromas depends on the symp- toms. They do not typically need surgical removal, unless they 1. The target sign appears on T2-weighted images in PNSTs are associated with pain, progressive neurologic complica- and refers to central low or intermediate signal intensity, tions, cosmetic problems, compression of adjacent tissues, surrounded by a rim of higher signal intensity. This pattern and/or suspicion of malignant transformation. Plexiform reflects the histologic features of the tumor, with T2 neurofibromas can be difficult to resect and often recur after hyperintense myxomatous tissue surrounding the low to surgery because of residual tumor cells deep in the soft intermediate signal fibrocollagenous core. Enhancement tissues. Complete removal is generally not possible without may follow a reverse or similar pattern. Rarely, a reverse loss of neurologic function, and in some cases even subtotal pattern of target appearance on T1-weighted images is removal of the tumor leads
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