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The Apex of and Science

Blavatsky and the ’s Practice and View of

Erik A. Karlström

Department of Ethnology, History of and Gender Studies M.A. Degree 30 credits History of Religions Master’s Course (30 credits) Autumn term 2020 Supervisor: Egil Asprem

The Apex of Magic and Science

Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society’s Practice and View of Astral Projection

Erik A. Karlström

Abstract

The rise of in the late nineteenth century raised new ways to perceive the dead. A new possibility to communicate with the deceased attributed novel characteristics to the human . Building upon this spiritualist discourse, the prominent theory-crafter of the Theosophical Society, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831-1891), thought the of the dead, which she differentiated from the soul, to be a separate but connected component of the physical body. As such, this component should be separable from the physical body before death. Blavatsky developed the theory into an ontology (theory of what there is), cosmogony (the origin of the universe), physiology (the constitution of the human body), and soteriology (a doctrine of ). The separation possible before death became known as astral projection and it was a way to liberate the ‘’ from its physical sheath, enabling the individual to travel spatially and temporally. Astral projection was regarded the apex of magic and a highly valued goal, actively pursued. Unlike previous studies, this thesis aims to explain the phenomenon of astral projection, how it was perceived and constructed, from both an emic as well as etic perspective. Using discourse analysis, this thesis aims to explore and discuss how Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society diachronically constructed their understanding of the practice and the mechanisms enabling it. In addition, this thesis also aims to trace the evolution of astral projection in the Theosophical Society from its founding in 1875 to Blavatsky’s death in 1891 as well as what functions the practice filled. This is achieved in two sections, through three steps, split between the ‘early’ and the ‘later’ Theosophical Society; this thesis examines the physiology presented, followed by the second step of surveying the ontology represented, which lastly explores how these are used to explain the phenomenon of astral projection.

Keywords Blavatsky, Astral Projection, Discourse Analysis, the Theosophical Society, Magic and Science, Soul Separation, Spiritualism, Esotericism, Occultism.

Contents

Introduction ...... 1

Purpose and Research Questions ...... 3 ...... 4 Discourse Analysis ...... 5 Limitations ...... 8 Spirits, Spiritualism, and Separations of the Soul in the Late Nineteenth- Century ...... 10 Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society ...... 17 The Earlier Period of Theosophical Thought ...... 23 Blavatsky’s ...... 24 The Phenomenon of Astral Projection ...... 33 The Later Period of Theosophical ...... 43 Blavatsky’s Physiology and Ontology ...... 44 The ‘New’ Astral Projection ...... 50 Comparing the Theosophical Societies ...... 54 Blavatskyan Astral Projection ...... 60 References ...... 65

Introduction

We stand upon the brink of a precipice. We peer into the abyss – we grow sick and dizzy. Our first impulse is to shrink from the danger. Unaccountably we remain.1

There is an allure in the unknown and the unseen. Contemplating, perceiving or even visiting alternatives to our mundane, corporeal world has been of interest since archaic times. To transcend the boundaries of our physical, opaque world and experience what is beyond was attempted in Ancient Greece and some mysteries probably had their origin in Neolithic practices.2 Narratives in which the soul travels, either by a descent into the underworld, an ascent into the , a pre-mortem journey in which the soul strives to rendezvous with the body, or a post-mortem travel through the beyond, were so common in the Mediterranean world of antiquity that they have been treated as a genre of their own.3 Narratives alone did not constitute the entirety of ancient soul travels. The idea of a soul, as an entity separate from the physical body, was presented by many philosophers. Pythagoras (c. 570-495 B.C.E.) believed in metempsychosis, the transmigration of the soul, leading him to preach to animals in order to help their spiritual development.4 (c. 428-384 B.C.E.) continued Pythagoras’ influence and determined that the soul was an entity different from, and shackled by, the body: divine, immortal and indestructible.5 Developing Plato’s idea, (205-270 C.E.) connected the soul with its divine and eternal reservoir with which a unification was possible.6 His disciple Porphyry (234- c. 305 C.E.) pushed these theories even further, claiming that the transcended soul could not be spatially located but was everywhere and nowhere.7 Some thought this diverted too far from Plato, one of them being Iamblichus (c. 240-325 C.E.). He emphasized the idea of a materialized soul, mortal and disconnected from the divine soul and . However, with the aid of the and certain physical

1 Edgar Allan Poe: The of the Perverse.

2 Stein, (2016), p. 3

3 DeConick, (2017), p. 82

4 Russel, (1946), pp. 41, 45

5 Russel, (1946), p.135, Burkert, (1985), p. 322 6 Shaw, (2006), p. 834

7 Plaisance, (2016), p. 390

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actions and objects the soul could come close to the divine.8 Plato was being translated into English in the nineteenth century and became “a hot commodity” in America at the same time as Spiritualism began to come into vogue.9 The main subject of this thesis, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (née von Hahn, 1831-1891), names all of the philosophers above as individuals who had overcome the limitations of the physical body and achieved a new level of existence. They had, according to Blavatsky, achieved a form of immortality.10 These claims were not completely taken out of thin air. Blavatsky produced copious amounts of texts outlining an ontology revealed to her by the Mahatmas, spiritually advanced altruistically working in secret to mankind. She, and the Theosophical Society, also had a custom to invoke the teachings of Neoplatonists as being the same teachings as theirs. To build credibility, they claimed a clear continuity between the teachings.11 Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society interpreted the ancient teachings through contemporary advances in science. However, the science they employed consisted of statements and terminology. Science was not a method of inquiry; it was just a system of like any other.12 In this manner created a synthesis of all, to them relevant, available knowledge, a style of syncretization Blavatsky would sustain throughout “as the only possible key to the Absolute in science and .”13 Blavatsky constructed a remarkable ontology which claimed unperceivable aspects of nature enabling living humans to project a concomitant body, the astral body. Astral projection, as this practice became known as, enabled the projector to read , travel great distances in seconds, relive history, and ultimately conquer death. This practice is the main focus of this thesis. Blavatsky also founded the journal Lucifer. It aimed to “bring light ‘to the hidden things of darkness’”14 and she choose that name because it meant “light-bringer”.15 Helena, in turn, means “the bright, shining one” or “the torch.”16 Many regarded her as a bringer of intellectual and spiritual light in a dark, materialistic world. What she illuminated and how it was done, however, is another question entirely.

8 Shaw, (2006), p. 835. A practice also known as theurgy. 9 Gutierrez, (2009), p.8. Of additional interest is the fact that the new English translations of Plato sparked reading groups which allowed both men and women to partake. However, it is worth remembering that just as Platonists and Neo-Platonists expressed their discourse, their basic ontological premises are in this case located within another context through which they must be understood.

10 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:159, see also Chajes, (2019), pp. 128-129.

11 Plaisance, (2016), pp. 389-390

12 Hammer, (2001), p. 204

13 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:vii

14 Blavatsky, (1887), p. 1 15 Blavatsky, (1887), p. 3

16 Carlson, (1993), p. 43

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Purpose and Research Questions

The aim of this thesis is to chart the practice of astral projection as practiced and theorized by Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society during her lifetime. This is done by analyzing their context and how they express their discourse, allowing for a greater understanding of how they would have understood the practice based upon their own premises. Shedding a light on how astral projection was developed by Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society illuminates how the practice evolved; after all, it is part of the future developments of astral projection as a practice, made more famous by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and , but also by the publications of the Society of Psychical Research. To fulfill this purpose, this thesis seeks to answer the following questions:

• How was astral projection, and the mechanics that made it possible, explained? • Why was astral projection a desirable practice? • What function did astral projection fill in the Theosophical Society?

As will become apparent, answering these questions inevitably lead to a final question:

• How did astral projection change and why were these changes necessary?

However, to answer these questions in this limited space some limitations have been required. The most extensive constraint has been the number of individuals prominently featured. The space required to trace, explore and analyze different individuals’ contributions has simply not been available. Therefore, the focus is upon a single individual, Blavatsky, due to her prominent position in and influence over the Theosophical Society. The result can therefore in no way be a panoptic picture of this phenomenon, neither is it a complete picture of astral projection in the theoretical panoply of the Theosophical Society in the late nineteenth century.

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Methodology

Say, it’s only a paper moon, Sailing over a cardboard sea But it wouldn’t be make-believe, if you believed in me.17

To study a practice located in a distant time, in differing geographical spaces, and with a host of assumptions and forms of knowledge varying greatly from one’s own, it is not enough to simply infuse one’s own time, space and assumptions into the practice to study it. The basic understanding of our existence can alter drastically; we can believe that the sky is held up by a titan; we can believe we live on a fixed disc with celestial bodies circulating around us; and we can believe everything we experience is only a computer simulation and nothing is real. In short, the understanding of our surroundings can alter dramatically. The foundational assumptions we use to interpret the world differ. Because of this the most rudimentary suppositions can be subjected to scrutiny, done most commonly from outside the sphere where the assumption is widely accepted. In the case of the Theosophical Society this is certainly true. The Theosophical ontology is based upon assumptions which escapes common sensory investigation and eludes materialist premises. In order to explain the emic understanding of astral projection from an etic perspective, the method used will be that of discourse analysis. This choice is due to the structure that discourse analysis provides as well as the comprehensive understanding it enables. It aids in understanding the concomitant ontology of astral projection, which is twofold. Firstly, the ontology is the agents’ frame of reference– their own way of understanding – and secondly, it is the epistemological structures of the agents’ environment – how the discourse position itself in relation to other discourses in the surrounding society. We will soon dive deeper into the theoretical parts of discourse analysis. We will begin with a presentation of discourse analysis followed by a short summary of relevant ideas existing in the time our study takes place, the late nineteenth-century. Then we proceed to an introduction of Blavatsky, the relation she had to her work and the Theosophical Society, as these are things which would impact the development of the practice of astral projection. As the Theosophical Society lay as a backdrop to the social sphere Blavatsky was located in, it will be looked at in more than passing. We will focus on exploring the ontology and physiology presented by Blavatsky, to then continue to how astral projection was perceived to function and the reason it was a desirable practice. Following this is a further look on how the ontology and physiology of Blavatsky changed in her late

17 Chorus from “It’s only a paper moon” written by Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg, & Billy Rose in 1933.

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writings and what effects this had on astral projection as a practice and how this altered the function of astral projection. This will inevitably lead us to attempt to explain why these changes were necessary. As such, a main focus of this thesis is the discourse Blavatsky created and maintained.

Discourse Analysis

The idea of discourses has an underlaying, common foundation which is to be found in social constructionist epistemology. The starting point of this is the idea that we, through our language, “create representations of that are never mere reflections of a pre-existing reality but contribute to constructing reality.”18 In our society we have structures which define words and can ascribe them different meanings dependent on where the structure is contextually located. If we were to only converse in a context where everyone the exact same thing, our social interactions, such as conversations, writing books or publishing periodicals, would need no explanation or clarification and everybody would propose the same actions to be possible responses to that interaction. This is obviously not the case. As we express our understanding of our environment, we display the strategies we employ in order to retain our discursive understanding of the world. Our language does not simply reflect the world as it is, but how we perceive it to be and how we communicate our beliefs to others – both those who agree with us, as well as those who disagree with us.19 As an example, one group can know that an environmental disaster is the result of global warming, another can know the same disaster is a punishment from a , while a third group knows it is a natural occurring phenomenon. Each explanation relays how we categorize and interact our surroundings. As hinted at above, the basic premises of discourse analysis come from social constructionism. Even though social constructionism as an umbrella term hardly is a coherent theorem, it too has some common characteristics. Four basic notions which are things “you would absolutely have to believe in order to be a social constructionist”20 are as follow:

• A critical stance toward taken-for-granted knowledge.21 The world is not directly mediated from being ‘out there’ to a complete mental understanding of it. We understand the world through categorizing the objects and phenomena in it. ‘To know’ is a product of categorization which can yield multiple interpretations.22

18 Jørgensen & Phillips, (2002), pp. 8–9

19 Gergen, (2015), pp. 1–3

20 Burr, (2003), p. 2 21 Burr, (2003), pp. 2–3

22 Jørgensen & Phillips, (2002), pp. 8-9

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• Historical and cultural specificity.23 The creation of meaning is contingent on social context, and each social context is a field for a possible construction of reality.24 Therefore, each social context must be placed in relation to the other social contexts as part of the construction of reality.25 • Knowledge is sustained by social process.26 Knowledge is created through social interactions and the understanding of this knowledge is consensual.27 I.e. knowledge is created and maintained through communication.28 Social interactions help maintain what knowledge is right and what knowledge is wrong. • Knowledge and social action go together.29 Constructed knowledge generate, within its sphere of influence, different acceptable actions while making others unthinkable.30

The version of discourse analysis I will employ is based upon Norman Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (CDA). Critical discourse analysis is both a term for a larger type of discourse analysis and a more specific form, located within the larger type. Basically, this approach means that language is considered to be expressions of a discourse while simultaneously contribute to maintain the discourse itself. Discourse is constituted by language while language is constitutive and forms the discourse. As language is used within the discourse it should always be seen in its context. Different contexts have different ability to infer change or affect the larger discourse. In other words, people located in the discourse are part of different contexts which share the discourse and because of the differing contexts these people have different amount of power to change the larger discourse according to their beliefs. Therefore, expressions of a discourse are also expressions of power – those able to change the discourse according to their beliefs have a larger impact on the discourse and thus more power (e.g. a poor black trans woman have less of an ability to infer change to a discourse than a rich white man). In addition, the discourse of the researcher must also be considered as this agent infuse the studied discourse with the researcher’s own discourse (i.e. the researcher is not only an objective observer simply perceiving the world as it is. The researcher is an active agent choosing what to see, how to understand it, and why it is worth noting).31 As expressions of a discourse are in general hard to perceive one must look closely to find them. This is easier when looking at a discourse separated from oneself, such as a social context practicing

23 Burr, (2003), pp. 3-4,

24 Moberg, (2013), p. 8

25 Jørgensen & Phillips, (2002), p. 5

26 Burr, (2003), pp. 4-5,

27 Moberg, (2013), p. 8

28 Granholm, (2013), p. 47

29 Burr, (2003), p. 5 30 Jørgensen & Phillips, (2002), p. 6

31 Jørgensen & Phillips, (2002), pp. 60-64

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magic more than 100 years ago. However, a strategy to find clear expressions of discourse is to find where things have gone wrong. This Fairclough terms ‘cruces’ or ‘moments of crisis’.32 The reason this strategy is effective and will be deployed in this thesis is because in these moments the dominant discourse generally strives to maintain hegemony. When someone expresses ideas that are ‘wrong’ a need to correct this arises. A clear example of this, which we will return to more in depth later, is an article Blavatsky and Mabel Collins (1851-1927) wrote in 1888 entitled “Dialogue Between the Two Editors”. The first two sentences explain three crucial points. Firstly, it explains what some people believe, secondly that this belief is wrong, and lastly, that this belief will be corrected as it is not the same belief as in the dominant discourse. A discourse is, in practice, never singular and always exists in relation to other discourses. Abstruse as these interactions are, we need a way to structure them. One way, presented by Kennet Granholm, is to think of a discourse as a constitutive element of a ‘discursive complex’.33 The singular discourse is part of a greater conjunction of a plurality of discourses – a discursive complex. In this way a discourse can be situated with other discourses in an amalgam: every discourse is part of the complex which in itself creates the larger context for the singular discourse.34 A discourse can be part of different complexes and thus be understood with different ancillary frameworks. However, a discursive complex should, in this theoretical manner, be considered to be “the ideal type.”35 Discourses are fluid and fluctuating as they jockey for position and strive for hegemony. They are affected by both the discourses in the discursive complex but also by ancillary discourses. Ancillary discourses include, but are not limited to, the social, political, religious, and economic societal roles surrounding the discourse and discursive complex studied.36 However, discursive complexes and their constituting discourses are ways to look at the larger structure surrounding an individual or group of individuals. In addition to this, we need to apply to perspective of the individual acting, constituting and disseminating the discourse. Pivotal to the construction of a discourse is its dependence upon individuals who can internalize and relay the structures of understanding. Crucial to the production of discourse is the individual. For the individual to in turn reproduce the discourse and disseminate it further, the individual needs to identify with the discourse. The individual is part of a larger context, a community. In fact, the individual is usually part of several communities at the same time in the same geographical location. This confers that the individual is part of several discursive complexes. In the present study Theosophy can be seen as a discursive complex which has a heavy epistemological weight. The knowledge of Theosophy is not primarily knowledge of empirical studies, physical experience, or

32 Fairclough, (1992a), p. 230

33 See Granholm (2013) for a more elaborate explanation and contextualization of this term.

34 Granholm, (2013), pp. 51-53 35 Granholm, (2013), p. 52

36 Granholm, (2013), p. 54. For a similar argument, see Von Stuckrad, (2005), p. 6.

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memories of sensory stimulation. The Theosophical knowledge is conveyed through the group of individuals who identify as Theosophists and who subscribe to the ontology Theosophy supplies.37 Therefore, a significant point to understand the Theosophical ontology (which we will delve deeper into below) is to emphasize that the ontology is a tool of identification in which individuals interact to strengthen and negotiate the communal knowledge they possess.38 In other words, their knowledge of the discourse is both constituting the discourse and functions as a constitutive aid – a reason making it desirable to maintain it as a singular discourse in which Blavatsky’s writings generally constitutes the hegemonic position. However, the understanding of the Theosophical discourse is dependent upon the individuals constituting the discourse. These individuals originate from different discourses with different ontologies which is their basis of understanding. These ontologies consist of both their previous esoteric discourses, but also of ancillary discourses. Therefor it is important to remember that it is individuals who constitute the and these individuals, in turn, interpret the collective differently.

Limitations

In order to have a functional framework in my analysis, some aspects of the discourse analysis have had to be withdrawn or remain in the background. One such aspect is the reception(s) of texts. This is part in due to the amount of work required to give this aspect the attention it deserves, but also because similar notions are dealt with when contextualizing the production of the texts. Therefor I will present how the texts are situated in their context, but not how the context (other social actors) reacts to the texts. This includes a wider reception of the texts, spanning over time as well.39 In addition, this thesis relies solely upon textual sources. This is not in denial of the efficacy or historic use of other mediums of communication but because these are in large, for obvious reasons, not available to us. However, as the textual sources are reflective of their context and the discourse in which they are produced, the textual sources should be seen as reflective of the discourse rather than an anomaly of ditto. It should be remembered that all the practitioners’ accounts of experiences will be treated as

37 Theosophy itself is not a singular ontology, but a system of underlaying ideas. However, in the Theosophical context there are limiting factors making certain ontological claims impossible and limits the scope of possible ontologies that can be considered as ’Theosophical’.

38 For further discussion on epistemological agents as elements in wider domains, see Nelson (1993), pp. 46-48.

39 The sources Blavatsky draws upon can be included in the category of ’Western Learned Magic’ and despite Blavatsky’s impact on later productions in this category these will also be omitted. See Otto, (2016) for more on western learned magic.

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expressions of a discourse. As such the veracity of the statements is not the object of inquiry. These accounts will be seen as accurately displaying the believes and ideas of those expressing them. Therefore, statements later retracted by the individuals as incorrect or only partial correct will be seen as expressions of a later discourse and used to examine how the concepts expressed has shifted over time – as will be seen when we examine Blavatsky’s explanation of astral projection. Lastly, this thesis focuses on Blavatsky’s portrayal of astral projection. Her position in the Theosophical Society allowed her to become the source of legitimacy in doctrinal questions. Therefore, the discourse of the Theosophical Society in large reflected her position in matters of theory even if the society in large also affected her theorizing.

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Spirits, Spiritualism, and Separations of the Soul in the Late Nineteenth-Century

“Consult a spirit for me,” he said, “and bring up for me the one I name.”40

Conjuring and communicating with spirits is not a phenomenon new to the spiritualism of the 19th century, just as the existence of spirits as the disembodied soul of people is not a novel idea. In the quote above Saul asks a non-Israelite, ‘the witch of Endor’, to raise the spirit of Samuel. A practice deemed impossible by some biblical commentators for the first time around the 11th century.41 The spiritualism birthed in the nineteenth century was dependent upon the biblical notions of a soul but also relied on more contemporary thinkers. One early influence on the later spiritualism was the Swedish clairvoyant, Extraordinary Assessor to the Board of Mines and proclaiming the second coming of Christ, (1688-1772).42 Swedenborg taught that humans originally dwelled together with God and were able to see the spiritual reality in nature. Swedenborg was to reintroduce this ability to humanity. The compositional duality of the world would become a prominent notion of spiritualism. Swedenborgianism developed in England and gained official principles of and congregationalism in 1810. It continued to spread throughout the British empire and arrived in North America in 1784.43 With a slightly different approach, Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) presented his theories on in 1779, which proved an enduring influence. This despite Mesmer himself rejecting a mystical interpretation of his ideas, stating that “all effects are due to modifications of matter and movement.”44 Contrary to his intention, animal magnetism was promoted by, amongst

40 Samuel 1:8, The , New International Version.

41 Bohak, (2008), p. 38

42 Williams-Hogan, (2016), pp. 211-212, 214-216 43 Williams-Hogan, (2016), p. 221. The total number of Swedenborgians in 2014 was estimated to be around 50.000. Ibid, p. 222.

44 Mesmer, (1799), p.68 quoted in Crabtree, (2016), p. 229, emphasis in original.

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others, the Swedenborgian society of Stockholm. They meant the efficacy of Mesmer’s theories were dependent upon a spiritual agency consistent with Swedenborg’s theories.45 However, to Mesmer animal magnetism was a healing method which influenced the “magnetic fluid” of his patients through the ‘magnet’ which was the physicians’ own body, altering an invisible fluid pervading the universe.46 This was soon expanded upon by others, such as Armand Marie Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis de Puységur (1751-1825). Puységur applied Mesmer’s techniques and theories on workers on his estate. He soon concluded that the personality of his patients altered drastically between their normal state and that of the somnambulism they displayed during the procedure. Continued experiments lead Puységur to conclude that his patient during treatment could exercise a sixth sense and react to his thoughts, although they had no recollection of the procedure themselves.47 Puységur contributed to keep Mesmer’s practice popular, both medically and paranormally, despite official commissions proclaiming their conclusion that animal magnetism was “judged devoid of scientific merit.”48 Blavatsky claimed “[t]he wonders of mesmerism /…/ defy tricksters, , stern science, and dishonest mediums; the cataleptic state it is impossible to feign.”49 Another influence upon the theories of Blavatsky was the works of a French socialist, neo- Catholic, and later occultist, under the nom de plume Eliphas Lévi (Alphonse-Louis Constant, 1810- 1875).50 Lévi’s books on magic are considered to be among the founding works of occultism.51 He was fascinated by Mesmer and magnetism and his works reflect this interest and the context surrounding him. Lévi’s writings were even published by the most influential German medical publishing house on spiritualistic magnetists, who advertised his writings as “magnetistic studies.”52 Magic was to Lévi no obscure, transcendent or clandestine operation. Magic was “a science universelle”.53 A key idea was that there is an essential truth at the base of all the religions and that this truth is the same as scientific truth. and the was merely this truth in action, performed by a .54 Much like Mesmer, Lévi saw miracles and magic as alterations and manipulations of the

45 Crabtree, (2016), p. 232

46 Crabtree, (2016), pp. 223–224, Godwin, (1994), p. 151 47 Crabtree, (2016), pp. 226–227

48 Crabtree, (2016), p. 224

49 Blavatsky, (1877), p.1:166, emphasis in original.

50 McIntosh, (2015), p. 223. The penname was intended to be a Hebrew version of his Christian names.

51 Strube, (2016b), p. 373

52 Strube, (2016b), pp. 372, 375–376. Lévi was well known in the French socialist circles, although there under his profane name Constant and his socialist publications even landed him in prison on multiple occasions. It was in the socialist discourse Lévi started to develop his occult theories. For more on this, see Strube, 2016b. 53 Strube, (2016b), p. 374, emphasis in original.

54 McIntosh, (2015), p. 225

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invisible component of nature. To Lévi, the medium enabling miracles was the astral light.55 All thing living leave traces in the astral light and the astral light can be operated through imagination, will and intelligence.56 The astral light followed immutable laws, controlled by the “volonté” (will) of the magician.57 This idea will experience a resurgence with Blavatsky. Further connecting Blavatsky and Lévi is their social , for instance; both Lévi and Blavatsky lived with the Gebhard family in Germany, first pupils of Lévi and later keen Theosophists.58 This shows the enduring allure of grand, universal theories of metaphysics in certain groups and contexts and that some expanded their understanding of occultism and adopted new influences into their ontological understanding. A movement drawing from the theories of Mesmer and Lévi was a movement our protagonist Blavatsky became heavily involved with before the start of Theosophy: the spiritualist movement. In 1848 the Fox sisters59 enjoyed massive publicity through their spirit communications in Hydesville. Communications which, after the discovery of human remains in the basement, gained credibility and immense popularity. It even became the subject for researcher to scientifically establish how these communications with the deceased functioned.60 Not only the scientific community were interested in the phenomenon. Interest in spiritualism became so widespread that a writer even called it an “invasion of spirit people”.61 Even in American politics spiritualism entered in a grandiose way when Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927), a medium and healer, ran for president in 1872 on a partially spiritualistic platform.62 While placing the birth of modern spiritualism at the time of the is a clear artificial separation from earlier, similar theories, it is correct to point to this time as the time spiritualism formed as a movement and could serve to identify and self-identify its members.63 The central aspect of modern spiritualism as it arose in America can be framed quite easily: “the living could communicate with those across the threshold of death.”64 Spirits of the dead lingered in the world of the living and could be contacted and communicated with through mediums in seances.65 Seances were held outdoors, in theaters or in auditoriums as public events and could attract thousands

55 Which Lévi connected closely to magnetism – something he explicitly equated with magic. Strube, (2016b), p. 375.

56 McIntosh, (2015), pp. 226–227

57 Strube, (2016a), p. 65 58 Lévi lived with them in 1871 and Blavatsky in the 1880’s. McIntosh, (2015), p. 224.

59 I.e. Leah Fox Fish (1814–1890), Margaret Fox (1833–1893), and Catherine Fox (1839–1892).

60 Godwin, (1994), pp. 187-188

61 Lachman, (2015), p. 612

62 Lachman, (2015), p. 612. Woodhull was the first woman to run for president. A candidate for the Equal Rights Party with focus on spiritualism, free love, feminism and socialism. She was at the time of the election in prison awaiting trial for distributing ‘indecent’ literature, a charge that was dropped soon after the election.

63 Gutierrez, (2016), p. 328 64 Gutierrez, (2016), p. 237

65 Oppenheim, (1985), p. 165

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of spectators. The spirits could be relatives of spectators or prominent figures such as William Shakespeare or Benjamin Franklin.66 Less prominent figures were also popular; the buccaneer John King was a well-known pirate appearing in seances on both sides of the Atlantic.67 The source for these operations were a particular view of the human constitution. The occult human constitution emphasized the interior faculties of man and refuted the notion of human constitution as strictly material. In this view, the human was not simply a product of brain activity, it was spiritual and possibly even a spark of divinity.68 This spark became with spiritualism present in there here and now, rather than just the ‘beyond’. While communing with the dead had previously had an of sepulchral connotations. The new spiritualism evolved from religious revival, democracy, optimism and social experimentation.69 A novelty to the movement was its democratic roots and the ability to invoke spirits became possible to everyone.70 As a democratic movement, the developments and practices were public property. The democratic spirit also enabled access to a large variety of apparitions as the spirits were deemed to be present in the realm of the living. While some channeled spirits of the dead, others made even further claims: the possibility to ‘project the spirit’ of a living individual and to communicate with others at great distance.71 The main protagonist of this paper, Blavatsky, was in contact with the idea of ‘projecting the spirit’ as early as 1854. During this time, she did also function as a catalyst to channel spirits. The French magnetizer Victor Michal (1824-1889) theorized that an ‘aromal body’ occupies the area between the physical body and the soul. The ‘aromal body’ can travel through corporeal bodies and be physically transported, even without one’s knowledge.72 Michal is said to have magnetized Blavatsky, finding her to be an excellent subject taking on a completely alien character while entranced. Whether Blavatsky enjoyed this practice or not I will leave unsaid, but their cooperation ended due to Blavatsky’s “frightful attacks of anger” upon returning to her normal self.73 However, for the ‘aromal body’ to be transported the subject to be transported had to be magnetized, a stark differentiation from Blavatsky’s later astral projection. Magnetizers and mediums were not the only parties interested in the new phenomenon of Spiritualism. As briefly mentioned, there was a scientific interest in the ideas of spiritualism and many journals started to discuss these questions. One was the British Spiritual Telegraph, in which phrases

66 Gutierrez, (2016), p. 238

67 Godwin, (1994), p. 291

68 Owen, (2004), p. 114

69 Owen, (1989), pp. 4-5

70 Owen, (1989), p. 5

71 Godwin, (1994), pp. 194, 133-134 72 Godwin, (1994), p. 281. Similar themes can be discerned later in the Theosophical Society as well.

73 Godwin, (1989), p. 6

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like “[m]an is a sprit while he is in the body, as truly as when he is out of it”74 was not uncommon. Perhaps this emphasizes the Christian context of Spiritualism more than anything. One famous spiritualist during this time was Emma Hardinge Britten (1823-1899). She published articles on the subject, with titles as “Spirits of the Living”, published in the Spiritual Telegraph,75 and “On Living Spirits and Dying Spiritualism” in the Banner of Light.76 One of her early contributions of special interest in this paper was her emphasis on the spirit as a new part of human physiology. Some even regard this tenet to be the most fundamental assumption of Spiritualism.77 However, she did introduce another idea. Britten’s article in the Spiritual Telegraph describes an event in which she channeled a female spirit ‘accompanying’ an acquaintance. Despite her attempts at describing the spirit, her acquaintance does not recognize who the spirit might be. A few weeks later the acquaintance wrote Britten and they decided to rendezvous. As they met, the acquaintance presented a letter in which relatives of the spirit announced her passing. However, her death had occurred in the week after Britten’s channeling of the spirit. This meant that the spirits did not require the death of the person’s body to receive new abilities: the post-death abilities could be accessible while the person was still alive. In addition, Britten also expressed ideas of her time and in addition to articles she edited books.78 In these she presented, amongst other things, a theory claiming an innate potential of all humans that could be developed, an innate psychic or magic power which had given rise to all .79 Notice the similarity to Lévi’s science universelle and the idea that magic was the origin to miracles which in turn spawned religion.80 Spiritualism contributed to more than just communications with spirits. Women were deemed to be both more pious than men and more prone to suffer from psychological illness due to their ‘sensitive nerves’.81 The sensitivity in combination with devoutness made women excellent mediums and created a forum for women to speak, and be listened to, in public. In other religious contexts, such as in church, it was completely out of the question to allow a woman to speak to the congregation. However, while men spoke of spiritualism in their normal state, women spoke of spiritualism in

74 Morrell, (1859) p. 212. However, the foundation of this idea is heavily reliant upon Christianity and the “scriptural facts /…/ [of] the plain, substantial texts of scripture, that that [sic] [the] church builds many of its dogmas.” Ibid, p. 221

75 Hardinge Britten, (1860a), p. 469

76 Hardinge Britten, (1860b), p. 2

77 Deveney, (2015), p. 120

78 Britten was ”a vehicle for the ideas of ‘Chevalier Louis de B_’ a member of the Orphic Circle /…/ who was probably Ernest van Bunsen.” Godwin, (2013), p. 19. This betrays the fact that several societies and organizations was formed to study and theorize about the spiritualist phenomena.

79 Godwin, (2013), p. 19 80 Strube, (2016b), p. 374

81 Braude, (2001), pp. 82-83

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. A woman was required to be in trance since this meant the woman’s voice was not her own, but that of a spirit.82 The passive state of trance led to new problems, such as the accountability of a medium acting indecent. A new preference evolved: the medium should be in a state of active trance. Her voice was that of a spirit, but she was aware of what she was doing and could hear herself.83 The importance of remaining in an active state was also stressed by those around Blavatsky. Both (1832-1907), cofounder of the Theosophical Society, and (1840- 1921) emphasized that she received without a state of passive trance.84 However, Blavatsky’s account of writing Isis Unveiled also states that she was shown and told the things she wrote down, closely mimicking the ideal of conscious reception of messages from agents other than that of the receiving individual.85 In this manner, Blavatsky followed closely a pattern of female mediums who gained fame and reputation for their abilities. A woman was generally considered unable to hold public lectures unaided.86 “The honest portion of any community”, a writer in the Banner of Light tells us, will know “the fact that it is well known they have never been able, nor even attempted, as far as we know, to give such lectures in their normal state.”87 Another went even further on the topic of female trance- speakers, claiming “the discourse to which he had just listened as little short of a ”.88 In other words, the veracity of a medium was judged based upon “whether she seemed to be able to come up with these messages in her own right; if the answer was no, then surely this was the work of the spirit realm.”89 Just as the spirit realm was being used to provide wisdom, it was also a subject of scientific inquiry. The British Society for Psychical Research (SPR), or “Spookical Research Society” as Blavatsky pejoratively called them,90 was founded in 1882. It boasted members such as a Prime Minister of Great Britain, Arthur Balfour, Cambridge philosophers, and even Nobel laureates J.J. Thomson and Lord Rayleigh.91 Although their involvement ranged from holding a presidency to

82 Braude, (2001), p. 85

83 Braude, (2001), pp. 88-89 84 Hanegraaff, (2017), p. 5, 17.

85 Sinnett, (1886/2011), p. 303. ”"I am very busy on ' Secret D.' The thing at New York [meaning the circumstances under which 'Isis Unveiled' was written] is repeated— only far clearer and better. I begin to think it shall vindicate us. Such pictures, panoramas, scenes, antediluvian dramas, with all that! Never saw or heard better."” The clarification of “The thing at New York” is in the original.

86 Braude, (2001), p. 85

87 The Banner of Light, 3:1 (1858), p. 5, emphasis in original. Notice the use of ”honest” to create a criteria for who may comment on the veracity of the statement, a criteria easily disqualifying any dissident.

88 Christian Spiritualist, 1:36 (1855). Emphasis in original.

89 Gutierrez, (2009), p. 5 90 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 330

91 Asprem, (2015a), p. 268, Asprem (2011), p. 145.

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simply appearing on the membership lists, the SPR could boast a high scientific capacity which aided the credibility and supplied legitimacy to spiritualist phenomena. The SPR also worked diligently to debunk in relation to different types of phenomena. In Theosophy the ‘Hodgson report’ is quite infamous. It states that their investigator, Richard Hodgson (1855-1905), perceived Blavatsky “as one of the most accomplished, ingenious, and interesting imposters in history.”92 A Theosophist wrote, a few years later, a response in a Theosophical journal:

It is Theosophy in which we are interested, and this would remain an immovable rock of strength and comfort /…/ even if it were possible, which it is not, conclusively to prove that H. P. Blavatsky was the cleverest trickster and most consummate of the ages.93

Theosophy, somewhat ironically, mirrored much the scientific sentiment of the SPR. We will return to the Theosophical Society in more depth below. Disregarding the discussions of authenticity, we can conclude that spiritualism did not introduce the idea of communicating with the spirits of the dead or activities. The novelty of spiritualism laid in changing the of the dead, from departed into another realm, to present in our everyday . It was an old order, irrevocably passing and a new mystical revival, somewhat apocalyptic in tone, dawning.94 The metaphysical aspect of everyday life became present in a new way and merged with the contemporary discourse, emphasizing the scientific aspects of the metaphysical. This is a short survey of the discourse, of the stage, where this study plays out. It is in no manner conclusive, but it outlines some of the overarching themes the reader should be aware of.

92 Hodgson (1885, p. 317), here quoted in Gomes, (2016), p. 252 93 Mead, (1904), p. 131, emphasis in original.

94 Owen, (2004), pp. 22-24

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Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society

It is the middle ground between light and shadow, between science and , and it lies between the pit of man’s fears, and the summit of his knowledge.95

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky was born on the 12th of August 1831 in Ekaterinoslav, in current day Ukraine.96 She was one of three children of an army colonel and minor German noble, von Hahn, and his Russian aristocratic novelist wife, de Fadeev. Blavatsky gained her famous name after marrying a vice-governor whom she left soon after to travel on and off quite extensively for the next 25 years.97 In 1871 Blavatsky survived the shipwreck of the Eumonia en route to Egypt, a disaster which in its time were as famous as the later Titanic.98 Well in Egypt she was taken in by Emma Coulomb (?-1904), who would later prove a disaster to Blavatsky, and started her first society, the Société Spirite, to investigate spiritual phenomena.99 However, Blavatsky soon left Egypt and travelled through Europe to North America, arriving in New York in 1873. The Theosophical Society was founded together with a total of 15 others in 1875 and it started out as a society with similar aims as Blavatsky’s first society.100 Drawing mainly from spiritualist circles, the society grew. However, after 1875 Blavatsky started to denounce “the “crude theories” of modern spiritualists” and broke off from the spiritualist movement.101 Despite this chapter’s title, one must bear in that Blavatsky and her teachings were, despite her name as author, influenced by the social circle around her. Not only in developing ideas, but also when these would appear to be relevant. She had the support of secretaries, co-editors and editors

95 From Rod Serling’s introductory monologue to the TV-series The Twilight Zone, season 1, from 1959.

96 Santucci, (2006), p. 177. According to the Julian calendar, which where the current calendar in Russia at the time, she was born on July 31st.

97 Godwin, (1994), p. 277

98 Lachman, (2015), p. 612

99 Godwin, (1994), p. 279 100 Chajes, (2019), p. 23

101 Oppenheim, (1985), p. 164

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editing and ‘Englishing’ her work.102 We know for instance that Blavatsky “regularly passed on to Mr. [George Stow] Mead the articles she wrote for her magazine, for him to correct and revise the manuscripts before sending them to the printer”.103 G. R. S. Mead (1863-1933) himself wrote that “for the last three years of her life [1888-1891], I had Englished [sic], corrected or edited everything H.P.B. wrote for publication”.104 Despite this obvious show of trust between the two there were, again according to Mead, frequent moments when they disagreed and “in such cases of difference of opinion, I was always overwhelmed with a torrent of picturesque, not to say abusive, eloquence.”105 Olcott would also edit Blavatsky’s writings, “Englishing [sic] them verbally as he went on, dictating to me from my almost undecipherable MSS.”106 Obviously Blavatsky was not an absolute authoritarian author, she employed the aid and influence of others. This shows that while they shared much of the same ideas circulating within the Theosophical discourse they also disagreed. Many of the Theosophical Society’s members were inclined to indulge themselves in academic pursuits. However, while these studies yielded different results, these results were always placed within the Theosophical discourse. The newly developed theories were harmonized with the existing theories of the Theosophical Society and new ideas were syncretized to fit the existing mold. Blavatsky was, of course, part of this academic discourse. She was also the matriarch of the society and decided to a large extent what theories stayed, and which were discarded. Mead later criticized the use of the “ ‘H.P.B. says,’ as the universal panacea for every ill and solvent to every problem.”107 Considering the Theosophical Society as a discourse, it would never have been what it was (and is) without Blavatsky, just as ‘madame Blavatsky’ would never have been what she was without the society. Focusing on Blavatsky also displays the dominant currents in the society as she would have had to interact with them, either affirming or denying the theories presented. Despite her literary prowess, Blavatsky would frequently claim that her eloquence was limited. She is said to have learned English from a governess and never studied it, nor hardly even spoken colloquially more than a few times before arriving in New York. Despite this, a friend of hers, Alexander Wilder, wrote that she did speak English perfectly well, something attested in many letters and other writings.108 This is a factor that could impact the wordings, editing, and nuances of presented

102 Hanegraaff (2017, especially pp. 14-17) names 5 different individuals involved in the editorial process of Isis Unveiled as well as 3 heavily involved with . He also emphasizes that Blavatsky sometime after Isis Unveiled thought that book was a literary catastrophe. However, what he fails to mention is that his source (Blavatsky 1891) is partly written in defense against allegations of plagiarism: reasons making it desirable to emphasize the chaotic aspects of, and different people involved in, the literary process.

103 Pryse, (1926), p. 125

104 Mead, (1927), p. 320

105 Mead, (1927), p. 320

106 Blavatsky, (1891), p. 244. The manuscript in question was Isis Unveiled. 107 Mead, (1904), p. 131

108 Chajes, (2019), p. 20

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theories as exactly what was edited and by whom may present Blavatsky’s ideas differently than she would herself. It is also important to remember the “syncretistic, synonymizing tendency of theosophical speculation”.109 The theosophical speculation was “not merely a recycling of given images and concepts, but an active development and continuation of a genre”110 and in addition, the character of Blavatsky’s work was also an implementation of other genres (such as science, other religions, fictional novels etc.). One such, very famous, instance is the attempt to synthesize the occult milieu of the 1870s’ in Isis Unveiled.111 The subsequent The Secret Doctrine, initially intended to be a reworked Isis Unveiled, continued the theme of unveiling the secret truths of all religion and all philosophy.112 Blavatsky parted with the contemporary ideas in many regards. One important separation is that she distanced herself from the mediumistic tendency of spiritualist trance or somnambulism. Her visions were produced by being present in the world ‘here and now’ by fully present mental faculties.113 This aspect emphasizes that Blavatsky was shown and could see panoramas of history as a willed, conscious action. The adepts, claimed to be an altruistic brotherhood working in abstruse, secret ways for the development of mankind, would later be described in the same manner to give creed to both the abilities of the adepts but also to Blavatsky as their mouthpiece. With this claim Blavatsky express a form of rhetoric identifiable in later esoteric currents as well: “a rhetoric centered on the revelation of secret knowledge, rather than the outright existence of inaccessible or elite knowledge.”114 It should also be noted that Blavatsky, like many Theosophists, had a habit of claiming absolute truth in, what we would call, dubious sources at best. Fiction is incorporated into the doctrine and treated as any other source, making a grand valley of literature available for syncretization. One contextual import from spiritualism (and perhaps the socialist Lévi) was the theoretical egalitarian ethos proclaimed by Theosophists. Blavatsky praised religious founders, such as and Buddha, but was scornful toward religious authorities.115 Blavatsky also insisted upon the androgyny of the adepts and that they, like all, eventually would evolve into a state of sexlessness.116 These

109 Asprem, (2011), p. 142

110 Ferentinou, (2013), p. 106

111 Hammer, (2001), p. 61. The book was very much a product of its time. It was not even supposed to be named Isis Unveiled. The original name was intended to be The Veil of Isis, but this became impossible as there already was a book with that name on the market. (Hanegraaff, (2017), p. 5n5.) Despite this attempted novelty, at least 5 other authors had out to ‘unveil’ Isis before Blavatsky. (Godwin, (1994), pp. 32, 187.)

112 Owen, (2004), p. 33

113 Hanegraaff, (2017), pp. 3-7

114 Granholm, (2013), p. 50

115 Oppenheim, (1985), p. 167

116 Kraft, (2013), p. 368. Blavatsky claimed the sixth root race would be hermaphrodites, and that the feminine would merge with the masculine (again, considering the directionality of the merger, masculinity was the assumed norm).

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egalitarian ideas did not persist. Colored by her context, Theosophy developed into a hierarchical society which standardized the masculine. The doctrinal authority was spatially dislocated and dependent upon unknown masters, or mahatmas as they later came to be called.117 Blavatsky refers to the masters, the adepts, as the authors of Isis Unveiled. The idea of secret chiefs and a secret brotherhood was an innovation collected from Rosicrucian literature. The secret adepts were, in addition to anonymous, concealed geographically and they were not necessarily material.118 Blavatsky defined an as “one who has nothing more to learn.”119 Blavatsky calls Moses an adept,120 Jesus and Pythagoras are adepts,121 and Buddha is an adept.122 In other words, Blavatsky opened up the foundation to her theories to the established religious communities. However, while she allowed the religious teachings of established religions, they were only accepted upon one criterion: if they could be harmonized with the Theosophical teachings. Blavatsky theoretically opened the doctrine up to a more democratic process, but in practice the teachings were regulated by a small number of central figures with Blavatsky herself being the most prominent one. Blavatsky’s prominence was not solely reliant upon the doctrinal structures she conveyed, or channeled as she probably would put it. Channeling the doctrines meant that Blavatsky was not the source of the teachings. She was simply conveying a message from spiritually exalted masters who (if believed in) had a far greater base for legitimizing the claims put forth. This would circumvent possible allegations or criticism brought forth based upon the gender of the author (as many thought it impossible for a woman to display aptitude for theoretical and logically coherent ideas). Blavatsky could then simply refer to the adepts as the true authors, she was just the messenger. However, part of Blavatsky’s prominence was also due to her personality. She was “a one-woman bohemia unleashed on America” who scandalously shared an apartment with a married man, sometimes received “mixed company” while still in bed, were completely void of skill in the domestic arts, and generally “went against the grain of civilized morality and taste”.123 She had an aversion of feminine ideals but still managed to be an accepted public figure. In fact, her most frequent types of visitors during her stay in

117 Goodrick-Clarke, (2010), pp. 135-136

118 Asprem, (2015b), p. 648. Olcott also echoed the sentiment of a hidden order. However, while he claimed that the order might rely upon unseen agents the order had its (physical) existence on earth. Deveney, (1997), pp. 3-4

119 New York World, (1877a/1991), p. 175

120 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:551

121 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:150

122 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:297. Additionally, Gautama-Buddha is, according to Blavatsky, proven to be the same person as Jesus, another clear example of the syncretistic tendencies.

123 Tumber, (2002), pp. 142-144. For instance, ”’she swore like the Army in Flanders.’ Her conversation was nearly always ‘witty and amusing, some unnecessarily violent.’” And she “claimed that to boil eggs one should place them directly on live coals.” See also Chajes, (2019), p. 22, Braude, (2001), p. 191.

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New York were journalists.124 The Theosophical Society drew its name from an earlier tradition. However, the use of the previous tradition was merely in name, and not in meaning. The name ‘Theosophy’ was suggested by Charles Sotherand,125 but Blavatsky did not subscribe to its historical meaning of ‘divine wisdom’. To her it was “an eternal universal wisdom” – the source of all religion and the truth in all science.126 The Society’s motto was ‘there is no religion higher than the truth’.127 Therefore, all religious ideas and all advancements in science should be coherent with Theosophy, as Theosophy is the truth. Those who failed to be coherent were simply wrong.128 Truth could be part of any publication of ideas, be it fictional novels, religious dogmas or scientific theories. Blavatsky believed that the occidental scientific laws of nature did not reflect the real laws of nature. Therefore, phenomena unexplained by science were not only a possibility but a fact.129 There is another important distinction to be made before we look at the phenomenon of liberating the double. Godwin states that Blavatsky’s public life of occultism could be divided into two, and both Tillett and Deveney express the same notion of the society in toto, albeit with different categorization of what the two periods should be.130 While I agree that there is a possibility to discern two different periods, Theosophy as a whole is a multitude of ideas. Because of the multitude of instances of Theosophical currents, the society should not be view as a singular entity but as a collection of discourses in a larger complex. Here we will focus mainly on Blavatsky as the instigator and reflector of this complex, which eases the problem of distinguishing between the periods. The division, however, is in my regard somewhat arbitrary as there is no distinct breaking point between the early and late period; they are intended to indicate the results of a gradual shift in focus rather than an exact break in the doctrine. My division should only be seen as a constructed categorization designed to simplify and add clarity to the presentation of ideas.131 At the time of the society’s creation and for some years after, the focus was devoted to practical occultism.132 One such practical power was astral projection, liberating the true of a person

124 Tumber, (2002), p. 144. Previously Victoria Woodhull had been a beacon of feminism, but she had fallen from public grace due to, amongst other things, her distribution of ’indecent’ literature (see above).

125 Godwin, (1994), pp. 283-284

126 Rudbøg, (2010), pp. 163-164

127 Asprem, (2013), p. 407

128 Rudbøg, (2010), pp. 164-165

129 New York World (1877b/1991), p. 224

130 Godwin, (1994), pp. 277–278, Tillett, (2012), p. 19, Deveney, (2016), pp. 93–94. 131 While the categories reflect observable changes among the practitioners, there is nothing in the emic material which indicates a corresponding perception or division as presented here.

132 Deveney, (2016), p. 93

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from its physical sheath. Something Blavatsky described as the apex of magic.133 The origin of ancient wisdom was to be found in the archaic, spiritually superior India; an idea clearly identifiable in the early period.134 There was an exotification of “the east” familiar to later currents of esotericism as well.135 The esoteric lore of the east was crucial and was thought to be the oldest still in existence.136 This was emphasized by the idea of secluded adepts possessing paranormal powers, through which they could communicate and aid the development of man, to be incorporated into Theosophy.137 Blavatsky did also, prior to the publication of Isis Unveiled, place heavy emphasis on practice. She even stated that “book-learning /…/ will always prove insufficient even to the analytical mind /…/ unless supported by personal experience and practice.”138 Like other parts of Blavatsky’s teachings in this earlier period, the liberation of the double could be used to gain immortality.139 However, astral travel was also used in a far more colloquial manner as Blavatsky had a habit of employing it at times when serious, personal conflicts arose.140 Just as practice was of main concern in the early period, philosophy and theory were of greater importance in the later period. Blavatsky even stated in 1888 that one should not become involved with occultism, nor even touch it, before one knows their own powers perfectly. Otherwise a fall into would inevitable ensue.141 If black magic, which generated bad and was catastrophic for future was not enough of a repellent: practical occultism was detrimental to the person here and now as well; Insanity or death were possible consequences.142 Before we deal with the practical and theoretical subject of astral projection there are some other aspects which needs to be clarified. In order to understand how astral projection occurs, why it is a desirable practice and how this came to be, one must have an understanding of how the human body and the world is construed by Blavatsky. Because of this each section below regarding the early period and the later period will include a survey of the ontological assumptions dominant in each period. This ontology will also touch upon the physiology of the human body and continue to explain astral projection through the ontology and physiology presented. Following these sections, we will compare the two periods and their perspective on astral projection.

133 Deveney, (1997), p. 17

134 A search for a ’origin’ were a common intellectual trope in the nineteenth century. Rudbøg, (2012), p.447

135 Granholm, (2014), p. 31

136 Lubelsky, (2016), p. 73

137 Baier, (2016), pp. 318-322

138 Blavatsky, (1875), p. 217

139 Deveney, (1997), p. 72n179. Additionally, could also be used to gain immortality and metempsychosis.

140 Tumber, (2002), p. 145 141 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 333

142 Deveney, (1997), p. 41

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The Earlier Period of Theosophical Thought

In a time when spiritualism was in vogue, the Theosophical Society was still able to be the odd one out. The Theosophical Society was, in its infancy, a society of secrecy, demanding absolute secrecy regarding its activities.143 Blavatsky meant that her spiritualism differed from that of contemporary America, born out of the Hydesville rappings of 1848. Her spiritualism originated from ancient wisdom, relying on the same sources as Pico della Mirandola, Agrippa von Nettesheim, and Robert Fludd. It was a philosophia perennis, a string of ancient knowledge protected from degeneration, passed on through the generations, ancient wisdom which would weave all knowledge together.144 Astral projection, or the liberation of the double, was in the early days one of the goals of the society. As previously mentioned, mastering the practice of astral projection was the highest achievable form of magic. In these early days it was even said that the astral form was hindered by neither space nor time.145 This wonderous idea was built upon an ontological foundation which differ from a view of matter and time as two distinct separate conceptions. One of the cornerstones of this alternative ontology was the notion of a parallel but connected sphere of existence, often referred to as the astral . The was thought to be a physical and material, but normally intangible, dimension. The astral plane is the most relevant supranatural sphere to us in the terrestrial sphere, but this is not the only sphere adjacent our corporeal, opaque dimension.146 Closely connected, and sometimes used synonymously, to the astral plane is the astral light. Blavatsky was an early recipient of Lévi’s notion of astral light.147 To Blavatsky the astral light is, when active, identical with the Hindu akasa, “the occult electricity … the universal solvent, the same anima mundi as the astral light” and when it is in its latent state “it tallies exactly with our idea of the universal ether”.148 As the astral light was everywhere, it was affected by, and could effect, everything.

143 Deveney, (1997), p.49. In practice the society was quite forgiving against those who did not observe this rule. It remained a part of the society and was annulled as late as in December 1885. Deveney, (2016), p. 96.

144 Santucci, (2006), pp. 179-180. If Blavatsky herself considered her teachings in the terms of a philosophia perennis is, however, not proven, see Rudbøg, (2012), pp.177.

145 Deveney, (1997), p. 29

146 Blavatsky, (1882b), p. 288 147 Strube, (2016a), p. 64

148 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxvii, emphasis in original.

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In addition, the astral light in its latent state was also thought to capture all events and all actions, that has happened or is happening.149 The captured events can be accessed without hinderance of space or time as the astral light exists physically, but in another state of physicality, on “another plane of objective existence”.150 In scholarly literature it is common to separate the astral light from the astral plane, which is, in a Theosophical context, unfortunate.151 However, Blavatsky’s ideas of ‘another plane of objective existence’ and the astral plane are questions we will return to. For now, it is sufficient to say that they are closely connected but are not synonyms, that Blavatsky’s view of the astral light was heavily influenced by Lévi, and that the idea of a secondary physicality is heavily influential in Blavatsky’s thought.

Blavatsky’s Metaphysics

Blavatsky’s metaphysics was built upon a layered ontology and anatomy. Human access to another plane, such as the astral plane, depends upon the constitution of the human body. Blavatsky would later revise this description to harmonize it with the move towards an increasingly theoretical Theosophy, but as it was stated in Isis Unveiled differs from the version that came later. Throughout, the body was separated into three distinct divisions, with a total of 7 parts. This is most clearly depicted in an edition of from 1882, as it is intended to clarify a ‘misconception’ that Isis Unveiled would contradict itself regarding the doctrine of (and therefore fundamental questions relating to the soul and the body). Another contribution of confusion was Alfred Sinnett’s (1881). He denied reincarnation while other Theosophists, such as and Edward Maitland, maintained it.152 However, Kingsford and Maitland focused heavily upon the ‘western’ and primarily Christian elements of Theosophy, adding to the doctrinal confusion.153 Competing with these doctrinal challengers, Blavatsky strove to clarify this issue and

149 Exactly as Lévi thought the astral light could.

150 Hanegraaff, (2017), pp. 29, 6

151 See for example; Owen, (2004), p. 286n39: “Blavatsky also referred to the Astral Light, but the term should not be confused with the ‘astral plane’ of the Theosophists, which refers simply to one occult dimension close to that of the physical.” While I do not agree with the astral plane as a simple occult dimension juxtaposed the physical it does echo a stereotypical differentiation many make between these two phenomena.

152 Godwin, (2006), p. 553

153 This did not only result in an immediate clash of doctrine, but later Kingsford and Maitland both left the Theosophical Society to create their parallel ‘Hermetic Order’. Good faith was kept between the two societies; Olcott spoke at the inauguration of Kingsford as president of the newly founded society and the naming of the society circumvented the Theosophical rule that no member may be part of more than one Lodge, allowing members to be part of both groups if they so desired.

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stated in her article that a contradiction would be impossible, since the teachings originate from the same source: “the ADEPT BROTHERS.”154 This is a clear example of Fairclough’s ‘cruces’ or ‘ moments of crisis’: there are several similar theories to explain, and thus make sense of, an aspect of the world. As a foundational frame is being attacked as failing to explain the aspect, new meanings emerge. In other words, there is a competing, alternative discourse attempting to become the prominent one, and Blavatsky delivers a decisive counterattack to maintain her hegemony over the discourse. The adepts, members of a secret brotherhood guiding man, is a central aspect of the Theosophical discourse. If viewed strictly as a social construct, these adepts create a point of reference and the Theosophical Society provides a social context in which that reference is dominant. In this manner the adepts are components of the larger discourse. One can view them as a constituting element of Blavatsky’s Theosophy while others may revise their position as others may be in closer contact to other discourses. In this way, the individuals constituting the discourse express additional affiliation with other discursive complexes. The discourse surrounding the adepts are not an intricate part of, as an example, the Kingsford and Maitland discourse of Theosophy. Thus, an alternative to their involvement and position is required. In the Kingsford-Maitland doctrine Christianity supplied that role. This is also a symptom of the academic discourse of Theosophy.155 In the search for truth different pursuits yielded different results and different members presented competing theories. Therefor it might be more accurate to discuss Theosophical Societies in plural than the Theosophical Society as a singular, monolithic collective. The focus for this thesis, however, is Blavatsky and the ‘Blavatskyan’ Theosophy. Total hegemony was never fully achieved by Blavatsky. She did however attain a mystic aura which she gladly bolstered through her general demeanor. A charismatic individual with a mystical past, combined with claimed communication with spiritual masters and an exotic doctrine was to many an intriguing concoction, undoubtedly contributing to the success of the Theosophical Society and Blavatsky’s teachings. Attributing her doctrine to the adepts displays an additional interesting reoccurring phenomenon in occultism: “the propensity to gloss over or be unaware of the fact that processes of reinterpretation have taken place.”156 Despite influential thinkers such as Max Müller157 and Vladimir Solovyov158 criticizing Blavatsky’s ideas as misinterpretations of with

154 Blavatsky, (1882a), p. 226, emphasis in original.

155 Academic should here be understood as a (somewhat) systematic syncretization of available knowledge.

156 Hammer, (2001), p. 180. This is what Hammer calls ‘source-amnesia’. 157 Oppenheim, (1985), p. 163

158 Carlson, (1993), pp. 46–47. Solovyov’s critique of Blavatsky was conclusive and total and swayed the Russian public away from the Theosophical Society.

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contradictory, mutually exclusive elements as fundamental points. Blavatsky’s source-amnesia is one of the basic premises for her ontology as it will be presented below.

Blavatsky’s Human: Constitution of the Individual

According to Blavatsky the human body consists of seven separate parts, divided into three groups. The groups range from ultimately transcendent to physical and the seven parts are the core of different human abilities. Blavatsky’s division is of matter, soul, and spirit.159 Of the three divisions, the spiritually highest tier is the Spiritual Monad. It consists of Atman (‘pure spirit’) and Buddhi (‘spiritual soul’ or ‘intelligence’). The Spiritual Monad is also called ‘spirit’ and ‘individuality’. This is the true self. Synchronizing borrowed elements, such as atman, is part of the Theosophical discourse, done sometimes despite, as Godwin points out, the source from which it is attain might differ. The source of the Theosophical Atman is the ‘Adept Brothers,’ Buddhist masters who should doctrinally subscribe to the notion of anatta (denying the existence of atman).160 The Spiritual Monad is immortal, eternal and indestructible. It is after death of the physical individual not reincarnated but transmigrates to higher forms of existence.161

Figure 1. Blavatsky's diagram (from 'The Theosophist', 3:35, August 1882, p. 289) showing the constitution of man.

The second tier is the Astral Monad. This is, despite the name, not where the astral body resides. This is the division which is most continuously consistent in Blavatsky’s writings as it retains both the names, but also their meaning (for the most part) into the later period. The Astral Monad consists of (‘mind’ or ‘animal soul’) and -rupa (‘body of desire’). Other names are ‘personal Ego’

159 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:428 160 Godwin, (1994), p. 341

161 Chajes, (2019), p. 29. This depends upon a criterion of spiritual development.

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and ‘Soul’. Both manas and Kama-rupa are beyond material and opaque but still able to effect matter, much akin to energies or forces. This part of man is generally not reincarnated. There are however instances when this part can be returned into existence. These are cases when “nature’s original design to produce a perfect human being has been interrupted.”162 It should be noted that metempsychosis of the Spiritual Monad differs from the Astral Monad’s reincarnation or return to this world. As to the cases when “nature’s original design” has been interrupted the Astral Monad attempts anew. Blavatsky highlights the difference by calling the progress of the Spiritual Monad metempsychosis and not reincarnation.163 The third tier is the physical. The physical body is divided into three: linga-sarira (the astral-, or vital body), jiva (‘life-principle’), and Stool-sarira (the physical body).164 Just as we have control over our physical body, Stool-sarira, we can learn to control our astral body, linga-sarira. Man can learn to separate their astral body from the physical, gaining control over the two bodies. This is the liberation of the double mentioned in the beginning of this section. The two bodies are undoubtedly connected even though they can be separated and while the astral body is projected the physical is in a state of abeyance.165 The Stool-sarira and the linga-sarira are the two most prominent bodies featured in astral projection. The three divisions of the body were not only separable through astral projection. After the death of the physical body, the Astral Monad, the soul, could be joined with the Spiritual Monad, the spirit, if a certain level of spiritual progression had been made during life. This combination of soul and spirit would then be immortal and could transmigrate to higher spheres of existence; the individual entity had achieved apotheosis, maintained its individuality and consciousness. If the spiritual progression had not been made the soul would stay in the material world, slowly disintegrating until complete annihilation.166 A decaying soul Blavatsky call a ‘shell.’ The shell is a soul (astral monad) in its early stages of decay, when it still retains some of its physical intelligence and faculties.167

162 Blavatsky, (1882b), p. 288. The explicit cases are abortion, infant death and “congenial and incurable idiocy”.

163 Blavatsky, (1882b), p. 288. See also Chajes (2019), pp. 3-4.

164 Jiva is not further explained in the article. However, Blavatsky describes it in Isis Unveiled as “a blind force obeying a controlling influence.” p. 1:140

165 Blavatsky, (1895), p. 299

166 Chajes, (2019), pp. 45-47, Deveney, (2016), p. 95

167 Blavatsky, (1882a), p. 226. In this instance Blavatsky actually calls the shell a ‘spirit’, and not a soul, but she clarifies that it is the ‘personal Ego’ i.e. the soul which constitutes the shell. The terminological confusion is likely due to her attempt to present the distinction in a spiritualistic context where ‘spirit’ would have a different meaning.

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Metaphysical Ontology: Syncretistic Science and the Occult

The projectable double is an intricate part of the physical human anatomy. It mirrors the physical body, existing through an alternative ontology. Just as the human body exists as a triune – body, soul, and spirit – nature exists as a triune. The tripartite existence of nature mimics that of the human body in structure. It consists of material and visible elements, an invisible vital principle duplicating the physical exactly, and lastly a spirit, a source of all force, which is indestructible. Blavatsky also claims that there are laws of nature which has been forgotten, but which she now could transmit with the help of the adepts.168 In other words, she created space for her claim that all recent gains in science only confirmed what the esoteric philosophy always had known.169 This method deserves further discussion before we delve deeper into the idea of astral light and the astral plane. With this tactic, science is not a method. Instead it is “the body of statements, the terminology and/or the technical applications of science.”170 Utilizing such a position makes science rhetorical and equates it with another system of belief like any other. The metaphorical descriptions used by the scientific community was taken as literal descriptions. Thus, metaphorical descriptions of an invisible world responsible for all kind of different forces were interpreted as being de facto descriptions of how the world is. Spiritualist phenomena, such as mediums, apparitions, and could then be linked to these descriptions. This led to Blavatsky’s claims becoming defendable in two different discourses both struggling to be the dominant one in describing the world. It emphasizes the natural aspect of the transcendent astral; it is not simply an occult teaching, but also a scientific one. The goal of discovering the hidden faculties of man and the invisible world became located in the world here and now, just as the spirit of man had become a constant part and not only a transformation after death. According to Blavatsky, this is what the burgeoning sciences would eventually prove. Thus, would be the same as the modern science. She constructed, as part of her macrohistory, a sort of “cosmic U-curve”.171 The U-shaped idea of wisdom over time is part of a ‘redemptive narrative’, as Olav Hammer calls it,172 a narrative Blavatsky utilizes through stating an abundance of instances from the zenith of ancient wisdom with which Christianity had reached its nadir and which Blavatsky would return to a new zenith. The knowledge is in the form of prisca theologia, a lost knowledge which is now to be restored.173 It is through this synthesis we have to look

168 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:587

169 Asprem, (2011), p. 143

170 Hammer, (2001), p. 204

171 Trompf, (2011), p. 47

172 Hammer, (2001), p. 167

173 Worth noting about this knowledge is that it is not a strict prisca theologia. There are instances in history in which these perennial teachings have resurfaced in (according to Blavatsky) correct ways, but never in their totality or with their correct context.

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at the astral light. The syncretistic motor of Theosophy was also a limiting factor in the synthesis of science and religion. For instance, Blavatsky claimed that the spiritualistic idea of the same soul returning to a new body (i.e. reincarnation) was incorrect because it contradicted a specific idea of evolution subscribed to by Blavatsky. This was ’s ‘biogenetic law’ which stated that the soul evolved prior to being born through stages of previous existences; first as a mineral, then as flora, followed by fauna, and ending with being born as a human.174 As the claims of science and spiritualism is seen as the body of statements presented, Blavatsky is able to pick and mix which elements are coherent to her ontology. Through this process the U-shaped development contains nuggets of truth, even at its nadir. Blavatsky’s rhetoric aims at unearthing these nuggets, implementing parts of other discourses while simultaneously being able to deny their veracity in toto. Science becomes a rhetoric and dissidents are not only wrong in metaphysical questions but also in scientific ones, they are less scientific. One scientific fact, according to Blavatsky, is the astral light, one name for a reoccurring phenomenon in history. Blavatsky names around three dozen instances on a single page.175 To Blavatsky this phenomenon has been known to religious characters in history and is becoming known to her contemporary scientists. Blavatsky’s source Lévi had made attempts at creating an equilibrium between religion, politics and science. Blavatsky adapted some of Lévi’s theories, such as that of astral light. The syncretization of science and magic was another notion Blavatsky subscribed to. In fact, Theosophy was to be understood as a higher form of science.176 However, the Astral Light is only a part of this knowledge, not the whole knowledge. We gain a more comprehensive understanding when Blavatsky proclaims the Astral Light as an “all-pervading, subtile [sic] principle which has recently been baptized THE UNIVERSAL ETHER.”177 Blavatsky even has a chapter in Isis Unveiled named “The Ether, or ‘Astral Light’”. She equated the esoteric notion of astral light with the ’scientific’ ether.178 Luminiferous ether had as early as the 1830’s gain influence as the medium for propagating light which soon evolved into a number of ethers, used to explain a wide range of different phenomena.179 To science, ether was thought of as a sort of ‘catch-all’ medium. It was used to explain everything from the propagation of light waves, to electricity, and magnetism.180 This displays an influence from juxtaposed discourses; Blavatsky’s discursive complex does not in itself produce the notion of ether but imports a discursive understanding of it from adjacent discursive complexes. After

174 Chajes, (2019), pp. 50-52

175 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:125. A clear example of the syncretistic tendencies of the Theosophical teachings.

176 Hammer, (2001), pp. 219-220

177 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:128, emphasis in original.

178 Blavatsky, (1877), pp. 1:125-162; Asprem, (2011), p. 142 179 Asprem, (2011), p. 134

180 Asprem, (2011), pp. 135-136

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it has been imported, it is reinterpreted to align with the new discursive complex it has been relocated to. The later, ubiquitous ether was a convenient explanation for the Astral Light, especially as some scientists even went as far as calling matter an epiphenomenon of etheric motion.181 Blavatsky adopted this idea in Isis Unveiled stating “[e]soteric philosophers held that everything in nature is but a materialization of spirit. /…/ Spirit begat force, and force matter.”182 Recall the triune division (spirit, soul and body) of man: matching these two ideas becomes an elegant, coherent ontology. This is an excellent example of Blavatsky’s synchronic, syncretic system, incorporating figurative explanations as literal descriptions.183 She was not alone in this, others also thought ether to be an omnipresent medium responsible for spiritualistic phenomena and scientific theories.184 Neither was she alone to feel a necessity of proving spirit with matter. Visual evidence was near-essential in some types of séances coming into vogue in the 1870s.185 Equating Ether with the Astral Light means that the Astral Light constitutes more than the ‘immutable law’ controlled by the will of the magician proposed by Lévi. Just as the Astral Light is beyond the material, this astral medium is beyond the corporeal, opaque material. This type of matter exists somewhere “in the boundless realm of the unseen universe”, referring to a juxtaposed reality beyond the physical.186 At this time Blavatsky did not have a singular name for the unseen universe but as others started to discuss it, some terms were syncretized into the teaching.187 Christopher Plaisance correctly points out that she came to employ the term ‘astral plane’ only after Alfred Percy Sinnett’s was published in 1883 and she did not write anything about a ‘higher plane’.188 However, while this terminology is not explicitly used, there are instances which clearly implies higher planes:

[Even after death some] may retain their third and higher principle, and so on, though slowly and painfully, yet ascend sphere after sphere, casting off at each transition the previous heavier garments…189

In addition, she would later criticize the alterations of the proof-readers. She gives three concrete examples of the most profound faults, of which two had been consistently changed to the word

181 Asprem, (2011), p. 141 182 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:428

183 Blavatsky is not alone in taking metaphorical descriptions as literal, see especially Asprem (2011), pp. 132-33 & 141-142, and Hammer (2001), p. 269.

184 Asprem, (2011), pp. 143-144

185 Lowry, (2012), p. 222

186 Blavatsky, (1877), pp. 2:58-59

187 This juxtaposed plane was later termed ’the astral plane’. This was just one of the many parallel planes and spheres of existence. For now, it should be seen as a concomitant existence slightly out of reach for most people. 188 Plaisance, (2016), p. 397

189 Blavatsky, (1878), p. 69, my emphasis.

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‘planet’; plane and cycle (referring to reincarnation in different cycles which implies different planes or spheres in which the soul could be).190 In the New York World from 26th of March 1877 Blavatsky states while discussing astral projection:

We live in one of the lowest of the spheres, but as we progress in successive lives from one sphere to another our astral body becomes purged of its imperfections and grossness, and becomes more and more nearly omnipotent and omniscient.191

The physical sphere is ‘one of the lowest’ and the metempsychosis of the astral body is from sphere to sphere. Blavatsky would mostly likely have a Christian idea of the place of God as a ‘higher’ existence; she was brought up as a Russian orthodox192 and though she despised Christianity in general she writes to her sister “when I read about the spread of Russian orthodoxy in Japan, my heart rejoices.”193 This is a clear example of Blavatsky both expressing and syncretizing the discourse of her surroundings. Returning to the ‘unseen universe,’ while the astral light is a force, the astral plane is a juxtaposed plane. However, what Blavatsky stresses in regard to the body is that the astral- and physical body occupies the same space. This is not explicitly carried over and applied to the astral- and physical planes. The imprints of actions and events in the astral light is stored spatially, which is the reason any event can be retrieved. This also means that the astral light can move beyond the boundaries of the physical as a medium while still pertaining its status as a force working beyond the physical. It is perhaps easier to discuss the astral plane through how the physical sphere is related to it, rather than the other way around. In criticizing materialists, Blavatsky boldly states: “they [will] discover that it is not spirit that dwells in matter, but matter which clings temporarily to spirit; and that the later alone is an eternal, imperishable abode for all things visible and invisible.”194 Blavatsky was not alone to claim this, her contemporary, (1821-1910), founder of in 1875, even claimed that people did not even have bodies to begin with.195 Blavatsky viewed

190 Blavatsky, (1891), p. 241. The third explicit case was Manas which had been changed to “Monas”. In an ironic twist, when Blavatsky actually writes “astral planet” in Isis Unveiled she means “planet” and nothing else. For this, see Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:330. 191 New York World, (1877a/1991), p. 176, my emphasis.

192 See Rudbøg, (2012), pp. 215–218 for more on Blavatsky and her relation to the Russian Orthodox Church.

193 Chajes, (2019), pp. 20-21. She continues to state that she despises the rituals and dogmas of Christianity, but that she feels quite different regarding the Russian church. “Such is my silly inconsistent nature.” (ibid.) It could be argued that the notion of ‘higher’ could come from Neoplatonist ideas as Blavatsky frequently refers to Neoplatonists when discussing the truth of her theories (i.e. claiming Neoplatonists to have ‘cracked the code’ so to speak and having the true understanding of the nature of the universe – the same truth as Blavatsky’s truth). 194 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:428, emphasis in original.

195 Braude, (2001), p. 184

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the spiritual component as the ‘true’ part of the world, or as the part which is constant. Chajes summarizes how the spiritual component of man in Isis Unveiled is the key to immortality:

Blavatsky presented immortality as achievable in this lifetime through the unification of two inner spiritual elements, the spirit (a fragment of the Divine) and the soul (the seat of the personality). This unification was to be attained through occult practice such as astral travel and the development of one’s moral faculties.196

The two examples presented are two non-material developments. After death, the combination of soul and spirit would undergo metempsychosis, wandering from sphere to sphere, constantly evolving until the highest achievable sphere was reached. Far from everyone could achieve this. In order to evolve spiritually the individual had to become closer to the divine through a strict code of conduct, provided by Blavatsky. As part of this development, members were to develop their latent powers and study “the laws of magnetism, electricity, and all other forms of force, whether from the seen or unseen universes.”197 Again, the primary way and goal of development is focused upon non-material existences. By evolving the latent powers, the practitioner would be able to evolve. This would come into fruition after death. “[W]hen man dies out of the world of gross matter, he is born into one more ethereal; so on from sphere to sphere /…/ at each birth a new and more perfect astral body is evolved”.198 The post-life evolution was achieved by those who became spiritually evolved during their time as humans on earth. As far as discourses go, this is an incredibly effective way to isolate the perceived truth. Blavatsky managed to create an ontology which, if you adhered to it, could only be confirmed by delving deeper into it. This would cause the adherent to commit more and more heavily to the discourse and establish the ontology of Blavatsky more firmly in the adherent. By subscribing to the metaphysical ontology, one would gain some knowledge of the physical, opaque world. In order to gain a comprehensive understanding more elaborate theories need to be internalized by the individual. This becomes a tool for the individuals within the discourse for self-identification as they need to internalize the ontology to a greater and greater degree as the doctrine becomes more and more metaphysical: the discourse makes metaphysical claims based upon a host of different materials and the connection between that material is supplied through Blavatsky’s teachings. The macro-narratives explain the true composition of the universe through a number of sub-narratives. For example, to understand human desire, one needs to understand the human body. To understand the human body, one needs to understand the multitude of matter(s) it is composed of. Suddenly the discourse does explain the original question,

196 Chajes, (2019), p. 28

197 Olcott, (1895), p. 400

198 Chajes, (2019), p. 57. The original letter can be found in The Spiritualist 8:10, (1876, p. 117) although at this point no real names were used; Blavatsky was referred to as “a very learned Occultist” by C.C. Massey, who submitted the correspondence and placed the signature “An English Member of the Theosophical Society”.

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e.g. human desire in this case, but only if the greater narrative is adhered to and the discourse internalized. The questioner has gained a discursive understanding of a metaphysical ontology in addition to the original query: to answer questions of everyday life one needs to submerge oneself deeper into the doctrine, which in turn strengthens the legitimacy and belief in the answer itself.

The Phenomenon of Astral Projection

The idea of astral projection as a singular practice is quite simple, however, the use of it is nestled into a complicated web of individual practitioners, each contributing to alter the discursive beliefs within the discursive complex. So far, we have discussed Blavatsky’s ontology but now we need to embed it with the practice itself. This is because of the different possible feats enabled by astral projection. In some regards the practice limits itself to physical excursions. In others it attempts to ascend the fabric of nature. Even the physical uses (such as projecting the double to another location) become muddied when we consider the spatiality of the astral light and the bygone events placed there. In this part we will first look at the context in which astral projection is a possible action, then we will look at the action from the perspective of the practitioner.

Practice, Phenomenon, and Perception

As mentioned above, John Patrick Deveney has identified four different modes of liberating the double, or astral projection, in the Theosophical context. These four are, in short, the of another’s double, accidental projection, willed projection, and to enter and cohabitate another’s (physical) body.199 Of these four it is the willed projection that is our primary focus here. This is because, to Blavatsky, willed projection is the highest achievable form of desirable magic. To enter another’s body and cohabitate it was condemned as ‘vampirism’, leading to living corpses.200 The evocation of another’s double is a mostly peripheral practice and accidental projection is deemed inferior to willed projection as it is uncontrolled. Accidental projection will however reappear in a more significant manner in the later period. To the early Theosophical Society willed projection is the main form of separation of the self. Before the release of Isis Unveiled Blavatsky even claimed that the

199 Deveney, (1997), p. 2

200 Deveney, (1997), p. 30

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astral body, when separated from the physical, becomes “almost omnipotent”.201 In short, projecting the astral body was a separation of the self. The projection focused upon separating the majority of the individual from the physical body. The majority of the individual was conceived to be a combination of spirit and soul; spirit was the ultimate divine and the soul was two forces in union. The act intended to enable the practitioner to make this separation willingly and consciously. When this was achieved a true understanding of the world became possible. It was evolving the human race forward (or human races).202 Blavatsky claimed this practice to be commonplace among Indian fakirs and Tibetan monks, with few adepts (but many novices) living in the occident.203 There are descriptions of Theosophists’ projection of the double. Blavatsky describes William Judge and tells of how he leaves his body and sees visions, flies and even “roams infinite space.”204 Olcott’s double was seen by Blavatsky as it entered her apartment and added a few lines to her manuscript. Blavatsky herself visited her sister in Tiflis and found out she had financial issues, all while physically staying in New York.205 What they have in common is that they are characterized as achieving an ability to transgress normal, physical boundaries. However, as the astral body transcends the physical boundaries it is also described as physical, i.e. material. Olcott’s double manipulated matter by picking up a pen and writing, while Blavatsky’s double disregarded material obstacles to travel across the world. These are achievements tied to mastering the body within the theosophical context. In a way, the achievements are successfully in transcending the world, but only within and constrained by the Theosophical discourse. In addition, astral projection is used as a value assigned to the higher echelons of the Theosophical Society. The claims of successful projection assigned to individuals such as Blavatsky and Olcott furthered their legitimacy and isolated the privilege to invent and change the discourse. The theosophical discourse is constituting a backdrop to which these achievements are possible actions, sustained by social interaction. It would be hard to imagine that Blavatsky and Olcott independent of each other developed their understanding of the world and placed astral projection as a possible action. We must rather remember the social context and how their interaction with each other construed the basic premises of their ontology. The examples mentioned above were all in close

201 Deveney, (1997), p. 17

202 Blavatsky did differentiate, amongst others, between the “white-skinned people” in which the “European blood is fitted” coming from “Civilized nations” and the so called “Easterns” [sic] who by inheritance have “an intuitive perception of the possibilities of occult natural forces”. Blavatsky, (1877), pp. 2:635-636

203 See especially Deveney (1997), and New York World (1877a/1991), p. 178 204 Deveney, (1997), p. 21

205 Deveney, (1997), pp. 24, 21: “[L]earnt that parcel was just received finally, and that Mme. Zhelihovsky [Blavatsky’s sister] had sold her bird for 30 rubles! She must have been starving.”

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proximity socially, temporally and geographically.206 They embody the narrative of the early Theosophical Society. More specifically, they embody the heavy focus upon performance and the individual’s occult practice. Small details emphasize this even more than the previous example, for instance: the double is always called the double, or astral body, and not the term linga-sarira despite this being its ‘correct’ name. The previously established terminology and theory becomes peripheral when applied to practice. The physical nature of the astral body when projected is a reoccurring theme. To the reporters of the New York World Blavatsky explains the occurrence of a ‘shadow’ – to which they could find no other explanation – as an astral visit from an adept. “He comes here frequently, and generally appears inside the room. I don’t know why he did not come in here to-night unless it was because you were here. I went into the other room and spoke with him.”207 The adepts projected astral body is treated as any material body. It can, theoretically, appear anywhere but chooses the same room. It is also aware of the guests and decides to avoid them and Blavatsky must go into the room where the projected double appeared to communicate with it. The astral body of the adept is treated, in its contact with other physical bodies, as just another physical body. In the case of the adept, it is the subject who is present with the astral body i.e. the adept is present when the adept’s astral body is. When Blavatsky describes her astral projection, it is the astral body which becomes present which is not necessarily perceivable by those in its presence. The astral body’s connection to materiality is bolstered by a “thread” connecting the physical body with the projected double.208 The thread is a way to connect the removed bodies to the physical body. As the practitioner’s body consists of seven parts and astral projection dislocates the ‘higher’ bodies, the thread bridges the possible anomaly of living practitioners having dislocated astral bodies roaming about without a physical body. In the case of adepts, the thread is not emphasized, or possible not even considered a factor, as adepts have the possibility to invade physical bodies and claim them as a new home.209 The thread can be seen as part of the need of material proof of spiritualistic phenomena. The nonphysical body requires a perceivable counterpart to be regarded as a fact. After the Civil War in the United States of America there was an “increased pressure on mediums to produce visual evidence of spirits in part because of the industrial revolution’s emphasis on material proof”.210 A need to legitimize spirit with matter arose. The thread could then work as a form of an anchor both in practice

206 The example with Judge is from 1875, both other are from 1877; they all were founding members of the Theosophical Society; all three examples are from New York. Olcott lived in an apartment above Blavatsky on 8th avenue and Judge lived in Brooklyn.

207 New York World, (1877a/1991), p. 177

208 Blavatsky, (1895), p. 299 209 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:589

210 Lowry, (2012), p. 222

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and theory: in practice the thread keeps the astral and physical body connected, in theory it provides the materialistic counterpart required to substantiate the claims of a nonphysical body, as the nonphysical body in large was a copy of the physical body. Nonphysical bodies were generally accepted in spiritualism the late nineteenth century and spiritualism was widespread. According to the spiritualists, the spirits of the deceased had previously had a physical body and they could therefore be accepted as being a new form of a human being. Blavatsky could use this to explain both spiritualist phenomena, on spiritualist terms, but also attempted to supply the materialists with an acceptable explanation through her theories. In many regards the connection between the physical and the nonphysical reflect the relationship between ether and matter, which we know Blavatsky was influenced by.211 Much in the same vein as those who suggested matter to be an epiphenomenon of etheric motion, Blavatsky suggested spirits to be the origin of physical bodies: “it is not spirit that dwells in matter, but matter which clings temporarily to spirit; and that the later alone is the eternal, imperishable abode for all things visible and invisible.”212 Spirits would be perceived by Blavatsky as a material instantiation of spirit which is in itself not a separate entity. Just as matter is an instantiation of ether, the body is an instantiation of spirit. She continues to legitimize this stance by citing, amongst others, Plato who was in vogue in America where Blavatsky lived at the time and for some time prior to the publication of Isis Unveiled.213

Astral Projection: Science and Magic

Astral projection was not only the apex of magic, it was a claim of esoteric knowledge as superior to conventional science. Theosophists articulated their teachings against a backdrop of evolution. Assimilating esoteric knowledge was seen to be the next natural stage of science.214 As we have already seen, Blavatsky claimed that esoteric science could explain natural laws undiscovered by modern science and thus explain the cruces between her theories and those of science. The metaphysical aspects of human physiology and nature was the key to these esoteric, unknown laws. The laws “which were so familiar to the Chaldeans and Egyptians”215 gained legitimization through

211 Blavatsky, (1877), p.1:128, see above.

212 Blavatsky, (1877) p. 1:428, emphasis in original.

213 Gutierrez, (2009), p.8. Worth mentioning again in this context is that the reading groups sparked by the new translations of Plato allowed for ‘mixed’ companies (i.e. they did not only allow men to partake). 214 Hammer, (2001), p. 225

215 Deveney, (1997), p. ii

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relating them to ancient history. The rediscovered laws were magic, of which astral projection was the highest achievable form. Blavatsky explains her view on magic, both as science and as an art:

Magic, as a science, is the knowledge of these principles, and of the way by which the omniscience and omnipotence of the spirit and its control over nature’s forces may be acquired by the individual while still in the body. Magic, as an art, is the application of this knowledge in practice.216

So magic was not simply ‘magic’ as an action. Magic was the foundational principles of religion and science; a clear example of how Blavatsky has adopted the previous esoteric discourse on magic.217 Through astral projection the inherent powers of man could be harnessed to attain almost any knowledge. Here one major points already mentioned needs to be emphasized. That is the idea that the astral body is a natural part of human physiology and to the wonderous claims of an inherent power in mankind, simply dwelling within each individual, Blavatsky laid a surprisingly prosaic foundation in some respects. One clear example is that astral projection made it possible to travel in the astral light to whatever imprint ever recorded. The astral body could gain access to the latent astral light and reach a sphere of the world which was non-material. Again, much like the relationship between ether and matter, the ethereal astral body would have access to dimensions unreachable by and inaccessible to the physical body. The astral body would enable humanity, here and now, to reexperience history. Central to this is, of course, the natural astral body, the linga-sarira. The surprisingly prosaic notion is that this would function in the same way as our memories do. Blavatsky explains our ability to remember: “memories are but glimpses that we catch of the reflections of this [i.e. the] past in the currents of the astral light”.218 In other words: we retrieve our memories naturally from the astral light. Memories are not stored by an individual’s brain. Memories are, just like matter, accessible to everyone. In an egalitarian ontology where matter ultimately is the product of spirit and spirit is inherent in every individual, time travel and mind reading are performable by everyone. However, with our memories, it is the reflections of the astral light we access on a day to day basis. Astral projection is a refined way to gain access to the astral light. For the adept, Blavatsky tells us, it “is only necessary for him to master the principles of knowledge, and he can learn the details of whatever he chooses.”219 Our memories are the details, astral projection is the principle. Through this principle, the esoteric science would be superior to conventional science.220 Through the method of

216 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:588

217 The singular discourse is here the relation to science, it is not an implication that I perceive the discourse of magic as a singular discourse.

218 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:184

219 The New York World, (1877a/1991), p. 175

220 Since conventional science is just another body of statements, if the body of statements could be proven incorrect or contradictory somehow, it became possible to challenge the authority of the sciences. Rudbøg, (2012), pp. 274-276.

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astral projection, knowledge could be gained in a previously unprecedented way. It was because of this that magic is superior to science. The method is dependent upon manipulations of the astral light which is a causal force and a medium. As a causal force it can inflict changes upon the world according to the will of a magician.221 As a medium it works to bridge a gap between this sphere of existence and the juxtaposed spheres consisting of force and spirit. The latter function is crucial in order to connect mankind to the ‘unseen universes.’ While the constitution of the universe(s) is mimicked by human anatomy, both categories of triunes are constantly present everywhere with a need for a connecting factor. The connecting factor is the astral light. Connecting the astral body to the physical body when projected is a thread. While the astral body is gone the physical body goes into a state of abeyance, or “a harmless idiot.”222 It comes alive again as “the temple would get illuminated by the presence of the Deity.” 223 This only occurred if “the thread between the two were not broken. If you shriek like mad it may get torn; then Amen to my existence: I should die instantly.”224 While a human body normally is a union of the seven bodies, during astral projection the physical body (the Linga-sarira) goes into a state of abeyance as the higher tiers of the body is absent. In this description, the Stool-sarira (physical body) and jiva (the ‘life- force’) is depicted as left behind by the manas and Kama-rupa, and presumably also the Boddhi and Atma (as the divine ‘deity’ is absent). Without the higher bodies the physical body would die. But the higher bodies are not totally absent from the physical body due to the thread connecting them. The premise changes when applied to an adept. Adepts, when astrally projected, maintain their cognitive functions albeit appears “as though in a fit of abstraction”.225 This is especially interesting because of its implications. When an ordinary person projects themselves astrally the mental faculties accompanies the astral body. When an adept projects astrally, the mental faculties are divided between the opaque- and the astral body. Both bodies maintain the mental faculties dependent on the manas (and Kama-rupa to some extent). The evolved, adept version of astral projection might, despite the perceived superiority, be the same as the astral projection of a novice. According to Blavatsky, those skilled in occult science (i.e. magic) can make their astral body visible or give it “protean appearances.”226 The result of an achieved liberated double is made visible by “mesmeric of the senses of all witnesses,

221 Just like the volonté of Lévi, see above.

222 Blavatsky, (1895), p. 299

223 Blavatsky, (1895), p. 299

224 Blavatsky, (1895), p. 299. Blavatsky urged her sister not to become frightened if she were to visit in her astral body. 225 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:588

226 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:588. Blavatsky also calls the non-adept magician a ‘thaumaturgist’.

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simultaneously brought on.”227 Pivotal to achieve this is an intimate knowledge of both magnetism and electricity. Nature is a “servant of the magician” which is “controllable by the perfected human will.”228 The reason it works is because will “is force, and force produces matter.”229 Through the application of force the material world changes. It should be emphasized that the ‘mesmeric hallucination’ is here considered to be a manipulation of mesmeric force. Reinterpreting Mesmer’s idea of an omnipresent, invisible fluid combined with the theories of Lévi, Blavatsky syncretizes the previous occult sciences. She also draws upon Swedenborg and “arcane science” which “teaches that the abandonment of the living body frequently occurs”.230 It is not relevant if the occult sciences achieved recognition as correct by an established scientific community. Their relevance lies in enabling Blavatsky to refer to previous thinkers to emphasize the continuance of ‘truth’, ideas which show similarity and agreeance with her theories. Just as the influences were many, the different practical applications of astral projection could be many. It could be used to send or receive messages. It could be used to experience history first-hand. The liberated double could even, in some cases, carry physical parcels.231 Even more exotic, astral projection could be used to gain a type of conditional immortality. This type of immortality would enable the individual to exist independently of the physical body and survive its death.232 It was the product of an arcane, enigmatic, potential lethal, and highly desirable insight of how the world really operates. Achieving immortality through astral projection later became a peripheric practice as ‘westerners’ were deemed unfit, lacking the spiritual development required. If Theosophists could confirm astral projection, in the astral light or in the material world, it would support the ontology Blavatsky had constructed. The practice of astral projection was therefore not only a way to gain otherwise hidden knowledge or attaining immortality, it was also a point of legitimization for the Theosophical Society. Blavatsky was so sure to eventually be proven right she boldly claimed that scientists would, within a year (in 1878 at the latest), be able to separate the astral body of animals from their physical body.233 She also claimed the reason science did not admit to the existence of invisible worlds was because scientists “are probing the insecure ground of materialism, and, feeling it trembling under their feet, are preparing for a less dishonorable surrender of arms in case of defeat.”234 Through the practices of Theosophy Blavatsky aimed to gain credibility and

227 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:588

228 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:590

229 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:140, emphasis in original.

230 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:589

231 Deveney, (1997), p. 23. The double carrying a parcel was described as “most curious” as it was also seen in broad daylight in a crowd of people.

232 Deveney, (2016), p. 95 233 Deveney, (1997), p. 17, New York World, (1877a/1991), p. 176

234 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:185

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generate an increased interest in Theosophy and its practices. The portrayal of astral projection aimed to be perceived as magic in occult circles (i.e. manipulation of natural forces through human abilities) and as a revolutionary new method in science, all to beguile a large audience. The theory of Theosophy also mixed the two together and attempted to bring science to paranormal phenomena and explain paranormal phenomena with science.

Astral Projection in the Early Period: Some Concluding Remarks

Blavatsky naturalizes magic and gives it an air of scientism; like mathematics or chemistry, an intimate and extensive knowledge is required to enable the practitioner practical applications of the theoretical assumptions. While astral projection could be employed to gain immorality, it remained publicly a largely hypothetical achievement. The soteriological elements gave way for profane practices aimed at obtaining knowledge of the present or past, and communicating with other individuals present in the physical world. Magic, the occult science, was even applied to alley mundane curiosities such as revealing personal affairs or secret thoughts.235 This is an exciting blend in attempting to understand the discourse of Blavatsky. While her metaphysical ontology can be employed as a soteriological narrative, it can also be employed as tools for extracting gossip. The apex of magic was dependent upon occult knowledge and manipulation of the forces of the physical world. Very much like Lévi, Blavatsky claimed this to be possible through the will and imagination of the magician. Much like Mesmer, she claimed an invisible, omnipresent agent active in the profane life. And like Swedenborg, she advocated the possibility of spiritual, temporary abandonment of the physical body. Blavatsky drew heavily from a wide variety of sources and she constructed a discursive complex from that wide variety. Because of this, her theories contain references to multiple different kind of sources expressing a wide range of discourses synthesized into a singularity. Of course, this also implies that the discourse constructed by Blavatsky was not her own invention. She appropriates earlier discursive narratives but reinterprets them through her own apparatus of understanding. In this manner, the narrative reflects previously established esoteric (and profane) knowledge. As she relies on established knowledge, albeit her own interpretation of it, it becomes a potent narrative.236 In addition to the scientism, Blavatsky also attempts at overcoming possible ‘cruces’ before they have a chance to create discord. She does this through repetition and restates the accepted knowledge from previous contexts, but reforms that knowledge to better reflect

235 Tumber, (2002), p. 144

236 Fairclough, (1992b), pp. 203-204

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her ontology.237 As statements, treated as any other statements, constitutes science, the personal experience becomes a rhetorical strategy.238 The claimed personal experience of Blavatsky is treated as equal to the findings of science. Blavatsky was neither alone nor the inventor of this design. Hardinge- Britten’s article in the Spiritual Telegraph, mentioned above, employs the same rhetorical function. In it, Hardinge-Britten uses her experience in one situation in connection to a separate situation to prove a new theory. Had the second situation not occurred, the first situation had simply been another proof of that occurrence.239 Through this strategy the esoteric complex Blavatsky constructs appropriates and validates the personal experience of others, if they were to adhere to her ideas and are elements in her discursive complex.240 The physiological and ontological cornerstones of astral projection are dependent upon a parallel existence of matter which is not the normal, opaque matter. Matter is closely connected to force and force to spirit; “everything in nature is but a materialization of spirit. /…/ Spirit begat force, and force matter.”241 The spirit is the truly transcendent. The astral light is a force. However, the astral light is also matter. Astral projection is the liberation of the astral body, made of the same matter as astral light. The physiology and ontology mirrors each other in their constitution and Blavatsky supplies the individual with the tools to transcend the common boundaries of the physical. This is to Blavatsky not a transcendent ability. Just like some lack the ability to see or hear, most lack the ability to perceive the world as it really is, according to Blavatsky. In turn this new ability could be used to reach transcendent spheres and follow the ‘unknown laws of nature’. Phenomena unable to be explained by science was a fact.242 To summarize the basic ideas discussed above: astral projection was a practice for the spiritually advanced with a wide variety of uses. The practice was heavily dependent upon an ontology which divided the physical into different types of matter, in addition to the different forces and spiritual components of the universe. The human anatomy mimicked this composition and the human body was portrayed as being a coalescent multitude of bodies occupying the same space. A style of scientism is employed to spread the doctrine:

237 Repetition in the production in texts or in other communicative events Fairclough calls ”exceptional disfluencies”. Fairclough, (1992a), p. 230

238 Fairclough, (1992b), p. 204

239 Hardinge-Britten, (1860a), p. 469. Another situation in which this same strategy is employed is the Theosophical perception of imagination. Hardinge-Britten claimed as early as 1868 that the imagination does not exist as a creative power but strictly as a reproductive one, i.e. the imagination is response and the recreation of external stimuli. Lévi did the same in 1856 and Blavatsky express on several occasion a similar sentiment. Hanegraaff, (2017), pp. 27-28, 11-14

240 This is a strategy Olav Hammer refers to as ”narratives of experience” which can be resorted to when “[t]raditions may be spurious, the scientific underpinning weak.” Hammer (2001), pp. 331, 331-334. 241 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:428

242 New York World (1877b/1991), p. 224

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the active positioning of one’s own claims in relation to the manifestation of any academic scientific discipline /…/ without, however, the use of methods generally approved within the scientific community, and without subsequent social acceptance of these manifestations by the mainstream of the scientific community…243

This specific type of scientism treats scientific advances as only a body of statements, to which a rhetoric of personal experience, perceived as equally objective, is added. In this way Blavatsky aims to overcome any possible cruces before they become problems and strengthen her discursive ontological claims.

243 Hammer, (2001), p. 206

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The Later Period of Theosophical Philosophy

The second magnum opus of Blavatsky was The Secret Doctrine. In her view this was the work that would correct the mistakes, misunderstandings and confusion of Isis Unveiled. After she read Isis Unveiled from cover to cover for the first time in 1881, she realized it needed to be re-written. She later wrote that Isis Unveiled

[w]ith its hideous metamorphoses of one word into another, thereby entirely transforming the meaning, with its misprints and wrong quotation-marks, has given me more anxiety and trouble than anything else during a long life-time which has ever been more full of thorns than of roses.244

While Blavatsky maintained that theories brought forth in Isis Unveiled was correct, she introduced new elements and altered parts to fit with the new introductions to the ontology. One part, which we will see below, was slight changes in the human physiology. However, this shows that the ‘new’ Theosophy was part of an evolving discourse which learned by trial and error. The same method of trial and error was used throughout the Theosophical Society’s history, much more than adherents would later admit.245 A point of major focus in The Secret Doctrine is evolution. Blavatsky did not deny the merit of Darwin’s ideas, rather, she argued that they should be understood in the light of Theosophical discourse and the term ‘evolution’ is referred to more than to nearly any other word.246 Her understanding of evolution was dependent upon a repeating progression, the individual-to-be would evolve through stages: from a stone or mineral to a plant, from a plant to an animal, and from an animal to a human.247 To strengthen this claim Blavatsky did as she previously done and harmonized this theory with other theories to create a coherent, elegant ontology based upon statements, regardless of their origin.248

244 Blavatsky, (1891), p. 241. As mentioned above, this source is written partly in defense against allegations of plagiarism and while she admits that Isis Unveiled was a literary disaster, she still defends the teachings brought forth in large as true and correct.

245 Deveney, (1997), p. 81

246 Hammer, (2001), p. 257 247 Chajes, (2019), p. 52

248 Scientific statements, narratives of personal experience, fictional works, or metaphysical theories are all treated as a product of same truth-value. More on this below.

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Blavatsky’s Physiology and Ontology

The human anatomy continues to be a cornerstone of astral projection and the different dimensions reachable by the human constitution maintain their relevance into the later period as well. Although still part of the foundation of astral projection, the human body underwent some alterations which becomes prevalent in The Secret Doctrine and especially in an article from the Theosophical periodical Lucifer. In the article in Lucifer, which we soon will return to, the two editors, Blavatsky and Mabel Collins, discuss the subtler bodies of man in an attempt to dispute claims of contradictions between Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine. The alterations of the human body reveal a slight shift in both rhetoric and theory. In the following section we will first look at how Blavatsky portrayed the human body in the late 1880’s, followed by a dive into the ontology accompanying the anatomy, ending with a closer look at astral projection in this period.

The Human Bodies

In the 1888 December edition of the magazine Lucifer, Blavatsky and Mabel Collins wrote an article titled “Dialogue Between the Two Editors. I. On Astral Bodies, or Doppelgangers” which is of extra interest.249 The article discusses the composition of man. It is of extra interest because it is an exceptionally clear example of Fairclough’s ‘cruces’ – a moment in a discourse when something has gone wrong and a need for correction arises. This causes the author to highlight the differences in the understanding of a phenomenon and clarify what is meant when discussing the phenomenon. It does not only show what otherwise might be embedded in other ideas, in this case it also shows a clear change from Blavatsky’s earlier portrayal of her ontology. In short, these changes are in quite sharp contrast to Isis Unveiled and even the slightly later works, such as the articles in The Theosophist from 1882.250 An additional point to be made is the shift in what type of text this is. Both Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine are written in the same style: the writer conveys knowledge she possesses to those unaware of it. The text in Lucifer is different and it is the only one I have found which displays this characteristic; it is in the style of a dictated conversation.251 This displays not only a clarification of

249 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), pp.328-333. This is supposedly followed up by a second dialogue (II. On the Constitution of the Inner Man and its Divisions in Lucifer V3, N17, January 1889), however that dialogue does not refer to Blavatsky (nor Mabel Collins) by name but is written to be simply between “M.” (perhaps short for Mabel?) and “X.”

250 Blavatsky, (1882a), pp. 225-226, & idem, (1882b), pp. 288-289

251 There are only two exceptions I know of. The first would be the second dialogue, mentioned in a footnote just above. However, even that ’dialogue’ is not in the form of a conversation but rather a kind of ’set-up and answer’ to clarify different concepts. The second is (1889). It presents the same form and function (although it claims to be “a clear exposition, in the form of

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doctrine in a ‘moment of crisis’ but also an adaptation of the style in which the clarification is delivered. This is in itself an attempt to harmonize the discord.252 The text also displays changes from Blavatsky’s earlier writings, much following the identity change of the Theosophical Society, moving from practical to theoretical.253 The setup for the relevance of the text in its context is presented extremely straight forward by Collins:

Great confusion exists in the minds of people about the various kinds of apparitions, wraiths, ghosts or spirits. Ought we not to explain once for all the meaning of these terms? You say there are various kinds of “doubles”— what are they?254

There are three kinds of doubles “to use the word in its widest sense.”255 The doubles are still different aspects of man, three different divisions of existence which all unite in the triune being of man. A slight change is that implicitly the physical body of man is not included in any of these doubles or division but is rather thought of as the norm. In addition, the third ‘double’ i.e. division of the body, corresponds to the spiritual monad above. However, Blavatsky seems to glance over this part of man as beyond the present sphere of existence and does not attribute it any greater relevance in relation to astral projection. Because of this we will not delve deeper into that part of man, but it is included in figure 2 below. The first double is the double Blavatsky calls the “shadow”, “Plastic Body”, “’Astral’ or Protean Body” or “lingasarira”.256 Seen from a strictly physical perspective this is man’s vital double during life and after death only the gases given off from the decaying physical body. The astral body, lingasarira, is the model around which the physical body, “the fætus – the future man – is built.”257 This body can be seen, during certain atmospheric conditions, as a luminous figure over the grave of the diseased – a form of astral detritus. The astral body has become strictly physical and as it is separated from the physical body it starts to disintegrate. The astral body is now seen physically; it becomes the gas emanating from a corpse, and it is visible, in the correct conditions, to anyone who

questions and answer”), but on a theoretically larger scale: it attempts to clarify Theosophy in a comprehensive and concise form. See Blavatsky, (1889).

252 Fairclough, (1992a), p. 230

253 Deveney, (2016), p. 93

254 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328

255 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328 256 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328

257 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328. An unexpected connection to Lévi can be seen here; Lévi talks about “how the astral light operates in the formation of a child in the womb.” Mcintosh, (2015), p. 226

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happen to be adjacent to the corpse during these conditions.258 The second double is twofold; during life it is Mayavi-rupa, and after death it transforms to Kama-rupa. This is the combination which previously was named ‘soul’ or Astral Monad. During life the Mayavi-rupa is dual, it is manas (mind)259 and Kama (desire). After death the manas merges with the Ego, while the Kama, saturated with desires collected throughout life and filled the desire to live, forms the Kama-rupa. The Kama-rupa lingers in the world without a consciousness of its own, although it is detectable by a medium.260 An interesting thing to note is that Blavatsky’s spelling of the borrowed names differs from earlier, just as the function of the bodies have been adjusted.261 The changes of the characterization of the body is explained as simply a ‘correction’ of previous misconceptions. I believe this is how Blavatsky would understand the discrepancies; she has always conveyed the concepts correctly, but others have misunderstood them, or they have become altered in editorial processes along the way. Therefor there is no change in theory, there is only right or wrong understanding of it. The cruces are only on the part of the receiver. However, despite some obvious alterations, she does maintain that the human body is a tripartite being. The general function and structure of each part of the triune also remains the same.

Figure 2. My imitation and redrawing of previous figure based upon Blavatsky's later description on the constitution of man found in Lucifer (3:16, December 1888, pp. 328-333). The use of captal letters reflects Blavatsky’s continuous use throughout the article. The different divisions cooperate in creating manifestations of the self, separated from the body.

258 Note that this is a reference to personal experience: it is stated as a common fact which places heavy importance on personal perception.

259 The manas is in turn divided into the ’higher manas’ and lower manas’. The separation seems to only be relevant when a living person dies.

260 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 329

261 A possible explanation of provided by a French Theosophist, Papus, who claimed to have proven that Blavatsky knew neither nor Hebrew. Godwin, (1989), p. 25. Chajes also mentions unequivocal evidence that Blavatsky knew Sanskrit is lacking. Chajes, (2019), p. 20.

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Apparitions of a friend or acquaintance is visually a reproduction of the physical- and astral body (lingasarira). However, it is not the astral body which is the cause of the apparition. The second double, the Mayavi-rupa, and primarily the manas (mind) is the original cause. In addition, it requires intense thought focused upon a loved one or upon the desire to see someone. Science, Blavatsky explains, has established ‘the fact’ that thought is an .262 Therefore, it requires but a second of intense thought (which Mayavi-rupa, and primarily manas, is the source of) for the ‘objectivization’ of the thinker’s personality to manifest upon ‘the astral waves’. This is the basis for apparitions, appearances of phantoms and visions of astral bodies. However, we must not neglect the context; because the apparition is also dependent on a ‘wire of sympathy’ between two individuals. This is not to be confused with ‘the thread’ discussed in the sections above. In practice the wire of sympathy means that the one seeing the apparition must subscribe to the basic premises of these theories. In other words, the apparition will only be seen by those who believe they there are such things as apparitions. The wire of sympathy is seen as a connection of psychical energy. Blavatsky also states that in addition to the wire of sympathy, an apparition must have a reason to be directed to the specific person it appears to.263 Once again Blavatsky refers to the scientific dimensions of her claims. Using terms such as ‘objectivization’ refers to a phenomenon disconnected from a subject. The scientism is bolstered by such terms. Additionally, Blavatsky points to the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) and uses their term “telepathic impact”. But she makes a difference between the research of SPR and the SPR itself.264 She phrases the SPR in a pejorative manner, calling it “the ‘Spookical’ [sic] Research Society”.265 This is probably due to the previous interactions between the two.266 Despite this Blavatsky incorporate their scientific language, another example of disconnecting the knowledge or theories of scientific endeavors from the process of its creation. Through this process she can relocate the scientific discourse to her discursive complex and claim scientific support for her theories. The kama-rupa, the body of desire which prior to death was fused with the mayavi-rupa becomes its own after death. The kama-rupa is slightly different from the kama in itself. The kama-rupa also contains the ‘lower’ manas. This means that the mayavi-rupa is not simply consisting of ‘desire’ but also a degree of ‘mind’. In other words, it retains memories and thoughts as well as desires and can be channeled by mediums. The ‘lower’ manas is not explained in any detail, but it is stated that it is

262 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 332

263 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 331

264 Remember, science is simply another system of belief like any other. Scientific claims are treated as disconnected from the source; the claims are constituted by the statements alone.

265 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 330

266 See above. In short: in 1885 an investigation, caused by Emma Coulomb (whom Blavatsky met in 1871 after surviving the shipwreck of the Eumonia), conducted by the SPR, concluded that the Mahatmas was pure fiction and went on to call Blavatsky “one of the most accomplished, ingenious, and interesting imposters in history.” Godwin, (1994), p. 347, Gomes, (2016), p. 252.

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uncapable of independent though. It possesses life “but hardly any consciousness”.267 The division between the ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ manas is probably due to Blavatsky’s view of matter and spirit. “The Occult doctrine teaches that while the monad is cycling on downward into matter /…/ [the monads] are evolving pari passu with it [matter] on a higher and more spiritual plane”.268 The monads are a spiritual entity which are, like the majority of the world(s), invisible to our perception. Because of this, the dual manas can be explained by both coming from a ‘higher’ state but also evolving from a ‘lower’ state.269

A Modern Theosophical World

Advancing the emphasis on natural, occult laws determining how the double can appear is part of the move towards a theoretical ontology. Blavatsky shifted the apparition of doubles from the material sphere and the linga-sarira to the more intermediary part of man: the mayavi-rupa consisting of the manas and kama. This removes the double from the material sphere of existence and places astral projection on a more metaphysical level. This level adopts a stance in which astral projection is possible, but only under certain conditions in accord with general laws. The move from the physical sphere to a more metaphysical sphere increased the amount of theory needed to explain astral projection. Previously, when the astral body was seen as physical, it primarily followed the same rules as normal physicality. Now that the physical no longer is the source of astral projection, a more metaphysical approach is needed. Although Blavatsky divided man into three major divisions, there is a need to slightly revise this picture as the synchronistic tendencies of the early Theosophical Society have not disappeared. Blavatsky combines, amongst other things, Indian philosophy with evolution and science. In her ontology, the current man is the fifth ‘root race’ of evolution. With every new ‘root race’ new attributes and new senses would evolve. Evolution meant that the spirit and soul is continuously reborn and remains the same, but new attributes were attached to them. For example, the first root race was completely ethereal, and the second root was not material enough to leave any physical imprints. It was only when the third root race entered history that it became solid matter. Mental faculties were given to the evolving humans with the fourth root race, who unfortunately fell into materiality and

267 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 329

268 Blavatsky, (1888a), p. 1:247, emphasis in original.

269 It should be stated, however it is with some uncertainty, that Blavatsky retained the theory of seven bodies of man until at least six months before her death stating the seven bodies as, from ’lowest’ to ’highest’; sthula-sarira (the physical body), linga-sarira (the astral body), , kama, Kama-Manas, Higher Manas, and Buddhi. Spierenburg [ed.], (1995), p.4.

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immorality.270 The more spiritual specimens of the fourth root race became the fifth root race and the sixth root race would become spiritual enough to shed the bonds of matter.271 In Blavatsky’s ontology the secret adepts were guiding man’s evolution. She incorporated the theory of evolution with the Rosicrucian idea of a benevolent, secret brotherhood of adepts aiding man.272 Blavatsky also claimed that a sixth race was dawning somewhere in America.273 Blavatsky’s great narrative is a form of macrohistory, a term denoting “the envisaging and representation of the human past in a vast panorama, great movements of human activity held ‘in the eye’ or in unitary vision.”274 She was in no way the first to employ such a strategy.275 According to Blavatsky, man, just like matter, have evolved over time and a sixth sense and a sixth characteristic of matter would follow. The sixth sense was .276 However, the sixth sense of man is already present in some individuals. These individuals think “even upon ordinary matters on that higher plane.”277 ‘Higher’ is here understood as ‘more spiritual’ and ‘less material’. Those with the capacity to think on this higher plane are “beyond, if not above, the average of human kind [sic].”278 Perceiving the double is thusly dependent of the characteristics of the individual. It is not simply the result of honed abilities, but entirely dependent upon “the idiosyncracy [sic] of the person /…/ the faculties of a preceding life, and sometimes the heredity of the physical.”279 Evolution and reincarnation is the main contributing factors. Clairvoyance had become an attribute, rather than an ability.280 The context of evolution weighs heavily. To many, humanity was exempt from the theory of evolution. It was impossible to consider humans as simply material animals like any other and different strand of new thoughts, such as Theosophy, gained popularity in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.281 This places the Theosophical Society’s teachings closer to the ‘center’ of the discourse of society in large, rather than being just a peripheral society without any strong links to the social milieu of its context.

270 Chajes, (2019), pp. 73–74. Staying true to her synthesis of esoteric theory and science, Blavatsky explained that from the third root race apes evolved, or rather devolved (due to immorality). So according to Blavatsky scientists had understood human evolution backwards from what she considered to be correct. 271 Chajes, (2019), pp. 75-77.

272 Asprem, (2015b), p. 648

273 Gomez, (2016), p. 255 274 Trompf, (2011), p. 43

275 See Hanegraaff, (2012), pp. 5–12.

276 Blavatsky, (1888), pp. 1:250-252, the new characteristic of matter would be ‘permeability’ – corresponding with the new sixth sense: “Normal Clairvoyance”.

277 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 331, emphasis in original.

278 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 331, emphasis in original.

279 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 331

280 Interestingly enough, although new attributes of matter would appear it is, from what I have found, unclear if this would mean the development of new human bodies. It is clear that the physical body would eventually dissipate, but not if new bodies consisting of the new attributes would take their place.

281 Trompf, (2011), p. 49

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Viewing the use of that which is considered ‘beyond’ through Blavatsky’s syncretistic tendencies leads us to the incorporation of science into the occult teachings. She incorporates, and adapts, much of her earlier theories – such as astral light – while implementing new ideas. The astral light she earlier equated with ether, the medium in which all events ever occurred, and all actions presently occurring, is imprinted. The astral light now “is not the container of all things but only the reflector, at best”.282 She describes it with Lévi’s term “grand Agent Magique”.283 Perhaps is this a reconstruction of Blavatsky’s earlier differentiation between active and latent astral light. Matching this new theme is Blavatsky’s differentiation between astral light and Akâsa (‘primordial light’) in which the astral light becomes expatriated to an finite existence, a possible source for illusions and .284 Perhaps because of this, the astral light is only the operator for black, malignant, and psychic magic, called into action by the animal soul (kama, ‘desire’).285 This is seemingly part of Blavatsky’s rhetoric against ‘practical occultism’, as she now called it. White, benevolent, and spiritual magic, which at its apex is “DIVINE MAGIC”, is only possible for those whose desire solely is to aid others.286 It should be remembered that the kama is construed as a primitive cumulation of life’s desires with an innate will to live, which hardly would qualify as purely altruistic in character and intent.

The ‘New’ Astral Projection

Blavatsky relinquished the privileged position of practical magic in favor of natural phenomena. This shows the transformation to a form of astral projection in which different forces can be employed. Blavatsky has left the transcendent man behind and placed him in a world, surrounded by forces, spirits, and matter – of which much is concealed. The practical operations are not simply due to the inherent powers of mankind but also to manipulation of qualities in the surrounding world(s). A case in point is the work of mediums. The medium’s channeled spirit is a form of evocation of another person’s lingasarira (‘protean-’ or ‘astral body’). And, as mentioned above, the lingasarira is incapable of separating itself at any greater length from the physical body. It is, “during life, man’s

282 Blavatsky, (1888a), p. 1:255

283 Blavatsky, (1888a), p. 1:254

284 Hanegraaff, (2017), pp. 31-32 285 Blavatsky, (1888b), p. 151

286 Blavatsky, (1888b), p. 151, emphasis in original.

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vital double”.287 It is, however, a body capable of transformation. It is also called the protean body “because it can assume all forms”.288 So, the assigned definition of the lingasarira is that of transformation. Manipulating the lingasarira is manipulating natural forces, rather than the expulsion of a physical secondary body. The Mayavi-rupa and primarily the manas is now explained to be the source of the apparition of individuals. The previously responsible astral body, lingasarira, is now not even mentioned in this regard. It is however mentioned in another regard. The lingasarira has shifted from being primarily the astral body, a physical vehicle unlimited by normal physicality, to be primarily understood as the “’Protean” or “Plastic Body.’”289 It can assume all forms, but is connected to the physical body and cannot move far away from it during life. This is, according to Blavatsky, the reason why “materialized grandmothers and ‘John Kings’” cannot leave the immediate presence of a channeling medium, whether in trance or not.290 In other words, spiritualist mediums channeling spirits of the deceased is a projection of the medium’s astral body, and not an autonomous spirit. The lingasarira which previously could function as an autonomous body only connected by a simple “thread” has now became heavily dependent on its connection to the physical body. Blavatsky’s explanation of spiritualist phenomena is perhaps not surprising. Spiritualism antedated the Theosophical Society, which capitalized upon the pre-existing discourse, and recruited heavily from spiritualist ranks before Blavatsky started to condemn the spiritualist theories.291 If she were to deny the spiritualist discourse, she had to produce a contender. Blavatsky provides an alternative explanation to the same, widely popular, phenomenon. She does not only present her theories as the correct explanation; she uses the spiritualist phenomena to dismiss the spiritualists explanation and simultaneously use their basic assumptions to strengthen her own claims against their mutual enemy, the materialists. By pointing to the experience of others, and the quantity of individuals with these experiences, Blavatsky asserts that their truth-value must be the same, or greater, than scientific claims. Science continues to be void of method; it is only seen as the statements it produces. In addition, Blavatsky places her theories within the spiritualist discourse, a competing, parallel discourse, in order to realign it with her discourse. This indicates one of the challenges of the Theosophical Society: a struggle to achieve hegemony in an environment of . Blavatsky places her theories within the competing discourse and attempts a re-negotiation of the existing knowledge to align it to her ‘superior’ discourse. This is also an expression of the Theosophical

287 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328. An indication that jiva (the ‘life-principle’ which were part of the physical human only six years earlier, see above) has been incorporated into the lingasarira. Emphasis in original.

288 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328

289 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328

290 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 238. ‘John Kings’ refers to a well-known spirit appearing on both sides of the Atlantic, usually portrayed as a pirate. However, Blavatsky did also present to Olcott the idea that John King masked one of the living adepts. Godwin, (1994), p. 291

291 Oppenheim, (1985), p. 164

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syncretism. Blavatsky portrays occult sciences as being superior to the “bigoted and contradictory beliefs of materialistic scientists”.292 She also states that occult sciences can explain things ‘material science’ cannot. However, “[t]here can be no possible conflict between the teachings of occult and so- called exact science, where the conclusions of the latter are grounded on a substratum of unassailable facts.”293 Because it is “grounded on a substratum” it cannot “unveil the mystery of the universe around us.”294 Theosophy is superior to both spiritualism and science while drawing heavily upon both. Blavatsky explain apparitions of loved ones as apparitions of the mayavi-rupa. As mentioned above, the mayavi-rupa consists of manas and kama. Kama, ‘desire’, is imprinted with “astral vitality” and all the acts of the physical body.295 Recall the astral light; our thoughts and actions are imprinted on an external medium and this medium is here portrayed as following the kama, even after death. The apparitions of the mayavi-rupa is now portrayed as a kind of sublime force.296 Blavatsky uses the example of apparitions of a loved one shortly after their passing, as well as apparitions of a loved one their time of death. The desire and thoughts of a dying person, “[i]f he thinks very intently at the moment of death of the person he either is very anxious to see, or loved ones, he may appear to that person.”297 The reason this is, Blavatsky continues, is because “[t]he thought becomes objective”.298 The apparition appears in the same clothes and with the same facial expression as the dying person. This is explained through appropriating ‘material’ science, since this type of science has proved that thought is an energy, man’s double becomes an instantiation of thought-energy.299 The assumption of an objective thought-energy is strengthened by the fact that the apparition of the dying is perceived in the clothing and facial expression the source of the apparition currently possesses. I.e. the source for the apparition does not need to be aware of their own facial expression to be able to project it to another. This is similar to one of the four of Deveney’s identified forms of astral projection in the

292 Hammer, (2001), p. 266

293 Blavatsky, (1888), p. 1:477

294 Blavatsky, (1888), p. 1:477 295 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 329

296 Much like the ’active’ astral light in the prior section.

297 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 330

298 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 330

299 The objectivity of thought is also used to explain how one can gain knowledge of history through astral projection. All thought is energy which can be accessed by the astral body. Therefor everything that has ever happened is recreated as energy. This archive is known as the . Because of this, the astral body can be used to gain knowledge of what people experienced at any time in the past: ”the (to us) invisible tablets of the Astral Light, ‘the great picture-gallery of ’ — a faithful record of every act, and even thought, of man, of all that was, is, or ever will be, in the phenomenal Universe.” Blavatsky, (1888), 1:104

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early Theosophical Society, namely the “unwilled or accidental projection of the double”.300 This was previously deemed inferior to the willed projection but is now presented as the norm. The energy is interpreted by the perceiver as the exact same energy sent, resulting in the same physical appearance. The, in many cases synonymous, connection between matter and energy is still present. As we briefly touched upon above, this energy is directed through a ‘wire of sympathy’ linking the apparition to the perceiver. As the perceiver obviously believe apparitions to be a theoretical possibility, the person appearing must be closely connected to the perceiver. As this theory is based inside a certain discourse it dictates that it is highly likely that both individuals adhere to the Theosophical discourse and believe in the possibility of apparitions. This would be needed to provide an acceptable explanation to the phenomenon. The perceiver needs to believe in the possibility through the foundational frame of thoughts as energy. This does not infer that the perceiver needs to subscribe to all Theosophical ideas. It is sufficient that the perceiver agrees with certain aspects of the Theosophical discourse. The ancillary discourses may differ or even the majority of the discourses in the discursive complex in which the perceiver is located can differ. And this is worth pointing out. Many deemed the prospects of a woman disseminating a coherent ontology impossible without aid. Blavatsky leaned heavily upon her theoretical predecessors to weave a doctrine from a wide variety of sources, allowing individuals to more easily adhere to at least part of the discourse. However, as long as the person adheres to some aspects of the Theosophical discourse the individual may reproduce the discourse. To summarize: The astral and physical exists pari passu and affect each other. These are not transcendent, ‘magical’ entities separate from the physical world. Instead, the nonphysical elements of Blavatsky’s theories are presented as scientifically supported facts, functioning through occult laws of nature. Theosophy is an intellectual endeavor to convey these laws and how they function. Theosophy does not deny the results of profane science (generally). Instead, they accept the findings of science but relocated the foundational ontological premises to a new context in order to explain the findings with a new terminology, in support of an alternate world view.

300 Deveney, (1997), p. 2. Note the similarity to Blavatsky’s acquaintance Victor Michal’s idea of an ‘aromal body’ which can be physically transported unbeknownst to the projector from as early as 1854. Godwin, (1994), p. 281

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Comparing the Theosophical Societies

Building a foundation upon practice can be a lucrative endeavor. In the case of the Theosophical Society it had mixed results. From the Society’s formation as an occult, practical and secretive order, it developed into a theoretical ‘Universal Brotherhood’ aimed at explaining the esoteric aspects of existence.301 Noticeably, it did not only alter its course, it seemingly proceeded in the opposite direction – condemning practical work aimed at developing occult development as selfish.302 The practice of astral projection was to be limited to a handful of individuals. These extraordinary claims did without a doubt attract people to the society who saw a match between their ontology and the discursive complex the Theosophical Society provided.303 However, in constructing such a discourse, the extraordinary claims needed to be strengthened. Having someone else claiming the ability to leave their body at will is not enough to those who join the society because of these claims. Damning to the legitimacy of Blavatsky’s spiritual panoply was the report published by the Society for Psychical Research in 1884.304 Damning as the report were to the practical aspects of the Theosophical Society, the report caused Blavatsky to equivocate and speak contemptuously of her miracles, calling them “vain expenditure of vital force” and “non-sensical manifestations”.305

The whole question lies precisely in the phenomena. It was with their help that H.P. Blavatsky founded her Theosophical Society, they were her panoply when she appeared in Europe to disseminate her doctrine, by them she advertised herself and gathered about her those who for one purpose or another wished to see them. It was these phenomena only which interested and brought into her circles of acquaintances /…/ the English savants who had established the London Society for Psychical Research.306

It seems that the understanding of the practices remained the same within the circles close to Blavatsky.307 However, to the majority of the society a secondary public position was taken: a sort of

301 Crow, (2012), p. 693

302 Deveney, (2016), p. 93

303 For examples of ‘miracles’ and extraordinary events used promotionally, see Oppenheim, (1985) pp. 172-174.

304 Godwin, (2013), p. 25

305 Solovyov, (1895/2011), p. 9

306 Solovyov, (1895/2011), p. 7, emphasis in original.

307 Solovyov claims that both Colonel Olcott and Madame Jelihovsky (i.e. Blavatsky’s younger sister) were strong proponents of the importance of practical applications of Theosophy and Blavatsky’s produced spiritual phenomena. Solovyov, (1895/2011), p. 7

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dual discursive stance distancing the practical from the public. This position emphasized the dangers inherent to astral projection. The practice was framed as no longer framed as simply difficult, it was now dangerous if not a clear hindrance to spiritual development.308 This move to keep astral projection to a limited number of individuals claimed, at first, a requirement of high spiritual development and knowledge bestowed by the adepts, to later recommend it to be avoided in its totality. Although the tactic shifts, this is a continuation of how the practice was perceived as both strategies aim to retain the knowledge and restrict it to a small group. By keeping the esoteric practice limited, it became insulated from critique, and limited to a small circle around Blavatsky. This move also distanced practice from possible cruces as the group who could misunderstand the teaching was in close proximity to Blavatsky. The shift toward astral projection as a dangerous and possibly inhibiting practice was undertaken in the early 1880’s. It was at this point that ‘westerners’ were deemed unfit for practices such as astral projection.309 However, this was not a satisfactory answer for many and the Esoteric Section, a ‘inner’ circle of the society, devoted to practical occultism was later founded.310 By restricting the teaching to a group meeting Blavatsky in person, Blavatsky gained a stronger position to use her authority to maintain hegemony over the theory. An interesting aspect of the way the Theosophical Society viewed the separation of the self is the lack of a transcendent being within which we can interact with to achieve this. We can interact with beings that are beyond the physical, but they are not transcendent, they are merely physical in other ways. Our ‘common’ physical matter is an attribute of matter just as astral matter is an attribute of matter. In allegory one can think of it as two different attributes characterizing a person. A person can be both tall and have dark hair, both attributes are part of that person. In the same manner physical reality have the attributes of corporeal matter and astral matter. There are in addition types of matter which are more ambiguous, such as forces and spirits. While spirit is transcendent, it is the origin of force. Force in turn is an active agent in many of the ontological and physiological theories of the Theosophical Society. Both force and spirit are imminent in everything, constituting dimensions of existence juxtaposed and intermixed with the physical existence. The bridge between the types of matter is the astral light. However, the astral light is not a singular phenomenon. Blavatsky separates between active and latent astral light and we depend highly upon both in order to affect our surroundings.311 In Isis Unveiled Blavatsky equates the latent astral light with the Victorian notion of ether. This astral light is thought to permeate everything in a static

308 Deveney, (1997), p. 3

309 Deveney, (2016), p. 96

310 Howe, (1972), p. 55.

311 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxvii:.”The astral light is identical with the Hindu akâsa /…/ In its latent state it tallies exactly with our idea of the universal ether; in its active state it became the Akâsa, the all- directing and omnipotent god.” Emphasis in original.

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way simply enabling physical motion and different forces.312 The active astral light, on the other hand, is “the source of life, the reservoir of all energy, and the propeller of every change of matter.”313 This astral light is not only physical, but also metaphysical.314 This is another example of Blavatsky syncretizing and importing knowledge produced by other discourses to prove the truth of her ontology in her discursive complex. However, she does present modern science as being correct but drawing the wrong conclusions from their findings and, in contrast, the spiritual findings (i.e. the astral light as the source of life and reservoir of all energies) as correct, eternal truths preserved through the ages. Blavatsky attempts to correct what she considers to be incorrect knowledge by syncretizing it into her ontological understanding. The distinction in active and astral light above is primarily from Isis Unveiled. Hanegraaff notes that Blavatsky in 1889 differentiate between Akâsa and the astral light. This differentiation is sharper in character than the previously discussed from 1877. Here Hanegraaff writes, and this will be quoted in some length:

Blavatsky described the actual “Akâsa, or primordial Light” as “the universal and divine mind,” and defined it more specifically as “the undifferentiated noumenal and abstract Space which will be occupied by Chidakasam, the field of primordial consciousness.” It was now differentiated sharply from the lower level known as the Astral Light, which merely mirrored (“reflected and reversed”) the “prototype of ideas of things” existing in this superior, unconditioned and infinite plane of “Divine eternal consciousness.” Since the Astral light was finite and conditioned, it could in fact be called “illusion” …315

Hanegraaff describes Akâsa as being a higher form of astral light (i.e. more spiritual). However, Blavatsky, already in 1877, describes the active astral light as the Akâsa, “occult electricity”, and “the alkahest of the alchemists”.316 What has happened is that the active astral light has become more transcendent than it previously was. The latent astral light which simply mirrors things, much like the Akashic records,317 is more immanent. In the later period Blavatsky devalued the more immanent esoteric notions. Following this line of reasoning, astral projection in the early period was an immanent esoteric notion. Much like the latent, physical astral light, astral projection is immixed with the physical astral body. The astral body traversed the world physically. The medium it used for astral projection – the physical, latent astral light – can in the later period be called “illusion”. Blavatsky

312 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxv

313 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxvii

314 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxv

315 Hanegraaff, (2017), pp. 31-32

316 Blavatsky, (1877), p. 1:xxvii, emphasis in original.

317 Blavatsky, (1888), 1:104: ”[T]he (to us) invisible tablets of the Astral Light, ‘the great picture-gallery of eternity’ — a faithful record of every act, and even thought, of man, of all that was, is, or ever will be, in the phenomenal Universe.”

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made a move away from practical magic, and with it, the immanent effects of the practice followed. The projected astral body lost its status as a strict part of the individual and became less ‘real’ in a material sense. The devalued status of astral projection contributed to make it an undesirable practice for the masses. If attempted the results could not retain the same status as in the earlier period, i.e. as absolute truth. Through this transformation the function of astral projection changed from a tool to perceive the world correctly, to a correct perception of the world. Active astral light is still a physical force in the later period and the projected individual was considered to be an instantiation of energy, and not a transcendent force. Blavatsky equates the active astral light with electricity but adds that it is an ‘occult electricity’. In other words, it is a force which can cause change in the world without being strictly material and can be manipulated by the individual. In this regard Blavatsky maintains Lévi’s understanding of astral light and the volonté of the magician as tools to infer change.318 Much in the same manner Blavatsky explains the apparition of a loved one, recently deceased. She speaks of a “wire of sympathy” connecting two individuals. She also states that thoughts are scientifically proven to be energy. Apparitions of the astral body are manipulations of energy. The same thought-force explained apparitions of connected individuals in extreme situations, such as a dear friend drowning. The drowning apparitions is explained through an ‘objectivization’ of intense thought. This closely resembles the earlier days version of unintentional or accidental astral projection which occurs in trauma, stress or .319 The accidental projection would work as the ‘objectivization’ with a minor alteration. The alteration is the wire of sympathy linking two individuals, enabling one to appear to the other. The cause is similar, but in theory the wire of sympathy limits the possible instances an apparition can appear in. The unintentional projection is uncontrolled, and it can, theoretically, appear anywhere. However, we would end up with the same result of the projection. Just as the wire of sympathy enables one practitioner to perceive of another practitioner, non-adherents to the theory would be extremely unlikely to claim or acknowledge having any experience of an apparition. The function of astral projection moves from an instantiation of practice available in a small group to a natural phenomenon widely available, which is incorporated into the discursive complex from adjacent ancillary discourses. Thus, when unwilled projection is confirmed it is within the context and discourse of the believers. As it is confirmed by practitioners and adherents to the theory, it becomes isolated from outside critique (the critique can be blamed upon prejudice against Theosophists, personal conflicts etc.):

318 Strube, (2016a), p. 65

319 For the different types of astral projection, see Deveney, (1997), p. 2, for unwilled projection see Blavatsky, (1877), p. 2:589

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The Theosophists were correct in their often repeated lament that their critics did not understand Theosophy /…/ To them it seemed that non-Theosophists willfully conspired to misunderstand the fundamental premises of Theosophy and to confuse it with vulgar occultism of the basest sort.320

In regard to the arguments of an invisible, omnipresent agent both the arguments of Lévi and Mesmer can be discerned. To Mesmer, animal magnetism used the body to influence the “magnetic fluid”, altering an invisible fluid pervading the universe.321 In the same manner, Blavatsky’s active astral light can be the medium inferring change by the instrument of the human body. And Blavatsky follows Lévi’s writings on magnetism which claiming both to be of scientific merit and a method of incurring change through will and imagination. Although this displays the continuity of these ideas and concepts within an esoteric discourse, these concepts are adapted to their context and altered to fit the new discourse. It is in no manner static ideas which are simply reproduced as a philosophia perennis. It is an active strategy claiming older theories as their own, adapting them in the process. The emphasis on high spiritual development to be able to do practical magic synergizes with the idea of apparitions as the manipulation of energies. The astral projection of the later period, though heavily discouraged, can be explained as being similar to the apparitions; it is an energy thus making the latent astral light a source for laypersons – such as mediums – to conjure spirits. The medium’s channeled spirit is only an undeveloped use of the medium’s own protean body, the astral body, creating an illusion of a spirit by employing the ‘lower,’ latent astral light. Briefly touched upon above, but worth repeating, Blavatsky employs the knowledge and findings of spiritualism to explain her doctrine while simultaneously discrediting the spiritualist ontology. Here she salvages the spiritualist mediums visible conjuration of spirits.322 She also uses testimonies in which individuals express their conviction of spiritualist phenomena. From this, the personal experience is extracted to display a high quantity of individuals who adhere to these ideas. These are correct displays and testimonies, although the explanation spiritualists provided is, according to Blavatsky, incorrect. Highlighting the different contexts which express the same types of personal experience is treated as being statements equally potent to those made by the scientific community.323 Another sustained theme is the connection between the projection and the projector. It is the same connection as that between the channeling medium and the appearance of the medium’s astral body. The connection is, in the early period, described as a thread and severing the connecting thread results in the immediate death of the projector. The connection is a way to establish continuity and a strong

320 Carlson, (1993), p. 137

321 Crabtree, (2016), pp. 223–224, Godwin, (1994), p. 151

322 The visible conjuration of spirits, such as “materialized grandmothers and “John Kings”” which cannot leave the immediate presence of a channeling medium, is an excellent example of how the visible aspects is emphasized. Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 238.

323 For one good example, see Blavatsky (1877), p. 1:xxxvi: That spiritualists ”call them materialized spirits is inadmissible, for they are not spirits but animated portrait statues.”

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relationship between the material, opaque body and the astral and higher bodies. The material body is the body encountered on a continuous basis and the implication of other bodies leads to the physical actions of the physical body to be emphasized. The higher bodies are more highly dependent upon a theoretical framework to be relevant. Since the higher bodies are an absent feature of day to day life, the relevance of the physical body is a prominent feature which has a greater impact on the understanding of the higher bodies. Even as astral projection became disconnected from the immediate bodies and moved to a category of energy manipulation, a connecting factor between the projector and the perceiver is sustained. However, the later periods connection is also between bodies although the connection itself is in the form of energy. In summary we can conclude that the Theosophical Society, in the later period, placed a heavy emphasis on the theoretical framework. Occult phenomena were not due to esoteric abilities inherent to mankind. Astral projection and the nonphysical aspects of the discourse came to be naturalized as forces of nature to a new extent. The teachings of the Theosophical Society could now be used to explain all occult, spiritual and esoteric phenomena and functioned now as less of a practice and more of a reductionistic theoretical panacea to all ailments of Theosophical teachings. This came into discord with the teachings of the earlier period. The earlier period saw astral projection as an alteration of the inferior material world in accordance to the projector’s will. Because of the inherent powers of mankind, astral projection could supply the practitioner the status of immortality and a way to defeat the physical world. Astral projection underwent a transformation; it moved from being the apex of magic to becoming the apex of science.

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Blavatskyan Astral Projection

I am well aware of the fact that one must first experience conscious astral projection before he can believe in it, and I confess that I should not accept it as true myself, perhaps, had I not experienced it and know it to be true.324

The reservoir of Theosophical knowledge had safeguards. Hidden, esoteric knowledge was under the surface of Blavatsky’s teachings and esoteric truths “ceased to be esoteric from the moment they were made public”.325 The adepts were able to pass on new esoteric knowledge to those who were worthy of receiving it. Blavatsky, their mouthpiece, conveyed the practice of astral projection as, at first, a practice used to “gain the principles of knowledge”326 so that one may learn whatever one chooses and a way to achieve metempsychosis.327 People in general were not ready to receive all the knowledge Blavatsky had available (according to herself), after all “no man of science will accept, even as hypothesis, let alone as a theory or axiom, the facts imparted.”328 Similar sentiments were expressed by other high-ranking Theosophists, one of whom was W. Q. Judge. Echoing Blavatsky’s position, he wrote in an article:

There are mysteries for all of us; but that which is a mystery to one is for another plain. The people should know that while, truly, secrets exists among certain theosophists, those secrets are only given to members who can in the first place keep a secret, and in second place do not permit themselves to give out that they know such a thing.329

Astral projection was one of the secrets that was not to be divulged. Limiting the number of individuals able to speak of the phenomenon creates a closed theory-chamber. When someone speaks of the phenomenon outside the chamber their claims need to be legitimized against the backdrop of another discourse. As this ‘other discourse’ does not subscribe to the physiology or ontology of the

324 Muldoon, (2011), p. v, emphasis in original.

325 Blavatsky, (1888a), p. 1:xvii

326 The New York World, (1877/1991), p. 175

327 Chajes, (2019), p. 46 328 Blavatsky, (1888a), p. 1:306

329 Judge, (1886), p. 6

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Theosophical Society the claims are most likely to be dismissed, as there is no social understanding of the ontology in this new context. One discursive technique is employed by Blavatsky above: esoteric teachings stop being esoteric when they are submitted to the public. Blavatsky explains that the true teachings would never be exposed to an unbelieving world. She was a teacher of revelatory knowledge in a context which deemed women incapable of holding coherent public lectures which deemed them, if they did so, not voice their own thoughts, but simply enabling the spirits to speak in the material world.330 In this manner, Blavatsky followed the rules and discourse of the society in large. She reproduced the social action in which she was the medium of an external influence to gain knowledge, a practice which was standard in her context. She reproduced the discourse of the society when she challenged the taken-for-granted knowledge. While she reproduced the discourse of the society, she also challenged it. Like Victoria Woodhull, Blavatsky rebelled against the accepted norms of her contemporary society. It “is clear that as many women [as men] were drawn to [the] Lamasery.”331 However, since the Woodhull scandal, few were willing to openly support Blavatsky but many expressed “earnest regard for her ‘philosophical system.’”332 Perhaps a link between religious practice and decency worked as an inhibitor for the Theosophical ontology. Morality and decency lie in following the established rules. Practices violating these rules, such as astral projection, becomes acts of rebellion (however small) and must therefore also, to some extent, adhere to the rules of the majority. And, as we have seen, the explanatory modus operandi of astral projection changed.333 One way to explain the possibility of astral projection was with new human characteristics. The novelty of these new characteristic is a transformation of the human mental faculties. With this I want to emphasize that the faculties were considered to escape the Cartesian dichotomy; the workings of the mind are the same as the workings of the body. Wouter Hanegraaff presents a similar idea, restricted to the human imagination, in which he claims that some Theosophists considered that which is imagined to be response to external stimuli (high profile Theosophists such as Blavatsky and Hardinge-Britten subscribed to this idea; an idea also present in the works of Lévi in the form of diaphane, ‘the personal imagination’).334 It is in this way the human mental faculties are transformed; they are not obscure inner workings of the mind. Instead they become just like our ability to see or

330 Braude, (2001), p. 85

331 Tumber, (2002), p. 145. The New York apartment inhabited by Blavatsky and Olcott was called ’The Lamasery’.

332 Tumber, (2002), p. 145

333 This also produces a geographical factor in the evolution of Blavatsky’s astral projection. The move to India from New York in 1879 must have been a contributing factor to the developments of the practice and the doctrines of the Theosophical Society. However, the material on this focus primarily on the interactions and exchanges between Theosophy and its Indian context (see Baier, (2016), Partridge (2013)).

334 Hanegraaff (2017), pp. 27-29. For more on Blavatsky’s imagination see ibid, pp. 11-14.

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hear, and just as some lack these abilities, some lack the ability to perceive the world presented by Blavatsky:

Because the plastic power335 of the imagination is much stronger in some persons than in others. The mind is dual in its potentiality: it is physical and metaphysical. /…/ There are persons who never think with the higher faculties of their mind at all; those who do so are the minority and are thus, in a way, beyond, if not above, the average human kind [sic]. These will think even upon ordinary matters on the higher plane.336

Because of the nature of astral projection, it was, to Blavatsky, a practice in which human attributes were given a new, possible return to their antediluvian status – a rediscovery of the ancient mysteries. The physical, opaque body enjoyed new characteristics transcending the strictly material. This was not imagined to be a simple extension of a material ontology; it was rather the correct ontology of the material world’s constitution. Astral projection was, in short, a way to experience the world as it should be experienced. Astral projection accepted the abstruse as immanent which could evolve humankind in the direction of its intended destination. The basic assumptions are the fundament of the discourse. The ontology was the basis for astral projection, creating a demand for the practice – which in turn were to strengthen the ontology. The practice of astral projection continued, and it was without a doubt an important practice throughout Blavatsky’s time in the Theosophical Society. To the individual, this desirable practice was to be “physically immortal and capable of existing independently of the physical body and of surviving its death, venturing into the cosmic hierarchies as a godling.”337 Humans are not automatically immortal through the soul; immortality needs to be achieved. Astral projection enabled the individual to escape death. In the early period, this escape would infer the highest tier of man, the Spiritual Monad,338 to transcend to higher, spiritual dimensions of reality and become more and more refined.339 In the society, the practice functioned as a way to sanction the theories of certain individuals, ascribing them status and legitimacy based upon their presumed success in performing the action. Similarly, in the later period, the human body is in danger of being dispersed upon death unless having achieved some spiritual development.340 However, just as the human anatomy changed so did the meaning of immortality. Immortality in the early period meant metempsychosis, the transmigration of the soul, or continuous rebirths through higher and higher dimensions. Immortality in the later period meant

335 A reference to the corresponding ”’Protean’ or ‘Plastic Body’”, also known as lingasarira, or astral body. See Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 328.

336 Blavatsky & Collins, (1888), p. 331, emphasis is original.

337 Deveney, (2016), p. 95

338 See ”Blavatsky’s Human: Constitution of the Individual” above. 339 Chajes, (2019), p. 57

340 Deveney, (2016), p. 100

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rebirths of the Karmic body (the highest tier of the body in the later period),341 in the physical, opaque world, until dissolving into a ‘beyond’.342 Astral projection as a form of soteriology retained its meaning. The understanding remained hinged upon some core concepts of ontology and physiology. While the concepts used remained the same, the content and understanding of those concepts shifted. The discourse developed, but the status as a legitimizing theory retained its potency.343 Some of the roles and functions of astral projection in the Theosophical Society were constant through Blavatsky’s time in it. Astral projection functioned as a social practice in which the practitioners capable of successfully performing it all were high ranking Theosophists.344 Through attributing success only to the ‘elite’ Blavatsky and the society could retain the doctrinal weight of a chosen few, working to gain hegemony in the Theosophical discourse. This meant that those ‘politically’ active in the society could not contribute to doctrine through their status in the society, instead spiritual development became the main factor. In this way the actors capable of astral projection also found themselves in the political echelon on the society, furthering the potency of the dominant discourse. So, a process of instating people who identified closely to the Theosophical discourse was maintained. Through this process potential discord, with their following cruces, were avoided. The egalitarian ethos of the early society was in large an influence of the surrounding discursive complexes; an influence which came to be replaced by an aristocratic system, which used astral projection as its criteria. The heavy, doctrinal work of Blavatsky did not end with her enormous writings. It continued to be evolved resulting in the Esoteric Section, devoted to practical occultism, to be founded on the 9th of October 1888.345 The turbulence in the Theosophical Society during Blavatsky’s final years after The Secret Doctrine was not limited to the creation of the Esoteric Section. Blavatsky had come to call the society “a dead failure” and a “soulless corpse.”346 The works of Blavatsky created a new esoteric ideal and her teachings did, without a doubt, create a new discourse of esotericism which continued to influence other groups coming after.347 Not only by the presented theories, but the entire discourse of how esoteric knowledge is produced. Relying upon contemporary science, referencing esteemed philosophy and religious writings with a mix of belles-lettres and fiction enabled Blavatsky to extract

341 See ”The Human Bodies” above.

342 Chajes, (2019), p. 4. For a more elaborate explanation of Blavatsky’s metempsychosis contra reincarnation, see Chajes (2919).

343 In addition, the goal of self-deification and unlocking the individual’s power is a theme which have survived in contemporary esotericism, such as left-hand path groups. Granholm, (2013), p. 56

344 Deveney (1997), pp. 21, 24. Blavatsky describes herself, Olcott and Judge as people who successfully managed to perform astral projection.

345 Howe, (1972), p. 55

346 Gomes, (2016), p. 252

347 Amongst others, one of the founding fathers of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, William Wynn Westcott, joined the Esoteric Section as an “endeavor to cast oil on troubled waters and to be a bond of union and peace between the two societies”. Gilbert, (1987), p. 8

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the body of statements which corresponded with her experience to legitimize her ontology. The method was not new, but the ontology it built is, without a doubt, a unique surreal reality which developed astral projection as the apex of both magic and science.

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