Hunter-Gatherer Reliance on Inselbergs, Big Game, and Dwarf Antelope at the Riﬂe Range Site, Buur Hakaba, Southern Somalia ~20,000�5,000 BP

Quaternary International xxx (2017) 1e11

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Quaternary International

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Hunter-gatherer reliance on inselbergs, big game, and dwarf antelope at the Riﬂe Range Site, Buur Hakaba, southern Somalia ~20,0005,000 BP

* Mica B. Jones a, , Steven A. Brandt b, Fiona Marshall a a Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, Campus Box 1114, McMillan Hall, Room 112, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA b Department of Anthropology, 1112 Turlington Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-7305, USA article info

Article history: 1989; Dale, 2007; Linseele and Zerboni, in press; Prendergast and Received 18 February 2017 Beyin, in press). Around Lake Victoria, early and mid-Holocene Received in revised form Kansyore hunter-gatherers adopted seasonal fishing techniques 28 August 2017 and delayed-return social strategies (Dale, 2007; Prendergast, Accepted 23 September 2017 Available online xxx 2009). Changes in social organization are also observed in south- western Libya, where hunter-gatherers moved into the Tadrart Acacus Mountains with the onset of the AHP. Groups in the Acacus increased their investment in local subsistence through site- reoccupation and intensified local resource use and storage (Baistrocchi and Barich, 1987; Cremaschi and di Lernia, 1999; Garcea, 2001, 2006). Subsistence strategies that focused on 1. Introduction diverse montane plants and animals may have encouraged increasingly sedentary settlement patterns, unequal distribution of Subsistence and mobility shifts are the most well-known resources, and complex socio-economic systems (Barich and hunter-gatherer responses to climatic oscillations of the late Garcea, 2008; Barich, 2013). Pleistocene and Holocene in northern and eastern Africa. Over the As the central Sahara returned to aridity ~5,000e4,000 years last 20,000 years, climatic fluctuations had profound environ- ago, many hunter-gatherers abandoned the region. Other groups mental effects, transforming deserts of the hyper-arid Last Glacial became more mobile and, in some cases, adopted herding practices Maximum (LGM; ~26,000e15,000 BP) into well-watered grass- (Marshall and Hildebrand, 2002; di Lernia, 2006). In less arid re- lands during the African Humid Period (AHP; ~11,0005,000 BP) gions of the Sahara and Sahel, a greater range of responses was (Haynes, 2001; Watrin et al., 2009). The reasons for changes in possible as rivers and lakes offered key resources for mid-Holocene climate are better understood, however, than are the nature and hunter-gatherers (Jousse, 2006; Jousse et al., 2008; Garcea, 2013). scale of human responses. To date, forager approaches to climatic Considerably less is known about variation in hunter-gatherer and environmental reorganization have been more intensively mobility and subsistence choices in the more arid regions of studied in the Sahara and better-watered grasslands to the south eastern Africa. An Indian Ocean core taken off the coast of Djibouti than in semi-arid regions of eastern Africa. documents rapid climatic fluctuations in the Horn of Africa During the hyper-arid period, much of the Sahara was aban- ~15,000e5,000 years ago (Tierney and de Menocal, 2013; Tierney doned as hunter-gatherers retreated to the Libyan coast, Nile, and et al., 2013). The challenges that hunter-gatherers must have Sahel where rivers and lakes offered key refuge areas from extreme faced in response to such extreme Late Quaternary climatic shifts in aridity (Barich and Garcea, 2008; Garcea, 2013). Lower mobility and the regiondparticularly in the semi-arid coastal dune, grassland, a focus on aquatic resources can be seen later among fisher-hunter- and bushland environments of the eastern Horndprovide an gatherers of the Sahara, Nile, and eastern Africa as rainfall increased interesting contrast with those of the better-watered areas of in the humid early Holocene (Sutton, 1977; Gautier and Van Neer, lacustrine, highland, and coastal eastern Africa. Unfortunately, excavated sites and long-term archaeological

* Corresponding author. projects are rare in the eastern Horn of Africa. Recent research has E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.B. Jones), sbrandt@uﬂ.edu (S.A. Brandt), produced important new data on late Pleistocene and early [email protected] (F. Marshall). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.09.030 1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Holocene hunter-gatherer activities as well as the more recent Porembski and Barthlott, 2000; Burke, 2003; Müller, 2007). In- spread of livestock (4,500e3,500 calBP) in Somaliland (northern selbergs such as Buur Heybe (Fig. 1), the largest and one of the Somalia) and Djibouti (Lesur et al., 2013; Gutherz et al., 2014, 2015). tallest in the inter-riverine region at ~4.7 km2 in dimension and Archaeological research in central and southern Somalia, however, 610 m above sea level (a.s.l.), support a diversity of plant and animal lags behind its neighbors to the north, due in large part to long- species and provide ecologically-productive environments for standing political instability. To help bridge this gap, we examine a small, mostly territorial animals such as dik-dik (Madoqua sp.) and previously unstudied faunal dataset from the Rifle Range Site at hyrax (Procaviidae) (Brandt, 1986, 1988; Kingdon, 1971, 2004). Oryx Buur Hakaba, a granitic inselberg situated in the Inter-riverine re- (O. beisa), hartebeest (A. buselaphus), and lesser kudu (T. imberbis) gion of southern Somalia (Fig. 1). may also be found in the vicinity of these unique ecosystems First excavated by J.D. Clark in the early 1940's (Clark, 1954) and (Kingdon, 1989, 2004). again in 1989 by S.A. Brandt and the Buur Ecological and Archae- Smaller inselbergs, such as Buur Hakaba (0.6 km2 and 290 m ological Project (BEAP) (Brandt and Gresham, 1989), the Rifle Range a.s.l.), ~35 km southwest of Buur Heybe and the focus of this study Site is one of the few sites in Somalia to preserve a late Pleistocene (Fig. 1), are also ecologically important as they can still provide and Holocene archaeological sequence. Here we use the site's seasonal and perennial water sources that create favorable condi- faunal assemblages to study how Late Quaternary climatic changes tions for many plant and animal species adapted to the warm, semi- impacted hunter-gatherer behavior in southern Somalia's distinc- arid climate of southern Somalia (Friis and Vollesen, 1989). tive landscapes. We explore faunal taxonomic variability and density to examine shifting patterns of hunting, butchery, cooking, and food discard (heretofore referred to as “site use”) in order to gauge 2.1. Paleoclimate of southern Somalia hunter-gatherer responses to fluctuating environments over the last 20,000 years. Newly obtained radiocarbon dates are employed Like today, climate change in late Pleistocene and Holocene to interpret faunal patterns in the context of flaked stone artifact eastern Africa was characterized by fluctuations in temperature and (lithic) and depositional variability at the Rifle Range Site, as well as rainfall resulting from variable seasonal shifts in the position of the other excavated sites nearby. Intertropical Convergence Zone (Nicholson and Flohn, 1980; Hassan, 1997; Thompson et al., 2002; Costa et al., 2014; Rachmayani et al., 2015). The timing, degree, and nature of these 2. The Buur Region of inter-riverine southern Somalia past climatic shifts, however, varied greatly by region (Costa et al., 2014; Enzel et al., 2015). Recent research on terrestrial leaf waxes Rising above the predominantly “bushland and thicket” vege- recovered from a marine core from the Gulf of Aden off the coast of tation (White, 1983) of the flat, low-lying inter-riverine region of Djibouti indicates that transitions between humid and arid periods southern Somalia are hundreds of pre-Cambrian granitic inselbergs ~15,000e5,000 calBP were especially abrupt (Tierney and (“buur” in Somali) of varying sizes and shapes scattered over the deMenocal, 2013; Tierney et al., 2013), posing unusual challenges landscape. for human populations. Ecological studies of inselbergs across Africa outline distinct Rapid changes in precipitation significantly affect the abun- relationships among rocky, irregular topographies, increased water dance and diversity of animal resources in fringe environments catchment, and productive vegetation (Jürgens and Burke, 2000; (Tryon et al., 2016), such as the semi-arid grasslands and bushlands

Fig. 1. a - Map showing the Inter-Riverine region of southern Somalia and the inselbergs of Buur Hakaba and Buur Heybe (modiﬁed by Rachel E. B. Reid from Brandt, 1988); b - © Image of Buur Hakaba and location of Riﬂe Range Site ( 2015 DigitalGlobe).

Excavated before the advent of radiocarbon dating, Clark (1954) 3. Background to archaeological research in the Buur Region considered the Rifle Range sequence, as well as those from Buur Heybe, to be Holocene or at the earliest terminal Pleistocene in age. In 1935, Italian archaeologist P. Graziosi (1940) conducted the first professional archaeological investigations in southern Somalia when he excavated a large rock shelter along the southeastern foot of Buur Hebye. His excavation of the “Buur Heybe” shelter, now known by its local name, Gogoshiis Qabe (Brandt, 1986), uncovered 3.1. The 1989 excavations at the Rifle Range Site what appeared to be a continuous occupation sequence with varying frequencies of quartz and chert, ground stone, pottery, and The Rifle Range Site and the excavated rock shelters at Buur faunal and shell remains. Heybe remained chronometrically undated until the early 1980's At the end of WWII, while a member of the British army sta- and the establishment of the Buur Ecological and Archaeological tioned in southern Somalia, J.D. Clark (1954) test-excavated various Project (BEAP) (Brandt, 1986, 1988). The main goal of BEAP was to open-air and rock shelter sites in the Buur region. Between April obtain more detailed, chronometrically dated cultural sequences “ ” and May of 1944 Clark excavated Gure Warbei (Guli Waabayo) from the previously excavated sites in the Buur Region, as well as rock shelter at Buur Heybe, where he uncovered an archaeological new sites that could be used to test a model for predicting human sequence almost identical to that of Gogoshiis Qabe, just a few mobility strategies and the availability of natural resources (Dyson- hundred meters to the southwest. At the northern terminus of Buur Hudson and Smith, 1978; Brandt, 1988). Hakaba (Fig. 1), Clark discovered numerous lithic artifacts, some From 1983 to 1988 BEAP focused on sites in and around Buur pottery, and fossilized human and animal bones exposed in the Hebye. In 1989, BEAP spent 3 weeks at Buur Hakaba for the sole fi back dirt of a long arti cial trench. The trench was dug by Italian purpose of relocating and test-excavating the Rifle Range Site soldiers sometime after 1913 to create an embankment in which to before the encroaching Somali Civil War consumed Buur Hakaba fl prop up their ri es for target practice. Clark spent 11 days in 1945 and the rest of the Buur Region. Although plans were made for “ fl ” excavating a large, deep trench at the Ri e Range Site just north of BEAP to return to Buur Hakaba in 1990, the fall of Somalia's gov- this embankment. ernment intervened, effectively putting an end to all archaeological fi Clark's excavations revealed ~2.5 m of strati ed sediments research in southern and central Somalia to this day. The Somali containing lithics, fauna, pottery, and ostrich eggshell. Similar se- National Museum was completely ransacked and looted as the war quences were also unearthed by Graziosi at Gogoshiis Qabe and engulfed Mogadishu, resulting in the destruction of all BEAP col- Clark at Guli Waabayo. The following is a brief stratigraphic and lections housed there, including soil samples and most of the hu- fl archaeological description of the Ri e Range Site sequence (Clark, man skeletal remains from Buur Heybe and Guli Waabayo (S. 1954). Brandt, pers. comm.). Fortunately, the Somali Academy of Sciences permitted BEAP to “ ” 1. At the base was a layer of black earth encompassing a ship much of the faunal, shell, lithic, and pottery collections from “ ” Somaliland Magosian industry characterized by a mix of Gogoshiis Qabe, Guli Waabayo, and the Rifle Range Site to the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) technologies United States prior to the downfall of the government. The faunal and tool types. and lithic remains discussed in this paper derive from these 2. This was overlain by almost 1 m of artifactually sterile, compact, expatriated collections, and are currently curated at the University wind-blown sand. of Florida, Washington University at St. Louis, and the University of 3. The sterile deposits lay below ~15 cm of grey calcareous sedi- Wisconsin, Madison. ments encompassing a distinct LSA industry characterized by The 1989 excavations at the Rifle Range Site consisted of nine fl small, often pressure- aked unifacial, bifacial, and tri-facial 1m2 test units: seven on the north side of the bank, one on the points and drills usually made of chert. Clark named this south side (S12W51) and another one (N15W49) located inside a nearby compound (Fig. 2). BEAP excavated the eight units around the embankment by arbitrary 10 cm spits until a major sedimentary Table 1 Summary of notable climatic episodes/events during the late Pleistocene/Holocene change was recognized. N15W49 revealed extensive disturbance in the Horn of Africa, following Tierney and deMenocal (2013, pp. 843e844). B/ and depositional mixing and so excavations at this unit were A ¼ Bølling/Allerød Interstadial, YD ¼ Younger Dryas. abandoned early on. All excavated sediments from the other eight End of AHP Abrupt return to aridity. units were screened using 5 mm mesh to maximize artifact re- ~4960 BP covery. On-site flotation was not attempted due to time constraints AHP Rapid onset of humid conditions. and lack of available water. Flotation samples were taken, but not e ~10,850 4960 BP shipped back to the U.S. Although some degree of disturbance from YD Return to aridity. ~13,000e10,850 BP the previous embankment construction was expected, there was B/A Rapid transition to intermediate conditions. little evidence for this. However, the dry excavated matrix, partic- ~14,680e13,000 BP ularly after exposure to the air, made it difficult to read profiles and LGM Extreme aridity. recognize disturbances, features, and minor changes in ~26,000e14,680 BP stratigraphy.

Fig. 2. Map of the Riﬂe Range Site.

3.2. Radiocarbon dating at the Rifle Range Site resultant dates provide the first chronometric bench marks for the Rifle Range sequence (Table 2 and Fig. 3). In 2016, three ostrich eggshell (OES) samples and one Bos taurus Criteria for laboratory OES sampling and preparation followed bioapatite sample from the Rifle Range Site were submitted to the procedures in A. Brooks et al. (1990) as well as from discussions Illinois Geological Survey for AMS radiocarbon dating. Although with S. Ambrose and H. Wang at the University of Illinois (pers. charcoal samples were shipped back to the U.S., OES was selected comm.). External pores were visible on all samples, which made it over charcoal for initial AMS dating because previous attempts to easier to exclude burned or highly-weathered specimens from date charcoal at the Buur Heybe shelters were problematic due to dating. Although this resulted in the elimination of the LSU 1 sample contamination. The 1989 excavations yielded a total of 470 sample for dating, there was enough well-preserved OES from the non-bead OES fragments, including 338 fragments from S12W51. other three LSUs to produce dating samples from each unit Four OES samplesdone from each litho-stratigraphic unit (LSU) in weighing greater than 0.30 g. Once selected, samples were pre- S12W5dwere submitted for AMS dating to the Illinois Geological pared by S. Ambrose in his laboratory and processed by H. Wang at Survey radiocarbon laboratory at the University of Illinois. The the Illinois Geological Survey.

Table 2 Radiocarbon Dates for the Riﬂe Range Site, Unit S12W51. Calibrations employ OxCal 4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey et al., 2013; Reimer et al., 2013).

LSU Radiocarbon sample number Materials dated 14C BP Calibration curve Calibrated age range BP (95.4%)

2 A3706 OES 8355 ± 25 IntCal13 9303e9461 3 A3707 OES 10,105 ± 25 IntCal13 11,502e11,974 4 A3705 OES 16730 ± 60 IntCal13 19,981e20,401 3 A3818 Bos taurus bioapatite 155 ± 15 IntCal13 5e282

Fig. 3. Profile of unit S12W51 showing stratigraphic location of LSUs and dated ostrich eggshell samples (cmbd ¼ centimeters below datum). General soil types: A ¼ 10YR5/3 e Brown, medium-compacted with pebbles; B ¼ 10YR5/3 e Brown, compacted, and fine; C ¼ 10YR5/3 e Grayish brown, loose, fine, ashy; D ¼ 10YR6/3 e Pale brown, calcareous, hard earth (descriptions taken directly from original profile drawing). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

OES radiocarbon dates are generally considered reliable when industry. Although undated, Brandt (1986, 1988) considered the the samples are well-preserved and properly prepared (Vogel et al., Eibian to be late/terminal Pleistocene in age, based on radio- 2001). However, OES samples are not always accurate, as is carbon dates from overlying deposits at Gogoshiis Qabe. The potentially the case for any material submitted for radiocarbon OES age of 19,981e20,402 calBP from near the bottom of LSU dating. A recent example is the late Pleistocene/Holocene site of 4 at the Rifle Range Site is the first radiocarbon date directly Laas Geel in Somaliland (Gutherz et al., 2014; Lesur pers. comm., attributed to the Eibian. If accurate, it firmly places the Eibian in 2016) where OES dates were found to be inconsistent throughout the LGM. This may lend some credence to two radiocarbon dates the sequence. Therefore, the Rifle Range OES radiocarbon dates on OES fragments from “Doian”-like assemblages at Mirsaale presented in Table 2 should be considered preliminary until they Wells in east-central Somalia (Clark, 1954), which yielded ages are augmented by additional dates. of ~15,000e16,000 calBP (Brandt and Gresham, 1989). LSU 3: Comprising ~65 cm of grayish brown, fine, ashy, sandy silt, the single OES age of 11,502e11,974 calBP from the middle of 3.3. Toward a dated cultural sequence this stratigraphic unit suggests LSU 3 dates to the terminal Pleistocene/early Holocene. The lithic assemblages from this These new OES dates, combined with recent, albeit preliminary unit closely resemble the earliest, pre-pottery phase of the early analyses of the lithics from the 1989 excavations (Woldu, 2005;S. Holocene “Bardaale” Industry at Gogoshiis Qabe. The lower Brandt and C. Menard, pers. comm.) provide a new perspective on levels of a similar stratum at Gogoshiis Qabe are dated by a the age and significance of the Rifle Range cultural sequence. They single radiocarbon age of 10,185e10,646 calBP, derived from a also contribute to a more securely dated understanding of hunter- geologically-formed calcium carbonate. Five apatite ages from gatherer responses to late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental the bones of human burials in the middle to upper levels at changes in southern Somalia. Gogoshiis Qabe range between ~6,000e11,000 calBP (Brandt, The 1989 test units at the Rifle Range Site were taken down to 1986, 1988; Brandt and Gresham, 1989). varying depths, with S1W51 the deepest at 1.85 m below surface. LSU 2: The compact brown, fine, sandy silt of this unit is only Although the 1989 excavations never reached Clark's “Somaliland 20 cm in thickness, and may reflect slower rates of deposition in Magosian” deposits, nor the overlying sterile sand, the four recog- comparison to LSU 3 sediments, or perhaps an unconformity. nized litho-stratigraphic units (Fig. 3) correspond closely with Dated by a single OES age of 9,303e9,461 calBP from the upper Clark's 1954 stratigraphy. levels, the lithics from this unit show little change from the LSU 3 assemblages. LSU 4: The basal unit is composed of ~20 cm of compacted, grey- LSU 1: The uppermost unit is 26 cm thick and composed of a brown, calcareous sediments indicative of a more arid envi- brown, silty sand with gravel inclusions. It remains undated, but ronment than the present. Preliminary analysis of the lithics includes some pottery sherds. The second phase of the Bardaale from the three test units that reached this stratum (S12W51, industry at Gogoshii Qabe also includes pottery, but remains S1W41, and S1W51) suggest affinities with the distinctive Eibian

insecurely dated with radiocarbon ages ranging from no evidence for more extreme weathering such as cracking or ~2,000e7,000 calBP. splitting of bone from the lower levels of the site. Body part representation also does not vary greatly among LSUs. There is no 4. Faunal methods indication of greater attrition of low density bone in one unit over another. Faunal materials from the Rifle Range Site were sorted, identi- Relative taxonomic frequencies of various faunal types were fied, and quantified using methods established in similar studies calculated for each LSU using NISP and MNI. Comparisons within from northern and eastern Africa (Gifford et al., 1980; Brain, 1981; and between taxonomic subgroups illustrate changes in the Bunn, 1982; Marshall and Stewart, 1994; Prendergast, 2009). composition of hunted species through time. Frequencies of iden- fi > Maximally-identifiable bones are the primary focus of this study. ti able specimens were calculated for large mammals ( 20 kg), < fi Following Gifford and Crader (1977), identifiable specimens pre- small mammals ( 20 kg), and reptiles, amphibians, birds, and sh. serve characteristic landmarks that can be used to identify body Mammals were split into two size categories due to the predomi- part, estimated size of animal, and taxonomic classification to class nance of mammals weighing less than 20 kg in the assemblage. or more specific designation. Taxonomic frequencies were calculated using the following for- ¼ Mammal bones dominate the assemblage from the Rifle Range mula (following Reitz and Wing, 1999): Xn / Yn Zxn. In this for- ¼ Site. Bovid and non-bovid mammal specimens were analyzed mula: Xn NISP or MNI of faunal materials attributed to subgroup ¼ separately. Bovid bones were divided into four size classes and non- X by LSU n; Yn NISP or MNI of ID specimens by LSU n; ¼ bovid mammal specimens were sorted into five size classes Zxn relative frequency of subgroup X in LSU n. (Table 3). Categories for size classes follow those used by Gifford Diversity indices were calculated using NISP by LSU. We use “ ” et al. (1980), Brain (1981), and Mutundu (1999). When possible, diversity indices to measure niche breadth or the relationship identifiable mammalian specimens with distinctive landmarks between the dietary needs of hunter-gatherer societies and the were identified to family or tribe according to criteria established abundance of species available for food within the natural envi- for African species (Gentry, 1978; Walker, 1985; Peters, 1988, 1989). ronment (Neusius, 1986). Higher diversity indices indicate a “ ” Comparative materials from Washington University and the Field widened, more localized niche breadth . Lower diversity indices “ ” Museum were used for identification. indicate a narrowed niche breadth , suggesting hunter preference Number of Identifiable Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number for certain species or an overall decrease in the number of species of Individuals (MNI), were used to quantify the assemblage. NISP available. Combined with measures of overall faunal abundance was counted and recorded for all identifiable specimens and MNI and density, diversity indices indicate how intensively and to what fl was calculated based on body part, species, and NISP (Klein and extent hunter-gatherers at the Ri e Range Site hunted fauna living Cruz-Uribe, 1984; Reitz and Wing, 1999). Four sets of secondary on Buur Hakaba. Diversity indexP formulae (Reitz and Wing, ¼ =ð Þ ¼ R ð Þð Þ analyses were then conducted using NISP and MNI: faunal abun- 1999):; E D natural log R *D n¼1 Pn natural log Pn .In ¼ ¼ dances, faunal densities, relative taxonomic frequencies, and di- these formulae: R Richness (number of species); E Evenness ¼ versity indices. NISP was used in all analyses. MNI was used in (how equally abundant those species are); D Diversity (hetero- determining relative taxonomic frequencies. Results are presented geneity of the sample; *Shannon-Weaver function); ¼ using NISP values since no significant difference in faunal patterns Pn percentage of the total sample (per LSU) attributed to species was noted between NISP and MNI. n (calculated using NISP). Pn values are established for each iden- fi Faunal abundances were calculated using NISP by LSU ti ed taxa then clustered into three major taxonomic categories. < > (Schweitzer and Wilson, 1982). Higher faunal abundance measures These include: small mammals ( 20 kg), large mammals ( 20 kg), fi are considered an indication of heavier site-use and vice versa. and reptiles, amphibians, birds, and sh. Faunal densities were calculated for units S12W51, S1W41, and Greater richness measures indicate a greater number of identi- fi S1W51 and measure the density of bone per cubic meter of sedi- ed species in the sample. Evenness measures closer to zero mean ment. Faunal densities for these strata were compared to faunal that one taxonomic group is more abundant than the others. abundances from the same litho-stratigraphic units to examine Conversely, evenness measures closer to one indicate that taxo- changing depositional rates of animal bone to sediment for each nomic groups are more evenly distributed within the sample. LSU. Faunal densities were calculated using the following formula: NISP per LSU / Volume per LSU ¼ Density (NISP/m3). We considered 5. Results the possibility that shifting faunal abundances and densities could fl result from changing taphonomic processes through time. This is The faunal assemblage from the Ri e Range Site totals 17,821 fi not supported, however, by examination of bone preservation specimens and weighs 9,857 g. Identi able specimens comprise ¼ across LSUs. Neither bone weathering nor body part representation 4.1% (NISP 729) of the assemblage. Mammal bones dominate the fi varies greatly among units. assemblage, making up 91.4% (666/729) of identi able specimens Using categories established by A.K. Behrensmeyer (1978), most (Table 4). Most of these are well preserved with little weathering. of the bones from the Rifle Range Site (excluding those from Bovids make up 75.8% (505/666) of the mammalian assemblage. modern domestic taxa) show signs of stage 2 weathering in which Bovid species include: hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), East Af- the outer surfaces are preserved with only minor flaking. We found rican oryx (Oryx beisa), lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), impala (Aepyceros melampus), Soemmerring's gazelle (Nanger soemmer- ringii), oribi (Ourebia ourebi), and common duiker (Sylvicapra Table 3 grimmia). Mammalian size classes. Members of the Neotragini tribe (dwarf antelope, including dik- Bovid size classes Non-bovid size classes dik and oribi) are the most prevalent taxon in the assemblage

1(<20 kg) 1a (<5 kg) (38.5%, 281/729). These are territorial species that inhabit 1b (5e20 kg) inselberg-like environments today (Kingdon, 1971, 2004). Due to 2 (20e60 kg) 2 (20e60 kg) statistical overlap in skeletal measurements between species of 3 (60e100 kg) 3 (60e100 kg) small antelope in this region, the tribal level and general term 4 (100e500 kg) 4 (100e500 kg) “dwarf antelope” is used to describe all potential species known to

Table 4 Identiﬁed taxa from the Riﬂe Range Site by LSU. Data presented as NISP (MNI).

Taxon LSU 4 LSU 3 LSU 2 LSU 1

Hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) ee 1 (1) e Impala (Aepyceros melampus) e 1 (1) e Soemmerring's gazelle (Nanger soemmerringi) e 1 (1) ee Gazelle, indeterminate (Nanger sp.) e 1 (1) ee East African Oryx (Oryx beisa) e 1 (1) e 1 (1) Lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) e 4 (1) 3 (1) 1 (1) Oribi (Ourebia ourebi) e 1 (1) 1 (1) e Common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) e 1 (1) e 1 (1) Dwarf antelope (Neotragini) 8 (1) 136 (8) 106 (6) 31 (2) Domestic cattle (cf. Bos taurus) 2 (1) 32 (2) 16 (1) 4 (1) Domestic goat (cf. Caprinae) ee 2 (1) e African wild ass (Equus africanus) ee 1 (1) e Horse, ass or zebra (Equus sp.) ee 2() e Warthog (Phacochoerus sp.) 2 (1) 2 (1) 2 (1) e Hare (Lepus sp.) 1 (1) 9 (2) 5 (1) 1 (1) Hyrax (Procaviidae) e 1 (1) ee Naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber) e 5 (1) ee Rodent, indeterminate (Rodentia) 1 (1) 2 () e 3 (1) Eagle, hawk or kite (Accipitridae) e 1 (1) ee Quail, partridge, francolin or spurfowl (Phasianidae) 2 (1) 16 (2) 11 (1) e Heavy-bodied, ground-feeding bird (Galliformes) ee 1() e Bird, indeterminate (Aves) e 9()12() 2 (1) Monitor lizard (Varanus sp.) ee 1 (1) e Snake (Serpentes) e 1 (1) ee Turtle or tortoise (Testudines) 1 (1) e 1 (1) e Reptile, indeterminate (Reptilia) e 1()1() e Frog or toad, indeterminate (Anura) e 1 (1) ee Shark, torpedo, skate or ray (Selachii) e 1 (1) 1 (1) e

weigh <20 kg. These include members of the genera Madoqua (dik- 54). Unlike the rest of the assemblage, however, all these specimens diks), Ourebia ourebi (oribi), and Sylvicapra grimmia (common were highly weathered, light, and lacked the characteristics of the duiker). The majority of specimens identified as Neotragini can be sub-fossil assemblage. To determine whether they represented attributed to one of three species of dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana, early herding or, as we suspected, modern intrusive burial we ob- M. piacentinii, and M. guentheri) based on the prevalence of dik-diks tained a direct date on one of these specimens (Table 2). The in Somalia today (Kingdon, 1971, 2004) as well as the small size of modern date led us to exclude all domestic taxa from our analysis. specimens. Other mammal species identified include: African wild No evidence for unweathered domestic bone was found at the Rifle ass (Equus africanus), warthog (Phacochoerus sp.), hyrax (Procavii- Range Site. This evidence for mixing was a concern. Based on ex- dae), hare (Lepus sp.), and naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber). amination of field notes taken during excavations, however, we Only seven identified reptile and amphibian specimens are conclude that at the level of the litho-stratigraphic unit assemblage, found in the assemblage (0.1%, 7/729). Identified reptile taxa the samples have integrity. Nevertheless, individual specimens include: Testudines (turtles and tortoises), Serpentes (snakes), and should be directly dated to better anchor faunal data Varanus sp. (monitor lizard). One specimen in the assemblage is chronologically. identified to the order Anura (frogs and toads). Bird remains fi constitute a relatively small proportion of the identi able faunal 5.2. Change through time: faunal data assemblage from the Rifle Range Site. Fifty-four specimens are fi fi identi ed to Aves (7%, 54/729). Identi ed bird taxa include: Galli- Variation is observed in faunal abundances, the density of fauna formes (heavy-bodied, ground-feeding birds), Phasianidae (quails, per volume excavated, taxonomic frequencies, and diversity indices partridges, francolins, and spurfowl), and Accipitridae (eagles, at the Rifle Range Site through time. Shifts in faunal abundances are fi hawks, and kites). The assemblage contains only two sh bones. set forth in Table 5 and Fig. 4. Faunal abundance is lowest in LSU 4, Both are vertebrae from a small, indeterminate shark species (order greatest in LSU 3, and tapers off in LSU 2 and LSU 1. To compensate Selachii). The presence of shark vertebrae in the assemblage in- for differing sedimentary volumes among litho-stratigraphic units, fl dicates some degree of contact between the Ri e Range Site and the the density of fauna per unit volume is used in discussion of results. Indian Ocean, ~142 km to the SE. More data is needed, however, to Faunal densities show a somewhat different pattern of change to understand what role these marine taxa played in the lives of faunal abundances (Fig. 4). Where they differ, faunal densities are a people living at the site. It should also be noted that because better indication of human-animal interaction at the site since they fl otation was not possible during excavations, recovery of micro- account for differing volumes between LSUs. Taphonomic expla- faunal and macrobotanical remains were limited. If preserved, nations for shifting faunal densities were excluded based on similar these materials would have provided further detail on the subsistence strategies and paleoenvironmental context of hunter- gatherer occupation at the site. Table 5 Faunal abundances by NISP and weight (g). LSUs 1e3 represent data from all units, LSU 4 represents data from units S12W51, S1W41, and S1W51 only. 5.1. Domestic fauna and stratigraphic integrity LSU 4 LSU 3 LSU 2 LSU 1

Domestic taxa (54 specimens) was found in all LSUs at the site, NISP 1330 8734 5365 2391 Weight (g) 729.94 5972.88 2388.18 765.09 though the majority was recovered from LSUs 2 and 3 (88.9%, 48/

Fig. 4. Faunal abundances (blue) and faunal densities (red) for units S12W51, S1W41, and S1W51. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) bone preservation observed across LSUs (Table 6). at the site and are dominated by small mammals (LSU 3, 61.4% Shifting ratios of small to large mammals are found in Fig. 5. n ¼ 224; LSU 2, 59.2% n ¼ 148). The sample size decreases in LSU 1, Large mammals are more prevalent (68%, n ¼ 30) in the small but is still dominated by small mammals (62.9% n ¼ 44). Reptiles, sample from LSU 4 than other LSUs. Body part data do not indicate amphibians, birds, and fishes make up a relatively low proportion increased attrition in LSU 4 compared to other levels (Table 6). We of the assemblage in all levels, though frequencies are slightly therefore conclude that differential preservation does not account greater in LSU 2 than in the rest of the sequence and lower in LSU 1. for the overall bone frequency patterns observed in LSU 4. The large Table 7 sets forth variability in faunal diversity. Richness values samples from LSU 3 and LSU 2, reflect most of the hunting activity are highest and evenness values are lowest in LSU 2 and LSU 3, while richness is low and evenness is high in LSU 1 and LSU 4.

Table 6 6. Discussion Body part representation of large and small mammals by LSU. Data presented as NISP. The Rifle Range Site provides new evidence for broad faunal Taxon Body part LSU 4 LSU 3 LSU 2 LSU 1 shifts and changing patterns of hunter-gatherer behavior in > southern Somalia from the LGM through the middle Holocene. Two Large mammals ( 20 kg) Teeth 8 23 22 9 fi Cranium e 33e of the main ndings from this study are variation through time in Mandibles ee22 the intensity of site-use and a high reliance on small ungulates. Vertebrae e 10 6 1 Hunter-gatherer use of the Rifle Range Site was low during the Ribs e 731 earliest and latest occupations, but significantly higher in the Scapula e 1 e 1 middle levels of the site. Further chronological information will Pelvis & sacrum e 211 fi Humerus 1 3 4 e re ne the timing of subsistence and occupational shifts, but the Radius & ulna e 32e general patterns are evident. Femur eeee The most dramatic change in site-use and hunting practices e ee Tibia 1 occurred between LSU 4 and LSU 3. The faunal evidence, distinctive & e Carpals tarsals 1 1 1 e Metapodials e 12 3 2 Eibian-like lithics, the OES date of 19,981 20,401 calBP from near Phalanges e 10 7 1 the base of the stratum, and the arid nature of the LSU 4 sediments Small mammals (<20 kg) Teeth 1 11 11 5 suggest that at the height of the cold, hyper-arid LGM, the Rifle Cranium 1 13 4 e Range Site may have served as a temporary camp for mobile Mandibles e 883 foraging groups. During this time, hunter-gatherers periodically, Vertebrae 2 21 19 3 Ribs e 10 4 e and probably opportunistically, hunted grazing antelope, warthog, Scapula e 65e and other animals in the grasslands surrounding Buur Hakaba. Pelvis & sacrum 1 13 7 2 By the beginning of the Holocene, judging from the OES date of Humerus 1 19 11 2 11,502e11,974 calBP from the middle of LSU 3, hunter-gatherer & e Radius ulna 16 8 3 fi Femur e 791 activity at the site dramatically intensi ed as the arid landscapes Tibia e 623 of the LGM, or the less arid Younger Dryas ~13,000e10,850 calBP Carpals & tarsals 1 15 11 10 (Tierney and deMenocal, 2013), gave way to more productive bush/ Metapodials 4 20 17 4 grassland environments in the plains surrounding Buur Hakaba. On Phalanges e 39 26 8 the flanks and apex of the inselberg, natural water reservoirs and

Fig. 5. Relative taxonomic frequencies at the Riﬂe Range Site. Data presented in NISP. LSUs 1e3 represent data from all units, LSU 4 represents data from units S12W51, S1W41, and S1W51 only.

Table 7 7,000 and 2,000 calBP. Faunal samples from LSU 1 are small and Diversity indices for LSUs 1e3 (all units). LSU 4 values calculated using data from indicate a dramatic decrease in site-use and a coincident drop in units S12W51, S1W41, S1W51 only. the number of reptiles, birds, and fish. Dwarf antelope still make up LSU 4 LSU 3 LSU 2 LSU 1 a significant portion of the fauna, however, which contrasts with Richness 7 17 16 8 patterns observed in the small samples from LSU 4. This may lend Evenness 0.41 0.3 0.33 0.37 further support to the idea that the deepest levels of LSU 1 date to the end of the AHP when the environment became more arid, but not to the degree of the LGM. Despite its proximity to the modern localized habitats supported a wide array of smaller game- land surface, there is no evidence for domestic animals in LSU 1, dparticularly dwarf antelopedas well as wild, edible plant foods. suggesting that the site continued to be used intermittently for Hunter-gatherer groups moved away from a dependency on the hunting but not herding. larger mammal species of the surrounding plains, to a more localized, less mobile subsistence strategy during this period. 6.1. Ecological productivity, shifting subsistence strategies, and Buur Hakaba and its environs could have witnessed a significant social change increase in the number of settlements as hunter-gatherer populations grew in the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene. The Faunal and artifactual shifts through the stratigraphic sequence Rifle Range Site may have also grown in size as the range of do- provide a basis for examining hunter-gatherer behavior in the mestic activities broadened at this time. In addition to the context of changing local ecologies at the Rifle Range Site. We un- continued use of spear and bow and arrow technology, net-hunting covered evidence suggesting that at the height of the hyper-arid and snare strategies were likely added to the repertoire of hunting LGM, some 20,000 years ago and until ~11,000 BP at the latest, methods for capturing dik-dik and other small game in and around the region was occupied by highly-mobile hunter-gatherer groups the inselberg. Lending support to this scenario are the sediments of who relied on large mammals. With the onset of humid conditions LSU 3, which suggest more humid conditions, as well as a radical in the early Holocene, hunter-gatherers apparently reduced their change in lithics from the well-made, and probably curated Eibian- dependency on big game hunting and instead established an like tools of the late/terminal Pleistocene, to the expedient quartz- occupational and subsistence strategy that relied on the local re- dominated, Bardaale-like assemblages of the early Holocene. sources of Buur Hakaba. Following this transition, people main- The early Holocene subsistence and land-use patterns, evi- tained a more sedentary lifestyle for at least 2,000 years, though denced by the faunal and lithic assemblages in LSU 3, continued for probably considerably longer. at least another 2000 years, based on the OES date of 9303e9461 The maintenance of a localized subsistence strategy centered on calBP from the middle levels of LSU 2. Hunter-gatherers spent more dwarf antelope and the increased use of the Rifle Range Site in the time at the site during this prolonged period than they had previ- early Holocene, suggests that people's perceptions of the Buur ously, intensively hunting Buur Hakaba's small, wild mammal Hakaba inselberg were evolving as climatic conditions shifted communities in a system that was maintained for thousands of abruptly from hyper-arid to more humid in southern Somalia. years. Similar instances of people increasing their reliance on LSU 1, the uppermost stratum in the Rifle Range sequence, re- ecologically-productive areas during times of climatic fluctuation in fl mains undated. But the sediments re ect a return to aridity, and the Holocene are noted archaeologically in lake, riparian, and perhaps the end of the AHP ~5,000e4,500 calBP. These upper levels montane environments of northwestern Africa (Jousse, 2006; are close to the surface, suggesting a relatively recent date. A small Garcea et al., 2013). Consistent reliance on inselbergs within sample of potsherds, if not intrusive, was recovered with lithic savanna grasslands is also seen at Lukenya Hill (Marean, 1997; assemblages similar to those from LSU 2. Pottery is also found in the Kusimba, 2001) and in the Serengeti (Bower and Chadderdon, upper strata of Gogoshiis Qabe and Guli Waabayo at Buur Heybe, 1986). Most of these examples, however, focus on concentrated but is insecurely dated at Gogoshiis Qabe to sometime between resources in geographically expansive areas of high primary

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Calibration for archaeological If inselbergs had a deep history of providing resource stability and environmental terrestrial samples in the time range 26-50 Ka cal BP. during long periods of climatic amelioration, it follows that long- Radiocarbon 55 (4), 2021e2027. lasting relationships with these places might have developed Bunn, H.T., 1982. Meat-eating and Human Evolution: Studies on the Diet and over time. Scholars tie rock art and burials to an increased invest- Subsistence Patterns of Plio-pleistocene Hominids in East Africa. University of California, Berkeley, CA. ment in place in many regions worldwide, including southern So- Burke, A., 2003. Inselbergs in a changing world: global trends. Divers. Distributions malia (Cashdan et al., 1983; Brandt, 1988; Barich, 1990; Littleton 9 (5), 375e383. and Allen, 2007). From this perspective, ownership or attachment Cashdan, E., Barnard, A., Bicchieri, M.C., Bishop, C.A., Blundell, V., Ehrenreich, J., Guenther, M., 1983. Territoriality among human foragers: ecological models and to place permitted sites on or near inselbergs, like Buur Hakaba, to an application to four bushman groups [and comments and reply] Curr. transform from short-term hunter-gatherer campsites toward the Anthropol. 24 (1), 47e66. end of the Pleistocene to longer-term habitations in the early to Clark, J.D., 1954. The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge Univer- sity Press, Cambridge, England. middle Holocene. It is intriguing that fauna and land-use patterns Costa, K., Russell, J., Konecky, B., Lamb, H., 2014. Isotopic reconstruction of the af- from regions as distant as the Libyan Acacus Mountains (Garcea, rican humid period and Congo air boundary migration at lake tana, Ethiopia. 2006) and Lake Victoria (Prendergast and Lane, 2010) also sug- Quat. Sci. Rev. 83 (January), 58e67. Cremaschi, M., di Lernia, S., 1999. 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