Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the Mediterranean

3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL

3 * IMPRINT Graphic Design & Infographics: UNEP/MAP/MED POL:Transboundary DiagnosticAnalysis(TDA)fortheMediterraneanSea,UNEP/MAP, Athens,2005. For bibliographicpurposesthis publicationmaybecitedas: Job Nr.: MAP/0676/AT ISBN: 9280725785 writing fromUNEP/MAP. This publicationcannotbeusedforresaleoranyothercommercial purposewhatsoeverwithoutpermissionin would appreciatereceivingacopy ofanypublicationthatusesthisasasource. out specialpermissionfromthecopyright holder, providedacknowledgementofthesourceismade.UNEP/MAP This publicationmaybereproducedinwholeorpartand any formforeducationalornon-profitpurposeswith- Box18019,GR–Athens © 2005UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme/MediterraneanActionPlan(UNEP/MAP),P.O. Abousamra, PhD, MEDPOLProgrammeOfficer). Responsibility fortheconceptandpreparationofthisdocumentwasentrustedtoMEDPOL(MrFouad Baric, PhD, ProjectManager. implementation oftheStrategicActionProgrammeforMediterraneanSea”,undercoordinationMrAnte This TDAwaspreparedwithintheGEFProject“Determinationofpriorityactionsforfurtherelaborationand authorities, orconcerningthedelimitationoftheirfrontiersboundaries. opinion whatsoeveronthepartofUNEP/MAPconcerninglegalstatusanyState,Territory, cityorarea,ofits The designationsemployed andthepresentationofmaterialinthisdocumentdonotimplyexpressionany /fad. hatz@november Table of Contents

Table of Contents -10 List of Tables -7 List of Figures -6 Acronyms & Abbreviations -4

FOREWORD 0

i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i i.1 TDA Content and Process i i.2 Mediterranean Sea Environmental Status and its Major Transboundary Issues iii i.3 Environmental Quality Objectives xiv i.4 Priority Actions and Interventions for NAPs / SAP xiv able of Contents INTRODUCTION 1 T

1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION 3 1.1 Environmental Characteristics 4 1.1.1 Geographic setting and climate 4 1.1.2 The hydrological system 6 1.1.3 Biological diversity 9 1.1.4 Natural resources 11 1.2 Socio-economic Aspects 11 1.2.1 Demography and human settlements 11 1.2.2 Industrial activity and trade 13 1.2.3 Agriculture and Fisheries 13 1.2.4 Tourism 14

2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 17 2.1 Decline of Biodiversity 17 2.1.1 Transboundary elements 18 2.1.2 Environmental impacts 18 2.1.3 Socio-economic impacts 19 2.1.4 Causal Chain Analysis 19 » -10 » 2.1.5 Supporting data 19 2.1.5.1 Exploitation of living marine resources 21 2.1.5.2 Degradation and conversion of critical habitats 21 2.1.5.3 Pollution 26 2.1.5.4 Introduction and invasion of alien species 39 2.1.5.5 Destruction of habitats by fishing pressure 41 2.2 Decline in Fisheries 41 2.2.1 Transboundary aspects 42 2.2.2 Environmental impacts 43 2.2.3 Socio-economic impacts 43 2.2.4 Causal Chain Analysis 44 2.2.5 Supporting data 46 2.2.5.1 State of the resources 46 2.2.5.2 Interactions of fishing with non-commercial resources 47 2.2.5.3 Eutrophication 47 2.2.5.4 Interaction of mariculture with fisheries 47 2.2.5.5 Overall characteristics of the Mediterranean fishing sector 49 2.3 Decline of Seawater Quality 51 2.3.1 Transboundary elements 51 2.3.2 Transboundary source-receptor relationships in PAHs deposition 52 2.3.3 Environmental impacts 53 2.3.4 Socio-economic impacts 53 2.3.5 Causal Chain Analysis 54 2.3.6 Supporting data 56 2.3.6.1 Eutrophication 56 able of Contents T 2.3.6.2 Heavy metals 62 2.3.6.3 Persistent toxic substances (PTSs) 71 2.3.6.4 Pollution Hot Spots 80 2.4 Human Health Risks 82 2.4.1 Transboundary elements 82 2.4.2 Environmental impacts 83 2.4.3 Socio-economic impacts 83 2.4.4 Causal Chain Analysis 83 2.4.5 Supporting data 85 2.4.5.1 Chemical contamination 85 2.4.5.2 Microbiological pollution 93

3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 101 3.1 Major problems identified with legal and institutional frameworks in the Mediterranean 101 3.1.1 Major problems identified with legal arrangements for addressing transboundary environemental issues 101 3.1.1.1 Issues at the national level 102 3.1.1.2 Issues at the regional level 102 3.1.2 Major problems identified with institutional arrangements and capacity for addressing transboundary environmental issues 103 3.2 Existing Legal and Policy Frameworks in the Mediterranean 103 3.2.1 The Barcelona System 103 -9 » » 3.2.2 Regional Protocol and Policy Instruments related to the Barcelona Convention 105 3.2.2.1 Pollution 105 3.2.2.2 Conservation of Biodiversity 111 3.2.2.3 Fisheries 115

4.0 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 121 4.1 Mediterranean Stakeholders 121 4.2 MAP Civil Society Partners 122 4.3 Suggestions for Improving Cooperation with MAP Civil Society Partners 122

5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 125 5.1 Objective 1: Reduce the Impacts of LBS on Mediterranean Marine Environment and Human Health 125 5.1.1 The Strategic Action Programme to address pollution from LBS 125 5.2 Objective 2: Sustainable Productivity from Fisheries 127 5.2.1 Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 128 5.2.2 Objectives of the Code 128 5.2.3 Relationship with other International Instruments 128 5.2.4 Implementation, monitoring and updating 129 5.2.5 Special requirements of developing countries 129 5.2.6 General principles 129 able of Contents 5.2.7 Fisheries management 131 T 5.2.8 Fishing operations 133 5.2.9 Aquaculture development 136 5.2.10 Integration of fisheries into coastal area management 137 5.2.11 Post-harvest practices and trade 138 5.2.12 Fisheries Research 139 5.3 Objective 3: Conserve the Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem 139 5.3.1 SAP BIO objectives and targets 139 5.3.2 SAP BIO Portfolio 152

6.0 REFERENCES & SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 155

Annex I Contributors to the TDA 165 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean 168 Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots 181 Annex IV List of Regional Pollution Sensitive Areas 186 Annex V Signatories to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols 188 Annex VI National Action Plans for the Conservation of Biodiversity 190

-8 List of Tables

Table i.1 Transboundary sites at risk related to Mediterranean marine biodiversity vi Table i.2 Marine and coastal sites of particular interest identified by country, with relevant actions listed vii Table i.3 Locations where sensitive ecosystems are threatened by eutrophication ix Table i.4 The 20 urban centres discharging the most BOD xi Table i.5 Some of the main sources of TPBs to the Mediterranean xii Table i.6 Locations where major industrial waste problems exist xiii Table i.7 Targets categorized according to Environmental Quality Objective xv Table i.8 Areas and activities for priority interventions xvi

Table 1.1 Variation of species according to depth zones 10

Table 2.1 Serious eutrophication incidents in the Mediterranean 28

List of Tables Table 2.2 Algal species reported to cause algal blooms in Mediterranean Waters 29 Table 2.3 Differences in mean density (S.D.), mean biomass and mean individual fish weight for seagrass fish bed assemblages in marine reserves and in areas open to fishing 41 Table 2.4 Age structures of Diplodus annularis taken from a protected area (Medias Islands) and a non-protected area (Port da la Selva) 41 Table 2.5 Percentage contribution to the total biomass by different trophic groupings in Mediterranean rocky zones, protected (Meded islands) and non-protected (Tossa) 41 Table 2.6 Some shared stocks and fisheries in the Mediterranean 50 Table 2.7 Documented rivers for dissolved nutrients 60 Table 2.8 Sector-based emissions of NOx in the Mediterranean region (kton N/yr) 61 Table 2.9 Atmospheric versus riverine inputs of Pb and Zn to the Mediterranean (tonnes/yr) 69 Table 2.10 Concentrations (in ng/g ww) of organochlorinated compounds in samples of fish tissues collected in the NW Mediterranean 71 Table 2.11 PTS inputs (in kg/yr) of the Rhone and Seine Rivers into the sea 75 Table 2.12 Estimated distribution of TBTs in the Mediterranean Sea 77 Table 2.13 Intakes of persistent toxic substances and corresponding safety thresholds 85 Table 2.14 Pathogens and indicator organisms commonly found in raw sewage 95 Table 2.15 Cities (> 50,000 and < 900,000 inh.) without WWTP in the Mediterranean 98 Table 2.16 Bacteriological water quality in some Mediterranean rivers 99

Table 5.1 SAP Urban environment EQOs 125 Table 5.2 SAP Industrial development EQO’s 126 Table 5.3 SAP Biodiversity EQOs 140 -7 List of Figures

Figure i.1 Flow Diagram for the TDA Process ii Figure i.2 Transboundary Sites at Risk related to Mediterranean Marine Biodiversity vi Figure i.3 Areas where Marine Protected Areas have been recommended within National Action Plans viii Figure i.4 Mediterranean Areas where Eutrophication Phenomena have been reported viii Figure i.5 Pollution Hot Spots in the Mediterranean Sea x Figure i.6 Ecosystems associated with Highest Pollutant-load Hot Spots xi Figure i.7 Location of Major Industries contributing TPBs to the Mediterranean Sea xii Figure i.8 Sources of Solid Waste to the Marine Environment xiii

Figure 1.1 Mediterranean countries and their different watershed limits 3 Figure 1.2 Major Sub-basins of the Mediterranean Sea 6 Figure 1.3 Hydrologic boundary of the Mediterranean basin 7 Figure 1.4 A scheme of Mediterranean Sea circulation 8 Figure 1.5 Seascape Biodiversity Patterns in Benthic Invertebrates 10 Figure 1.6 Mediterranean Riparian Countries’ Population in Cities over 10,000 Inhabitants

Population Retrospective and Projection from 1970 to 2025 12 List of Figures

Figure 2.1.1 Causal Chain Analysis 20 Figure 2.1 SPAMI in the Mediterranean 24 Figure 2.2 Sanctuaries for Cetaceans in the Mediterranean 25 Figure 2.3 Areal mapping of trophic conditions of the Adriatic Sea 27 Figure 2.4 Logarithmic values of total mercury mass fraction in Mullus barbatus by year at station GOKSU in Turkish coastal waters 30 Figure 2.5 Logarithmic values total mercury mass fraction in Mullus barbatus respectively by year at stations ISRTMH2 and HMF2 in Israeli coastal waters 30 Figure 2.6 Multi-boxplot (arranged from west to east), the HgT concentrations in red mullet, Mullus barbatus 31 Figure 2.7 PCBs in Audouin’s gull eggs 32 Figure 2.8 PCBs in Audouin’s gull eggs in the Mediterranean 32 Figure 2.9 DDTs in Audouin’s gull eggs 32 Figure 2.10 Medians of Cd concentrations in Mytilus galloprovincialis 34 Figure 2.11 Sources of marine solid waste in each Mediterranean country 38 Figure 2.12 Number of non-native plants in the Mediterranean Sea 40 Figure 2.13 Total marine catches in MT in the Mediterranean 42 Figure 2.14 Fish and fisheries exports in mil US$ from the Mediterranean 43 Figure 2.15 Fish and Fisheries imports in mil US$ to the Mediterranean 43 Figure 2.2.1 Causal Chain Analysis 45 Figure 2.16 Total landings in MT of marine catches by Mediterranean and Black Sea countries 46 » -6 » Figure 2.17 Fish and molluscs aquaculture production and value of the Mediterranean countries for the years 1984 to 1998 48 Figure 2.18 Deposition of B[a]P to the Mediterranean Sea 53 Figure 2.3.1 Causal Chain Analysis 55 Figure 2.19 Satellite image illustrating average chlorophyll variations in surface water of the Mediterranean Sea, winter 1979–85 56 Figure 2.20 Phosphorus load into the Mediterranean Sea from agriculture, domestic / industrial activities and aquaculture 57 Figure 2.21 Nitrogen load into the Mediterranean Sea from agriculture, domestic / industrial activities and aquaculture 57 Figure 2.22 Consumption of fertilizers in Mediterranean countries 1970–1990 in 10,000 t 58 Figure 2.23 Average of Mediterranean regional shares in emissions of lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn) and Copper (Cu) 63 Figure 2.24 HgT concentrations in Mytilus galloprovincialis in the Mediterranean 64 Figure 2.25 Levels of total mercury in Mytilus galloprovincialis from Hot Spots 64 Figure 2.26 Cd in Mullus barbatus sorted by zones and arranged from west to east 65 Figure 2.27 Levels of Cadmium in Mytilus galloprovincialis from Hot Spots 66 Figure 2.28 Cu medians in Mytilus galloprovincialis 67 Figure 2.29 Histograms of Pb medians for Mytilus galloprovincialis 68 Figure 2.30 PCBs and DDTs in sediment (ng/g d.w.) 72 Figure 2.31 Major routes of maritime traffic 78 Figure 2.32 Emergence of Pollution Hot Spots and Pollution Sensitive Areas 81 Figure 2.4.1 Causal Chain Analysis 84 Figure 2.33 Total mercury content of sardines caught in the Strait of Gibraltar

List of Figures and in different regions of the Mediterranean Sea 86 Figure 2.34 PCBs in selected marine species with nutrition values in the Mediterranean 86 Figure 2.35 DDT in selected species with nutrition values in the Mediterranean 90 Figure 2.36 Percentage of foodborne disease outbreaks caused by fish and shellfish in Italy, Spain and France 1993–98 93 Figure 2.37 Notified cases of food borne disease outbreaks in Spain, Italy, Greece and France 1993–98 93 Figure 2.38 Coastal cities (with over 10,000 inhabitants) with wastewater treatment facilities in the Mediterranean 96 Figure 2.39 Type of wastewater treatment in Mediterranean coastal cities 96 Figure 2.40 Water discharged by Mediterranean coastal cities 96 Figure 2.41 Potential for microbiological pollution reduction following expansion of waste treatment in the Mediterranean 97 Figure 2.42 Changes in the quality of bathing water on the Marseille coast since the beginning of the 1980s 99

Figure 5.1 Breakdown of investment needed according to the 7 categories of action 153

-5 Acronyms & Abbreviations

AB Algal Bloom ACCOBAMS Agreement for the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area ADRIAMED Scientific Cooperation to support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea

BAT Best Available Technology BEP Best Environmental Practices BOD Biolochemical Oxygen Demand BSEP Black Sea Environment Programme BSP Baltic Sea Programme

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CD Compact Disc CFP Common Fisheries Policy CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora cm/s centimeters per second COD Chemical Oxygen Demand COFI Committee on Fisheries CPUE Catch per Unit Effort CZ Coastal Zone Acronyms & Abbreviations

DL Daily Limit dw dry weight

EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development EC European Commission EEA European Environment Agency EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIN Environmental Information Networking EQO Environmental Quality Objective ER Emergency Response EU European Union EUCC European Union for Coastal Conservation EU SCOOP European Union Scientific Cooperation EU WFD European Union Water Framework Directive

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization, UN g gram GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution GFCM General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean GIS Geographical Information System » -4 GNP Gross National Product HAB Harmful algal bloom HDI Human Development Index

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer ICCAT International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Seas, UN ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IMO International Maritime Organization IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control IRPTC International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals ITCAMP Integrated Coastal Area Planning and Management

kg kilograms km kilometer

l liter LBS Land-Based Sources LRTAP Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution LEARN Learning Exchange and Resource Network

m meter MAP Mediterranean Action Plan MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships MEA Multilateral Environmental Agreement Acronyms & Abbreviations MED POL Mediterranean Pollution Action Program METAP Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program MG Mytilus galloprovincialis (mussel) mm millimeter MPPI Major Perceived Problems and Issues MT metric ton

NAP National Action Plan NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NEAP National Environmental Action Plan NEC National Emissions Ceilings NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSA National Shellfish Association

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic

PAHPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons PCDD Polychlorinated dioxins PCDF Polychlorinated Drans PCU Programme Coordination Unit PDF Project Development Facility pg Picogram -3 PIC (Convention) Prior Informed Consent PIP Priority Investment Portfolio » PPP Purchasing Power Parity ppt parts per thousand PSSA Particularly Sensitive Sea Area PTIW Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes PTS Persistent Toxic Substances

QA Quality Assurance QC Quality Control

RA Regional Action REMPEC Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Center for the Mediterranean Sea RFO Regional Fisheries Organization

SAC Scientific Advisory Committee SAP Strategic Action Programme SAP BIO Strategic Action Programme for Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Region SAP MED Strategic Action Programme to Address Pollution from Land-Based Activities SC Steering Committee SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SME Small and Medium Enterprise SPA Specially Protected Areas SPAMI Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance

TDA Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis TDI Total Daily Intake TEQ Toxicity Equivalent Quotient THC Total Hydrocarbon Concentration Acronyms & Abbreviations TORTerms of Reference TPB Toxic, Persistent, and Bioaccumulative substances TSS Total Suspended Solids

UN United Nations UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNECE/EMEP United Nations Economic Commission for Europe / Co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of long range transmission of air pollutants in Europe UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services

WB World Bank WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development WTO World Trade Organization ww wet weight WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant WWW World Wide Web -2 -1 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA FOREWORD

The Mediterranean region has witnessed sub- lution. In particular, the first Transboundary Diagnostic stantial progress during the last few years in the fight Analysis (TDA, 1997) was an innovative and original against land-based pollution. The Protocol on land- piece of work for the region that, by coupling pollution based pollution sources (LBS) to the Barcelona data with an analysis of root causes and possible pol- Convention, in force since June 1983, has managed to lution control measures, indicated for the first time a promote awareness and shared participation on the concrete road map for the reduction and elimination of issue of pollution from land, and the MED POL pollution. With the support of GEF, the Mediterranean Programme has supported capacity building pro- countries worked in a new and more effective direction grammes and has helped the gathering of large and, as a result, they are soon to adopt solid and polit- amounts of information and data on sources, levels ically supported National Action Plans for the reduc- and effects of marine pollution. However, it was only at tion of pollution. Considering the progress made, the the end of the nineties that the Mediterranean, on the developments at the regional and international levels long wave of the Rio Summit and the adoption of the and the need to update and complete the existing data

UNEP Global Programme of Action (GPA) to address and information, a second TDA has been prepared to be FOREWORD pollution from land-based activities, started moving used once again as the basis for prioritizing and imple- towards concrete action for pollution reduction. The menting action. Furthermore, the present TDA achieved signature of an amended LBS Protocol (1996) and the an additional step compared with the 1997 TDA, that is adoption of a Strategic Action Programme (SAP MED) the use of the Environmental Quality Objectives adopt- to address pollution from land-based activities (1997) ed in the SAP MED, the recently adopted SAP for biodi- can be considered the turning points since they offered versity (SAP BIO) and the Code of conduct for fisheries. to Mediterranean countries effective instruments and a This has led to the identification of specific targets, concrete road map to achieve gradual reduction and deadlines and specific interventions and actions to be elimination of land-based pollution by the year 2025. adopted by the countries in the framework of their The shift from assessment to control of pollution was National Action Plans (NAPs) and the SAP MED. The supported by several factors, the most important of present TDA therefore represents once again a refer- them being the interest and the concrete backing of the ence point for all Mediterranean countries and the Global Environment Facility (GEF). GEF believed in the basis for action for the years to come. political and technical potential of the region and has supported a number of fundamental steps that have Francesco Saverio Civili now created a very promising momentum in the fight MED POL Programme Coordinator against land-based pollution in the Mediterranean. The process of preparing and adopting the SAP MED was in fact substantially supported by GEF by offering the methodology and the experience gained in other regions and by transferring them in the Mediterranean. Through GEF, the Mediterranean countries in fact managed to identify the marine pollution hot spots —the basis for achieving pollution reduction— and prepared for the first time an assessment of transboundary pol- 0 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

i.1 TDA Content and Process of interest to the Global Environment Facility’s (GEF) The purpose of conducting a Transboundary International Waters (IW) focal area. Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) is to scale the relative The Mediterranean Sea environment is affected importance of sources and causes, both immediate by activities in heavily industrialized, developed coun- and root, of transboundary ‘waters’ problems, and to tries in the northwest sector of the Sea, as well as by less identify potential preventive and remedial actions. industrialized activities in the southern and eastern The TDA provides the technical basis for refinement parts of the Sea. The GEF-eligible countries in the region of both the National Action Plans (NAPs) and the include Albania, Algeria, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Strategic Action Programme (SAP) in the area of Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Slovenia, Syria, international waters of the GEF. Tunisia, and Turkey. Serbia & Montenegro was not par- This TDA, was elaborated on the basis of the ticipated in the Project. Other countries participating in previous TDA adopted in 1997, as well as extensive these GEF activities include the non-eligible countries information gathered since that time. The 1997 TDA of Cyprus, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, Monaco was based on more than three years of activities. and Spain. Together, these countries account for much Numerous meetings and workshops were held to pro- of the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea. The chal- i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY vide inputs to the TDA, various studies were carried out lenges to conducting a successful GEF/IW project in a and reports were commissioned to support the TDA. region having such disparate mixes of development are The 1997 TDA also benefited from information made great. Problems associated with industrial countries available by the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) (e.g., organochlorines, hydrocarbons, PCBs, etc.) are Secretariat through its business as usual activities. mixed with environmental problems associated more This TDA serves as an update of the 1997 TDA often with developing countries (agricultural dis- and was prepared during the implementation of the charges, solid waste disposal, sewage treatment). full GEF Project. To complete this update, a set of Thus, the activities resulting from this GEF intervention reports were prepared. An “Assessment of the Trans- will be mixed and varied. boundary Pollution Issues in the Mediterranean” was The first step (Figure i.1) in the TDA process is to drafted and then discussed at the regional experts’ identify the major perceived problems and issues meeting (a list of participants is provided in Annex I) (MPPIs). This step was performed through a participato- where the major perceived issues were identified. ry process. These MPPIs then were the basis for the Based on the outcomes of this meeting, an updated analysis phase, during which time the MPPIs were inves- draft of the TDA was prepared, circulated for com- tigated for validity. Do data support the MPPI as a prior- ments and finalized. ity concern? What data are necessary to evaluate the The TDA provides the expert opinion on the MPPI? What do the Stakeholders think about the impor- state of the environment and priority problems. It tance of the MPPI? What are the causes of the MPPI terminates in a list of actions that are recommended (causal chain analysis)? What are the environmental for consideration. This list of recommendations must impacts of the MPPI? What are the socio-economic be considered in the context of national priorities impacts of the MPPI? The analysis phase ends with a de and regional priorities. In addition, the list of recom- facto ranking of the relative importance of the various mendations is not exhaustive. Rather, the list is MPPIs. This importance is based on the perspective of the designed to address the major transboundary issues GEF/IW, as the TDA is a product of the GEF/IW process. i These steps lead to investigation of the have finite and defined duration, and be associated Quantitative Understanding of the Environment, which with definable and measurable indicators. is the TDA. This quantitative understanding by nature What steps are necessary to achieve the EQOs, has uncertainties: the data are not perfect, they are too given the present condition of the environment? infrequent, they are too sparsely located around the Some EQOs may need no additional steps, except region, the analytical methods are imperfect, etc. perhaps routine implementation. Other EQOs may However, the TDA is based on expert judgment of the require vast changes in environmental practices and TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY best available data. The TDA then is followed by agree- conditions to achieve them. To move towards the ment of overarching regional Quality Objectives: if the EQOs, targets are set: targets are time-constrained TDA gives the present status of the environment, what is and quantifiable in their impact. The targets give the the common vision of the desired status? What environ- initial movements towards the EQOs, but they are mental goals are desirable for the Mediterranean Sea? mainly Status Indicators. The activities or interven- These are the Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs). tions that lead to the achievement of the targets are After the MPPIs are ranked and the EQOs agreed, the main output of the TDA: they represent experts’ the root causes are then examined using a causal chain opinions about how to achieve the EQOs best given analysis. The causal chain analysis reviews the immedi- the existing conditions (environmental, institution- ate causes of the MPPIs, as well as the root causes con- al, capacity, state of knowledge, etc.). This section, tributing to creation of those MPPIs. The root causes therefore, summarizes the results of this process. normally are the target of interventions; such interven- The TDA focuses on the major Transboundary tions at the root cause level generally provide more sus- issues. Transboundary is the regional context for the tainable and effective results. TDA, and separates national issues from issues eligi- The root causes and the MPPIs generally ble for incremental assistance from GEF to achieve “drive” the next step in the process: selection of spe- global benefits. Transboundary can be defined from cific targets and actions to move towards achieve- several perspectives. It can be an environmental ii ment of the EQOs. These targets must be realizable, issue that originates in one country, but affects other countries (river discharge is an example). It can be i.2 Mediterranean Sea Environmental Status an environmental issue that comes from many coun- and its Major Transboundary Issues tries (air pollution, Transboundary rivers). In some The identification of the major perceived cases, Transboundary has been defined as a problem issues is the first step in the TDA process and it con- common to several target countries even though they stitutes the justification for the subsequent in-depth may not have common sources; however, this is not a analyses. The significance of the perceived issues and general definition. problems should be substantiated on environmental, Borrowing from methodology commonly used economic, social, and cultural grounds. The following in the European Union and other regions, the TDA list of major perceived problems and issues was final- process identified three Environmental Quality ized to include four existing problems / issues: Objectives (EQOs), which represent the regional per- • MPPI 1: Decline of Biodiversity spective of major goals for the Mediterranean envi- • MPPI 2: Decline in Fisheries ronment. The use of EQOs helps to refine the TDA • MPPI 3: Decline of Seawater Quality process by achieving consensus on the desired status • MPPI 4: Human Health Risks of the Mediterranean Sea. Within each EQO (which is These perceived1 problems and issues form the a broad policy-oriented statement), several specific basis for the subsequent analysis, in which each of targets were identified. Each target generally had a these problems and issues is addressed from a status timeline associated with it, as well as a specific level perspective: what do we know about each problem / of improvement / status. Thus, the targets illustrate issue? What data support the quantification of the the logic chain for eventual achievement of the EQO. extent of the problem / issue? Do the data support Finally, specific interventions or actions were identi- these as real problems and issues, or just as percep- fied to permit realization of each of the targets, tions? This analysis took place on a scientific level, within the time frame designated. For the purposes of including biological, oceanographic, physical, social, this TDA, the time frames were limited to the first five and other perspectives on the problem. This is in effect or ten year periods, with some targets achieved prior the “status” assessment. Next came the Causal Chain to that time. Analysis, where the major perceived problems and In summary, this TDA follows the general GEF issues were analyzed to determine the primary, sec- i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY TDA Guidelines for International Waters projects. ondary and root causes for these problems / issues. However, an additional step was achieved, that is, Identification of root causes is important, because use of Environmental Quality Objectives, in order to these tend to be more systemic and fundamental con- facilitate consensus on the desired state of the tributors to environmental degradation. Interventions Mediterranean Sea after the next pentade or decade. and actions directed at the root causes tend to be more The EQOs naturally led to identification of specific sustainable and effective than interventions directed targets to be met within the desired time frame, and at primary or secondary causes. However, because the from there identification of specific interventions linkages between root causes and solution of the per- and actions that can be considered in the framework ceived problems are often not clear to policymakers, of the NAPs and SAP. interventions commonly are directed at primary or sec- The TDA is comprised of several sections: ondary causes. This TDA attempts to make the linkages • The first Section is the Executive Summary. between root causes and perceived problems more • Section 1 is the Introduction. clear, to encourage sustainable interventions at this • Section 2 is the technical basis of the TDA, level. Fortunately, root causes are common to a num- addressing the MPPIs. ber of different perceived problems and issues, so • Section 3 is the Legal and Institutional addressing a few root causes may have positive effects Framework Analysis. on several problems and issues. • Section 4 is the Stakeholder Analysis. Finally, the analysis recognizes that society • Section 5 covers the Environmental Quality commonly acts within a number of nearly independ- Objectives. 1 Section 1 summarizes much knowledge of the “Perceived” is used to include issues which may not have been identified or proved to be major problems as Mediterranean’s natural and socio-economic yet due to data gaps or lack of analysis or which are regimes. Environmental characteristics are identi- expected to lead to major problems in the future under iii fied, and socio-economic aspects addressed. prevailing conditions. ent sectors (agriculture, industry, transport, etc.), nearshore fisheries, particularly for arti- which are poorly coordinated and often have con- sanal fisheries; loss of tourism and its flicting interests and associated policies. Within documented economic benefits; and loss these sectors, various Stakeholders have interests in of cultural heritage. the Mediterranean Environment, both affecting and b. Analysis: Particularly heavily impacted are being affected by that environment. Sectors and seagrass habitats (including Posidonia their Stakeholders work in an uncoordinated and meadows and eelgrass meadows, inter sometimes conflicting fashion, but they typically alia) that have been affected by eutroph- affect the Mediterranean environment in similar ication, bottom trawling, dredging, and ways. Loss of habitat, for instance, may be caused by other human activities. These are high activities of various sectors (transport, farming, ecological service habitats. Additional industry), and by various types of Stakeholders (gov- habitats include biogenic constructions by ernmental policy-makers, ranchers grazing animals, both vegetal and animal coral builders, small farmers). A major concern of this TDA, there- and comprises also some very sensitive fore, has been to identify common root causes and deep-water coralline habitats, though link them with improvements to perceived problems these effects are less well known. Coastal and issues. A Stakeholders analysis has been com- wetlands, including lagoons and estuaries, pleted, and is summarized in this TDA. are adversely affected by pollution, land The result of the analysis is a prioritization of reclamation, mismanagement of the the MPPIs for later regional intervention, supported phreatic basins (aquifers), and river diver- by GEF. In order to avoid long lists of unfocused inter- sion / loss of flow. Invasion by alien ventions, the TDA should identify concrete priorities species is an ongoing process, and forms for action, and justify their status as a transbound- part of the basis for the Mediterranean’s ary concern. high biodiversity. Although introduction of The TDA analysis of the major perceived prob- alien species by humans is a priority problems and issues can be summarized as follows: lem to be addressed, preventing invasion 1. Decline in biodiversity: strongly trans- by new species by natural means is not. boundary. Primary causes of decline in biodiversity a. Brief statement of the problem: Some crit- include excess supply of nutrients, bottom ical habitats are severely threatened by a fishing, by-catch, degradation and un- variety of human activities. Major threats controlled human presence of breeding to the biodiversity of the area include pol- and / or nursery areas for marine pul- lution (sewage, oil, nutrients), invasive monata and fish, pollution, solid waste TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY species, introduced species, land recla- disposal, competing land uses including mation, river damming and flow modifica- land reclamation, alteration of river flows tion, over-fishing, by-catch, and adverse and constituents, and introduction of effects of fishing gear and uses on marine alien species. Root causes for this MPPI habitats (e.g., bottom trawling), solid include poor stakeholder awareness and waste disposal at sea, uncontrolled tourist participation, inadequate control over presence in ecologically sensitive areas as fishing effort and gear employed, insuffi- well as inadequate public and stakehold- cient scientific knowledge and monitoring ers awareness, and inadequate or non- of the biodiversity in the region and relat- existent legislation and available enforce- ed processes, as well as inadequate implement means. Ecological effects include mentation of treaties and international disruption of biocenosis; dramatic change agreements, lack of investment in waste- in community structure; disruption of key water treatment, and poor solid waste dis- ecotones, some of which are globally valu- posal practices. able; and adverse impacts on endangered c. Priority Areas for GEF Intervention: species. Socio-economic impacts of i. One target for reversing decline in biodi- decline in biodiversity include loss of high versity is preservation of key Mediterra- iv value ecological services; reduction in nean biotopes such as seagrass and other marine vegetation beds (Posidonia, eel- ed in Table i.3. GEF’s role could be grass, and others listed in the Red Book), directed at reducing nutrient and BOD coralligenous, sea mounts, wetlands, discharges, to reduce the eutrophica- marine caves, etc., and creating condition of the Sea. tions for their enhancement. The priority 2. Decline in fisheries: strongly transboundary. areas for this activity are encountered a. Brief statement of the problem: Various throughout the region, and their proper threats to fisheries include pollution, over- mapping is a priority still in need of com- fishing, loss of habitat, excessive bycatch, pletion. deleterious fishing gear, lack of enforment ii. A second target for GEF intervention is of laws and agreements in the high seas, addressing other important sites at and sophisticated methods to find and risk that are important for marine catch fish. Concern has arisen that there is biodiversity. These are elements of an underlying problem of long-term deple- biodiversity that, due to their abun- tion in Mediterranean marine catches. In dance, special importance, or endan- fact, most of the Mediterranean fishery gered status, require special atten- resources, be they demersal, small pelagic tion. Figure i.2 shows the locations of or highly migratory species, have long been the areas where the resources require considered overexploited. The issue is attention, according to the list of transboundary because many fish are Table i.1. either migratory or represent shared iii. A third target for GEF intervention is stocks. Overall, the fisheries are overseen expanding the number of protected by the General Fisheries Commission for the areas in the Mediterranean Sea, and to Mediterranean (GFCM). facilitate the management and a b. Analysis: Fish catch information shows well-established networking for exist- some remarkable constancy on time peri- ing ones. Regional mechanisms for ods of decades, and even more so in years, Protected Areas exist (e.g., SPAMI). fluctuating only by a factor of two or less in i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY However, most of these are in the total catch. However, the number of fishing northwest Mediterranean Sea. Some vessels has increased markedly during this main priority areas of particular inter- time, increasing in some countries by a est are listed in Table i.2 and some are factor or three or four. Composition of the shown in Figure i.3. catch has also changed with time, though iv. A fourth GEF target area is to reduce not as dramatically as in some areas such eutrophication of coastal waters. To as the Yellow Sea. The most targeted address this, sewerage and wastewater species already show signs of intensive treatment plants, a primary source of exploitation. Catch-per-unit effort (CPUE) excess nutrients, must be expanded in and other measurements and biological coverage. The map of areas where indicators such as reduction of individual eutrophication has been reported to fish sizes led the GFCM to conclude that exist is shown in Figure i.4. Note, unfor- most of the commercial fish stocks are tunately, that the southern and east- considered fully or over-exploited. Major ern Mediterranean countries have not causes of decline in fisheries include pollu- reported on eutrophication, though tion (especially eutrophication leading to satellite images show that if it happens loss of suitable benthic habitat), loss of there, it is local. Eutrophication is a habitat, overfishing, antiquated (not common problem, but a local problem, habitat friendly) fishing methods (primari- though its effects are widespread and ly in southern countries), overly sophisti- transboundary. The primary areas cated and hence efficient fishing methods where wastewater treatment plants are (in some countries). Root causes include required to avoid damage to sensitive inadequate stakeholder awareness and habitats (see Section 2.3.6.4) are list- involvement; lack of enforcement and v vi TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ogredIonian:Italy, Albania,Greece Allcountries Eastern:Greece,Cyprus,Lebanon,Syria,Turkey All countries Fish breedingandnurseryareas Allcountries Allcountries(mentionedinNAPs ofTunisia, Libya) Loggerhead Allcountries Green turtle Mediterranean marineturtles Countries concerned Cetaceans All countries Sea mountsandcanyons Benthic speciesincludingcoralligenouscommunities Seagrasses Species /siteofinterest T eierna hawtrSpain-Morocco, Algeria France,Italy Bonifacio Straight(andwesterntipofSicily) AlboranSea:Morocco,Spain with endangered/endemicspecies Representative Mediterranean marine ecosystems Mixed AtlanticandMediterranean faunaandflora Mediterranean shearwater lsornhsAlboran:Spain,Morocco Western:Morocco,Algeria,Tunis Elasmobranches Mediterranean Monkseal able i.1Transboundary SitesatRiskrelatedtoMediterraneanMarineBiodiversity Eastern: Cyprus,Lebanon,Syria,Turkey Aegean: Greece,Turkey Southern: Tunisia, Libya, Egypt Ionian Sea:Albania,Italy, Greece Northern Adriatic:Italy, Slovenia,Croatia Alboran Sea:Spain,Morocco Ligurian Sea:France,Italy, Monaco Southern: Algeria,Tunisia, Libya, Malta,Italy Alboran: Spain,Morocco Eastern: Turkey, Cyprus,Syria,Libya Aegean: Greece,Turkey Ionian: Albania,Greece Aegean Sea:Greece,Turkey Table i.2 Marine and Coastal Sites of Particular Interest identified by Country, with Relevant Actions listed

Country Sites and / or type of action Albania • Rehabilitation of the Kune-Vaini lagoon system • Proclamation of the Marine National Park of Karaburuni Area Algeria • Selection of marine sites to be protected: Habibas Islands, Rachgoun island, PNEK marine area, Taza-Cavallo-Kabyles shoal, Gouraya, Chenoua-Tipaza, Plain Island, Collo peninsula, Cape Garde, Aguellis Islands, Tigzirt marine area • Conservation of the Al Kala wetlands Bosnia & Herzegovina • Identification of processes in the Neum karst coastal area • Management of the sensitive area of the Mali-Ston Bay • Biodiversity protection of the lower Neretva with the Hutovo Blato wetland and of the delta of the Neretva River as a unique eco-system Croatia • Transboundary management plan for the Lower Neretva Valley including Malostonski Bay • Management plans for national parks and nature parks (Kornati-Telascica, Velebit-Paklenica, Biokovo, Krka, Vransko jezero, Brijuni, Mljet) • Management plan and protection of Cres-Losinj Archipelago with surrounding sea • Protection and management of rivers: Mirna (including Motovun forest); Cetina (including Pasko field); Zrmanja • Protection of sand and muddy shores in NW part of Ravni Kotari • Protection of Sandy Beaches Saplunara and Blace on the Mljet Island • Protection of Konavle area • Fisheries management at Jabuka Pit (Fossa di Pomo) Cyprus • Adoption and implementation of the provisions of the EU Habitat and Bird Directives and completion of the NATURA 2000 network (38 proposed sites) and incorporation of proposed sites in town and country planning legislation, local plans and countryside policy Egypt • Combating eutrophication in the coastal lakes of the Nile Delta • Development and management of the Matruh Nature Conservation Sector (MNCZ) Greece • 121 sites out of 238, included in the Greek National list of the Natura 2000 network, host marine and coastal habitats and habitats of important species. Efforts are being made to set up and manage the Natura 2000 sites, ensuring the appropriate short, medium and long term funding mechanism • Seven Ramsar sites on the Montreux list Lebanon • National Action Plan for the conservation of the Tyre Coast Nature Reserve Libya • Bays and coastal lagoons: Ain El-Gazalah Bay, Bumbah Bay, Ain Ziana lagoon, Farwa lagoon i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY • Wadis: Wadi Al-Hamsah, Wadi Al-khabtah, Wadi Ka’am, Tawrurgha spring and salt marshes Malta • Xlendi Bay Munxar / SW Gozo • Dwejra bay and Qawra San Lawrenz / W Gozo; mouth of Wied Ghasri N. Gozo • Reqqa Point N. Gozo; Xwejni N. Gozo • Ramla Bay and San Blas Bay NE Gozo • Mgarr ix-xini SE Gozo • Cominotto, Ras l-Irqieqa SW Comino • Ras Il-Qammieh N/NW Malta • Cirkewwa NW Malta • Ahrax Point NW Malta • Sikka l-Bajda NW Malta • St. Pauls Island and Mistra Bay N Malta • Qawra Point N Malta • Merkanti Reef Northern coast of Malta • Off Lazzarett (Marsamxett Harbour) • Zonqor Reef (off Zonqor Point) East Malta • Sikka tal-Munxar (off St. Thomas Bay) E. Malta • Delimara Peninsula SE Malta • Wied Iz-zurrieq S Malta • Ghar Lapsi; Migra Ferha SW Malta • Ras Il-Wahx SW Malta • Hamrija Bank S Malta • Filfla, an islet in SW Malta Slovenia • Shared management (with Croatia) of the Dragonja River • Debeli Rtic natural monument (marine and coastal) • Sv. Nikolaj salt-marsh (coastal salt-marsh) • Skocjanski Zatok nature reserve (coastal lagoon) • Posidonia oceanica meadow (marine) • Strunjan nature reserve (marine and coastal) • Stjuza natural monument (coastal lagoon) • Rt Madona natural monument (marine) • Secovlje salt-works landscape park (salinas) – Ramsar site from 1993 Tunisia • Remedial measures for the impact of dams on the Ichkeul Ramsar site vii viii TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA Table i.3 Locations where Sensitive Ecosystems are threatened by Eutrophication

Designation / location Country Priority Kuna-Vain lagoons Albania High Gulf of Ghazaouet, Gulf of Arzew-Motaganem, Bay of Algiers, Algeria High Bay of Annaba, Gulf of Skikda, Bay of Bejaia, Bay of Zemmouri Beirout, Tripoli, Jounieh, Saida, Sour Lebanon High Anchor Bay Malta High Tanger Bay, Smir Bay, Mouloya Estuary, Martil Beach, Sfiha Beach Morocco High Ghar El Melh Tunisia High Adana, Izmir Bay, Icel, Mersin-Kazanli, Hatay-Samandag, Aydin Turkey High

monitoring; insufficient alternatives to Therefore, this MPPI is not as high a priority fisheries employment; and lack of regula- for GEF intervention, though institutional tion in some countries. Environmental strengthening might improve existing man- impacts of decline in fisheries include agement practices. Addressing other MPPIs imbalance in some ecosystems due to loss (decline in biodiversity, decline in seawater of top predators; other environmental quality) will per force contribute to impacts are related to fisheries impacts improvement of fisheries. such as destruction of bottom habitat 3. Decline of seawater quality: strongly trans- (seagrass beds) by bottom trawling and boundary. excessive bycatch including endangered a. Brief statement of the problem: Increasing species (such as turtles, scarce bird and trends in eutrophication and its related elasmobranch species, etc.). Socio-eco- oxygen deficiency and bloom of nuisance nomic impacts of declining fisheries species (e.g., jellies such as Noctiluca); include loss of income and employment; presence of hot spots of pollution leading i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY loss of cultural practices; possible decline to decline in biodiversity, fisheries, dis- in food security. eases or loss of health in marine organ- c. Priority areas for GEF interventions: In gen- isms, and overall water quality; human eral, the need for GEF interventions in fish- health problems from consuming fish and eries is only weakly motivated. A regional shellfish or contacting polluted waters; fisheries commission already exists, and loss of endangered species; and overall some sub-regional fisheries commissions imbalance of some ecotones (e.g., sea- also exist. There is no overarching evidence grass meadows) all result from decline in that existing commissions are not func- seawater and sediment quality. Although tioning well, but they are not enough by many of these effects are local in extent, themselves to cope with the underlying they have transboundary consequences. environmental problems affecting the fish- Important transboundary consequences eries stocks in the Region. There are no dra- arise due to ocean currents transporting matic declines in important commercial pollutants throughout the Sea; migration fisheries, although as a multispecific fish- and transport of various life stages of eries there is some evidence for decline in marine organisms (e.g., dinoflagellate commercial catches during the recent cysts) to other parts of the Sea from pol- decades. GFCM indicates that most of the luted areas; marine transport through commercial fish stocks are fully-to-over- shipping; and transport through the exploited. Big pelagic fisheries also have atmosphere. experienced some decline. Twelve national b. Analysis: Budgets for heavy metals, action plans listed priority fisheries related organochlorines, hydrocarbons, nutrients, actions, most of which were to minimize the pesticides, and other pollutants entering effects of overfishing on the environment. the Mediterranean Sea from land, from ix the atmosphere, and from sea (shipping), c. Possible Interventions by GEF: There are have been developed during the PDF- several areas where intervention by GEF phase of the project. At the same time, may be able to assist in improving the sea- limited but available data and observa- water quality of the Mediterranean Sea. tions on declining health of marine popu- i. Reduce nutrient and BOD loading to the lations (ecotoxicology) linked to various sea from sewage: this intervention is pollutants point to ecosystem effects addressed as part of MPPI 1. In addition, from declining seawater quality. those cities identified in Table i.4 above Increases in frequency, intensity, dura- could benefit perhaps from both sewer- tion, and spatial extent of eutrophication age and treatment, and / or improved have raised alarms about pollution. This industrial processes prior to discharge study has identified a series of land- of wastewater to sewers and / or the based pollution hot spots around the Sea. Similar process improvements Mediterranean (Figure i.5) (Annex III), would be required for atmospheric dis- including 125 for all countries (France was charge, since atmospheric discharge is a not included), and 92 for GEF-eligible major pathway for certain pollutants, countries. These hot spots were identified including excess nutrients, to the Sea. geographically, and classified as to cause The goal would be to reduce the dis- of the hot spot (industry, sewage, agricul- charge of excess BOD and nutrients to ture, etc.). In addition to these hot spots, the coastal and offshore waters. ecosystems have been identified that are ii. Reduce discharge of toxic materials to associated with the hot spots with the the Sea: The point sources of pollution highest pollutant loads (Figure i.6). Sixty- identified above bring toxic heavy two ecosystems associated with the high- metals, toxic organochlorines, toxic est pollutant-load hot spots have been hydrocarbons, and other toxins to the identified, of which forty-five are in GEF- Sea either directly through discharge eligible countries. Table i.4 shows the 20 to the Sea, or indirectly through cities in the Mediterranean with the most atmospheric transport to the Sea. Of BOD discharges to the Sea from industrial concern are toxic, persistent, and sources. bioaccumulative (TPBs) contaminants; TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

x i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Table i.4 The 20 Urban Centres discharging the most BOD

Country Urban centre BOD5 disch. (kt/yr) Algeria Algiers* 58.87 Greece Athens* 58.00 Italy Naples 44.4 Egypt Alexandria 43.6 Spain Barcelona (+San Adrian del Besos) 41.2 Algeria Oran* 28.06 Turkey Izmir 26.3 Algeria Skikda* 19.94 Israel Tel-Aviv (Shafdan)* 19.75 Algeria Bejaia* 19.73 Libya Tripoli* 16.06 Turkey Mersin* 14.3 Turkey Antalya* 13.29 Italy Palermo 13.0 France Marseilles 12.0 Spain Malaga 11.5 Lebanon Greater Beirut area* 10.18 Tunisia Tunis Centre 8.3 Italy Bari-Barletta 7.7 Italy Piombino 7.5 * Updated information since 2002 xi Figure i.7 shows the locations of the locations, and also in general due to major industrial sources of TPBs listed dumping at sea by ships and pleasure in Table i.5. craft. Figure i.8 shows the Mediterra- iii. Urban and other solid waste: urban solid nean-wide partitioning of sources of waste is dumped at sea in some coun- solid wastes that make it to the Sea. tries, leading directly to deterioration Figure 2.11 in the main text breaks this of water quality. Solid waste has been distribution out, country-by-country. identified as a major issue at certain Interestingly, none of the countries TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

Table i.5 Some of the Main Sources of TPBs to the Mediterranean (Source: UNEP/WHO, 1999)

TPB (kg/yr) Hg Cd Pb Cr Cu Zn Ni Others (t/yr) Abu Qir Bay (Egypt) 31+ 193+ 362+ 2,669+ 3,394+ 859 1,906 (oil) Tartous (Syria)* 140 10 50 310 540 200 (oil) Lattakia (Syria)* 130 20 50 130 640 2.480 91 (oil) El-Mex Bay (Egypt) 1,278 1,562 530 25,430 46,524 1,319 (oil) Shafdan (Israel)* 80 270 2,510 8,330 19,610 67,130 3,850 Sfax South (Tunisia) 3,456 17,000 Larymna Bay (Greece) 313,170 Tangiers (Morocco)* 20 490 60 720 440 1,800 270 * Updated information since 2002 xii identified solid waste as a major priori- bial and viral pollution. In addition, the ty in their National Action Plans. response of the ecosystem to stress may Plastics are identified as the dominant induce toxicity that may affect humans, source of marine litter, making up some such as toxic dinoflagellates that arise from i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 75% of the litter on the sea surface and eutrophic conditions in some instances. seabed. Major areas where industrial Primary pathways for human health risks waste has been identified as a problem include ingestion of water or seafood prod- are in the attached Table i.6. ucts, contact with contaminated seawater 4. Human health risks: weakly transboundary. (or in some cases, beaches), and perhaps a. Brief statement of the problem: Pollutants contact with contaminated sea food (for that degrade the ecosystem also present marine products workers). Those at risk risks to human health, including not only include marine products workers, recre- heavy metals, organochlorines, pesticides, ational beach users, swimmers, divers, and hydrocarbons, and the like, but also micro- consumers of marine food products.

Table i.6 Selected Locations where Major Industrial Waste Problems exist

Designation / location Country Wastes Durres Albania Hexavalent chromium salts Vlora Albania Mercury Skikda and Annaba in the east, Algiers-Oued Smar Algeria Various and Rouiba-Reghaia in the centre, Oran-Arzew in the west, and on the other the industrial complexes of Ghazaouet, Mostaganem, Béjaia and Jijel Abu Qir Bay Egypt Various: industrial discharges Various Lebanon Various Various Morocco Mining wastes xiii b. Analysis: Though incomplete data are these targets. What policies are required? What leg- available on this topic, there is ample islative acts? What investments? What capacity evidence that human health risks are building? What infrastructure? These specific steps possible through the pathways described are identified in this TDA as activities or interven- above. There are no ecosystem health tions. The steps form the “workplan” to achieve the risks arising from the Human health risks targets within the agreed time frame. The progression (though the two are related). There are from EQOs, to targets, to concrete activities is a logic serious socio-economic impacts, how- chain that leads to consensus on complex environ- ever, such as loss of tourist revenue, loss mental issues. of sales of marine products (such as The three EQOs developed for the Mediterra- when bivalves are contaminated and the nean Sea are listed below, along with the MPPIs with industry is shut down), and loss of cul- which they are associated: tural use of the marine resources. 1. Reduce the impacts of LBS on Mediterranean c. Possible GEF interventions: Since human Marine Environment and Human Health: health is not directly a topic for interven- addresses MPPIs 3 and 4, and to a lesser tion by GEF/IW, no areas of interventions extent MPPIs 1 and 2. can be proposed here. However, some of 2. Sustainable Productivity from Fisheries: the interventions arising from other addresses MPPI 2. MPPIs may improve the health situation, 3. Conserve the Marine Biodiversity and Eco- including sewerage and treatment of dis- system: Addresses MPPI 1. charges, and reduction of nutrient inputs Each of these EQOs had targets defined as a leading to decreased eutrophication. means of achieving these EQOs. The targets associated with the EQOs were identified as follows in Table i.7. i.3 Environmental Quality Objectives Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs) are i.4 Priority Actions and Interventions a means to develop broad Stakeholder agreement on for NAPs/SAP the major environmental objectives of the region. Following the identification of environmental They are useful for communication of the desired quality objectives and their associated targets, specif- state of a particular environment or component of ic interventions / actions were identified to achieve the environment. They represent consensus views of first the targets, and ultimately, the EQOs. These prior- environmental priorities, or visions of what the envi- ity actions and interventions can be categorized within ronment should look like in the future. Often, EQOs one or more of the following major groupings: are simple restatements of existing consensus views. • Policy actions TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY EQOs can be regional or national. • Legislative / regulatory reform EQOs commonly have specific targets identi- • Institutional strengthening fied with them. The targets are quantitative state- • Capacity building ments of progress towards achieving a particular EQO, • Baseline investments and generally have associated timelines or mile- • Incremental investments stones. The targets generally are focused on relatively • Scientific investigation short-term goals (for instance, 5 years), which are • Data management achievable on time frames that governments can • Information and awareness actions understand. If the timelines are too long, governments The priority areas and actions, listed by EQO, may tend not to act, but rather leave the solution to are given in Table i.8. More detailed activities and the next administration. The targets must also be real- interventions listed by EQO are found in Section 5. izable: they must be achievable at a reasonable pace and cost. If the targets are too ambitious, they may be ignored. Better to have an achievable, modest target, than an aggressive, unreachable target. Once EQOs and targets are identified; it is relatively straightforward to identify specific or con- xiv crete steps required in the next few years to achieve Table i.7 Targets Categorized according to Environmental Quality Objective

Environmental Quality Objectives Targets I. Reduce the impacts of LBS 1. By 2005 dispose of sewage from cities of more than 100,000 people on Mediterranean Marine in conformity with LBS. By 2025, dispose all sewages in conformity Environment and Human Health with LBS. 2. By 2005, create a solid waste management system in all cities of more than 100,000 people. By 2025, create solid waste management for all urban agglomerations. 3. By 2005, conform to air quality standards for all cities of more than 100,000 people. By 2025, all cities to conform to air quality standards. 4. By 2005, reduce inputs, collect, and dispose of all PCBs otherwise entering the marine environment. By 2010, phase out all inputs of POPs. 5. By 2010, achieve 50% reduction in TPB by Industry. By 2025, industrial point source discharges and emissions conform with LBS and standards. Other targets for heavy metals, organohalogen compounds, and radioactive materials: • By 2005, collect and dispose of all obsolete chemicals in an environmentally safe manner. • By 2005, collect and dispose of 50% of lubrication oils in an environmentally safe manner. • By 2010, reduce industrial nutrient input by 50%. • By 2010, 20% reduction of generation of hazardous wastes, of which half are safely disposed.By 2025, all hazardous wastes disposed in safe manner. • By 2010, achieve 20% reduction of generation of batteries, and dispose of 50% of batteries in an environmentally safe manner. By 2025, dispose of ALL batteries in an environmentally safe manner. • By 2025, reduce inputs of agricultural nutrients. II. Sustainable Productivity 1. Implement the Code of conduct for fishing. from Fisheries 2. Assessment, control and elaboration of strategies to prevent impact of fisheries on biodiversity. i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3. Promote the adequate monitoring and survey of the effectiveness of marine and coastal protected areas. 4. Assist countries to protect marine and coastal sites of particular interest. 5. Declare and develop of new Coastal and Marine Protected Areas including in the high seas. 6. Assist countries in the development of existing marine and coastal protected areas. 7. Control and mitigate the introduction and spread of alien and invasive species. 8. Control and regulation of aquaculture practices. 9. Promote public participation, within an integrated management scheme. 10. Preserve traditional knowledge of stakeholders. 11. Coordinate and develop common tools to implement National Action Plans (NAPs) related to fisheries. III. Conserve the Marine 1. Improve the management of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas. Biodiversity and Ecosystem 2. Enhance the protection of endangered species and habitats. 3. Reinforce relevant national legislation. 4. Foster the improvement of knowledge of marine and coastal biodiversity.

xv xvi TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ihre andsouthernMediterranean AllMediterraneancountries Reductionof50%industrialBOD seawater quality Decline of EasternMediterranean,Adriatic ImplementationofFAO Code of conduct Fisheries Decline in Wheretointervene AllMediterraneancountries ImplementationofSAPBIO Biodiversity Priority Actions Decline of Major Concerns T able i.8AreasandActionsforPriorityIntervention mlmnaino A/A it AllMediterranean countries EasternMediterraneancountries,Syria, of priorityactionsforindustrialreleases Implementation ofSAP/NAPlist of priorityactionsforPOPs olwu neteto 2penetet 12GEFeligiblecountries: Algeria,Morocco,Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, studies forHotSpotsinGEFeligiblecountries Follow upinvestmentof12preinvestment mlmnaino A/A it AllMediterraneancountries Implementation ofSAP/NAPlist fOslt hmclofObsolete chemicalsinSouthern, ManagementofPCBswasteanddisposal of Obsoletechemical Management ofPCBsandstock 12GEFeligiblecountries: Algeria,Morocco,Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, studies forHotSpotsinGEFeligiblecountries ObsoletechemicalsinSouthern,Eastern Follow upinvestmentof12preinvestment andformerYugoslavia Mediterranean for reductionof20%hazardouswaste Implementation ofregionalplan mlmnaino A I AllMediterraneancountries EUMediterranean countries Implementation ofSAPBIO Implementation ofECrelatedDirectives Adriaticregion AllMediterraneancountries Reduction ofriverineinputsnutrients Reduction of50%ofindustrialBODby 2010 oto fipt fainseisManagementofballastwater Managementofballastwater Control ofinputsalienspecies Control ofinputsalienspecies Reha Conservation ofhabitats Rehabilitation ofcoastalSolidWastelandfills T eteto ra atwtrRefertotableoncitieswithoutWWTP. reatment ofurbanwastewater Syria, Lebanon,Turkey, Albania,Croatia, in allMediterraneanCountries in allMediterraneanCountries (1),Israel(1) Malta (1),Egypt Morocco (1),AlgeriaTunisia (1), Spain (2),Italy(4),Greece(5), T achieved (amountoflocaltiesinbrackets): Demonstration projectshavebeen Implementation ofICZMinlocalitywhere (refer tocountriesreportsinSAP/BIO) Slovenia, Bosnia&Herzegovina Mediterranean countries Eastern andformerYugoslavia Slovenia, Bosnia&Herzegovina Syria, Lebanon,Turkey, Albania,Croatia, Section 2.4 countries Lebanon, Turkey, Israel,Egypt Eastern, SouthernMediterraneancountries urkey (1),LebanonSyria bilitation ofwetlands i. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

xvii 34 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the Transboundary Diagnostic composition and / or stress of the ecosystem of the Analysis for the Mediterranean Sea (TDA MED) is to Mediterranean, and b) analysis of trend of levels of address the transboundary concerns of the Mediterra- bioaccumulation of chemical contaminants in the nean Sea and as such contribute directly to the achieve- ecosystem elements which are considered as indirect ment of the water body-based operational Programme indicators of impact on the ecosystem. of the GEF Operational Strategy. The comparative, logical and thematic analy- According to GEF guidance, the purpose of consis of major concerns, their impacts, the policy ducting a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) is to options and the EQOs enabled the regional experts to scale the relative importance of sources and causes, identify environmental areas of priority actions both immediate and root, of transboundary ‘waters’ together with the priority interventions that should be problems, and to identify potential preventive and considered in the time frame from the present up to remedial actions. the year 2025. This TDA, which was elaborated on the basis of The Legal and Institutional Framework and the previous TDA prepared in 1997 as well as extensive Stakeholder analyses are based upon the Barcelona INTRODUCTION information gathered since that time, summarizes Convention system including the Strategic Action existing information available from the region. In order Programme to address Pollution from Land-Based to reflect the convenient and reliable regional vision on Activities (SAP MED), Strategic Action Programme for the transboundary issues in the Mediterranean, a the Conservation of Biological Diversity (SAP BIO) in the regional experts’ meeting including scientists, repre- Mediterranean Region, MAP partners’ analysis report, FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL sentatives of industry and non-governmental organi- FAO code of conduct related to fisheries, and other zations (NGOs) (Annex I), reviewed the draft report of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). the support data entitled “Assessment of the Trans- This TDA achieved an additional step compared boundary Pollution Issues in the Mediterranean” and with the 1997 TDA —that is, use of Environmental identified the major perceived issues to be considered Quality Objectives adopted in the SAP MED, SAP BIO and in the present document. Based on the outcomes of Code of conduct for fisheries which led to specific tar- this meeting, an updated draft of the TDA was pre- gets to be met within a desired time frame, and specif- pared, circulated for comments and finalized. ic interventions and actions that can be considered in The methodology of the Mediterranean TDA the framework of the National Action Plans (NAPs). consists of the following steps: This analysis shows that the Mediterranean • Identification of Major Perceived Problems Countries have initiated and taken effective measures and Issues, including status and gaps; during the last 25 years to protect the marine environ- • Elaboration of Causal Chain Analysis for ment and human health in the coastal Mediterranean perceived problems; region. Even though gaps and barriers still exist, the • Legal and Institutional Framework Analysis; support information collected showing trends high- • Stakeholder Analysis; and lights and reflects this reality. • Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs). This TDA is considered an important milestone The evaluation of impacts of transboundary and benchmark in the long-term effort of these coun- pollution on the marine ecosystem is based on two tries consolidated by the active participation of NGOs to types of scientific findings: a) indicators of change of implement the policy options adopted by the region. 1 2 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

This section describes the Mediterranean Sea tem, biological diversity and natural resources. Arrays and its coastal zone by reviewing its natural character- of Mediterranean socio-economic aspects are also istics and main socio-economic aspects. By doing so, it considered here including demography and human set- sets the framework into which information from follow- tlements, industrial activity and trade, agriculture and ing sections on the main environmental pressures and fisheries and tourism. policy options addressing those falls. The geographic boundaries of the project are Flanked by mountain ranges to the north, east defined broadly as all Mediterranean countries and and southwest and desert or arid zones from Tunisia to their coastal regions (see Figure 1.1 below). Within this Syria, the Mediterranean coastal fringe harbours cul- framework the GEF-eligible countries include Albania, tures looking inward, towards the sea. This common Algeria, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Egypt, sea, or Mare Nostrum of the Roman age, is also a net- Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Slovenia, Syria, Tunisia, and work of shared interests, from trade and investment, Turkey. In addition, other participating countries through safeguarding the environment to ensuring sus- include Cyprus, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Malta, tainable development of regional resources for contin- Monaco and Spain.2 From a practical standpoint, this ued stability and prosperity.

The review of the Mediterranean setting high- 2

Although Serbia & Montenegro has not participated in 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION lights the geographic factors that give rise to a unique this GEF project, some data from this country are Mediterranean context. It focuses on the geographic incorporated in this report as this is included in the setting and climate, the hydrological and dynamic sys- Mediterranean area.

3 definition of the geographic scope is at once too limit- shores of southwest Greece within the Hellenic Trench, ing, and secondly, too broad. The limitation comes along which several other small basins exceed 4,000 m from the importance of atmospheric deposition to con- depth. The shallowest part of the Mediterranean Sea is taminants deposited in the Sea, which come from the northern Adriatic, the depth of which does not places more distant than the coastal areas and water- exceed 50 m. The estimated, average depth of the sheds. The excessive breadth comes from the fact that Mediterranean Sea is around 1,500 m. the major activities being addressed are weighted Morphologically, Corsica, Sardinia and the towards the water body, and include the water body Balearic islands are the most significant islands of the and coastal areas. In much of the Mediterranean Sea western Mediterranean basin. Sicily and Malta are area, particularly for most GEF-eligible countries located in the central part. Cyprus, Crete and Rhodes (Egypt is an exception), coastal mountains limit the are the biggest islands in the eastern part of the Medi- watershed to close proximity to the Sea; in these cases, terranean Sea, where the 700 or more islands and the watershed boundary is ideal. islets of the Aegean archipelago form the most striking morphological feature. 1.1 Environmental Characteristics Along the coastal areas, rocky shores —both 1.1.1 Geographic setting and climate hard and soft— predominate, with cliffs over 150 m high The Mediterranean Sea occupies an area of occurring in Spain and Croatia. These are only occa- about 2.5 million km2, is about 3,800 km wide from sionally interrupted by sandy beaches of limited East to West and has a maximum north-south distance length, associated with relatively narrow valleys cut- of 900 km between France and Algeria. ting through the mountains or with small coastal plains The Mediterranean Sea is the remnant of an older surrounded landwards by mountainous areas. ocean, tens to hundreds of millions of years old and sev- The few big rivers flowing into the Sea affect the eral times wider, named ‘Tethys’. According to plate tec- Mediterranean’s morphology. The biggest in length is tonics theory, the Tethys Ocean began to be consumed by the Nile in Egypt, the catchment basin of which extends the converging Euroasiatic and African continental several thousands of kilometres into the northeastern plates some 50–70 million years ago, concurrently with part of the African continent. The Nile river deposits, the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. This process is still formed before the construction of the Aswan dam, cre- active, especially in the eastern part along the Hellenic ate a very impressive onshore delta plain on the coastal Trench, where the eastern Mediterranean crust is sub- area of northeastern Egypt and a huge submarine allu- merging beneath the Aegean microplate, while it has vial cone in front of its mouth in the Levantine Sea. only recently ceased along the Tyrrhenian Arc. Thus the Together with the submarine cone or the Rhone River, eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is more active in these two alluvial cones constitute some of the most terms of plate tectonics and is characterized by more striking morphological features of the Mediterranean TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY complex morphology than is the western part. basin. The Rhone itself rises in the central Alps in The Mediterranean Sea is an enclosed sea con- Switzerland and flows through Lake Geneva and south- nected to the Atlantic by the strait of Gibraltar, a 15 eastern France to the Gulf of the Lion in the western km wide and 290 m deep sill and to the Black Sea by the Mediterranean Sea. The third most important river Strait of Canakkale (Dardanelles), having a maximum flowing out into the Mediterranean Sea is the river Po in width of only 7 km and an average depth of 55 m. The northern Italy. The Po drains the southern flanks of the connection of the southeastern with the Red Sea Alps and the northern part of the Apennine mountain occurs through the Suez Canal. The Mediterranean is range through the Po plain to the northern Adriatic Sea. divided into two main basins, the western and the The fourth most important river flowing into the Medi- eastern, separated by the Sicilian Channel that is terranean Sea is the Ebro river in Spain. The large river about 150 km wide, reaching a maximum depth of 400 catchments have delivered sediment to the coast as m. In contrast to the flat, 2,700 m deep basin of the erosion of the mountains has taken place, thus creat- western Mediterranean (west of Sardinia and Corsica), ing new coastal habitats which include the large sedi- the Tyrrhenian, Ionian, Levantine and the Aegean seas mentary coastal plains, which in micro-tidal areas in are characterised by alternating deep depressions and the Mediterranean region have grown to form large morphological highs, submarine valleys and steep deltaic systems such as the Ebro Delta in Spain, the Po slopes. The greatest depth of the entire Mediterranean Delta in Italy or the coastal plain of Albania, to men- 4 Sea, 4,982 m, is found in a narrow basin located off the tion a few. The Mediterranean climate is subjected to both occur in the winter; especially in the Gulf of the Lion subtropical and mid-latitude weather systems. It is (with about 27 gales per year), the Aegean Sea and the characterised by a windy, mild, wet winter and a rela- Sardinian Channel (with, on average 12 and 10, respectively calm, hot dry summer; the transition periods tively). April–May and September–October being too short to Air temperature differences between winter and appear as well defined seasons. The seasonal features summer are generally limited to about 15°C. Neverthe- are associated directly with the motion and develop- less, local meteorological and geographic factors can ment of the great pressure systems: the permanent result in extreme temperatures. The highest air tem- Azores anticyclones, the great continental anti- peratures are recorded near the coasts of Libya and cyclone of Eurasia, the low pressure over the north Egypt between March and June, when they may reach as African desert and the tropical Atlantic. The winter much as 50°C. High temperatures occur regularly at a months are characterised by low-pressure centres over number of places in the Mediterranean area, such as the Tyrrhenian, east Ionian and Aegean seas and high the lee side of the Corsican mountains, the northern pressure over the land. In summer, the pressure pattern coasts of Sicily, Crete and Cyprus. High air tempera- is dominated by competition between a ridge of high tures can also occur in Spain when tropical continental pressure from the Azores and low pressure over the air spreads north from Africa. Lowest temperatures are Middle East originating from the south Asian monsoon- reached during winter on the northeastern coast of the al low, creating a dominantly east-west pressure gra- Aegean Sea and the North Adriatic. dient across the Mediterranean Sea. Most depressions Mean annual precipitation shows a north to (about 70 percent) occurring in the Mediterranean area south gradient, with precipitation decreasing towards are formed in the Gulf of Genoa although North Africa, the south. Mountains are naturally the dominant fac- south of the Atlas Mountains, is an important source in tor in precipitation patterns. High precipitation val- spring. Around one tenth enter from the Atlantic, main- ues of 1,500–2,000 mm and more are found in the ly through the Strait of Gibraltar or the Garonne- Alpine and Pyrenean headwater regions of the Po, the Carcassonne gap. In the central and eastern Mediterra- Rhone and the Ebro rivers and they are very abundant nean the formation of new depressions can occur in the in the Alpine mountain belt bordering the Dalmatian northern Ionian Sea, the southern Aegean and in the coast, from the Istrian peninsula down to Albania. region of Cyprus; but this is rare and limited to the win- This makes these countries the most humid countries ter months. of the Mediterranean area. 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION The orographic effects of the continental mass- Low summer and high winter rainfall is one of es surrounding the Mediterranean basin are crucial for the major features of the Mediterranean climate. This the vertical motion of air masses and give rise to contrast is more and more pronounced from north to regional and local winds. Several persistent regional south and from west to east. Precipitation mainly falls wind systems are present, the strongest of them being during winter and autumn whereas summer season the Mistral and the Etesian winds. The Mistral is an precipitation is less than 10 percent of the annual intense, cold, dry, northwesterly wind blowing mainly total. High precipitation during autumn is typical for during winter down the Rhone valley between the the coasts of Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Serbia & Pyrenees and the Alps. It reaches the Gulf of the Lion Montenegro, Albania and Greece. Further east, such as and spreads over a wide area of the western Mediterra- in Turkey and in Lebanon, autumn precipitation is nean region. The Etesian winds (or Meltems in Turkish) much less important. By far most of the rainfall occurs are the dominant winds in the eastern Mediterranean. here in winter. They are northerly winds, strongest in late summer or In certain regions, precipitation especially in early autumn, which are funnelled onto the Aegean Sea autumn can occur in the form of heavy downpours, through the gap between the mountains of the Balkans causing flash floods in the rivers of these regions. The and Anatolia. Other important wind systems are the prevalent zones for flash floods are the Côte d’Azur, Bora, a strong but infrequent winter wind flowing over East Pyrenees, Cevennes and Corsica in France, the the Adriatic; the westerly Vendaval, flowing through northwestern areas of Italy and Catalonia and the Strait of Gibraltar into the Alboran Sea between Valencia in Spain. Spain and Morocco; and the Sirocco or Khamsin, a One result of the seasonal rainfall and high warm southerly wind from the desert areas of Africa evaporation is that water shortages are endemic. The and Arabia. Gales over the Mediterranean basin mainly problem is particularly striking in the southern parts of 5 the Mediterranean in contrast to seasonal shortages in 5 percent of its original flow. New irrigation schemes the north (corresponding to the dry months). The dry and the Peace Canal bringing Nile water to the Sinai will season in some southern countries exceeds six months, further reduce the Nile inputs to practically zero. meaning that water shortage is a permanent handicap In terms of overall river water discharge into the for sociological and economic development. Mediterranean basin, the reduction witnessed over the past 40 years is estimated to be between 30 and 40 per- 1.1.2 The hydrological system cent. Major Mediterranean rivers other than the Nile All major rivers flowing into the Mediterranean have seen a reduction in the quantities discharged, have lost much of their waters to agriculture over the such as the Rhone and Ebro, while further reductions past 40 years. Freshwater inflow into the Mediterranean are expected to take place in other Mediterranean is therefore low while irrigated farmland in Mediterra- regions in the future. In the case of the Ebro River in nean basin countries has increased between 1960 and Spain, a total of 128 reservoirs extracting water have 1999 from approximately 20 mil hectares to 38 mil led to a decrease in water discharge of about 29 per- hectares. Freshwater recharge is higher in the northern cent (Ibanez et al., 1996). Zahar and Albergel (1999) Mediterranean where the Rhone, the Po and the Ebro, reported that the closure of the Sidi Salem Dam in the three most important Mediterranean rivers in terms Tunisia led to a reduction of the mean annual discharge of discharge, are found. Roughly one-third of the Medi- of the Medjerdah River by 65 percent due to diversion terranean’s continental water flows into the northern for irrigation and evaporative losses. The most affect- and central Adriatic Sea wedged between Italy and the ed sub-basins of the Mediterranean are probably the eastern Adriatic coast. By contrast, the Nile, with a south Levantin, Alboran, southwest Aegean, central catchment area by far greater than any other Mediter- and north Levantin (Figure 1.2). ranean river, covering 3,350 km2, discharges minor Low river inflow into the Mediterranean is also quantities of water into the sea. In fact, as a result of explained by the fact that most of the rivers tend to be the High Aswan Dam, the Nile now discharges less than small, owing to the dry climate and mountainous coast TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

6 relief of the basin. In the northern part of basin steep and southern Mediterranean coast with semi-arid and relief reduces the area of catchment basin, which are arid conditions and limited precipitation and runoff and on average less than 10,000 km2 for the Mediterranean limited surface watercourses and discharge points. The as a whole (Figure 1.3). In the southern part, hot and karstic coastal aquifers discharge directly into the sea dry climate is in favour, with few exceptions, of the without previous intervention of rivers or lakes and the formation of small coastal rivers with relative short functions as flows and storage in karst are directly relat- distance between the headwaters and the river ed to the quantitative status, represented by the dis- mouths. Seasonal flood events, typical of Mediterra- charge flows and the water budgets. The karstic aquifer nean rivers, have also been affected by damming discharges include also substantial submarine dis- works. Often, most of the water discharge in the region charges with large submarine karstic freshwater springs occurs during short floods. Floods are associated with with flows as high as 50 m3/sec that are recharged on maximum river flow due to pronounced rainfall, which land. The coastal seepage and submarine discharges are generally occurs between February and May in the critical to the water balance and seawater quality in the Mediterranean. In the large and medium-sized river marine sub-basins and support wetlands and brackish basins situated in north and central Europe, wide- water habitats with biodiversity and fishery nursery areas ranging and continuous precipitation is commonly the in the coastal zones. The coastal aquifers are threatened main factor in flood generation, often also in associa- by over-exploitation and consequent seawater intrusion tion with snow melt. Intense rainfall falling on small and water and land salinization, thereby adding to the catchments is the main cause of floods in the Mediter- deficit in recharge of the Mediterranean. ranean area. However, the building of dams, as in the This deficit in water recharge of the Mediterra- case of the Ebro, has smoothened seasonality of the nean is offset by Atlantic water entering the basin river’s hydrography. through the straits of Gibraltar. In general, Atlantic sur- Coastal aquifers provide another source of fresh- face waters come in and the Mediterranean deep waters water discharge to the Mediterranean. The seepage from go out to the Atlantic Ocean. Estimates for the turnover the coastal aquifers, estimated at 13 billion m3/yr in the period for water entering through Gibraltar range from UNEP / Blue Plan study (http://www.planbleu.org/), about 80 to 200 years. accounts for about one quarter of the total freshwater As is discussed in more detail above, the Medi- inflow into the Mediterranean. The seepage inflows are terranean Sea is composed of two nearly equal size prevalent on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, dominat- basins: the western and eastern Mediterranean. The 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION ed by its karstic aquifer systems, as well as the eastern Mediterranean circulation is forced by water exchange

7 through the various straits, by wind stress, and by The surface circulation of the western Medi- buoyancy flux at the surface due to freshwater and terranean is quite steady during the four seasons, heat fluxes (Robinson et al., 2001). Maximum depths in although it gets more intensified during the winter the two subdivisions are about 3,400 m in the west and (Tziperman & Malanotte-Rizolli, 1991). about 4,200 m in the east. A sill between Sicily and In the eastern Mediterranean basin, due to Tunisia has a depth of about 400 m. The second con- complex bathymetry, the circulation is dominated by nection between the western and eastern basins, the eddies, some large and quasi stationary as indicated in narrow Strait of Messina between Sicily and mainland Figure 1.4. The seasonal signal of the eastern Mediter- Italy, has a sill depth of only 120 m. This strait has lit- ranean upper circulation is stronger than that of the tle significance for the general circulation; however it western basin, due to stronger variability in the forcing is famous for its strong tidal currents reaching 2–3 m/s by the wind and heat fluxes at the surface. In all sea- in magnitude (Tomczak & Godfrey, 2003). sons except winter the flow of the Atlantic Water from The flow through the Gibraltar Strait is mainly the Sicilian Straits forms a meander that extends from driven by the density difference between the water about 15°E to 20°E. This dynamic feature may be relat- masses on either side of the strait. Inflow velocities in ed to the interaction of the eastward flow with the excess of 1 m/s in combination with a rapidly shoaling topographic or planetary b effects. Its disappearance bottom in a constricted passage result in a situation in the winter may be related to the change in the wind where normal ocean dynamics give way to hydraulic curl in the Ionian Sea during this season (Tziperman & control of the flow. The inflowing Atlantic water initial- Malanotte-Rizolli, 1991). ly continues eastward as a free jet and breaks into one Outside the Algerian Current the Atlantic rela- or two large eddies of 150 km diameter before the tively colder waters continue submerged under a shal- Coriolis force deflects it and the flow carries on along low surface layer of high salinity and can be followed the African coast (Figure 1.4). The change from the as a salinity minimum at 20–30 m depth. Spanish to the Algerian coast occurs in a narrow current Because the Mediterranean Sea is a concen- associated with a front, known as the Almeria-Oran tration basin, the Atlantic water is converted into Front, which separates the relatively fresh Atlantic denser water that eventually leaves the sea over the water from the salty Mediterranean water (Tomczak & sill of the Strait of Gibraltar. This conversion process Godfrey, 2003). The Atlantic inflow then continues as involves deep vertical convection during winter. It the Algerian Current, a narrow jet less than 30 km wide. does not act uniformly in the entire basin but occurs The Algerian Current has an average velocity of 0.4 m/s in three small regions affected by cold winter winds. and a maximum velocity of 0.8 m/s. Deep vertical convection that occurs in the western TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

8 basin forms the Mediterranean Deep Water. Cold win- regularly discovered and described. Biomass in the ter winds affecting the region between Rhodes and Mediterranean is low, however. Cyprus and on the northern and central Adriatic Sea The Mediterranean coastal ecosystems and are responsible for the formation of Levantine wetlands provide critical habitat for both flora and Intermediate Water (LIW). The dense water mass from fauna species: the Adriatic Sea does not maintain its identity very • Circa 150 wetland sites have been recognized long. It turns eastward and enters the Levantine Basin as being of international importance; where it encounters water freshly formed in the region • Extensive sand dunes are located around the between Rhodes and Cyprus. The two sources mix, and Mediterranean; together they form the LIW, which is typically identifi- • Thousands of islands are used by marine and able as a salinity maximum underneath the Atlantic migrating birds, and Water salinity minimum. • The region is reputed to have 13,000 endemic Thus, the large-scale circulation of the Mediter- plants. ranean Sea is composed of sub-basin scale and meso- The most typical and well-known assemblage of scale gyres interconnected and bounded by currents communities is represented by the sea-grass Posidonia and jets with strong seasonal and inter-annual vari- oceanica ecosystem that develops as extended mead- ability. This circulation pattern, combined with shelf ows in the infra-littoral zone (to a depth of 25–40 m) in relief of the Mediterranean makes it possible for large the whole Mediterranean basin. currents to influence coastal water flow. The conse- There are some other important coastal quence of this hydrographic regime from an environ- ecosystems like the calcareous algal rims formed by mental point of view is that transportation of material Lithophyllum lichenoides in the medio-littoral zone; and possibly pollution is enhanced. the sea caves which support several rare and endemic Clearly the picture that emerges of circulation species (e.g., sponges and red coral) which are also in the Mediterranean Sea is one where water mixes both found in the bathyal zone where the light condition is vertically and laterally. Thus, contaminants introduced similar; and the coralligenous communities (circalit- in one area (by wind, discharge at sea, or coastal dis- toral zone) which constitute the most spectacular charges by rivers or pipes) will be mixed relatively rap- underwater scenery in the Mediterranean Sea. On land idly by the strong currents. Overall, the Mediterranean among others the coastal wetlands and sandy beaches Sea is thought to mix completely once every 200 to 300 are worth mentioning. 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION years. This so-called residence time is one indicator of The distribution of species throughout the how long contaminants may accumulate in the basin Mediterranean Sea is not homogeneous: it is greater in before mixing sufficiently and leaving the basin. the western than in the eastern part, as shown for ben- Moreover, in the last 40 years, there has been a thic invertebrates (Figure 1.5). In addition, the distri- slight but noticeable increase of deep waters tempera- bution of Mediterranean fauna and flora varies with ture and salinity (+0.12°C in temperature; +0.05 per- depth as shown in Table 1.1. This diversity is observed cent in salinity). It is probably too early to give an also at the community (biocoenosis) level. Compared explanation but the possibility of a steady increase with the Atlantic, the Mediterranean marine communi- could be suggested by another observed increase of ties are rich in species with smaller individuals having unusual occurrences in marine life that could be used as a shorter life cycle. indicators of changing Mediterranean Sea conditions. Fish 1.1.3 Biological diversity More than 600 fish species have been recorded, The Mediterranean’s unique mixture of subtropi- including 81 cartilaginous fish such as sharks cal and temperate elements has contributed to species and 532 bony fish. The distribution of fish diversity that has few equals in the world. The Mediter- species is not homogeneous, however, as there ranean, accounting for only 1.5 percent of the earth’s are double the number of species in the west- surface, hosts approximately 7 percent of the known ern basin than in the eastern (EEA, 2002). world marine fauna and 18 percent of the world marine flora, of which 28 percent are endemic to the Mediterra- Reptiles nean Sea (Fredj. et al., 1992). A total of 10,000 to 12,000 Three turtle species have been identified in the marine species have been recorded and new species are Mediterranean: the leatherback (Dermochelys 9 Table 1.1 Variation of Species according to Depth Zones (Source: Fredj et al., 1992)

Zones Depth (m) Species (%) Infralittoral zone 0–50 63 Circalittoral zone 51–100 44 Bathyal zone 101–150 37 Bathyal zone 151–200 31 Bathyal zone 201–300 25 Bathyal zone 301–500 18 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Bathyal zone 501–1,000 9 Abyssal zone 1,001–2,000 3

coriacea), the green (Chelonia mydas) and the Mammals loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta). Because Twenty-two species of whales have been these turtle populations appear to be geneti- sighted in the Mediterranean, but only 12 of cally isolated from turtle populations in the these species occur regularly. The other 10 are Atlantic Ocean, the unnaturally high mortality probably not true inhabitants. Nineteen of the rates resulting from fishing cannot be counter- cetaceans and seals are listed in Annex II (List balanced by immigration (EEA, 2002). of endangered or threatened marine species in the Mediterranean) of the Barcelona Protocol Birds concerning Specially Protected Areas and There are 33 breeding colonial waterbird Biological Diversity (EEA, 2002). species along the Mediterranean coastline. Wetland loss and habitat degradation are Threatened Species recognised as serious threats for 9 of these Eighty-nine marine and freshwater species (not 10 species, however (EEA, 2002). including birds) have been identified as threatened under the Protocol concerning Specially Finally, it should be pointed out that because Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the of both climate and historical / archaeological signif- Mediterranean Sea and then revised in the Berne icance, the Mediterranean continues to be the great- Convention on the Conservation of European est tourist destination in the entire world. Conversely, wildlife and Natural Habitats. Among the most tourism is the greatest consumer / user of the Medi- endangered are the Mediterranean monk seal terranean coast and the number of tourists continues (Monachus monachus), with a total population increasing. Such a growth will mean an increasing not exceeding 500 specimens, dolphin species demand for coastal space as well as such necessities (Delphinus delphis, Tursiops truncatus, Stenella as electric power and water. Furthermore, the impact coeruleoalba), sperm whales (Physeter macro- on certain habitats (particularly sandy beaches and cephalus) and freshwater and marine turtles dunes) will increase. (Chelonia mydas, Trionyx triunguis, Caretta caretta). Annex II contains a list of threatened 1.2 Socio-economic Aspects species in the Mediterranean, the reasons for 1.2.1 Demography and human settlements their being threatened and actions being taken During the past decades, population has grown to protect them. dramatically in the Mediterranean littoral countries. According to the Blue Plan (http://www.planbleu.org/ 1.1.4 Natural resources indexa.htm), total population grew from 285 to 427 The Mediterranean coastal fringe is a high eco- million from 1970 to 2000. Recent Blue Plan estimates nomic value zone, generating income in terms of predict a population of 523.5 million in all of the Medi- tourism, agriculture, industry and fisheries. The region is terranean countries by 2025, indicating a slowing of also characterized by a great gap dividing the rich North growth in the coming years. Growth will be very uneven, from the South, GDP per capita of Mediterranean EU however, with the EU Mediterranean countries having countries being twelve times higher that of their North virtually no population growth and the southern rim African counter parts. The region on the whole faces countries having growth of 2 to 3 percent per year growing problems of water scarcity and degradation of (Figure 1.6). The southern rim of the Mediterranean land resources, as a result of anthropogenic activity. now contains more than 50 percent of the total popu- Fisheries, another vital resource for the Mediterranean is lation and this percentage is expected to grow to 75 also driven by over exploitation and unsustainable prac- percent by 2025. These projected demographic changes 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION tices, adding to resource constraints imposed by man on in the region will have significant effects on the Medi- the future of Mediterranean resources. terranean environment, as demand for natural Although alluvial and coastal plains are few resources will dramatically increase in the south. and not extensive (the Nile Delta being far the largest) Population densities are much greater in most coastal plains have demographic and economic coastal than in non-coastal areas, especially in the importance ranging from agriculture to industry / southern parts of the Mediterranean. In 2000, the commerce to recreation to historical / archaeological combined Mediterranean coastal population was significance. Most areas still contain partly to little- greater than 150 million. The coastal population in the modified natural ecosystems of irreplaceable value. North is expected to remain relatively stable, whereas Because of their ecological fragility, related to the the coastal population in the South is projected to land-use transition and their economic importance, increase by approximately 30 million people in 25 these coastal lowlands are particularly vulnerable to years. Currently there are great disparities in coastal climatic changes that can affect hydrology, sea-level population densities among the riparian states, with rise and ecosystems. Anthropogenic activities can also more than 1,000/km2 in the Nile Delta and less than affect these areas because of pollution and sediments 20/km2 along coastal Libya. flows from upstream catchments. According to the Blue Plan, the urbanisation Other resources of the Mediterranean include process is expected to continue in the Mediterranean fossil fuels and raw materials. Libya, Algeria and Egypt and it is estimated that by the year 2025 approximate- are considered moderate-sized petroleum producers; ly 75 percent of the population will be urban. The eco- Morocco is the world’s third-largest producer of phos- nomic and environmental burden on cities, therefore, phates, Albania the third largest producer of chrome will increase substantially. This urban growth will occur and Spain the second largest producer of mercury. primarily in the southern and eastern countries, how- 11 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

ever. In all of the Mediterranean countries, the urban ancies are expected to continue. Age composition is population will grow from 274.5 million in 2000 to 379 expected to differ in northern and southern countries in million in 2025. Of these 104.5 million new urban the future. As a result of higher population growth in dwellers, more than 98 million will be in the South and southern countries in the coming years, population East (http://www.planbleu.org/indexa.htm). structures will be younger in the South. With this shift will The wide variation in political and economic sys- come increasing problems concerning education and tems as well as historic differences have led to great dis- job-creation in southern countries. crepancies in the level of development among Mediter- Human activities pose several threats to the ranean countries. The highly developed industrial coun- structure and functions of natural ecosystems, to the tries in the North (France, Italy and Spain) and countries quality and availability of natural resources (i.e., on the way to becoming industrialised (Greece, Serbia & forests, soil and water) and on the natural and man- Montenegro and Turkey) stand in stark contrast to the made landscape. In particular, coastal areas are fac- countries in the South. There is a great gap dividing the ing significant pressures mainly through the over-con- rich North from the South, with GDP per capita of Medi- centration of population and economic activities in terranean EU countries at levels twelve times higher than these areas. As the coastal population grows and those of their North African counterparts. As population urbanises, pressures on the Mediterranean resources 12 continues to grow in the South, developmental discrep- will continue to increase. 1.2.2 Industrial activity and trade Algeria, Syria, Egypt and Libya. The current According to the EEA report on the state and status does not give any sign of change in the pressure of the marine and coastal Mediterranean short term for the export trends, in spite of environment (EEA, 1999b), the Mediterranean basin some exceptions like Egypt, which shows a cer- has never been a major mining region and thus was not tain diversification with some increase in the involved in the period of industrial development based production and export of manufactured goods on coal and iron. Its heavy metal cycling has been (textiles, shoes, etc.); largely affected by the mercury, copper, zinc and lead • The second group is less specialised in export- deposits present in the Pyrictic streap of the Iberian ing goods even in a situation of comparative Peninsula, however. The region is better endowed in oil disadvantage with other countries. Thus, their and natural gas (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Syria and exports are more diversified. This is the case Italy), leading to the establishment of many refineries for countries like Tunisia, Morocco, Turkey, all around the Mediterranean basin. Croatia, Serbia & Montenegro, Cyprus and Taking into consideration the world’s sixteen Malta. All these countries export manufac- most important raw materials, the Mediterranean tured goods such as clothes, textiles and countries’ production (in decreasing order) of mer- leather, but each one has more specific pro- cury, phosphates (Tunisia and Jordan), chromite ductions (chemicals, oils and lubricants in (Turkey), lead, salt, bauxite (Bosnia & Herzegovina, Tunisia; chemicals and fertilisers in Morocco; Croatia, France, Greece, Slovenia, Serbia & Monte- textile fibres, wool, cotton, paper, cement in negro) and zinc (Spain and Morocco) is higher than Croatia, Turkey and Serbia & Montenegro); the world average. Submarine mining in the Mediter- • The third group is more diversified and thus ranean comprises mainly drilling for oil and gas and much less specialised. It mainly comprises the dredging of gravel and sand, but this particular type EU Member States. As mentioned earlier, they of activity can be considered to be at a relatively account for the largest part of the petrochemi- early stage of development. cal industry in the Mediterranean. Located fully Steel manufacturing, another symbol of indus- in the Mediterranean basin, Italian industry is trial development and military power, is concentrated certainly the largest, with basic manufactured in the North (Italy, France, Spain, Turkey and Greece) goods, machines, transport equipments, etc. with a few producers in the south (Egypt, Algeria and In terms of the environmental impacts of 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION Tunisia). industrial activities in the Mediterranean marine Generally, to date, the gap in industrial devel- environment, industry, besides occupying land area, opment between the northern and southeastern sides may also use the territory to dispose of solid wastes, of the basin remains considerable. In terms of added for example in the form of landfills. This is particular- value, within the Mediterranean basin proper Italy, ly true of mining since it often involves the dumping of France and Spain together are predominant with 87 mine tailings and ore slurry on land, into rivers or to percent more than the rest of the Mediterranean the sea directly. It may also include the ash from countries. processes such as steel making. Apart from the chemical / petrochemical and metallurgy sectors, the other main industrial sectors 1.2.3 Agriculture and Fisheries include: waste treatment plants, paper, paints, plas- Scarcity of irrigation water, already experi- tics, dyeing and printing and tanneries. enced in the arid and semi-arid countries of the Medi- terranean is expected to become an ever more press- Distribution of industrial activities: ing concern for Mediterranean agriculture in the near Production activities occurring all over the Medi- future. In most of those countries with an erratic rain- terranean basin can be differentiated by the different fall pattern, many of the available sources of water, export specialisation for each country. In that respect, which can be used for economic activities, have we can easily distinguish three groups of countries: already been developed or are currently in the process • The first group is highly specialised in some of development. For example, of the 12 southern and export products, while the rest of the com- eastern Mediterranean countries, the Blue Plan esti- modities are being imported. This is the typical mates that eight are now using annually more than 50 situation for oil producing countries such as percent of their renewable water sources; two of them 13 (the Palestinian territories and Libya) are already Tourism growth is not equally distributed using more than their renewable water sources. By the among Mediterranean countries. The significance of year 2025 the Blue Plan estimates that eight of the 12 tourism development in Mediterranean member countries may be consuming more than the total of states of the EU is higher in comparison to the rest of their renewable water sources. About 70 percent of the Union. France, Spain, Italy and Greece remain by Mediterranean water is used for agriculture. far the most popular destinations for international Recent intensification of agricultural tech- tourism. Although the traditional countries in the niques in the Mediterranean has reinforced the long- North today monopolize 4/5 of international tourism, term trend of desertification occurring in the region. a certain degree of disenchantment with over–urban- The Mediterranean soils are an example of extreme ized coasts is likely to benefit the wilder hinterland degradation resulting from centuries of human use. and the as yet virgin coasts of southern countries. Once ubiquitous forests were lost to grazing and animal There is no doubt that this could act as a potential husbandry, agriculture, forest cutting for timber and rebalancing factor between the two banks of the were thus slowly changed irreversibly over the course of Mediterranean. thousands of years. Habitat conversion begun in the Tourism is regarded as a prevailing economic Middle East at least 9,000 years ago, resulting gradual- sector for the Mediterranean region. More than six ly in a loss of tree cover, drying up of streams, increas- million people are employed directly or indirectly in ing local temperatures and erosion. Today about half of the tourism industry with forecasts showing an Mediterranean lands are subject to the risk of erosion. increase of two million by 2010. Also, tourism is cur- This long-term trend has been accentuated by modern rently the first foreign currency source for the Medi- agricultural methods of monocultural intensive culti- terranean countries and its direct and indirect con- vation, intensive tilling and excess watering. tribution to Gross National Product can reach 29 per- The Mediterranean has highly prized demersal cent (Cyprus) or 35 percent (Malta). fish, crustaceans and molluscs. Although there are Such a growth will mean an increasing difficulties in obtaining accurate fishing statistics, demand for coastal space as well as such commodi- changes in biodiversity among the dominant Medi- ties as electric power and water. Furthermore, the terranean fish species appear to result from a combi- impact on certain habitats (particularly sandy nation of overexploitation of fisheries resources and beaches and dunes) will also increase. However, the coastal pollution (Caddy, 1993). Technological im- economic importance of tourism for the Mediterra- provements in the fishing fleet and increased fishing nean is such that no riparian countries can do with- capabilities ultimately resulted in a decline in the out this sector. catch rate per boat (Caddy, 1993). By the 1970s, a substantial proportion of the less productive south- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY ern shelves were being harvested, including by distant-water trawlers, resulting in the harvesting of demersal resources at close to maximum sustainable yield. 1.2.4 Tourism The Mediterranean Basin is considered to be the most important tourism destination globally, attracting a third of the world’s tourists. Domestic tourism has great significance for the region; of the 450 million visitors, 100 million stay on the Mediter- ranean coast of their host country, considerably increasing human concentration. This figure is likely to double if not triple by 2025, entailing the risk of overload-based depreciation of the tourist capital represented by this activity which is seen as vital to most countries in the region as a source of hard currency and an essential development factor for south- 14 ern countries. 1.0 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

15 16 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

One of the primary steps to be taken in a as well as cause decline of biodiversity. In spite of these Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis is the identification overlaps, the four MPPIs are addressed below. of major perceived problems and issues (MPPIs), also known as major environmental concerns. These MPPIs 2.1 Decline of Biodiversity represent the dominant issues of concern to the stake- This section surveys the sensitivity and changes holders involved in the TDA. MPPIs are supposed to in biodiversity and coastal ecosystems as a response to reflect concerns and issues, but sometimes can be pri- man-induced changes and pollution in the Mediterra- mary causes or root causes. In addition, MPPIs may nean. There is a perception that biodiversity has sometimes be environmental effects arising from some decreased in the Mediterranean Sea, although this basis problem. The MPPIs find their use in cogently topic is hotly debated. From a species perspective, expressing the major issues faced by stakeholders. there is no evidence of the loss of a single species in the Although they may lack a full scientific basis, Mediterranean Sea, whereas invasionary species con- the MPPIs provide a stepping stone for further, in- tribute to add to the species list in the Sea, largely due depth analysis of their scientific underpinnings. If the to the Lessesspian migration through the Suez Canal. A MPPIs are supported by available scientific inquiry, visible loss of a flagship species has been the drastic then they may lead logically to the identification of reduction in the occurrence of dolphins (Tursiops trun- Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs). Once the catus) off the coast of the North-West Adriatic, which 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL EQOs and their related concrete targets are identified is probably due to the changes in organoleptic charac- and adopted, the EQOs then lead logically to interven- teristics (colour, odour and taste) and the loss of tions for the future, to help achieve the targets within transparency caused by eutrophy. Once common even the adopted timeframe. in the waters close to the shore, presently they can only The MPPIs for the Mediterranean Sea TDA were be encountered (although sometimes in large num- developed through the years, as part of meetings held bers) over 10–20 miles from the coast. From a habitat in support of the Mediterranean Action Plan. This TDA perspective, there is no doubt that there is loss of bio- identifies four priority MPPIs: diversity. Contraction of seagrass meadows (e.g., • Decline of biodiversity Posidonia and eelgrass meadows) has been document- • Decline in fisheries ed, and valuable coastal landforms have been lost due • Decline in seawater quality to development, reclamation, and other similar activi- • Human health risks ties. From a genetic perspective, there are inadequate Human health risks are an overarching issue, with data to make a judgment on the loss of genetic biodi- some items overlapping with the other MPPIs. In this sec- versity. Therefore, the greatest argument for loss of tion, the TDA addresses the environmental issues that biodiversity would seem to rely on the loss and / or contribute to human health risk. Clear overlap can be seen alteration of valuable habitats. in that Toxic Algal Blooms, an indicator of both decline in Diversity of marine life in the Mediterranean is biodiversity and decline in seawater quality, can lead to high and is also largely confined within this basin mak- human health risks (e.g., Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning, ing for a relatively high rate of endemism on a global Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning, etc.). Similarly, decline in level. Out of the total of 10,000 to 12,000 marine seawater quality arising from introduction of organochlo- species registered for the Mediterranean Sea, 20–30 rine pollutants could also adversely affect human health, percent are assessed to be endemic, representing two 17 to three percent of world seas’ species richness. This with considerable economic as well as ecological value genetic richness arising largely from the Mediterranean is being eroded. Coastal wetlands have mainly been position between two major oceans, the Atlantic and subjected to conversion to other uses leading to large the Indo Pacific, and the intermixing of their species is losses in size and environmental degradation. Coastal under increasing pressure from man-induced impacts. wetlands are also adversely affected by aquifer mis- This intermixing has led to what are known as invasion- management, pollution, land reclamation and diver- ary species, primarily through the Suez Canal since its sions and loss of river flows. opening in 1869; however, from this perspective, many Pressures exerted on Mediterranean biodiversi- species are invasionary as this migration into the ty and coastal ecosystems can be put in the following Mediterranean Seas has been ongoing since the basin categories: filled following the latest glaciation. • Overexploitation of living marine resources; Although no species are known to have disap- • Conversion and degradation of critical habi- peared from the Mediterranean as a result of human tats; activity, the status of some species is of great concern. • Introduction of alien species; A list of 89 marine and freshwater species (not includ- • Pollution in the form of excess nutrients; toxic ing birds) has been established under the Protocol con- waste, including oil; solid waste and litter; cerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological and Diversity in the Mediterranean Sea and then revised in • Use of non-selective fishery gears. the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. A “red book” published 2.1.1 Transboundary elements in 1990 identifies a variety of species at risk in the Transboundary elements of the degradation of Mediterranean. coastal habitats and decline of biodiversity arise Among the species most endangered and because of combinations of the following factors: threatened by extinction are the Mediterranean monk • Marine living resources are often migratory; seal (Monachus monachus), with a total population not • Coastal habitats provide nursery and feeding exceeding 500 specimens, dolphin species (Delphinus grounds for migratory species; delphis, Tursiops truncatus, Stenella coeruleoalba), • Degradation of coastal habitats contributes sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), and freshwa- to overall decline of regional and global bio- ter and marine turtles (Chelonia mydas, Trionyx triun- diversity; guis, Caretta caretta). • Sustainability of marine and coastal habitats High competition for land use on the coastal depends on the integrity of the interlinked fringe is forcing critical habitats to decline. Tourism, ecosystems that support trophic levels in the urban development, agricultural, fisheries and indus- food chain; and TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY trial expansion are some of the pressures faced by • Ecosystems are inherently transboundary in both marine and terrestrial coastal habitats. nature. The preservation of critical habitats, seagrass Thus, modification of habitats in some coastal belts and coralligenous communities for instance, is areas may have basin-wide impacts due to their impor- critical for biodiversity. They serve as nursery grounds tance as nurseries. Eutrophication in key areas may for many fish, molluscs, crustaceans, as well as habi- have transboundary impacts by serving as a “source” tats throughout species’ life span. Nonetheless, their for nuisance species (jellyfish, toxic algae and their status is declining as a result of pollution from munic- cysts) that may spread in basin-wide currents into ipal and industrial waste as well as fishing distur- adjacent parts of the Mediterranean. What may appear bance, and in some cases, such as that of Posidonia to be merely a local action (eutrophication) may in meadows, they are known to have disappeared com- fact have transboundary consequences. pletely in certain areas. Besides Posidonia meadows, the most critically threatened marine habitats are 2.1.2 Environmental impacts Lithophyllum lichenoides rims and the Coralligenous Casual chain analysis is used to determine the communities. Some eelgrass beds (Zostera marina) environmental impacts of the MPPIs. Figure 2.1.1 is are also at risk. the casual chain for Decline in Biodiversity. As the fig- Similar concerns arise on wetlands whose ure indicates, the environmental impacts are many 18 capacity to provide a host of environmental services and varied. • Disruption of important biocenoses; • Reduction of critical fish habitats and decline • Change in structure of marine communities in fisheries population with subsequent in- • Reduction of fin- and shell-fisheries; come decline from fisheries; • Decline in function and quality of critical • Changes in the employment with a shift away seabed habitats, particularly nearshore; from fisheries; • Ripple effects through food web as primary • Loss of aesthetic value; producers on up decline; • Loss of income from the tourism industry; • Loss of unique global biodiversity resources • Loss of cultural heritage. (e.g., seagrass meadows, coralline habitat); • Possible loss of forage, nesting, and / or rest- 2.1.4 Causal Chain Analysis ing areas for migratory species such as birds The causes of decline in biodiversity are indi- (cranes, birds of prey, etc.) and marine mam- cated in the Causal Chain Analysis (CCA) in Figure mals (e.g., dolphins) and reptiles (including 2.1.1. Generally, the causal chain identifies primary the three endangered turtle species); and causes, and ultimately addresses root causes (the • Possible loss of unique wetlands habitats level at which sustainable interventions are normally along critical semi-tropical zones. encouraged). The primary causes of decline in biodiversity are: 2.1.3 Socio economic impacts • Excess supply of nutrients; The degradation of biodiversity and coastal • Overexploitation of living marine resources; ecosystems leads to a host of adverse socio-econom- • Threat to non-target species taken in by- ic impacts linked to the tourism and fisheries sectors. catches; Increasing pollution of the land and marine coastal • Threat to the fisheries’ target populations due fringe, where most of the biodiversity is found, leads to over-fishing and large kills of juveniles; to the degradation of interdependent breeding habi- • Competing land uses and intense river and tats of marine organisms. For example, a reduction in aquifer management: degradation and con- seagrass cover can reduce fish spawning, leading to version of critical habitats; reduction in artisanal catches that may be a signifi- • Pollution; cant component of local economies. Some of the most • Introduction of alien or cultured species; important impacts are mentioned below: • Solid waste disposal in sea. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL • Loss of high value ecological services linked Important root causes include: to loss and degradation of coastal wetlands. • Low awareness of farmers and other stake- An evaluation of the economic value of wet- holders; lands reveals that these habitats provide the over- • Lack of control of fishing effort and gear; whelming share of ecological services, compared to • Lack of investment in wastewater treatment; inland ecosystems. • Inadequate ship ballast water control; The report prepared by Costanza (1997) in the • Insufficient solid waste management Best framework of the European Demonstration Programme Available Practice; on the Assessment of the socio-economic costs and • Inadequate implementation of international benefits of Integrated Coastal Zone Management is of Conventions and Agreements. relevance here as it focuses mainly on Mediterranean type of ecosystems. 2.1.5 Supporting data According to Costanza (1997), wetlands pro- The section below surveys the main concerns on duce nearly 75 percent of the ecosystem services, while Mediterranean biodiversity by looking at threats fac- inland ecosystems provide the remaining 25 percent. ing living marine resources and critical habitats. It Estuaries, areas of the continental shelf and tidal also presents supporting data on causes of concern marshes are included as wetlands in the report. focusing on eutrophication, chemical contaminants, Although the above estimate refers to Europe oil pollution, introduction and invasion of alien rather than the Mediterranean, it is a relevant indication species and solid waste and litter. The supporting data of the order of magnitude of economic value of wetlands. come from dozens of studies performed under the Additional socio-economic impacts arise out Mediterranean Action Plan, and the general literature. of a combination of the following: Special studies on marine turtles, jellyfish blooms, 19 20 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA land-based and airborne pollution, eutrophication, tegrity of this basic habitat found pri- marine organic pollutants, and many national reports marily in coastal areas is of high pri- contribute to this summary section. ority, not least because seagrasses support high levels of marine produc- 2.1.5.1 Exploitation of tivity. In fact some seagrass meadows living marine resources qualify as critical habitats and their The fact that fishing grounds usually are quite status is viewed as a major biological close to the coast where the highest biodiversity is indicator of the state of the water located results in strong impacts of fishing activities quality. on biodiversity. The two major threats that stem from Posidonia oceanica meadows, fishing are direct damage to biodiversity and damage whose loss is irreversible on a human to essential habitats. life timescale, are a red flag for con- The widespread use of small mesh fishing gear servation efforts in the Mediterra- as well as excessive fishing of commercial species are nean. In the last 50 years, there has the foremost means by which biodiversity is damaged. been a major regression of Posidonia Although no data seem to indicate that any fishery oceanica meadows all around the resource is under threat of collapse, it is widely Mediterranean basin mainly due to acknowledged that overfishing has taken place in the human-induced changes to the Mediterranean for a long time. Red coral (Corallium coastal zone. rubrum) in the western Mediterranean for instance is As far as damage to habitats is heavily over-exploited, as are also some edible bivalve concerned, there is a need to protect species such as Lithophaga lithophaga. seagrass beds (Phanerogams such as Moreover, the negative impact of overex- Posidonia sp., Zoostera spp. and ploitation of marine resources is also felt on many Cymodocea sp.), ham mussel beds, non-target fishery populations. High conservation deep water white corals and hard priority species such as marine turtles, the Mediterra- bottom biocenosis in coastal areas, nean monk seal, and marine mammals fall prey to by- irrespective of depth, from the catch due to lack of selective fishing gear. effects of trawling, dredging and As far as by-catch of protected species is similar activities. Often rigged with 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL concerned, conservation of the few remaining monk chains or other rock-hopper devices, seals is of major importance. Protection of turtles these fishing devices have been iden- and seabirds from longlining may in some cases be of tified as a main cause of both the special concern. Cetacean by-catch will be of less decline of shallow seagrass meadows importance following the recent ban of driftnets, and deterioration of communities although action at the international level would be living on rocky bottom surfaces. beneficial to extend the protection to all Mediterra- Posidonia oceanica seagrass mead- nean fisheries. However, the interaction between ows for instance are in regression cetaceans and fishing activities beyond the by-catch partly as a result of mooring of boats phenomenon is a problem of growing concern that and trawling connected to fishing deserves careful consideration. In addition, over- activities. fishing reduces the food base on which sea mammals The impact of dredge fishing for on higher levels of the food chain depend on for their bivalves must also be controlled survival. since it may reduce the capacity of soft bottoms to maintain diversity in 2.1.5.2 Degradation and conversion benthos. of critical habitats Besides seagrass habitats, coral- a. Seagrass meadows ligenous communities are also high and coralligenous habitats conservation priority marine organ- Threats to seagrass meadows, a isms. Plants and animals, many of typical type of habitat in the Mediter- which are unique to the Mediterra- ranean, are well recorded. The in- nean, thrive around these spectacular 21 formations. Man-induced pressures a rich and diversified flora and fauna linked to collection of red coral, an- have been subjected to landfilling, choring of boats on coral grounds and drainage and conversion to agricul- trawling are subjecting coralligenous ture, urban settings and other uses. habitats to decline and degradation. The effect of the loss and degrada- High-impact harvesting techniques tion of wetlands has been identified such as the St Andrews’ cross for red as a serious threat to nine out of the coral (Corallium rubrum) or the ex- 33 breeding colonial water bird ploitation of European date mussel species found along the Mediterra- (Lithophaga lithophaga) and com- nean coastline. mon piddock (Pholas dactylus) by Yet data on the actual state of destroying the rocks inhabited by Mediterranean wetlands are lacking. these bivalves have long been forbid- In 1995, within the framework of the den, but there are indications that European MedWet 1 project, an analy- the prohibition is not well enforced. sis of the existing wetland inventories Furthermore, there are warning sig- in the Mediterranean was published. nals that the illegal use of explosives The study showed that detailed in- and poisoning is still taking place. ventories had been completed for Critical coastal habitats are par- only five of the 22 countries reviewed ticularly damaged around big cities. and that for the majority there were Coastal structures related to expan- lists only of some of the most impor- sion of human settlement inevitably tant wetlands. Generally, there has affect ecological processes and lead been little standardization of the to a definite elimination of breeding data collected and the results areas, to destruction of habitats and between countries are therefore diffi- to loss of biotopes. Sea defence cult to compare. measures, land reclamation, industri- In connection with wetlands, al and harbour installations, dredging lagoons represent another important or extraction of sediments, disposal of and specific habitat for a number of wastes and dredged material, recre- species. They make up approximately ational activities, military activities 40 percent of the non-rocky Mediter- and aquaculture operations all tend ranean shoreline. In Mediterranean to concentrate around big cities. Europe as a whole, they account for TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Consequently, the shrinkage of critical some 850,000 hectares. As wetlands, habitats such as Posidonia meadows many of them have been strongly has been particularly strong around impacted by human development large industrial harbours like Athens, since numerous commercial activities Naples, Genoa, Marseille, Barcelona, depend on them. Algiers and the Gulf of Gabès. Intensified river watershed management through dams also has a b. Wetlands and lagoons great impact on coastal wetlands Although engineering works and aquifers that feed off their flows. clearly cause decline of wetlands and The Aswan High Dam illustrates biodiversity, lack of data prevents us clearly the downstream impacts of a from quantifying the magnitude of change in the upstream uses of a this man-induced impact. Wetlands river. A reduction of silt load carried are lost to a variety of man-induced to the Nile Delta as a result of the changes in the land use of coastal dam has led to increased erosion of areas. Lagoons, marshes, lakes, tem- the deltaic coast affecting the sand porary pools, river estuaries, chan- bars in front of Manzalla and Burullus 22 nels and coastal forests that shelter lagoons that now face the risk of opening to the Sea. Consequently, ground karstic aquifer systems them- the deltaic lagoons harbouring great selves form habitats for unique and concentrations of species are threat- threatened karst biodiversity and ened by seawater invasion and dis- degradation of this habitat is a turbance of the delicate ecological threat to biodiversity. balance. As a result of changes in The drying up of coastal wet- water mass movement, water level, lands and coastal development salinity and temperature attributed result in the fragmentation of habi- to reduced silt deposit, the lagoon tats. Once a habitat becomes frag- may become unsuitable for breeding mented as a result of coastal devel- and spawning purposes in the future. opment, ecosystem processes are Coastal wetlands are also ad- disrupted. This type of man-induced versely affected by aquifer misman- impact damages biodiversity by agement, thereby threatening the inducing inbreeding, which reduces biodiversity dependent on them. The the gene flow and therefore genetic threats to wetlands from aquifer mis- variability. management are twofold. First, over- To better understand the nega- use of aquifers can result in the dry- tive consequences of inbreeding on ing up of wetlands dependent upon fitness and growth rates, levels of them. The seepage from the coastal genetic diversity have been studied aquifers, estimated to be 13 billion in transplants in a common location. m3/yr in the UNEP/Blue Plan (http:// Shoots collected in populations with www.planbleu.org/), accounts for higher genetic polymorphism showed about one quarter of the total fresh- higher survival and growth rates, water inflow into the Mediterranean. suggesting that when genetic vari- Second, wetlands are degraded by ability of donor populations is high, the saline intrusion that occurs when fitness is also high. coastal aquifers are over-exploited Habitat fragmentation and the and from the pollutants introduced associated risk of inbreeding is a 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL into the aquifers. The coastal seep- particularly serious problem when it age and submarine discharges are affects critical habitats such as the critical to the water balance and Posidonia meadows. Populations of seawater quality in the marine sub- Posidonia oceanica, for instance, basins and support wetlands and are being sampled along the coasts brackish water habitats with biodi- of the entire Mediterranean basin versity and fishery nursery areas in and analysed with the help of DNA the coastal zones. The karstic aqui- microsatellite markers. First results fers in particular are vulnerable to obtained along a latitudinal gradi- saline intrusion and surface pollu- ent in the Thyrrenian Sea suggested tion, especially in the open karst sys- that overall genetic variability is low. tems exposed to human-induced Recent results, referring to more groundwater pollution. The seepage than 500 individual shoots sampled freshwater discharges from karstic in several populations within the coastal aquifers dominating large Western Mediterranean Basin con- sections of the southern Mediterra- firmed low levels of genetic variabil- nean and the eastern Adriatic coasts ity. Low genetic variability was found are vulnerable to and transport agri- particularly within the North Adriatic cultural-based nutrients, chemical where a population was reported to and other pollutants into the sea, be completely uniclonal. thereby degrading critical wetland Recreational activity may inter- habitats. Additionally, the under- fere with the natural functioning of 23 the coastal zone as a habitat. additional example, the development Through recurrent disturbance, spe- of tourist resorts on sandy beaches cific areas may become unsuitable has frequently resulted in the restric- for the breeding, resting or feeding of tion of space available for the repro- marine organisms. Disturbances dur- duction of sea turtles, including ing critical periods of this kind can those under strict protection status reduce the viability of the animal (green and loggerhead turtles, for population concerned by lowering instance). reproductive success and by increas- The Mediterranean countries, in ing mortality. Since coastal tourism the framework of the implementation is highly developed in the Mediterra- of the Specially Protected Area and nean, the main tourist season and its Biodiversity Protocol, have identified different activities probably have a a list of Specially Protected Areas of significant impact on species using Mediterranean Importance (SPAMI, sand beaches or rocky shores. En- Figure 2.1) having special biodiversi- dangered Mediterranean animals like ty concerns. At a subregional level, turtles or the monk seal or marine France, Italy and Monaco (Accord mammals are subject to anthro- RAMOGE) set up a sanctuary for the pogenic disturbance from the noise protection of Cetaceans as shown in generated by speedboats. As an Figure 2.2. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

24 Case Study The Thau Lagoon, France: The need for sustainable shellfish farming (Source: Deslous-Paoli, 1993) The Thau Lagoon is one case study of particular interest. Almost all the typical human activities associated with lagoons are encountered here. Its natural productivity sustains commercial shellfish farming (an estimated standing stock of 35,000 tonnes with an annual production of 15,000 tonnes per year) and fish farming (40 tonnes per year), as well as commercial and recreational fishing of both fish and shells. This shallow (< 10 m) ecosystem is sensitive to numerous inputs, both natural and anthropogenic, as well as climatic variation. At the turn of the century, when agriculture was not an important factor in the region, morphology and bathymetry were the sole determinants of nutrients’ state in the lagoon. The first oyster farms appeared between 1911 and 1915. Since 1945, the increase in shell farming (700 commercial concessions) and additional human activities on the lagoon’s shore led to a significant enrichment of the bottom sediments by the 1960s despite good management of the river Herault. This enrichment probably caused the strong anoxia of the 1970s that drastically affected shellfish farming and fishing in the lagoon. More enlightened development since the early 1970s and CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL a lagoonal cleanup programme initiated in 1974 have slowly had a positive effect on the lagoon in spite of the simul- taneous expansion of shellfish farming in the region. Today, the lagoon still contains high levels of silt originating from both deep water (where organic matter accumulated) and from shellfish farming which together fertilize the sediments and favours Zostera and macrophyte growth. This in turn probably reduces eutrophication. The hydrodynamics of the lagoon depend on the prevalent winds, but water circulation can be strongly retarded by the shellfish farming structures that are a common feature of the area. However, water circulation between these structures (e.g., oyster tables, partitioning corridors) is of major importance for the balanced operation of this ecosystem. If filter feeders take up more particulate matters than they release (biodeposition), then regeneration processes result in the export of large quantities of organic matter to partitioning corridors. This localized enrichment can create the highest levels of phytoplanktonic productivity observed in the lagoon and the resulting production partly sustains shellfish farming needs. However, shellfish farming needs could not be sus- tained throughout the year without some additional exogenous source of nutrient supply. Because of this, the circulation of the lagoon as a whole plays a role in shellfish production. These exchanges occur continually except during the summer. During this season, shellfish farming needs are so important that they result in the depletion of phytoplankton inside the farming structures themselves, despite supply from outside. It is therefore also important to quantify the standing stock of dissolved organic matter and identify its role in initiating localized regener- ated primary production. Further studies will focus on the assessment of marine waters nearby in order to better understand the linkages between the lagoon and its neighbouring ecosystems, as well as evaluating the downstream socio-economic consequences of possible ecological degradation of the lagoonal system. 25 2.1.5.3 Pollution Cystoseira spp., Dictyota spp., and a. Nutrient enrichment Halymenia spp., for instance, are and eutrophication seen to decline in the Mediterranean Eutrophic waters or waters where and are replaced by short-lived nui- there is abundant food (nutrients) are sance algal species. a major environmental concern partic- Among the most serious conse- ularly for areas close to big cities, quences of eutrophication for biodi- industrial agglomerations and river versity are algal blooms or red tides. deltas. Joint UNEP/FAO/WHO reviews These red tides caused by several (1996b) have identified nutrient dis- species of microscopic plant-like cells charge and eutrophication as a serious or phytoplankton that produce potent source of environmental degradation chemical toxins result in fish kills and for Mediterranean ecosystems due to contamination of shellfish. Red tide the common practice of untreated or populations well below the fish kill partially treated urban sewage dis- level pose a serious problem for public charge and leaching from fertilised health through shellfish contamina- agricultural areas. This referenced tion. Bivalve shellfish, especially oys- source provides more detail on much ters, clams and coquinas can accu- of the material presented below. mulate so many toxins that they However, the 1996 UNEP/FAO/WHO become toxic to humans. Fish exposed review indicated that eutrophication is to lower (sublethal) concentrations primarily a problem of coastal waters. are also vulnerable to red tides, as The overall input of nitrogen to the Me- they may accumulate toxins in their diterranean Sea (about 1.5 to 4.5 mil- body. Current research suggests that lion tonnes per year), and of phospho- such bioaccumulation in fish eaten by rous (about 0.1 to 0.4 million tonnes dolphins may be responsible for high per year), are quite low compared to mortality rates among dolphins. other seas, such as the adjacent Black For marine animal and plant com- Sea. These inputs result in supply of munities, oxygen depletion that some- about 1.5 g/m2 of Nitrogen on a basin- times accompanies eutrophication average, and about 0.15 g/m2 of may be fatal. Eutrophication triggers Phosphorus. These values are low com- two biological processes that bring pared to many coastal seas but com- about an increase in the demand for TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY parable to open areas such as the oxygen. First, the growth of algal pop- North Atlantic Ocean. Section 2.3.6.2 ulations means less light permeates of this document discusses in greater bottom layers. Second, when algal detail the causes of eutrophication in blooms die out, their carbon is export- the Mediterranean and its effect on ed to the bottom where decay process- seawater qaulity. es strip oxygen from the water. Taken The transboundary aspects of together, these changes reduce oxygen eutrophication relate primarily to its levels, which in turn make aquatic life effects on biodiversity. An excess of impossible in extreme cases. In the nutrients in the water gives rise to a Mediterranean, many instances of fish complex chain of reactions that dis- and shellfish kills have been recorded, rupt aquatic ecosystems. Under eu- as these species are the first to be trophication, long-living (and slow- affected by oxygen limitation (see growing) plants that are important Table 2.1 and Figure 2.3). for biodiversity (and support diversi- Eutrophication has already led to fied fauna) do less well and are out- the disappearance of species in dis- competed by fast growing oppor- turbed areas of the Mediterranean. 26 tunistic species. Macrophytes such as Benthic communities are among the first to disappear under heavy stress while a small number of polychaetes conditions. Their bioturbating activi- species account for 70–90 percent of ties are of considerable importance the total abundance. The same for the benthic ecosystem and hence applies to the western Mediterranean their loss is a liability to the ecosys- communities, where increasing dis- tem as a whole. In undisturbed areas turbance also leads to reduction in in the eastern Mediterranean, benthic species richness. communities present high species When organic enrichment and / or diversity consisting of polychaetes balance effects exceed the potential (50–65 percent), molluscs (15–25 for remineralisation by benthic organ- percent), crustaceans (10–20 per- isms, anoxic zones are created and cent), echinoderms (5–8 percent), bacterial mats cover the seabed. and miscellaneous taxa. By contrast, Although this type of ecosystem in areas ranging from heavily dis- change is in general reversible, there turbed (e.g., sewage outfall vicinity) could be severe and long-lasting con- to polluted (e.g., urbanized bay), sequences when the affected seabed echinoderms, crustaceans and mis- is a critical habitat like the meadows cellaneous taxa largely disappear, of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL

27 Table 2.1 Serious Eutrophication Incidents in the Mediterranean (Source: UNEP/FAO/WHO, 1996b)

Countries Hypoxia / Algal Blooms (AB) Dominant species Cell number Anoxia and other effects * (cells/l) Croatia Northern Adriatic Yes AB, red tides, fish and 7, 12, 15, 28, 31, — bottom fauna mortality 34, 41, 42, 53 Egypt Costal waters Yes AB, water discoloration, 17 — and ports HS Lagoons in Yes AB, water discoloration, — — the Nile Delta HS Greece Saronikos Gulf Yes AB, water discoloration, 7, 11, 16, 32, 34, 3x105–6x107 fish mortality 46, 55 Gulf of Thermaikos Yes AB, water discoloration, 1, 3, 8, 10, 12, 14, 1–7.5x107 fish mortality 15, 16, 39, 41, 42 Other Aegean Gulfs No AB, water discoloration 5, 6, 11, 20, 28, 33 12x106–107 and bays France Western Zone Yes AB, dystrophy 24, 30, 34, 35, 42, 54 — Eastern Zone Yes AB, DSP, PSP, dystrophy 24, 30, 34, 35, 42, 54 — Italy Tyrrhenian Sea, Yes AB, PSF, fish mortality, 33 6x106 Lagoons mucus Gulf of Naples ? AB 2, 9, 15, 48 3.5–112x106 Sardinia Yes AB, fish and 13, 14 — molluscs mortality Sicily Yes AB, DSP, fish mortality 23, 24, 49 — Ionian Sea ? AB 52 — Southern and Yes AB, putrefaction, 34, 37, 52 — Central Adriatic bottom fauna mortality, dystrophy Emilia-Romana Yes AB, DSP, PSP, dystrophy, 4, 11, 15, 16, 18, 24, 1–230x106 fish and bottom fauna 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 36, mortality, mucilage, 41, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53 water discoloration, poor transparency, smell Gulf of Venice Yes AB, HS, hypertrophy 4, 9, 13, 14, 15, Ulva 36x106 Gulf of Trieste Yes AB, bottom fauna, 28, 38, 40, 46, 53 5–7x106 mortality Malta — No AB, poor transparency — — Slovenia — Yes AB, poor transparency, — — benthos mass mortality,

TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY mucilage, hypertrophy Spain Alboran Sea — AB, PSP, toxins 33, 53 > 3x103 East Coast — AB, PSP, toxins 4, 16, 17, 21, 33 7.2x106– and Balearics 2.8x107 Lagoons, Bays, Yes AB, dystrophy 52, Ulva 10–2x106 Estuaries Tunisia Lagoon of Ichkeul Yes AB — — Turkey Western Coasts Yes AB, bottom fauna 17, 28, 29 — mortality, PSP AB: Algal Blooms DSP: Diarrhoic Shellfish Poisoning PSP: Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning * The numbers of the dominant species refer to Table 2.2.

b. Chemical contaminants concentrations of chemical contami- As our understanding of effects of nants. The important point about such toxic substances improves, the notion toxic substances even at low levels is of ‘stress’ has emerged. Stress helps to that they still give rise to biochemical explain why fitness and growth of ani- reactions that put pressure on living 28 mals and plants will suffer even at low resources. Amongst the results of pro- Table 2.2 Algal Species reported to cause Case Study Algal Blooms in Mediterranean Waters Eutrophication: (Source: UNEP, 1999) The case of the North Adriatic Sea The serious deterioration that has * Algal Species occurred in the northern area of the Adriatic for a. Microalgae more than twenty years is attributable to the Diatoms nutrient input in amounts that exceed the basin’s 1 Cerataulina bergoni natural assimilative capacity. The Po River, carry- 2 Chaetoceros sp. ing some 100,000 tonnes/year of inorganic nitro- 3 Chaetoceros Socialis gen and some 6,000 tonnes/year of inorganic 4 Chaetoceros Simplex phosphorus, contributes most of the total nutrient 5 Cyclotella sp. 6 Cyclotella subtilis load of the northern Adriatic basin. The next largest 7 Leptocylindrus ssp. of the rivers flowing into the northern Adriatic, the 8 Leptocylindrus minimus Adige, contributes about 14,000 tonnes/year of 9 Leptocylindrus danicus total nitrogen and 1,200 tonnes/year of total 10 Nitzschia closterium 11 Nitzschia delicatissima phosphorus, although its mean nutrient concen- 12 Nitzschia seriata trations are lower than those of the Po. The total 13 Rhizosolenia firma nitrogen and total phosphorus discharged into the 14 Rhizosolenia Fragilissima northern Adriatic from Italy alone amounts to 15 Skeletonema costatum 16 Thalassiosira sp. some 270,000 and 24,000 tonnes/year, respective- Dinoflagellates ly. To these must be added the inputs from Istria, 17 Alexandrium minutum estimated at 12,600 and 600 tonnes/years of total 18 Alexandrium tamarensis nitrogen and total phosphorus, respectively. 19 Amphidimium curvatum Eutrophication phenomena, with a distri- 20 Cachonina niei bution and persistence much greater than in any 21 Chattonella subsalsa 22 Dinophysis acuminata other part of the Mediterranean, have occurred 23 Dinophysis ssp. and continue to occur in the coastal waters of 24 Dinophysis sacculus Emilia-Romagna to the south of the Po Delta. The 25 Glenodinium foliaceum first cases reported date back to 1969. These were 26 Glenodinium lenticula 27 Glenodinium quadridens followed by a relatively long period in which the 28 Gonyaulax sp. phenomenon was not observed until it returned in 29 Gonyaulax spinifera 1975, when an immense bloom of flagellates 30 Gonyaulax polyedra caused widespread anoxia in the bottom waters, 31 Gymnodinium sp. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL 32 Gymnodinium aureolum accompanied by bottom fauna kills and the 33 Gymnodinium adriaticum beaching of large quantities of bottom fish (7,000 34 Gymnodinium breve tonnes in the Municipality of Cesenatico alone). 35 Gymnodinium catenatum Subsequent events succeeded one after another 36 Katodinium rotundatum 37 Peridimium depressum in the summer of almost all the following years. 38 Peridimium ovum The recurrent anoxia in the bottom waters 39 Prorocentrum dentatum caused profound modifications in the benthic 40 Prorocentrum lima ecosystem; there were considerable reductions in 41 Prorocentrum micans 42 Prorocentrum minutum the original populations of the least mobile bot- 43 Prorocentrum scutellum tom organisms (molluscs, crustaceans and poly- 44 Prorocentrum triestinum chaetes) most sensitive to oxygen deficiency. 45 Protogonyaulax tamarensis Repetition of these dystrophies has led to the dis- 46 Scrippsiella trochoidea appearance of about fifteen species of mollusc Coccolithophores and three species of crustacean. 47 Coccolithus pelagicus 48 Emiliania huxlei Considering that the eutrophication phe- Other flagellates nomena are no longer occasional events, but are induced by structural deficiencies on land, there is 49 Chlamydomonadacae 50 Cryptomonas sp. a need to eliminate such deficiencies, which are 51 Cyanobacteria mostly linked to tourism, agriculture, animal hus- 52 microflagellates bandry and municipal sewerage. There is ample 53 Noctiluca miliaris scientific evidence of the increased spread and 54 Noctiluca scintillans 55 Pyramimonas sp. intensity of eutrophication in several areas of the 56 Spirulina jenneri Mediterranean endangering the natural equilibri- b. Macroalgae um of the basin. The status of the Adriatic is in 57 Ulva sp. fact only a mirror of a situation more and more * The numbers of the algal species refer to Table 2.1. worrying for the entire Mediterranean. 29 longed stress is the suppression of the and 2.3.6.3 below discuss in greater immune system, which therefore in- detail the sources of persistent toxic creases sensitivity to infection. Natural substances and heavy metals in the Me- factors, such as temperature extremes diterranean and their effects on seawa- and fluctuations of salinity, or anthro- ter quality. The section below discusses pogenic activities, can aggravate the levels of chemical contaminants in stress. Although new techniques meas- biodiversity and their potential effects. uring the total response of organisms Due to the lack of data on stress to all possible factors now exist, none evaluation of species vis à vis chemical of them can give an accurate estimate contaminants, it is seen that the level of the level of acute or the sublethal of concentration of the contaminants toxicity of the contaminant. Therefore and / or its upward trends could be there is a real need for sensitive in situ considered as a potential indicator of bioassays to measure sediment toxici- adverse impacts of contaminants on ty using organisms that normally live in the animal species (see, for example, sediments. Figures 2.4 and 2.5). Numerous reports address the con- The following multi-boxplot, ar- tamination of the waters of the Medi- ranged from west to east, illustrates terranean Sea. Additional data and the influence of natural and anthropo- discussion of the status of pollution in genic activities on total mercury con- the Mediterranean Sea may be obtained centrations in red mullet, M. barbatus from this publication. Sections 2.3.6.2 (Figure 2.6). TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

30 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL

31 Other studies have examined, for instance, levels of organochlorines in gull’s eggs (Figures 2.7 through 2.9). This is one approach to ecotoxicology. Among the most promising new ways of assessing biological damage to marine organisms are biomarkers. Since their first adoption by Mediterra- nean Member States France and Italy at the end of the 1980s, biomarkers have been increasingly used as tools for assessing sublethal effects on marine organisms in the region. In 1994–1995, a series of international coastal monitoring programs started (BIOMAR 1994–1998, MED POL 1995–now, BEEP 2000–2003) involving the measure- ment of a range of biomarkers in bivalves (mussels) and benthic fish (Mullus barbatus, Serranus cabrilla and Dicentrachus labrax) in Mediterra- nean areas exhibiting significant pollution gradients (e.g., harbours, urban and industrial waste outfalls, etc.) in comparison with cleaner areas (e.g., Corsica and Sardinia). Following the same strategy, a monitoring network (REMER) was recently initiated in Morocco. A type of biomarker known as lysosomal alterations has indicated that marine animals are under stress from PAHs and PCBs pollution in various TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY parts of the basin. Mussels along the Spanish coast (Porte et al., 2001), the Adriatic Sea (Petrovic et al., 2001), and Venice Lagoon (Lowe and Fossato, 2000) are among other areas where pollution damages to marine life have been detected. DNA damage in molluscs inhabiting contaminated areas has been reported in the Orbetello Lagoon (Frenzilli et al., 2001). In the case of marine mammals, several hypotheses have attempted to link disease outbreaks to environmental degradation. Frequently, immuno- repression is the link identified between pollution and disease. High levels of organochlorines have been 32 noted in dolphins that died in several mass mortality incidents. Aguilar and site, near the port of Faro (Portugal), Borrell (1994) compared PCB levels in were examined in 1996 for imposex with striped dolphins Stenella coeruleoalba positive results (Gibbs et al., 1997). that died during the Mediterranean Imposex was also found in the species mobillivirus epizootic in 1990 with Hinia reticulata in Portuguese coastal biopsies taken from live dolphins in waters and on the south part of the 1987–89. The authors suggest that Tagus River (Pessoa et al., 1997). Also, PCBs left the blubber during mobilisa- in Portugal, oyster shell anomalies in tion of fat reserves and large quanti- Crassostrea angulata were found in the ties reached the liver shortly before Sado and Tagus estuaries (Phelps and the epizootic. This may have increased Page, 1997). the dolphins’ susceptibility to the A wide variety of compounds (e.g., morbillivirus. DDT, PCBs, nonylphenols and phtha- High concentrations of butyltin lates considered here) have been residues have been found in harbour associated with potential reproductive porpoise from bottlenose dolphins in anomalies in fish, and there has been a the Mediterranean (Kannan and Falan- growing awareness of the need to dysz, 1997). Organotin compounds detect and assess the adverse effects. (bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide) have been Recently, new evidence based on mon- shown to exhibit immunorepressive and itoring hormone and vitellogenin levels endocrine modulating activities in together with gonad histology indi- rodents (Vos et al., 1984). In particu- cates that in the central Mediterra- lar, long-term exposure reduced re- nean male swordfish (Xiphias gladius) sistance to infectious diseases (Vos et are undergoing sex inversion (14 %) al., 1990). (Fossi et al., 2001). There is no evi- Bacteria that under certain condi- dence, however, of reproduction im- tions become virulent caused a severe pairment. The effect on other large pe- sponge disease epidemic in the begin- lagic predators or on marine mammals ning of the 1990s in the Mediterranean. is unknown. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL Several studies indicate disruption Despite the difficulty in directly of normal endocrine function in the attributing population responses to Mediterranean area. A series of field pollutants, there are some indications investigations with marine inverte- that coastal fish assemblages respond brates suggests that tributyl- and tri- to the impact caused by sewage dis- phenyltin compounds can induce charge on mussel fisheries in South- imposex. The monitoring of a gastro- east Italy. However, the link between pod (Bolinus brandaris) along the these epizootics and chemical pollu- Catalan coast (NW Mediterranean) tion still remains an open issue. More showed that imposex was a widespread data are required at the population, phenomenon (Solé et al., 1998). Impo- community and ecosystem level to sex has also been described in the gas- assess the health of the Mediterra- tropod Nucella lapillus collected in the nean. While in their infancy, biomark- Galicia coast (Ruiz et al., 1998), in the ers could help in that direction and to whelks Stramonita haemastoma and obtain answers as to whether these Hexaplex trunculus in Israel (Rilov et diseases are unpredictable episodic al., 2000) and Italy (Terlizzi et al., events or symptoms of ecosystem de- 1998), and in Malta (Axiak et al., gradation. 2000). Four neogastropod species (He- Among chemical contaminants, xaplex trunculus, Ocenebra erinacea, copper is highly toxic for marine life Ocinebrina aciculata and Nassarius and is a source of concern in the Medi- reticulatus) collected in a TBT-polluted terranean. The ionic component of 33 total dissolved copper in seawater has Regarding the sources of data for been shown, through experimental chemical contaminants, there is a studies, to have a deleterious effect marked difficulty in obtaining compa- on some phytoplankton and bacterial rable data on surface sediments species at levels of 0.1–0.2 µg/l. In the though these are the ultimate sink for wild, this toxic effect is somewhat mit- most contaminants. By contrast, signi- igated by the metal being bound to ficant intercalibration of data on con- natural ligand (soluble organic car- tamination levels in marine species has bon). In the Mediterranean, an impor- been made through MED POL efforts. tant source of copper is fungicide used Pesticide residues carried through in vineyards and copper-based anti- rivers or deposited by air in the sea fouling paints. Although rather high cause damage to invertebrates and concentrations may be observed in young fishes. The thinning of the egg- “hot spot” areas, the mean value of shells of seabirds is also a symptom of concentration in marine organisms organochlorines on marine organisms. remains well below the maximum per- DDT, Aldrin and Dieldrin have signifi- missible limit (20 µg/g). cant effects on invertebrates. They can Great risks to Mediterranean eco- increase mortality rate in fish eggs and systems also stem from the effect of cause premature pupping in seals. cadmium (Figure 2.10) on top preda- They may also affect species compo- tors and from lead on predators of sition in phytoplankton community. shellfish. High values of cadmium con- Phytoplankton photosynthesis has centrations in the surface sediments also been affected by thiazines. may be found in polluted lagoons and Data on the bioaccumulation of other so called “hot spot” areas. Mean chemical contaminants in Audouin’s concentrations of inorganic lead in gull eggs (Figures 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9) marine organisms are high in the vicin- show that the concentration of PCBs ity of industrialised coastal areas in and DDT in the Mediterranean is 2–3 the Mediterranean. fold higher than its concentration in TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

34 the gull eggs taken from the North As regards the impact from anti- Atlantic and the Arctic. This is a rel- biotics use for mariculture purposes, evant indicator of the transboundary there is a significant lack of data. transport of chemical contaminants Although oxytetracycline is the most throughout the Mediterranean. commonly used antibiotic in sea- Chemicals used in mariculture, in bream and seabass cage culture, particular organophosphate ectopar- there are no reports on its effect on asites, are toxic to invertebrates and the Mediterranean. larvae of crustaceans (Egidius and Moster, 1987). Unintended effects of c. Oil pollution pesticides on non-target species may The effects of oil pollution can be also occur as suggested by evidence on far reaching and pose a threat to the crab kills in oyster farms in the north- health of ecosystems. Offshore marine western United States (WDF/WDOE, life as well as coastal ecosystems, 1985). marine birds that feed at sea, and mar- Pigments and vitamins used in iculture are all exposed to risk from oil mariculture can lead to altered growth spillages mainly from offshore oil rates of certain phytoplankton, thus extraction and oil transport. Although leading to interrupted aquatic ecosys- little information is available on oil tems. Biotin has been shown to stimu- spillage effects on Mediterranean bio- late growth of certain phytoplankton diversity, worldwide information sug- species and is implicated in the toxi- gests the type of threat oil pollution city of the dinoflagellate Cymno- represents for biodiversity. dinium aureoles (Gowen and Bradbury, 1987). Vitamin B12 has been shown to Effects on marine animals be one of the growth-promoting fac- Marine mammals bioaccumulate tors of the alga Chrysochromulina hydrocarbons in their bodies, which polylepis and the dinoflagellate Hete- leads to long-term sublethal effects rosigma alashivo (Graneli et al., 1993; or even death. Larger cetaceans such 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL Honjo, 1993). as dolphins are more likely to suffer by Transfer of resistance to non-tar- ingestion of contaminated food rather get species is also a source of concern than by direct contact with oiled water related to the use of antibiotics in as they can swim away from pollution. mariculture. Indiscriminate use of However, a school of dolphins was ob- drugs to control or prevent fish dis- served swimming into oil slicks in eases in coastal fish farms has result- Genoa (Italy) suggesting that larger ed in some native aquatic microbial mammals may not necessarily avoid communities developing antibiotic oil slick contamination. Such contact resistance (GESAMP, 1991) and the would endanger dolphins’ health possibility of transfer of resistance to through oil entering blowholes. In human pathogen has also raised con- addition, inhalation of toxic com- cern, (Dixon, 1991). The development pounds can inflame lung membrane of resistant bacterial population in rendering dolphins susceptible to con- the sediment has been documented. gestion and pulmonary infection. For example, up to 100 percent of oxy- As for smaller mammals such as tetracycline-resistant bacteria have seals, risks from oiling can include been recorded from marine sediments death. Following exposure to oil slicks, near fish farms after medication and a reduction in thermoinsulation has resistance persisted for more than 13 been reported to occur for as long as months afterwards (Torsvik et al., two months after the incident (Deere- 1988; Samuelsen et al., 1992). Jones, 1996), reducing the animal’s 35 capability to regulate body tempera- The impact of oil on the estuarine ture. Nervous system impairment and flora is heavy. The saltmarsh plants are eye, lung and nasal irritation have also affected mainly in flowering season, been recorded as a result of oiling, reducing also seed production and sometimes resulting in acute respira- seed germination (Deere-Jones, 1996). tory illness (Hall et al., 1993). Moreover, oiling rapidly kills some Oil slicks will have fatal conse- types of plants, such as shallow-rooted quences for any fish eggs and larvae plants. The changes in plant cover may located under the spill. Shellfish are at also modify the sedimentation and risk from bioaccumulation of hydrocar- erosion dynamics of the entire estuar- bons that leads to reduction in feeding ine area. Finally, oil spills and hydro- efficiency and growth reduction. Cru- carbon sedimentation affect the eel- staceans exposed to hydrocarbons grass beds, which are important breed- show increased mortality. This is linked ing, nursery and feeding habitats for a to diminished ability to assimilate food number of fish and birds. Walker and as well as suffering a decrease in the McComb (1992) report that the Zostera respiration rate (Overton et al., 1994). bed recovery may take some 80–120 years. Effects on coastal The impacts on shellfish and crus- flora and fauna tacean in a high-energy estuarine When an oil slick reaches the environment concern the alteration of shoreline, it smothers coastal habitats the ecological structure of the com- and resources and exerts a toxic effect. munity, passing through the elimina- Areas with low water mass movement, tion of the main herbivore species and such as biodiversity-rich estuaries, will the subsequent seaweed growth. The be at higher risk from oil slicks due to re-colonization of rock-associated low ‘self-cleaning’ ability. species (i.e., barnacles) is also inhib- The immediate effect of oil spill on ited. These ecological changes appear estuarine environment is the massive to be persistent, as shown in the case mortality of intertidal fauna (limpets, of the Torrey Canyon spill, where more razor shells, finfish, red macroalgae), than 10 years after the spill the com- which has been recorded in the case of munity biodiversity was reduced the Sea Empress spill. The long-term (Clark, 2001). In low energy environ- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY effects concern the incorporation of oil ments, filter-feeder organisms, such into sediments, for most of 90 percent as bivalve molluscs, dominate the of un-recovered hydrocarbons (Murphy shellfish community. An oil spill may et al., 1988), facilitated also by the ad- cause heavy juveniles and adults’ sorption of oil to the suspended parti- shellfish mortality, reducing the re- cles in the water column. These particles covery capability of the environment, may settle rapidly in a high-deposition due also to the high persistence of the area, become buried under more than 5 buried hydrocarbons. In the long- cm of sediments, where the anoxic con- term, sublethal effects and biodiversi- ditions slow the biodegradation process ty reduction may be recorded (Levings (Deere-Jones, 1996). Burns et al. (1994) et al., 1994; Deere-Jones, 1996). The report that hydrocarbons incorporated NSA (National Shellfish Association) into sediments may persist at least for a (1976) and Jackson et al. (1981) re- period of 20 years. Moreover, this condi- ported that the active breeding popu- tion may facilitate re-oiling events lations of crabs and oysters are more caused by the oil leaching from sedi- sensitive to hydrocarbons, because of ments (Clark, 2001), as shown after the the depletion of energy reserves during 36 Amoco Cadiz spill. breeding time. The impact of oil spills on estuar- major reservoir of long-term impacts ine finfish populations is the same as (Vander Meulen et al., 1979). the effects that have been discussed The long-term impacts on fauna earlier. In particular, PAHs are per- and flora recorded for estuarine envi- sistent and tend also to bioaccumu- ronments are the same for bay environ- late through the food chain, causing ments. Dauvin (1982) reported that skin ulceration, tissue disorders and after the Amoco Cadiz spill in the Bay of liver cancers in bottom-dwelling fish Morleaux, ecological damage was ob- (Philips et al., 1992; Stegeman et al., served, with the reduction of bowser 1991). and grazer species, favouring a high The immediate impact on wildlife growth of opportunistic species and an in a bay environment is similar to im- increase of detritivoure species. Long- pacts on the estuarine environments, term effects may be observed after 5 resulting in high mortality of intertidal years, with reduced biodiversity of the and subtidal species. Deere-Jones nematode community in subtidal sedi- (1996) reported that, in Carmarthen ments (Boucher, 1984). Bay, high mortality of razor shells, A report on hydrocarbon pollution echinoderms and marine worms was for the Mediterranean Sea was fin- recorded, followed by heavy necrosis ished in1988, wherein it was estimated and mortality for tellins, soft clams that approximately 716,000 tonnes of and mussels. At the same time, mor- hydrocarbons enter the Sea each year tality of over-wintering populations of due to normal activity (absent a major bird species was observed. oil spill). No more recent data or esti- The long-term impacts on bay mates appear to be available for the environments are linked with the depo- Sea. Major sources of hydrocarbon sition and inclusion of hydrocarbons in pollution are shipping, port and har- the deep sediments, likewise observed bour operations, ballast water, and for estuaries. Moreover, the higher sed- marine discharges from shore (out- imentation rate, the richness of partic- falls and rivers). 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ulate matter (with high organic carbon content) in the water column and the d. Solid waste and litter predominance of low-energy environ- Pollution caused by discharge of ment increase the potential for hydro- solid waste and litter into the sea carbon retention. Chasse et al. (1978) (especially plastic packaging) is a sig- and Holme (1978) conducted studies in nificant cause of degradation of both the Marleux and in Lannion Bay, report- the land and marine coastal fringe in ing that after the Amoco Cadiz spill, the Mediterranean. Non-biodegrad- rocks around the bay were oiled, in able plastic and tar balls build up on some cases through the intertidal zone, beaches and the whole of the Mediter- and the beach sediments were appar- ranean coast. ently clean, but oil was found at 10–15 However, the degree of awareness cm depth in the sand. One month after and response varies according to the the Amoco Cadiz spill, the Total Hydro- source of litter. The proximity of the carbon Concentration (THC) recorded land and the control of litter exercised in inshore interstitial waters and sedi- from the land, together with concerns ments was 16 ppm, versus the 0.05 ppm regarding visual pollution, mean that of THC measured in offshore waters. this waste receives the greatest Sandy beaches may contain 7.5 kg of attention, as it is harmful for beaches, buried stranded oil per square meter, ports and coastal zones. Litter man- mostly in the form of chocolate mousse agement in relation to merchant (Deere-Jones, 1996), representing the ships, pleasure craft and marinas is 37 not neglected. The necessary facilities into the marine environment. In the and units are often placed under the Mediterranean, plastic alone accounts responsibility of port authorities and for 75 percent of the waste on the sea managers of marinas. By contrast, surface and the seabed. management of marine litter, particu- The main source of marine waste larly that on the seabed, is virtually in the Mediterranean is direct disposal ignored by the majority of the coun- by households (see Figure i.8), fol- tries consulted and only four of them lowed by the impact of tourist facili- include it in their policies. In Monaco, ties and run-off from waste dumps this issue is dealt with at the sectoral (waste from land sources). This means rather than the specific level. that, in fact, the majority of marine Studies show that around 30 to 40 waste comes from coastal areas. million tonnes of municipal solid waste The sources of marine waste vary of coastal origin are generated annual- from one country to another and Figure ly. The random siting of waste dumps 2.11 shows the sources and origin of encourages the transfer of solid wastes waste per country. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

38 2.1.5.4 Introduction and invasion Among the Lessepsian migrants, fishes have of alien species always received great attention. Their expansion is The introduction and invasion of new organisms continuous without any sign of decline, especially in in the form of exotic species or highly cultivated strains the Eastern Mediterranean. As said before, although it of endemic species nearly always poses a risk to the must be assumed that the colonisers compete with ecosystem involved. It is estimated that about 500 some of the native species, there is no evidence of a Indo-Pacific species have entered the Mediterranean drastic change in abundance of any of the Mediterra- since the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869, to nean commercial fishes that could be attributed to a which more than 50 exotic species passing through the new competitor. However, there are observations indi- Gibraltar Strait have to be added. The Suez migration cating changes in abundance of species among the has been given the term Lessepsian, in honor of the migrants. French designer and constructor of the Suez Canal. Mollusca is one of the leading taxa of Lessepsian Mediterranean ports are key sites in the intro- migrants with more than a hundred species presently duction of alien species in the region. Indeed, many settled in the Mediterranean. One of the most striking cases of spectacular “invasion” of alien species have examples can be seen in the gastropod Rhinoclavis been observed in the vicinity of the ports and the major Kochi, initially reported from Haifa Bay in 1963 and now ecological change is affecting the port areas. Exotic collected in large numbers not only along the Israeli species are usually transported in the ships’ ballast coasts, but also along the coasts of southern Turkey and water or cling to the surface of submerged hulls. Cyprus. Some of the most spectacular examples of ship- Within the Decapoda and Stomatopoda species, borne alien species in ports are: another example of strong settlement and diffusion is • The benthic gene algae Codium fragile, intro- given by the portunid crab Callinectes sapidus, a west- duced from the Atlantic during the second ern Atlantic species commercially fished along the half of the 20th century, actually dominate coasts of North America and which was first recorded in elements of the marine vegetation in many the Bay of Biscay (1901) and then probably introduced Mediterranean ports (West and East basin). with ballast waters into the Mediterranean Sea. It has • The marine Angiosperm Halophila stipulacea, proved to be a successful coloniser and became of local introduced from the Red Sea after the opening economic importance in the Mediterranean. of the Suez Canal, is actually a common ele- Generally speaking, 80 percent of the intro- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ment of the marine vegetation in the ports of duced species have no visible effect on the indigenous eastern Mediterranean. communities. On the other hand, a minority of intro- • The dinoflagellates Alexandrium spp. (and duced species do have an impact on the indigenous other related genera), introduced from the communities. According to Boudouresque and Ribera Indo-Pacific Ocean after the opening of the (1994), the biotopes most affected by marine species Suez Canal, are actually common elements of (other than Lessepsian migrants) in the Mediterranean the plankton flora in the ports of the Mediter- are the lagoons and ports. Equilibrium with native ranean and the Adriatic. species often becomes established in due course, but Of the 61 well-established macrophyte species sometimes not without changes at the community level in the Mediterranean, one worth mentioning is the due to shifting in ecological niches. Chlorophycea Caulerpa taxifolia, distributed in tropical Such changes in the composition of Mediterra- seas and recorded for the first time in the northwestern nean marine ecosystems due to introduced species Mediterranean in 1984. Its spreading patterns and have been described in: high-density fronts have been well documented in the • Haifa Bay, with the massive penetration of Mediterranean. Besides C. taxifolia, its con generic C. four Indo-Pacific species; racemosa, probably a Lessepsian species introduced in • Izmir Bay and Thessaloniki Gulf where the bi- the 1930s, is now expanding in the eastern Mediterra- valve Scapharca demiri became dominant; nean and more recently in the northwestern Mediterra- • The western coast of the Middle Adriatic Sea nean and the Adriatic. The distribution of both species with the massive development of Scapharca and their impact on the marine ecosystem were thor- inaequivalvis and Rapana venosa; oughly discussed by experts from the MAP countries. • Since the beginning of the 90s, in the north- (UNEP, 1999). western Mediterranean and the Adriatic with 39 the rapid development of Caulerpa taxifolia At least eight species can be assigned to the rejoined nowadays by the northern expansion category of invasive organisms in the Mediterranean. of Caulerpa racemosa. They play a conspicuous role in the recipient ecosys- Is the Mediterranean Sea a hot spot of non- tems, becoming the dominant species and / or taking native marine plants? the place of keystone species: Acrothamnion preissii in A comparison of the number of exotic marine western Italy, Aaparagopsis armata in the northwestern plants among different geographical areas shows that basin, Lophocladia lallemandii in the Balearic islands, the Mediterranean Sea possesses the highest number Womersleyelly setacea in western Italy, Sargassum with 98 species, followed by the European Atlantic coast muticum in Thau Lagoon, Stypopodium schimperi in the with 49 species. Other zones have a lower number of eastern Mediterranean, Caulerpa racemosa in various indigenous species: 26 on the Australian coast, 20 on the localities in the Mediterranean, Caulerpa taxifolia along North American Atlantic coast, 20 on the New Zealand the French and Italian Riviera and additional specie coast, and 19 on the North American Pacific coast. Halophila stipulacea in the eastern Mediterranean. Therefore, in comparative terms, the Mediterra- Caulerpa racemosa and Caulerpa taxifolia are nean is an exceptional nucleus for non-native species the two species currently colonizing the coasts of the because it is subject to greater pressure from the vec- Mediterranean. By the year 2000, Caulerpa taxifolia tors of introduction or because it accepts potential had colonized 131 km2 of bottom areas in 103 locali- alien immigrants more easily. Figure 2.12 shows the ties along 191 km of coastline in six countries and was number of non-native plants introduced by each path- actively expanding. Caulerpa invasion appears to be way in the Mediterranean Sea and the total number of successful when seagrass meadows are already expe- non-native plants by group. riencing a decline. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

40 Posidonia oceanica decline in the Mediterra- fished areas compared to the protected areas (Table nean is a known problem, recognized by the scientific 2.3). The density and biomass are also lower in fished community well before the introduction of Caulerpa seagrass beds. spp. There are various causes leading to the decline of Similar impacts of fishing on habitat are shown this important ecosystem endemic of the Mediterra- also in rocky zones in protected areas and fishing areas nean Sea, directly or indirectly related to the increas- (Macpferson, 2000). Table 2.4 indicates that fishing ing of anthropogenic pressure that the coastal zone modifies the age structure of many species, whereas has been experiencing such as wastewater discharge, Table 2.5 shows the modification of the general struc- bottom trawling and anchoring. These general human ture of the community. pressures played a leading role in lowering competitive ability of native seagrasses, permitting the invader to 2.2 Decline in Fisheries dominate in the environment. According to the FAO, a temporary slump in 1980s’ Mediterranean fish landings gave way to 2.1.5.5 Destruction of habitats recovery and, in the 1990s, fish production increased by fishing pressure by more than 30 percent (Figure 2.13). However, Fishing is one of the major activities that con- recovery in catch masks the underlying problem of tribute to the destruction of habitat in the Mediterra- long-term depletion in Mediterranean marine nean Sea. Data from Marseille (France), Ischia (Italy) catches. In fact, most of the Mediterranean fishery and a French marine protected area (Port-Cros, Cor- resources, be they demersal, small pelagic or highly sica) show that the most obvious effect on habitat is migratory species, have long been considered over- the decrease in the mean weight of individuals in exploited.

Table 2.3 Differences in Mean Density (S.D.), Mean Biomass and Mean Individual Fish Weight for Seagrass Fish Bed Assemblages in Marine Reserves and in Areas open to Fishing

Marine reserves Fished areas

Mean density (ind. 100m2) 20.01 (2,051) 14.84 (11.08) 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL Mean biomass (g/100m-2) 331.08 (330.60) 180.71 (147.99)

Mean individual fish weight 17.58 (3.11) 11.87 (3.83)

Table 2.4 Age Structures of Diplodus Annularis taken from a Protected Area (Medias Islands) and a Non-Protected Area (Port da la Selva)

Age 123456 Protected 40 % 24 % 10 % 10 % 10 % 5 % Non-protected 70 % 24 % 5 % 0 % 0 % 0 %

Table 2.5 Percentage Contribution to the Total Biomass by Different Trophic Groupings in Mediterranean Rocky Zones, Protected (Meded islands) and Non-Protected (Tossa)

Trophic Herbivores Mesocarnivores MicrocarnivoresOmnivores Ichtyophagous groups (HER) (PE) (PI) (OMN) (ICT) Protected 3 % 24 % 10 % 20 % 40 % Non-protected 14 % 60 % 9 % 10 % 2 % 41 total including those employed in related sectors is even greater. Fisheries have clearly high social and economic importance in the region and any further decline of Mediterranean fisheries would therefore have serious consequences for the basin. This section surveys the status of main fish stocks in the Mediterranean, the overall characteristics and main pressures arising from fishery activities, as well as the international dimension of fisheries in the context of conservation of the Mediterranean environment.

2.2.1 Transboundary aspects Fisheries issues are transboundary both because of the presence of highly migratory stocks (such as tuna) and extensive shared stocks. The fragmentation Besides decline of target species, some of which of the Mediterranean area by so many Exclusive are becoming rarer, fishing interacts with the environ- Economic Zones (EEZ) bordering each other virtually ment in a number of adverse ways. High numbers of by- assures that many stocks are transboundary and / or catches of non-target migratory or wide-ranging shared. Fisheries issues have strong transboundary species are a major cause of decline of fish populations. environmental aspects as well as socio-economic Discard rates as high as 60 percent are regular practice, aspects. Fish play important roles in the ecotones of the reflecting the pronounced role fishing plays in the Mediterranean Sea, in both coastal and pelagic areas. decline of Mediterranean fishery resources. Moreover, Loss of fish from these ecotones has, and will continue, lack of selective fishing gear means that species of high to change the ecological balance in these ecotones, conservation status may be included in the by-catch changing their very nature. In addition, fisheries activ- making fishing responsible for loss of biodiversity. ities themselves cause mortality for endangered species Cetaceans seen to be in competition and being killed by (such as sea turtles and some dolphins), destroy bot- fishermen add more complexity to the issue of fishing as tom habitat due to dredging (such as seagrass beds and a cause of decline in Mediterranean fishery resources. possible coralline hard bottoms), and have ecological- Decline in fisheries also occurs locally as a ly-harmful bycatch. result of eutrophication incidents. While fishery pro- The extent of international waters in the Medi- duction is positively influenced by moderate levels of terranean makes it inevitable and essential to address TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY nutrient inputs, a risk of fish-kill arises at excessive lev- fisheries on an international level, at least in the field of els of eutrophication. Red tides and lack of oxygen both highly migratory stocks. This task is complex in the Me- linked to high nutrient input are two ways in which eu- diterranean as there is a high number of riparian states trophication may lead to a decline in fishery resources. at varying stages of development in the management of Shellfish poisoning in Spain in 1993, for instance, fisheries. Future progress in terms of fisheries manage- caused by red tides, was responsible for a drastic drop ment, however, will be based on the ability to build a in mussel production from 247,000 MT in 1986 to 90,000 multilateral dimension into national practices. MT in 1993. Although fishing in international waters is the Depletion of Mediterranean marine resources exception rather than the rule in the Mediterranean, has serious socio-economic repercussions due to the the perception of shared stocks and fisheries has been traditional importance played by the fishing sector in advancing rapidly. This is due both to clearer scientific the basin. As economic opportunities become worse due opinions and to the development of new fisheries to overexploitation of stocks, fishermen have to give up extending their operative ranges outside national their trade. In 2000, 8,000 Italian fishermen, represent- waters. The number of shared fisheries has increased in ing about 16 percent of the country’s labour employed in several areas like the Alboran Sea, the Gulf of Lions, the fishing, lost their jobs. The Mediterranean Member Northern Tyrrhenian Sea, the Adriatic Sea, the Ionian States as a whole generated more than 600,000 jobs Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Sicily Strait and the Gulf of 42 directly related to fishing in the late 1990s, while the Gabes. In addition to the highly migratory species, that can be found in the whole Mediterranean basin, a minimum list of shared stocks has been agreed both within the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterra- nean (GFCM) framework and FAO subregional programs. The list might be expanded in the future. A sample of shared fishery resources is shown in Table 2.4. However, the number of shared fisheries identified already at this stage justifies common action to be taken for those stocks at the international level.

2.2.2 Environmental impacts Fishing activites affect the environment directly through their effects on target species as well as indirectly through their effects on the marine ecosystem. Among the indirect environmental impacts of fishing on the ecosystem the following ones can be identified: • Alteration and destruction of benthic habitat, such as seagrass beds and hard-bottom coralline areas; • Effects on non-target populations due to by- catch, discarding, ghost-fishing, etc. • Effects on other non-commercial and often endangered species incidentally captured in the fishing process (such as sea turtles, dolphins and others); • Effects on the food web of the marine ecosystem by the harvesting of top predators. Lack of top predators will alter the food chain and cause unanticipated imbalances in the food 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL web.

2.2.3 Socio-economic impacts The future of the Mediterranean fishery sector is far from certain. Current pressure on stocks and restricted access to third party waters make any increase for fish and fish products shown through total export in production highly unlikely in many Mediterranean and import volumes for the period 1985–2000. An im- countries. Moreover, Mediterranean EU Member states portant source of demand for fish is the tourism indus- have had to comply with additional fishing capacity re- try in the Mediterranean. strictions instituted under the European Community Moreover, the expanding size of total catches Multiannual Guidance Programmes in the mid-1980s. indicates that the sector is one of growing economic and In terms of volume of landings, the Mediterra- social importance. Figure 2.13 shows total landings of nean accounts for a modest five percent of total world marine fish in the Mediterranean over the past four landings. However, the economic value of the landings decades. As can be seen, apart from a slow down in the is much higher. This is explained by the fact that most 1980s partly due to a collapse of anchovy stocks, marine of the catches landed in the Mediterranean are for fish catches have been growing continuously. In 2000 human consumption, even catches of small fish, which total marine fish catches were recorded at 1.3 milion MT. generate higher value. The socio-economic impacts of the decline of The total export value of the fishery sector has fisheries in the Mediterranean could therefore be sum- also been increasing from 1985 to today. The vitality of marized as follows: the sector is based, as shown in Figures 2.14 and 2.15, • Unsustainable practices threaten high value on expanding international as well as domestic demand Mediterranean fisheries; 43 • Future growth potential of Mediterranean technological, some socio-economic, and some legal / fisheries sector made uncertain by current regulatory. In general, a legal / regulatory framework overfishing; exists in the Mediterranean Sea to help govern the fish- • Loss of fisheries a liability to the Mediterra- eries activities. The General Fisheries Commission for the nean tourism industry; Mediterranean (GFCM), a regional fisheries body, was • Loss of employment linked to decline of fish- established in 1952, and strengthened several times fol- eries; lowing that time (1963, 1976, and 1997). It provides a • Decline of rural fishery-based economies; regional framework for addressing fisheries issues, • Loss of food stability may cause social unrest including marine conservation. In addition, FAO has sevin some areas; eral sub-regional bodies focusing on fisheries resource • Structural decline of fisheries causes unem- management. The fisheries in the Northern Mediterra- ployment and occupational dislocation. nean are subject to additional fishing capacity restrictions instituted under the European Community Multi- 2.2.4 Causal Chain Analysis annual Guidance Programmes in the mid-1980s. The Causal Chain Analysis (CCA, Figure 2.2.1) Primary causes for decline in fisheries include: summarizes the major causes of Decline in Fisheries. • Excessive fisheries effort in some areas of the These causes are linked to a variety of factors, some Mediterranean;

Case Study The status of the French fishing industry: Vulnerable to foreign competition and exchange rate volatility (Source: FAO, 2003) The relative stable level of landings in recent years masks the growing economic difficulties facing the French fishing fleet. One set of problems is linked to the growing scarcity of resources. Apart from its direct effect on fishery yields, this scarcity has led both national and European Union authorities to impose strict measures in order to monitor and restrict catches, notably by adopting quotas according to species, zone and country and through programmes to modify fishing capacity. Other problems are linked to the globalization of trade, which facilitates access of low-priced products to the French market. Another problem is monetary deregulation within Europe, which in 1993 and again in 1994 led to marked falls in producer prices (-16 percent at constant franc-denominated prices between 1992 and 1994) and cast many fleet operators into severe financial straits. Consequently, many vessels have had to increase their effort (number of days at sea) in order to make up in part for the resulting fall in turnover by increasing landings. In 1993, the number of people directly employed covered barely 0.3 percent of the active population. However, political and economic decision makers are becoming increasingly aware of the essential economic role TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY that fisheries and related activities play in certain regions.

Case Study The Italian fishing sector: Distribution leads the way to restructuring sector (Source: FAO, 2003) Current pressure on stocks and restricted access to third party waters make any increase in Italian fishery production highly unlikely. Only a few sectors (tuna fishing in particular and exploitation of new species such as deep-sea species) offer some avenues for expansion. As regards fishing activities themselves, the retirement of vessels, whether voluntary or from a shutdown of activities, should be offset by increased productivity and greater fishing effort by the most modern and efficient parts of the fleet. Apart from this, the structure of the fleet itself should change little. After the extensive renewal and heavy investments of the late 1980s, the current difficulties of many operators are not likely to encourage further investment. The main changes should concern the structure and functioning of the sector under the combined pressure of market liberalization and greater large-scale distribution. Fisheries-related activities seriously influence the economy of coastal communities, employing more than 44,500 people in fisheries, 6,000 in aquaculture, 7,900 in the processing industry and 12,460 for distribution and sales. Some regions are more involved in certain activities, such as Sicily, where marine fisheries employ more than a quarter of all Italian fishermen; about 4,500 people work in lagoon management and related fisheries. 44 • Use of harmful fishing practices, including Root causes for decline in fisheries include: non-selective catch techniques and use of • Ineffective stakeholder awareness in some bottom trawls that lead to excessive by-catch, parts of the Mediterranean area; as well as the development of more efficient • Inadequate stakeholder involvement in envi- technologies (ships and fish-finding gear) ronmental issues in some parts of the Medi- that could possibly lead to over-exploitation if terranean; not carefully monitored and controlled; • Insufficient enforcement of some regional and • Loss of shallow-water habitats for some life national legislation; stages of critical fisheries; and • Insufficient budget for environmental improve- • Adverse water quality from rivers, coastal ments, including sewage treatment, source aquifers, sewage discharges, dredging, and control, agricultural control, etc. non-point source discharges. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL

45 2.2.5 Supporting data paint an extremely negative picture. 2.2.5.1 State of the resources Catch statistics on demersal and small pelagics Most of Mediterranean fishery resources species have shown a negative trend in the 1990s for whether they are demersal, small pelagic or highly the most important species or groups of species. The migratory species, have long been considered overex- decline in demersal fish catches overall for the 1990s ploited. Figure 2.13 above shows the total marine exhibited a slight positive trend starting from 1998 as catches for the past several decades. Although giving shown in Figure 2.16. Although the catch trend is posi- the overall impression of stability in fisheries resources, tive, its quality, both in terms of species and size com- a close look reveals changes in the composition of the position, has declined (ref. to chapter 2.3). Long life- fisheries, in the underlying structure of the fisheries, of span species and bigger size specimens have practical- the pressure on fisheries, etc. ly disappeared from demersal catches in several areas With regard to highly migratory species, the and fisheries. Daily catch rates per vessel have fallen eastern bluefin tuna stock has been assessed in the dramatically when compared to catch rates of some past by the International Commission for the Conser- decades ago despite the fact that power and efficien- vation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), which has indicated cy of fishing vessels have increased in recent times. heavy over exploitation. Although the thoroughness of The current evaluations of demersal, small and these evaluations is arguable due to considerable large pelagic fisheries, carried out within the GFCM and uncertainties resulting from the lack of data, there is ICCAT frameworks, confirm this picture of overexploita- little doubt that the stock is overexploited. The level of tion of several resources and highlight the need to bluefin tuna being caught and put in cages in the reduce the mortality on juveniles as well as the overall Mediterranean area for rearing purposes and often fishing effort by about 15–30 percent for those fish- outside a framework of regulated and reported catch- eries focused on overexploited stocks. es, is also a source of concern. This fishing activity is Despite the recognized overexploitation of sev- believed to increase the pressure on the stocks. eral resources, there are few scientifically reported Similar considerations on over-exploitation cases of stocks at risk of collapse. Anchovy in the apply to swordfish in the Mediterranean where there is Northern Spanish coast, black spot bream in the Alboran evidence of an exploitation pattern, which results in Sea and hake in the Gulf of Lions are among those doc- large quantities of juveniles and recruits of the year umented cases, however. This long-term resilience of present in the catches. Major efforts in data collection Mediterranean fisheries, without so far detected dra- are required to get a clear picture of the status of the matic collapses of target resources, except for anchovy key stocks, although indications based on current data in the mid-1980s, is usually explained by the fact that some proportions of adult stocks have most probably remained consistently unavailable to small mesh trawl- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY ing. This feature of Mediterranean fisheries, as determined by fishing practices, has led to the creation of enclaves within the normal range of distribution of several species that allows a proportion of the stock to survive to maturity, thus preventing the collapse of the population. However, the situation has changed rapidly in the last decade, with the increasing efficiency of fishing methods both in terms of vessel engine power, the size of gear and vessel characteristics, and above all, the development of fixed gear fisheries targeting spawners of several long-lived species in areas that have not been able to be trawled effectively until recently. Furthermore, widespread illegal trawl fisheries in coastal areas have reduced the refuge effect, resulting from the poor enforcement of the current regulation limiting the use of towed gears at depths greater than 50 meters or at a distance from the coast greater than 3 46 miles if depth is less than 50 meters. 2.2.5.2 Interactions of fishing Areas most prone to the negative impact of with non-commercial resources eutrophication on fisheries are semi-enclosed basins, Mediterranean fishing grounds are usually estuaries and lagoons where an excessive level of nutri- found quite close to the coast where the highest biodi- ents is likely to remain undispersed. In these areas, such versity is located. There is an increasing awareness and as the Northern Adriatic, one may expect that further concern about fishing impact both on habitats and non- increase in nutrients will lead to a decline in fisheries commercial resources. production with damaging repercussions for the local Apart from legal obligations concerning environ- economy. mental protection, there is a clear interest to ensure the Although eutrophication in the Mediterranean conservation of the target species, but also of species Sea is not the priority cause of decline in environmen- belonging to the same ecosystem or associated with or tal quality that it is in the adjacent Black Sea, eutroph- dependent upon the target species. This approach is ication is a wide-spread local problem that appears to basic to preserve the biodiversity and integrity of marine be increasing, and that has transboundary impacts ecosystems and hence, the production of essential fish through loss of habitat for shared and migratory fish habitats for the sake of the fisheries sector too. resources. The main threats to marine resources posed by fisheries in the Mediterranean can be divided into two 2.2.5.4 Interaction of mariculture major groups: damages to biodiversity and damages to with fisheries habitats. Mariculture is a relatively new source of pressure To the first group belongs the widespread use of on the marine environment and fisheries. The boom in small mesh size fishing gears as well as excessive fishing regional aquaculture production from 78,180 tonnes in of commercial species. As for other resources, sustain- 1984 to 248,460 tonnes in 1996 (Figure 2.17) has pro- able use by curtailing catches is bound to have a posi- duced a number of additional environmental concerns. tive impact on the environment. The overall impact of mariculture on the Mediterranean Nowadays many non-target species are under Sea environment is so far limited compared to other threat, such as sea-mammals, birds, reptiles and non- pollution sources; however, in view of the probable ex- commercial stocks. High by-catch and discard rates are pansion of these activities their impacts are included in the main sources of threat for these populations. Due this report. This is an area of possible future threat if both to the low selectivity of small mesh size trawl gear not regulated adequately at this early stage. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL and to mismatching between legal mesh size and mini- Mariculture is in direct competition with other mum landing size by-catch rates as high as 60 percent uses of coastal areas, including fisheries’ breeding are known to occur. Given also that about half of dis- grounds. Mariculture is concentrated in the coastal zone carded species constitute edible biomass with commer- and therefore particular attention must be paid to site cial value, the inefficiency of current fishing practice is selection in order to ensure that local ecosystems can large. Estimates computed in the Aegean and the Greek absorb impacts without harmful lasting effects. The Ionian Seas pointed out that bottom trawl discards effects of introducing aquaculture activities in a marine range between 13,000 to 22,000 tonnes annually, which or brackish environment vary according to an area being is about 12 percent of the total landings. closed, semi-closed or open. The effects of phosphorus and nitrogen released from aquaculture in the form of 2.2.5.3 Eutrophication animal excreta or uneaten feed are estimated to be rel- While on a moderate scale eutrophication can atively small compared to total discharges from agricul- sustain more marine life in the Mediterranean, on an ture, urban and industrial sources. However, discharge excess level it will lead to decline and degradation of from intensive mariculture often represents a localized, living resources. Episodes of anoxia in the Northern point source pollution form whose impact on oligotroph- Adriatic and elsewhere (see Table 2.1), have led to ic waters could be significant. The consequences for localized fish kills showing that oxygen depletion due to fisheries could include eutrophication and resulting high nutrient inputs can be devastating for local fish- depletion of oxygen levels which if severe, could lead to eries. That is the case of the coastal areas of Emilia fish kills in the vicinity of aquaculture stations. Romagna in Italy, where repeated toxic poisoning by Use of antibiotics by aquaculture may affect the dinoflagellates have led to bans in the harvesting and fitness of fish populations by stimulating antibiotic sale of mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). resistance in microbial communities. GESAMP (1991) 47 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

identified indiscriminate use of drugs as a source of ments result in the release into the surrounding waters concern in the prevention of fish diseases. Bacteria of significant quantities of toxic material liable to found near fish farms have been reported showing total affect crustaceans particularly in their larval stages. resistance to oxytetracycline, the most commonly used For instance the use of carbaryl pesticides to eliminate antibiotic in mariculture (Torsvik et al., 1988; Samuelsen burrowing shrimp from oyster beds in the northwestern et al., 1992). United States results in the unintended mortality of Toxicological effects of non-target species may Dungeness crab, a commercially exploited species. be associated also with the use of chemicals. Among the The environmental effects of pigments and vita- pesticides that may have toxicological effects on the mins are poorly known. Biotin has been shown to simu- surrounding invertebrate fauna are the organophos- late growth of certain phytoplankton species and is 48 phate ectoparasites. Organophosphate bath treat- implicated in the toxicity of the dinoflage Mate Cymno- dinium aureoles. Vitamin B12 has been shown to be one times, and ATP content by 4 to 28 times. No azoic zone of the growth-promoting factors of the alga Chryso- was encountered in any of the stations, but the macro- chromulina polylepis and the dinoflagellate, Hetero- faunal community was affected at distances of up to sigma alashivo. 25 m from the edge of the cages. At the coarse sedi- The development of resistant bacteria popula- ment sites, abundance and biomass increased by more tion in the sediment has been documented. For exam- than 10 times and at all sites diversity indicated that ple, up to 100 % of oxytetracycline-resistant bacteria the affected ecotone extended a distance of 25 m from have been recorded from marine sediments near fish the cages (UNEP/MAP/MED POL, 2004a). farms after medication and resistance persisted for In the eastern Mediterranean, Environmental more than 13 months (UNEP/MAP/MED POL, 2004a). Impact Studies (EIS) on three fish cage farms in Cyprus, Further, the risk of introducing new organisms situated at depths of 25 to 30 meters, have shown that and alien (exotic) species into the sea increases with the areas below the cages displayed a gradient of biot- the expansion of mariculture. As breeding and biotech- ic enrichment being reflected in changes of macrofau- nological techniques are increasingly used to produce na diversity and abundance. varieties for mariculture purposes, there is a serious potential of escape of cultured stocks into the open 2.2.5.5 Overall characteristics sea. This presents unforeseen risks to the health and of the Mediterranean fishing sector survival of wild stocks as shown by the case of the Asian One of the consequences of the competition for clam (Tapes semidecussatus). Production of this clam the resources at a global level, but which has also made increased rapidly in the North Adriatic in the period itself felt in the Mediterranean area, has been the 1985–1996. Owing to its rapid growth and resistance to over-capitalisation of the fishing fleets which has lead anoxic conditions, this species undermined the autoch- to much greater capacities than the resource’s poten- thonous species (Tapes decussates) so much that it tial. Data provided by the FAO suggest that there was could also be fished in other coastal areas. almost a 20 percent increase in the number of vessels in The kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) that the Mediterranean in the period 1980–1992. Although was introduced to the Mediterranean provides a simi- data for some Mediterranean Member States is missing, lar example due to its rapid growing in aquaculture. the evidence suggests that fishing effort has been Presently, owing to its presence in natural stocks, and intensifying in the basin. because it entered through the Suez Canal, it can be Most Mediterranean fishing vessels are arti- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL considered a Mediterranean species. sanal in terms of scale. More than 80 percent of the Benthic enrichment is another aspect of the vessels are smaller than 12 m in length, and therefore impact of mariculture on marine ecosystems. The gen- catches are quite low compared to other regional seas. eral picture emerging from the existing studies indi- A specificity of the Mediterranean regional fisheries is cates that the impact from intensive culture is on the the relatively high importance of sport or leisure fishing seabed and that the most widely known effect is benth- activity that represents as much as 10 percent of total ic enrichment beneath the sea farms. The existing stud- fisheries production. ies for the Mediterranean, although small in number, In terms of fishing gear, the number of trawlers is have covered different Mediterranean areas. increasing dramatically in the Southern Mediterranean. A seasonal survey combining sediment geo- Algeria and Morocco, for instance, experienced an chemistry and macrofauna was carried out in three fish increase of 137 percent and 170 percent, respectively, in farms in Greece, situated at a depth of 20–30 m, in the number of fishing trawls in the period 1980–1992. In areas having different types of substratum and with the Northern Mediterranean, trawlers increased in varying intensity of water currents. The results of this France (+22.3 percent) and Greece (+10.2 percent) for study indicated that the impacts of fish farming on the the same period, but decreased in Spain and Italy. In benthos in the Mediterranean could vary considerably terms of composition, multi-purpose vessels account for depending on the specific characteristics of the farm- 22 percent, trawlers at 16 percent, followed by gill-net- ing site. At the sampling stations under and near the ters at 13 percent, seiners at 7 percent, long-liners at 3 cages, redox potential was found to decrease but percent, and reap setters at 1 percent. The remaining 39 reached negative values only at the silt bottom site. percent are other fishing vessels including dredgers, lift The organic Carbon and Nitrogen contents of the sedi- netters, vessels using pumps for fishing, platforms for ment near the cages were found to increase by 1.5 to 5 mollusc culture, and recreational fishing vessels. 49 50 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA Aristeomorpha foliacea SeveralCountries AllMediterranean Norway Lobster( Prionace glauca ( Large pelagicelasmobranches Great scallop( Flounder ( France,Italy ( Eel ( Tyrrhenian Corsican Dolphinfish ( ( ( Common spinylobster Common Pandora ( Countriessharingtheresource ( Bluefin Tuna ( ( Anchovy ( Areas Albacore ( Common name(scientificname) T Huso huso Sturgeons ( Red mullet( Red shrimps( Red mullet( prd,svrlseisTrhna,Cria FranceandItaly Swordfish ( Tyrrhenian, Corsican Sprat ( Sparids, severalspecies Sardine ( Spain,Morocco AlboranSea Blackspot seabream uoenhk Arai Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Adriatic Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Adriatic European hake Adriatic Deepwater roseshrimp Blue whiting able 2.6 Some SharedStocksandFisheriesintheMediterranean Isurus oxyrinchus Merluccius merluccius P P Micromesistous poutassou P arapenaeus longirostris alinurus elephas agellus bogaraveo Anguilla anguilla Sprattus sprattus Sardina pilchardus Engraulis encrasicholus Platicthys flesusitalicus ) Thunnus alalunga Xiphias gladius Acipenser spp. Mullus surmuletus Mullus barbatus Coryphaena spp. Aristeus antennatus Thunnus thynnus P ectin jacobeus ) Nephrops nervegicus , ) P Lamna nasus ) agellus erythrius ) ) ) ) ) Arai Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Adriatic , ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )T ) , ) AbrnSaMorocco,Spain AlboranSea , ) )T ) and SardinianSeas and SardinianSeas and SardinianSeas and SardinianSeas and SardinianSeas and SardinianSeas T T T l eierna SeveralCountries All Mediterranean l eierna SeveralCountries All Mediterranean ditcCroatia,Italy, Slovenia Adriatic ditcCroatia,Italy, Slovenia Adriatic Severalcountries All Mediterranean ditcAlbania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Adriatic eenSaGreece,Turkey Greece,Italy Aegean Sea Ionian Sea Greece,Turkey Spain,France Albania,Croatia,Serbia &Montenegro, Aegean Sea Greece,Italy Italy, Libya, Malta,Tunisia Gulf ofLions Adriatic Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Strait ofSicily Ionian Sea Italy, Libya, Malta,Tunisia Adriatic Strait ofSicily Italy, Libya, Malta,Tunisia Spain,France Greece,Turkey Strait ofSicily Gulf ofLions Italy, Libya, Malta,Tunisia Aegean Sea Strait ofSicily Greece,Turkey Spain,France Aegean Sea Gulf ofLions ditcAlbania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, Adriatic SeveralCountries All Mediterranean Severalcountries Albania,Croatia,Serbia&Montenegro, All Mediterranean Adriatic and Sardinianseas ditcAlbania,Croatia,Serbia &Montenegro, Adriatic rhna,Cria France,Italy yrrhenian, Corsican France,Italy yrrhenian, Corsican France,Italy yrrhenian, Corsican rhna,Cria France,Italy yrrhenian, Corsican rhna,Cria France,Italy yrrhenian, Corsican Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia Italy, Slovenia 2.3 Decline of Seawater Quality ports over the last decades calls for safer and cleaner The introduction of high levels of persistent shipping operations to mitigate environmental costs. toxic chemicals, nutrients as well as pathogenic micro- As far as urban pollution is concerned, lack of organisms into the Mediterranean is a major source of sewage infrastructure is still the greatest problem. national, regional and international concern. The Virtually 60 percent of urban wastes, including micro- resulting decline in seawater quality is manifested as biological, nutrient and chemical contaminants, are increasing incidences of eutrophication accompanied discharged untreated into the sea, according to 1999 with reduced transparency and frequent algal blooms, information. high concentrations of heavy metals and persistent toxic substances (PTS) in the seawaters as well as high 2.3.1 Transboundary elements microbiological contaminant loads. Pollutants often travel great distances through This section sets out to identify substances that air, sea currents and rivers before their effects can be are particularly important in terms of transboundary traced. The objective of this section is to highlight trans- pollution impacts in the Mediterranean. Nitrogen and boundary movement of pollutants relevant to Mediter- phosphorus compounds, heavy metals (mercury, cad- ranean seawater quality concerns. Persistent toxic sub- mium, arsenic, copper / zinc, lead), persistent pesti- stances dispersed by atmospheric circulation patterns, cides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and oil-relat- transboundary transport of PAHs, as well as Mediterra- ed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the nean seawater exchange and evidence of long-range focus of this survey. In addition, concentration data biological pollution impacts on sea birds will be the main are provided where available and an assessment of focus areas. major pathways of transport of the substance into the sea is attempted. a. Long-range transport of PTS Decline in seawater quality in the Mediterranean via the atmosphere is often a localized phenomenon. Mediterranean coasts Differential heating between the are dotted by pollution hot spots, usually located in land of North Africa (almost bare soil), semi-enclosed bays close to big cities, harbours and the Mediterranean waters and the land industrial areas. Eutrophication affecting the ecologi- of South Europe produces a typical Me- cal balance of the marine food web and resulting in ani- diterranean atmospheric flow with a mal kills is mainly a coastal problem while the open sea strong northerly flow. This northerly flow 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL remains relatively healthy. is pronounced during the warm period of In addition there are stark differences in seawa- the year. ter quality concerns between the North and South Medi- A particularly well identified and terranean. Population growth, still occurring in the significant pattern of atmospheric cir- southern Mediterranean, is a major force that will in- culation in the Eastern basin is the con- crease urban and industrial pollution problems of the sistent flow directed from South and region in the future. Southern countries may also be ex- Eastern Europe towards the North posed to imports and consumption of persistent pesti- African Coast and the Middle East which cides, which have become obsolete in the north but results in the transport of polluted air whose remaining stockpiles are a source of concern. masses from Europe towards North On the other hand, stockpiles of PCBs-contain- Africa and the Middle East. The time ing equipment are mainly found in the North as PCBs scales for such transport processes are production is linked to economic development. approximately 2–4 days. The air quality Decontamination of materials and oils containing PCBs, in urban areas of Southeastern Europe, therefore, is a burden affecting mostly the northern Me- North Africa and the Middle East is diterranean. The Northwestern Mediterranean is also affected significantly by the long-range potentially a hotspot for anti-fouling paint pollution transport patterns described because released in the process of ship maintenance. the time scales are still within the life Oil shipping operations continue to be the main span of most air pollutants. By implica- source of PAHs causing significant decline in seawater tion, seawater may also be affected in quality in the Mediterranean. The sweeping and ongo- Southeastern Europe from atmospheric ing increase in freight passing through Mediterranean deposition of PTSs. 51 b. Mediterranean seawater exchanges tants as well as fresh water and sedi- The Mediterranean Sea is a semi- ment inputs from the rivers draining half enclosed basin having interactions with of Europe and some parts of Asia. More- the adjacent Atlantic Ocean and Black over, during recent years, the number of Sea through the Gibraltar and Turkish tankers as well as the amount of haz- straits, so that seawater exchanges may ardous materials transported across the play a role in the transboundary trans- Sea and through the Turkish Straits has port of PTS. increased (from 4,248 in 1996 to 6,093 The Eastern Atlantic has a perma- in 2000), and this will continue as the nent exchange of waters with the Medi- amount of oil production from the Cas- terranean Sea through the Strait of pian region increases. Gibraltar. This exchange results from the Taking into account these particular evaporation of the Mediterranean hydrogeographical conditions, a major waters, which become more dense than question has been raised concerning the those of the North Atlantic, and gener- significance of these water exchanges in ate an inflow of fresher and lighter the transboundary transport of pollu- Atlantic upper waters into the Mediter- tants. ranean and an outflow of more saline and denser deep Mediterranean water to c. Biological indicators of the Atlantic (Hopkins, 1999). Despite its long-range transport of PTS initially very high density, the Mediter- in seabirds within ranean water outflow does not reach the the Mediterranean basin bottom of the North Atlantic because it Levels of total DDT in seabirds (ref. entrains a substantial volume of the to chapter 2.1) in the Mediterranean overlying Atlantic waters while still in have been reported to be significantly the Gulf of Cadiz. Thus, the resultant higher than those of North Atlantic and mixed Mediterranean waters become Arctic birds, indicating a regional / local neutrally buoyant at depths between pollutant source. 900 and 1,200 m and finally reach the Median PCB levels are also signifi- open North-central Atlantic, in the form cantly higher in the eggs of Mediterra- of water lenses (eddies). nean seabirds than elsewhere; only the On the other hand, the Black Sea is Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) in the connected with the Mediterranean North Atlantic reached higher levels, TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY through the Sea of Marmara where there similar to those found in Audouin’s Gull is a surface outflow of less saline waters (Larus audouinii) eggs from Capraia from the Black Sea and an inflow of den- Island in the Tuscan archipelago (Italy) ser Mediterranean waters, which results (Leonzio et al., 1989). However, when in the formation of a permanent halo- considering the DDT / PCBs ratios, the cline / pycnocline at depths of 100–150 Mediterranean shows an intermediate m in the Black Sea. The annual volume of position between the heavily industri- the outflow (658 km3/y) from the Black alised North Atlantic and the pristine Sea is nearly twice that of the salty water Arctic, where DDTs are the predominant import (337 km3/y) via the Bosphorus chlorinated pollutants. undercurrent, but this counterflow system is balanced at the Dardanelles exit 2.3.2 Transboundary source-receptor (1,331 km3/y upper flow; 1,010 km3/y relationships in PAH deposition underflow). An evaluation of transboundary transport of The Black Sea has significant pollu- PAHs between countries of the region has been carried tion levels. The Black Sea has a very out for 1998 on the basis of the “source-receptor” large catchment area, receiving extra- approach. Calculations have been performed for B[a]P 52 ordinary amounts of nutrients, pollu- as the most representative component of this class of compounds. A summary of the contributions of deposi- 2.3.4 Socio-economic impacts tions of B[a]P to the Mediterranean Sea is shown in • Fish kills and toxin-contaminated shellfish Figure 2.18. It is shown that most depositions are derived linked to eutrophication reduce fisheries’ base; from Italy (1,499 kg, 24 %), France (885 kg, 14 %) and • Loss of income in the fisheries sector; Spain (523 kg, 8 %). • Unemployment rise induced by the decline in fisheries; 2.3.3 Environmental impacts • Loss of aesthetic value linked to eutrophica- • Eutrophication incidences in coastal waters tion events; resulting in algal blooms, red tides, water • Loss of tourism; discoloration, putrefication, fish mortality, • Loss of employment and income related to dystrophy, mollusc mortality, bottom fauna tourism; mortality, poor transparency; • Loss of cultural heritage. • Adverse impact on water quality from presence The most important cases of eutrophication are of mercury implicated in inhibition of growth found along the northern and western coasts of the 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL and harmful effects on fitness of marine Adriatic Sea. Starting in the 1970s, eutrophication plants and animals; phenomena such as algal blooms and the production of • Degradation of seawater quality from pres- mucilage have given rise to great concern, particularly ence of cadmium linked to growth retardation in the northern Adriatic, because of their new consider- of marine organisms, decrease in invertebrate able frequency, intensity and geographical extension. survival rates, decalcification of marine ani- The decline of seawater quality in the northern mals and seabird skeletons; Adriatic compounded problems in tourism develop- • Seawater quality decline from presence of ment, a vital economic activity for the region. Broadly zinc / copper in seawater associated to risks speaking, in the region two types of tourism dominated of reproductive capacity impairment for sea until the early 1990s: (a) a hotel based, mass type of organisms; tourism attracting mainly national tourists and visi- • Environmental degradation of seawaters by tors, and (b) a type of tourism based on private hous- presence of lead implicated in central nervous es, flats for rent and camping sites attracting foreign system disorders, motor abnormalities and tourists. However, trends in tourist behaviour charac- blindness of marine organisms; terized by a reduction in the average length of holidays • Disruption of seawater ecological quality by and greater attention to the quality of the natural the presence of chlorinated hydrocarbons environment, services offered and value for money as associated to high bioaccumulation with well as the emergence on the market of new seaside potentially lethal effects for marine mammals holiday resorts, the impact of large tour operators and and seabirds; air transport on tourist flow patterns, affect tourism • Degradation of waters by increased microbio- development in the northern Adriatic Sea and have led logical content. to a restructuring process in major upper-Adriatic 53 resorts aiming to combat three major issues: (a) envi- no pathologies in the resident populations attributable ronmental degradation and overcrowding, (b) the need to PSP intoxication have ever been encountered. to improve the quality of existing services, and (c) the Considering that the eutrophication phenomena need to diversify services and resources offered. are no longer occasional events, but are induced by During the late 1980s, early 1990s, this already structural deficiencies on land, there is a need to elim- complex picture was further complicated by the issues inate such deficiencies, which are mostly linked to agri- of eutrophication which first started gaining impor- culture, animal husbandry and municipal sewerage. tance in the Italian Seas in the mid-1970s. This form of During the 1980s, important laws, decrees and norms pollution is caused by the large inflow of freshwater to were approved at the European Community and the the basin from the catchment area of the northern national levels mostly addressing the reduction of Adriatic Sea, a great part of which is Italian territory. On phosphorus in the detergents produced, bringing the a national scale, coastal and inland waters receive limit down to 1 percent. As a result, it has been possible about 48,000 tonnes/year of phosphorus and 660,000 to quantify a decrease of 10,000 t/year in the input of tonnes/year of nitrogen. The most critical situation is phosphorus to the sea. In contrast, no important reduc- encountered south of the Po river delta near Ravenna in tion of nitrogen in the sea has been monitored in spite a marine area for about 100 km, where the polluting of a 1991 Community norm in that direction. This is effects of Po’s waters are serious, especially during mostly due to the difficulty of applying the norm (e.g., summer months. Furthermore, the widespread appear- lack of economic incentives) and the lack of controls. ance of phenomena of mucilage (mucillagine), associ- The major socio-economic impacts of decline in ated with cloudy sea or marine snow in many parts of seawater quality therefore can be summarized as: the upper Adriatic coastal waters in the summers of • Reduced fish production due to fish kills and 1988 and 1989, resulted in the significant reduction of toxin-contaminated shellfish linked to eutro- the number of tourists to the area on the order of 20–30 phication, leading to loss of income; percent, which has been reversed since that time. Also • Rise in unemployment caused by the decline in the figure of total night stays for the province of Rimini fisheries; declined from 17.777 thousands (1988) to 11.724 thou- • Possible increase in social instability due to sands (1989) and has not fully recovered since, possibly loss of livelihoods; indicating a trend for shorter length of stay. In fact, • Loss of aesthetic value linked to eutrophica- eutrophication and mucilage worsened a situation that tion events; was already becoming critical since many northern • Loss of employment and income related to tou- Adriatic resorts were entering the maturity stage. rism, especially in the sports-fishing industry; However, the extent to which eutrophication was a • Loss of cultural heritage. result of transboundary pollution and the degree to TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY which tourism development in the region was affected 2.3.5 Causal Chain Analysis by transboundary pollution or by the dominant trends in Figure 2.3.1 presents a causal chain analysis the tourism market cannot by fully appraised and needs (CCA) for decline in seawater quality, indicating the pri- further investigation (Zanetto and Soriani, 1996). mary and root causes of decline in sea water quality, as Further, the recurrent phenomena of eutrophi- well as the socio-economic and environmental impacts cation and the general deterioration of water quality in arising from the decline in quality. the northwestern Adriatic have had serious negative The CCA depicts the primary causes for decline repercussions on fisheries. With regard to fishing and in seawater quality as: mollusc farming in particular, considerable damage has • Inadequate sewage treatment in large por- been done by the dinoflagellate of the genus Dinophysis, tions of the Mediterranean Sea (only 40 % of which produces (DSP) toxins. The occurrence of these the sewage is treated to acceptable levels); flagellates, which have become more plentiful during the • Lack of best practices in agriculture use of last decade, has led to temporary and prolonged bans on fertilizers and pesticides / insecticides; the harvesting and sale of mussels (Mytilus galloprovin- • Inadequate controls on atmospheric emis- cialis) farmed in the coastal and lagoon areas of Emilia- sions of heavy metals and persistent organic Romagna. Further, Alexandrium tamarensis, a dinofla- pollutants from European industrial sources; gellate capable of producing (PSP) toxins, has been • Inadequate source controls and discharge 54 observed in the waters of the northern Adriatic, although control for industries along the sea; • Increases in shipping traffic across the Medi- • Lack of public awareness of environmental terranean with consequent increase in acci- matters in some portions of the Sea; dental and purposeful discharge of harmful • Low priority accorded environmental protec- pollutants. tion in some regions of the Mediterranean; The CCA identifies the root causes of decline in • Insufficient institutional and human capacity seawater quality as: for monitoring and enforcement in some • Inadequate stakeholder participation in gov- countries of the Sea; ernance of the commons; • Lack of budget. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL

55 2.3.6 Supporting data cation is rapid consumption of oxygen in the bottom 2.3.6.1 Eutrophication layers. Put simply, the factors that combine to set off Eutrophication in waters or waters where one the process of eutrophication may be grouped in two can find abundant food (nutrients) is no longer an oc- categories: those that affect the dispersion of nutri- casional occurrence but a chronic problem in the Medi- ents in the water, such as water movement, or the oxy- terranean. From 1965 to 1995 nutrient levels in the Wes- gen cycle near the bottom layer of the sea, such as light tern Mediterranean have increased annually, with the permeability. highest concentrations found close to river deltas and Eutrophication is used in the context of ecolog- estuaries or near large urban agglomerations, as shown ical quality of waters to refer to a decline in ecological on the satellite image illustrating chlorophyll concen- water quality. The visible effects of deterioration in tration in surface waters of the Mediterranean Sea in water quality caused by eutrophication are algal Figure 2.19. blooms or red tides, algal scum, enhanced benthic As can be seen in Figure 2.19, the problem of algal growth and, at times, a massive growth of sub- eutrophication, severe though it may be locally, is lim- merged and floating macrophytes. Occasionally, these ited to specific coastal and adjacent offshore areas. manifestations are accompanied by cycles of visible Northern shores are most affected, but South and bacterial blooms and fungal growth leading to oxygen Southeast Mediterranean countries are not excluded depletion in bottom waters and fish kill. A table of from the affected area. Rather, data on Mediterranean eutrophication effects recorded in different coastal eutrophication should be read with caution since rela- areas of the Mediterranean is provided in Table 2.12. tively lower incidences reported in the South may be As an example, recurrent lack of oxygen or linked to less active monitoring networks. anoxia in the bottom waters of the Northern Adriatic The mechanism of eutrophication is complex basin caused profound modifications in the benthic and depends on additional factors other than high ecosystem. There were considerable reductions in the nutrient input. The main effect of eutrophication is original populations of the least mobile bottom organ- changes in the food web leading to increases in phyto- isms (molluscs, crustaceans, and polychaetes) most plankton biomass. The main consequence of eutrophi- sensitive to oxygen deficiency. Repetition of these dys- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

56 trophies has led to the disappearance of about fifteen Although it is difficult to determine to species of mollusc and three species of crustaceans. what extent each anthropogenic factor The effects of eutrophication on Mediterranean biodi- is the cause of eutrophication, an versity are discussed in more detail in section 2.1.5.3.a attempt to do so has been made by EEA of this document. (1999a) and the results are shown in During eutrophication, the ratio of nitrogen to Figure 2.20 and Figure 2.21. phosphorus compounds, which is basic to the development of aquatic life, changes. In some cases, one of Agriculture the two nutrients will be bound to aquatic life and will Run-off water and eroded soil of not be available for further algal growth. This element agricultural areas are among the main is then called the limiting factor. Understanding which causes of eutrophication in the basin. element is the limiting factor is important in order to This non-point form of pollution con- control algal growth. cerns basins draining into the Mediter- According to Krom et al. (1991) primary produc- ranean covering a total area of about tion in the eastern Mediterranean (data from the Levan- 1.9 million km2 not counting the upper tine basin) is limited by phosphorus. On the other hand, Nile basin, and include 24 countries recent data from the eastern basin seems to suggest (UNEP, 1997). As the Mediterranean that nitrogen is the limiting factor in offshore waters. In basin is receiving waters from the Black surface waters of the Ligurian sea, Bethoux et al. (1992) Sea, there is also a remarkable effect report values indicating a slight tendency for nitrogen to of the Black Sea on the Eastern Me- be the limiting factor. Other authors (Marchetti, 1985) diterranean, mainly the Aegean Sea. show phosphorus limitation in the Adriatic Sea, an area often subjected to eutrophication events, while Min- gazzini et al. (1992) suggest that phosphorus is the limiting factor in the coastal waters off Emilia-Romagna. Overall, the degree of phosphorus limitation increases from west to east across the entire basin. However, a more precise estimate on nutrient limitation is not possible based on the restricted number of local 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL measurements. That is partly because seasonal factors change the situation at different times of the year. Furthermore, when evaluating eutrophication effects, it should be remembered that reliable figures are still rare because of the inherent difficulties of measuring anthropogenic eutrophication under conditions of high natural variability. Moreover, the few phytoplankton time series available for the Mediterranean are mostly land-based and thus monitor only nearshore waters, with the exception of some rare time series like the one in the Corso-Ligurian Sea (offshore from Villefranche). Given current limits of knowledge, it is impossible to predict the appearance of eutrophication effects and how harmful they may be.

a. Origins of eutrophication Human activity has contributed dramatically to nutrient enrichment in the Mediterranean. Agriculture, followed by domestic and urban activities, are the two main sources of high nutrient loads that trigger eutrophication. 57 Through the mechanisms of leach- Increasing intensification of agri- ing and sediment transport, phospho- cultural practices taking place in the rus, nitrogen and organic carbon in Mediterranean basin contributes to soils are carried into ground waters, high amounts of nutrients in run-off wetlands, rivers and lakes and finally and transported sediments. Particu- reach the sea. A further issue is ammo- larly on the southern coast, the pres-

nia (NH3) emissions released in con- sure to use more fertilizer in the nection with the production and catchment basin and along the spreading of animal manure. The issue coastal zones is very strong. Moreover,

of ammonia (NH3) pollution stemming an increasing area of arable land is from agriculture has attracted more lost to urbanization and other infra- attention in environmental political structures. In the countries on the debate in recent years. As a result, Northern and Western coasts, special- steps have been taken to remedy the ized monocultures achieve good yields poor state of data on ammonia emis- and induce a gradual abandonment of sions in the framework of the United marginal land. Therefore, increases of Nations Economic Commission for land under irrigation are observed in Europe (UN/ECE) to combat acidifica- the North and West. In the South and tion and eutrophication and ground- East, demographic pressure constant- level ozone, as well as the EU Directive ly increases and cultivated surfaces on national emissions ceilings (NEC continue to expand at the expense of Directive). The only reliable data forests and grazing land. available concern EU Mediterranean Figure 2.22 shows the increase in countries and suggest a decline in fertilizer consumption used in agricul-

total NH3 emissions for the period tural lands in all Mediterranean coun- 1990–1994. Agriculture is the main tries in the 1960s and 1980s. Although source of ammonia emissions accord- in terms of total quantities applied the ing to Tarasson et al. (2000). northwestern countries lead the re- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

58 cord, in terms of quantity of fertilizer cases such as the Seine and the Escault per hectare some southeast Mediter- or the Ebro delta, oxygen levels are very ranean countries are catching up with low or even zero. the North. The impacts of urban areas on In addition, run-off waters cause eutrophication are less clear cut, part- a remarkable transport of sediments, ly because other sources of nutrients mostly in regions with a higher degree also make a major contribution to of soil erosion. Besides the large river trophic dysfunctions, and also because basins of the Rhone and the Po, a ten- the pace of development of an algal tative ranking of the risk of soil erosion bloom is slower than that of a bacteri- and nutrient losses (UNEP/MAP, 1997) ological bloom (oxygen consumption). lists the first six drainage regions dis- The state of information on discharging the largest amount of nutri- charge of urban sewage outfalls is far ents into the sea in peninsular Italy, from complete. Within the framework Sicily, Sardinia, Greece and Spain. of the MED POL Programme, informa- Inadequate management prac- tion gathered through different proj- tices can increase the amount of pol- ects such as “The Survey on Land- lutants transferred to the sea and can Based Sources of Pollution” (UNEP/ decrease productivity of soil and eco- WHO, 1996b), and the “Identification nomic efficiency of agriculture. The of Priority Pollution Hot Spots in the control of phosphorus is closely con- Mediterranean” (UNEP/WHO, 1999) nected to run-off and erosion phe- cover a significant portion of coastal nomena. In fact, this nutrient is often cities. The data reveal that despite associated with the sediment and run- substantial improvement in some off losses directly linked to erosion. countries, about 33 percent of the pop- Intensive agriculture systems deter- ulation is not yet served by municipal mine the risk of nitrogen pollution in sewage treatment. A fuller discussion surface and ground waters. Such risks of the state of municipal sewage treat- increase in irrigated crops. ment is given in the section on microbi- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ological pollution. Municipal The difficulty in collecting data A major consequence of urban through different programmes, how- waste discharge into the sea is eutro- ever, has resulted in fragmented infor- phication of waters. Urban sources of mation with findings of little practical pollution are potentially important as use. In order to improve the situation, they tend to be characterized by geo- a particular activity related to the graphical concentration in catchment state of wastewater treatment plants basins or the coastal environment. A in the Mediterranean has commenced. concentrated source is particularly harmful where it is liable to give rise to b. Assessment of major pathways rapid effects before being dispersed by of nutrients the processes of dilution and dispersion. Discharges via rivers For example, the impact of urban About 80 rivers contributing sig- areas in terms of the deoxygenization nificantly to pollution inputs to the of rivers rapidly became very evident. Mediterranean Sea have been identi- Organic material and molecules that fied. The nutrient levels found in Medi- are potential consumers of oxygen terranean rivers are about four times (particularly ammonium) when re- lower than those in western European leased into the sea cause degradation rivers. In all documented cases, ni- of the marine environment by decrea- trate levels are increasing, although sing seawater oxygen levels. In extreme the trend for ammonia is variable de- 59 pending on the method of sewage col- ranges are enormous, over an order of lection and treatment carried out. magnitude for nitrate and more for Phosphate concentrations may in- ammonium and phosphate. crease dramatically, as seen in Greece, The available data on the average or steadily, as found in France, or nutrient concentrations in the Medi- decrease when phosphate restriction terranean rivers are presented in Table measures are imposed (phosphate ban 2.7. More than 30 rivers are document- on detergents as in Italy). Although ed for nitrate with average values. some local coastal eutrophication Elevated concentrations among events do occur (as in the northern the rivers listed in Table 2.7 are found Adriatic), the main body of the Medi- in the intensely cultivated river basins terranean as a whole was not seriously of Italy, Spain, and / or Greece, such as damaged with eutrophication over the the Arno, Po, Ebro and / or Pinios rivers last decade. Depending on the river Also the Nile River has one of the high- size and location, the concentration est average nitrate concentrations,

Table 2.7 Documented Rivers for Dissolved Nutrients

3 - - + -3 Rivers Qact km /yr N-NO3 g/l N-NO2 mg/l N-NH4 mg/l Ntotmg/l P-PO2 Ptot mg/l Adige 7.29 1.25 — 0.111 — 0.03 0.1126 Akheloos 5.67 0.60 — 0.035 — 0.02 0.0151 Aliakmon 1.168 0.395 — 0.05 — 0.10 0.0168 Argens 0.38 0.74 0.02 0.09 0.5 0.11 0.22 Arno 2.10 0.912 — 0.042 — 0.500 0.01 Aude 1.31 1.42 0.03 0.09 1.2 0.09 0.49 Axios 4.90 1.584 — 0.0658 — 0.48 0.48 Besos 0.130 1.9 0.3 31 — — 12.7 Buyuk-Menderes 4.70 1.44 — — — 0.55 — Ceyhan 7.10 —————8.68 Ebro 9.24 2.3 — 0.1672 — 0.029 0.243 Evros 6.80 1.9 — 0.05 — 0.36 — Fluvia 0.36 — — 0.054 — — 0.35 Gediz 1.87 1.65 — 0.05 — 0.19 — Goksu 2.50 —————8.87 Herault 0.92 0.61 0.012 0.06 — 0.045 0.22 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Kishon 0.063 —————20 Krka 1.61 0.45 0.001 0.031 — 0.029 — Llobregat 0.466 1.9 0.5 3.2 — 1.2 1.53 Metauro 0.43 1.366 — 0.0 — 0.005 0.119 Neretva 11.01 0.269 — 0.029 — — 0.050 Nestos 1.03 1.24 — 0.071 — — 0.127 Nile 6.00 3.00 — — — — — Orb 0.86 0.67 0.045 0.44 0.9 0.14 0.45 Pinios 0.672 2.323 — 0.167 — — 0.2431 Po 48.90 2.03 — 0.21 — 0.084 0.2393 Rhone 48.07 1.48 0.033 0.124 0.80 0.101 0.14 Semani 3.02 0.24 — — — — 0.002 Seyhan 7.20 0.59 — 0.31 0.27 0.01 — Shkumbini 1.94 0.73 — — — — 0.01 Strymon 2.59 1.236 — 0.053 — 0.11 0.125 Tavignano 0.06 0.34 0.045 (0.003) — (0.005) — Ter 0.84 — — 1.2 — — 2.15 Tet 0.40 1.8 0.18 1.5 2.7 0.47 0.8 Tevere 7.38 1.37 — 1.04 — 0.26 0.355 Var 1.57 0.18 0.003 0.031 1.5 0.006 0.13 60 although this value has been derived waters. Coastal aquifers (e.g., karstic from only a few published values and it or unconfined sedimentary aquifers) is not clear whether this value really is are vulnerable to surface-induced representative for this river. pollution and provide transport of Ranking the Mediterranean rivers agricultural nutrients critical to in Table 2.7 according to their average eutrophication of enclosed coastal phosphorous concentrations does areas into the sea. Although data on therefore not exactly follow the rank- levels of nutrients are not known, they ing of nitrate pollution. Highest P val- are believed to be significant, espe- ues are typical for the rivers suffering cially given that the seepage from from organic pollution due to urban coastal aquifers accounts for about wastewater inputs such as the Besos one quarter of the total freshwater and Llobregat in Spain, the Axios in inflow into the Mediterranean. Greece, the Tet in France and / or the Arno in Italy. Lowest phosphorous con- Airborne deposition of nutrients centrations are also found in the rivers The atmosphere carries significant with low nitrate concentrations (e.g., quantities of nitrogen, mainly in the the Krka and Neretva rivers) indicating form of nitrogen oxide (NO). Via a num- that these rivers are probably the clos- ber of different atmospheric reactions, est to a pristine state. some nitrogen oxides are removed from The lowest nitrate concentrations the atmosphere through wet and dry of clearly less than 1 mg N/l are typi- deposition processes. The effect on the cal for rivers where agriculture may be marine ecosystem is eutrophication less intense in the catchments, and / through nitrogen fertilization. or accompanied by crops that do not Emissions of nitrogen oxides arise require much fertiliser (such as the mainly from anthropogenic combustion Var, Tavignano and Herault rivers in sources. In this context, road transport France). Also the rivers of Croatia and other mobile sources (sea and air seem to have rather low nitrate values transport) are increasingly important 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL that may at least partly also be a sources of pollution compared to sta- dilution effect. Nitrogen inputs may tionary sources (industrial combus- be more diluted due to the often-high tion). According to Tarasson (2000),

drainage intensities in these rivers. mobile sources account for 63 % of NOx Seepage from coastal aquifers emissions in the Mediterranean basin; a

and submarine groundwater dis- breakdown of NOx emissions into sec- charges serve as other pathways of tors in the Mediterranean region is given nutrients into Mediterranean coastal in Table 2.8.

-1 Table 2.8 Sector-Based Emissions of NOx in the Mediterranean Region (kton N yr ) (Source: Tarrason et al., 2000)

Energy Non- Com- Pro- Road Other Waste AgricultureOther pro- industrial bustion duction transport mobile treat- duction com- in manu- process sources ment bustion facturing France 134 103 135 16 728 397 16 — 3.8 Croatia 14 3.8 8.6 1.6 29 15 0.04 — — Italy 186 79 156 11 748 286 18 1 1 Slovenia 15 3.1 3.1 — 36 0.5 — — — Turkey 173 192 173 11 361 — — — — Cyprus 6.2 1.2 2 — 11 — — 0.9 — Serbia & 40 1.6 4.4 —————— Montenegro Total 569 384 482 40 1,912 698 34 1.9 4.8 61 Emission data for countries of the Phosphorus is deposited through northern Mediterranean is inventoried the atmosphere to a much lesser extent by the UNEC/EMEP database, but this than nitrogen. That is because a large does not include emissions from coun- fraction of this total P input originates tries on the Southern and Eastern coast. from crystal material transported from Emission data for these countries was North Africa and is insoluble. Berga- obtained from different sources. metti et al. (1992) estimated soluble Mediterranean emissions did not input as 30 percent of total inorganic P change significantly between 1980 and input to the Western Mediterranean 1999, but the relative contribution of Sea. Measurements of atmospheric P the Mediterranean region to total cover the entire basin. Guerzoni et al. European emissions has increased in (1999) reviewing these concluded that

the last 20 years, particularly for NH3 the atmospheric input of inorganic P is (27 % in 1980 to 36 % in 1999). The 40 mg P m-2yr-1 in the Western Mediter- increase in the share of the Mediterra- ranean and 20 mg P m-2yr-1 in the nean region in the emissions of both Eastern basin. nitrogen species is due to decrease in these emissions in Europe. Based on c. Building information capacity

EMEP projections, NO2 and ammonia on eutrophication emissions in the Mediterranean region Over the last 30 years, MED POL has are expected to account for 17 % and played a considerable part in improving 34 % of European emissions, respec- information available on trends of tively, in the year 2010. nutrient enrichment in the Mediterra- The negative impacts of nitrogen nean. During the first phase (1975– oxide are likely to remain a source of 1981), MED POL contributed towards concern in the future as the underlying upgrading the technical facilities of cause of the problem, road transport, many Mediterranean research centres continues to expand. Despite improve- and laboratories involved with the pro- ments brought by catalytic treatment gramme. The MED POL phase II (1982– of car exhausts, emissions have in- 1996) was characterized by the devel- creased as a result of increase in dis- opment of national monitoring projects tances travelled as well as growth in in the Mediterranean region. MED POL the number of vehicles. has now entered the third phase shift- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Emissions of NO in the Mediterra- ing the emphasis from pollution nean are uneven. France, Italy and assessment to pollution control. A

Spain emit most of the NOx in the database was organized during the region. These three countries account- MED POL phase II and nutrient values

ed for 78 % of NOx emissions in the are available for a number of Mediter- basin in 1999. However, emissions from ranean countries. South and Eastern countries of the Mediterranean are likely to increase 2.3.6.2 Heavy metals rapidly in the future following increas- The presence of heavy metals in the sea is of es in car ownership linked to increased great concern as most heavy metals are toxic to living standards. Data reveal that the plants and animals. The levels found in and effects of relative contribution of central and heavy metals on Mediterranean biodiversity are dis- eastern Mediterranean countries have cussed in greater detail in section 2.1.5.3.b above. increased by approximately 10 percent The toxicity depends on the degree of concentration in the last 20 years. This increase is due and in fact many metals play a key role in different

to doubling of NOx emissions (from life processes and are released in great volumes in

6,800 in 1980 to 12,900 tones NOx in natural ways. However, man’s share of heavy metal 62 1995) in Turkey. pollution in the Mediterranean grew sharply by 300 percent between 1950 and 1990 and this trend has not uniform. The decrease in reported emission values only lately been reversed. in Western Mediterranean countries (Spain, France and Metal-containing particulate matters are Italy) is more pronounced compared to countries emitted from different kinds of industries and subject located in the Central Mediterranean. Unfortunately, to long-range transport via air or rivers before their such long-term emission data are not available for the effects are recognized in the ecosystem. Six metals Eastern Mediterranean basin. were chosen for their transboundary impacts (mercury, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, copper and lead). By far the a. Origins of heavy metals biggest source region for four of these is the Northwest and concentration data basin, accounting for about half the total emissions of Mercury lead, cadmium, zinc and copper. Figure 2.23 below The major toxic action of mercury shows the variations in heavy metal discharges by var- is the inhibition of enzymatic process- ious regions of the Mediterranean. es, which can affect the reproduction and the nervous system of birds and mammals. In fish, the effects of mercury also include a decreased sense of smell, damage to gills and blindness. High concentrations of mercury lead to reduced growth of plants. One important hazardous effect of mercury in the aquatic environment is that it biomagnifies in the food chain. Mercury comes from rocks (mainly as sulphide ores), degassing (of ele- mental mercury) from the Earth’s crust and oceans, volcanoes, chlor-alkali plants, the petrochemical industry and sewage outfalls. • Levels 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL The levels of total mercury (HgT) in the Mediterranean marine envi- The last decade saw a pronounced decrease of ronment seem to be decreasing in emissions of lead by the Mediterranean countries many areas, mainly due to the fact (1990–1999). Emissions have decreased from 14,300 that analytical procedures have tonnes in 1990 to 5,900 tonnes in 1999. Mercury and improved and more attention has cadmium emissions also decreased in the same time been paid to the problem of sam- period, but not as much as lead. Mercury emissions ple contamination. Earlier results decreased from 102 tonnes/yr to 70 tonnes/yr in 1999 indicated high values, with con- (31 percent) and Cd emissions decreased from 114 centrations in seawater in the so- tonnes/yr in 1990 to 82 tonnes/yr in 1999 (27 percent). called ‘open’ sea areas reaching The decrease observed in these three metals can also 140ng/l, and in coastal areas, be seen in other anthropogenic elements like Ni, As, 520ng/l. However, more recent etc. However, emissions data for the other elements data indicate that open-sea con- are too fragmentary to derive percentages. Metal centrations are only a few nano- emissions have decreased not only in the Mediterra- grams per litre, and those in nean region, but also in most parts of Europe since the coastal areas affected by pollution 1980s. As a result, for all three elements the share of sources do not exceed 50ng/l. That Mediterranean emissions in total emissions in Europe is is, in general, mercury levels in gradually increasing because the decrease in the seawater are no higher, on aver- region is not as fast as in other parts of Europe. Even in age, than elsewhere (UNEP/FAO, the Mediterranean region the decrease in emissions is 1996c). 63 Recent raw data from MED POL from a chlor-alkali plant. MED POL Phase III on levels of total mercu- historical data indicate the fol- ry, HgT, from Albanian, Croatian lowing conclusions. There are two and Slovenian hot spots (Figure populations of Tuna exhibiting 2.25) show pronounced land- ‘low’ and ‘high’ concentrations of based impacts in the Split area HgT. The Atlantic population dis- plays low levels of HgT, whereas the levels are high for the Medi- terranean population. This is the pronounced impact of Hg mines existing in the Mediterranean and TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY local impacts of hot spots. HgT in sardines from the northwest coast of the Mediterranean is 3–4 times higher than in sardines from Gib- raltar. HgT distribution from west to east Mediterranean illustrates the Mt Amiata Hg anomaly. • Loads In general, human emissions are substantially less than natural ones; ratios of 1:4 up to 1:30 have been derived, admittedly from very rough raw data (UNEP/FAO, 1996c). On the basis of published data and modelling results, in UNEP/ WHO (1998) the following data on 64 mercury loads are presented: • the pollution of the Mediter- cessing; electroplating; solders; bat- ranean Sea by mercury and its teries; production of alloys, pigments compounds is brought about and PCBs, and; sewage sludges. mainly via the atmosphere • Levels and riverine run-off; The levels in seawater cover a • the total input from anthro- wide range of values: open sea pogenic sources through the 0.004–0.06 mg/l (recent and prob- atmosphere is 10–40 tonnes ably more reliable data); coastal per year. The contribution of sea < 0.002–0.90mg/l, with a ten- riverine run-off varies within dency for high values to be related the range of 50–200 tonnes to sources (estuaries, coastal mi- per year (mainly in particulate ning) (UNEP 1996a). Levels of Cad- form); mium in Mullus Barbatus depend on • a portion of riverine run-off of the LBS activities in different Medi- mercury (about 10–40 tonnes terranean sub-basins (Figure 2.26). per year) and the bulk of atmospheric deposition come to the Mediterranean Sea as soluble mercury compounds which can be assimilated by the marine biota and thus would affect the marine life. • Impact Special attention should be paid to coastal zones where higher concentrations of mercury are observed due to riverine run-off, intensive sedimentation and atmospheric deposition. In addition 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL these zones are characterized by enhanced biological productivity. The Western Mediterranean, the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas are believed to be the most vulnerable regions (UNEP/WMO, 1998).

Cadmium Critical effects of cadmium contamination on plants are a decrease in productivity, reduced rates of photosynthesis and transpiration, and altered enzymatic activities. In seawaters, cadmium levels greater than 7 mg/l can initiate toxic effects for animals, including growth retardation and decreased survival of invertebrates, and kidney damage and decalcification of the skeleton for higher marine animals and seabirds. Cadmium comes from copper refining (as a by-product); lead pro- 65 Recent raw data of MED POL mg/l. In estuaries and rivers the Phase III on total cadmium (Cd) values are much more variable: from the Albanian, Croatian and 1.5–3.75 mg/l in the Rhone delta Slovenian hot spots (Figure 2.27) (UNEP/FAO, 1996c). showed that the background con- Although arsenic itself is insol- centration levels for the Mediterra- uble, many of its compounds are nean in Mytilus galloprovincialis soluble in water, leading to aver- during 2000–2003 were significant- age seawater concentrations of ly higher than those found from 2.0–3.0 µg/l (UNEP/FAO, 1996c). MED POL historical data of two • Loads decades (50–150 µg Cd/kg dw). There is no accurate information This is most probably a strong indi- available as to the amounts of cation of local impacts of land- arsenic reaching the Mediterranean based contamination from hot spot Sea through domestic and industri- sites in the Adriatic region. al effluents (UNEP/FAO, 1996c). • Impact Marine organisms, especially invertebrates, are able to concentrate arsenic from seawater to high levels. Most of the arsenic is in the organic form in marine organisms, which is much less toxic than the trivalent inorganic compounds (UNEP 1996d).

Copper / Zinc Zinc and copper constitute a hazard to aquatic life in polluted waters where other much more hazardous metals like lead, mercury and cadmium are also present because its toxicity with the other metals is additive. It has been reported that sublethal concentrations TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY of Zn impair the reproduction of salmon and some marine invertebrates. Copper comes from mining; alloys; metal plating; electricals; catalysts; jewellery; algicides, and; wood preser- Arsenic vatives. Arsenic is a by-product or waste of Zinc comes from smelting; alloys; non-ferrous metal processing (copper, steel-making; metal-plating and gal- zinc, lead, gold and cobalt), of fossil- vanizing; paints and dyes; batteries; fuel burning and the processing of organic chemical production; oil refin- phosphate rock and bauxite (for alu- ing; fertilisers; paper pulp, and; vis- minium). cose rayon production. A ratio of 2.5:1 • Levels for industrial: domestic discharge has The levels of total dissolved ar- been calculated. senic in seawater, in the western • Levels Mediterranean below the photic The levels of copper in seawater zone (since arsenic is metabolized cover a wide range of values: open 66 by phytoplankton), are 1.3–1.4 sea 0.04–0.70 mg/l (recent and probably more reliable data); information provided by Scoullos coastal sea < 0.01–50 mg/l, with a and Constantianos (1996). In this tendency for high values to be re- study it is highlighted that zinc lated to sources (Nile discharge, and copper loads entering the Me- coastal mining) (UNEP/FAO, diterranean are significant and 1996c). Levels of Cu in Mytilus gal- are considerably higher than loprovincialis are shown in Figure those reported in the past, as a 2.28. result of the inclusion of marine The levels of zinc in seawater (via Gibraltar and Dardanelles) cover a wide range of values: and atmospheric inputs, which open sea 0.24–0.56 mg/l; coastal were not taken into account in sea 0.20–210 mg/l. A wide range previous assessments. of 0.016–48 mg/l for a variety of It is clear that although both Mediterranean waters has been the marine and atmospheric reported (UNEP/FAO, 1996c). inputs into the Eastern Mediterra- • Loads nean were assessed indirectly, The amounts of copper dis- they are of the same order of mag- charged into the Mediterranean nitude. This has been confirmed in Sea through domestic and indus- the Northwest Mediterranean. The trial effluents have been estimat- atmospheric inputs are also con- ed at 2.3 and 6.0 tonnes x 103 per siderably higher than the riverine annum, respectively (UNEP/WHO, and direct discharges, and thus 1996a). could have a strong effect on con- Zinc and copper loads are centrations in offshore waters and specifically assessed based on even in deep-sea sediments. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL

67 Lead sea 0.016–20.5 mg/l, with a ten- Effects of lead on plants are lim- dency for high values to be related ited to areas where relatively high to sources (lead tetraethyl pro- concentrations of lead are found, duction and estuaries) (UNEP/FAO, like areas near mines or smelters. For 1996c). Lead is bioaccumulated in animals, the signs of lead poisoning Mytilus galloprovincialis with high- are central nervous system disor- er levels in the western Mediterra- ders, high excitivity, motor abnor- nean (Figure 2.29). malities and blindness. In fish, lead • Loads accumulates primarily in gills, liver, The amounts of lead discharged kidney and bones, causing blacken- into the Mediterranean Sea through ing of the tail, damage to the spine domestic and industrial effluents and reducing larvae survival. have been estimated at 200 and • Sources 1,400 t/yr, respectively. These fig- Lead comes from: mining; ures apply to discharges from the smelting; steel-making; produc- coastal zone and do not include tion of alloys; batteries; pigments; river inputs (UNEP/WHO, 1996). combustion of leaded (by lead tetraethyl) petrol. A ratio of 7:1 b. Assessment of major pathways for industrial: domestic discharge of heavy metals has been calculated (UNEP/WHO, Discharges via rivers 1996b). Atmospheric deposition, includ- • Levels ing rainwater loads, is overwhelming- The levels in seawater cover a ly the largest source of metals in the wide range of values: open sea Mediterranean. Riverine inputs are 0.018–0.14 mg/l (recent and prob- lower by comparison to atmospheric ably more reliable data); coastal deposition as shown in Table 2.9. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

68 Table 2.9 Atmospheric versus Riverine Inputs of Lead and Zinc to the Mediterranean (tonnes/yr) (Source: Guerzoni et al., 1999)

Lead Zinc River input Atmospheric input % River input Atmospheric input % WMED 2,200 2,800 56 9,200 31,700 78 EMED 2,650 3,700 58 15,500 28,000 64 Total 4,850 6,500 57 24,700 59,700 71

Transport of heavy metals in Medi- of this information is restricted. As we terranean rivers is the second largest have seen above, by far most of the factor in the redistribution of these heavy metal transport occurs in the contaminants from land to the sea. For particulate phase, and a spatial and the most part, heavy metals under temporal inter-comparison of data normal water acidity conditions do not requires a sampling strategy that is dissolve in water and once discharged representative for the total suspended attach to a particle and either sink to sediment transport. This is almost im- the bottom or remain suspended for possible with the sampling frequency some time. This particulate phase is normally applied by national monitor- what monitoring is focused on and ing agencies. Including one high-turbid therefore pollution is indicated by par- sample or not in a data set may com- ticulate metal content to one gram of pletely change the resulting averages. suspended sediments (µg/g). On the other hand, one has also to The following focuses on a review point out that the contamination of 17 Mediterranean rivers based on problem is still a major problem for the data with different reference periods. analysis of heavy metals. National Studies on heavy metals in general monitoring agencies usually charge 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL face an important difficulty in distin- public laboratories for the analytics, guishing the human input from the doing routinely a great number of natural background. However, Medi- samples of different origins. In fact, terranean rivers are affected by man- the analysis of drinking or surface induced heavy metal pollutants, espe- water may be followed by the analysis cially mercury, cadmium and lead. of wastewater or sewage sludge in the The Po and Rhone rivers, for same place with the same instrument, instance, show elevated concentra- which can lead to a great deal of tions for all of the heavy metals invalid data and misinterpretation of reviewed here (Cd; Cr; Cu; Hg; Zn —Po; the environmental process. Ni; Pb —Rhone), especially for Po. For these reasons, we refer in this An assessment of the average study mainly to studies that were con- metal contents and loads in Mediterra- ducted by independent research insti- nean rivers is more difficult for heavy tutions, applying ultra-clean tech- metals than for other pollutants, such niques for the analytics. as nutrients, because it can hardly rely The loads of lead and cadmium for on the data regularly collected by coastal city treatment plants are as national monitoring programs. Two low as one percent of the loads carried reasons are responsible for that. On the through atmospheric contamination. one hand, many monitoring programs Zinc discharges of wastewater plants only measure total metals without fil- are an exceptional case where cities’ tering the sample, although the utility share of pollution is relatively more 69 significant than for other elements, countries located around the Mediter- although still less than 25 percent of ranean Sea contribute to observed atmospheric contamination. deposition levels. Approximately 65 % of Pb deposited to the basin can be Atmospheric deposition accounted for by the emissions in the It should be noted that for metals, Mediterranean countries and the rainwater data is very scarce probably remaining 35 % is from emissions in because of the difficulties involved in non-Mediterranean countries in the analysis of the extremely low levels. Europe. Among these countries The existing data on metal composition Bulgaria, which contributes 5 % to of rainwater and wet deposition fluxes total atmospheric Pb input to the Me- of metals are confined to Northwestern diterranean, Romania, which accounts Mediterranean. Unfortunately, very few for 3 % of total Pb deposition and data on the metal concentrations in Ukraine, which accounts for 5 %, are rainwater exist for the rest of the the most important ones. It should be Mediterranean Sea. This is a serious noted that contribution of these coun- drawback for a basin-wide assessment tries to Pb input to the Mediterranean of wet deposition fluxes of metals. are higher than contributions of many There is a relatively even pattern Mediterranean countries. of deposition of Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn and Hg Spain, Italy and France account between the West and East Mediterra- for 63 % of total Cd deposition to the nean. Pb concentrations show in- Mediterranean. Most of the Cd decreased values close to coastal posited to the Mediterranean is emit- waters because of road traffic emis- ted in the Mediterranean region. Non- sions. Roads are very close to the Mediterranean European countries coast in the Mediterranean region and account only for approximately 10 % coastal sites are therefore impacted of Cd deposition in the entire basin. from Pb emissions. The contribution of countries out- Not all of the metal load deposit- side the Mediterranean basin to Hg ed will be available for use by marine deposition in the Mediterranean Sea is organisms, however. Although the significant. These countries account exact degree of metal solubility for approximately 40 % of Hg deposited remains an open question, according to the Mediterranean Sea. The remain- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY to Guerzoni et al. (1999), approxi- ing 60 % of deposited Hg is emitted mately 49–82 % of Cu, 68–76 % of Zn, from Mediterranean countries. Spain, 21–65 % of Pb and 75–92 % of Cd Italy and France account for 56 % of Hg deposited to the Mediterranean Sea deposition, with the remaining 44 % of are in soluble form and can be readi- annual Hg deposition contributed by ly utilised by organisms. the other 16 countries. As regards basin-wide deposition This discussion shows that more of metals, the only information on than half of the annual metal deposi- quantitative source-receptor relation in the Mediterranean region is tionship comes from EMEP modelling due to emissions from Mediterranean exercises. countries. Among the Mediterranean Based on the modelling results, countries, France, Spain and Italy are the main contributors to Pb deposition the highest contributors. Greece, in the Mediterranean Sea are Spain, Turkey, Serbia and Montenegro make France, Italy and Greece. These four up the second group. The remaining countries account for approximately Mediterranean countries do not con- 70 % of Pb deposited in the whole tribute to metal deposition signifi- 70 basin. Both European countries and cantly. However, it should be noted that the model study from which the icant part of the biosphere is uncont- data are obtained does not provide aminated by them. The two main cat- information on different regions in egories of the organochlorines meas- the Mediterranean basin. This group- ured in the MED POL programme are ing of countries may change in differ- chlorinated pesticides and polychlo- ent sub-regions depending on the rinated biphenyls (PCBs). proximity of that particular area to The most widely distributed group emissions. of chlorinated pesticides is that of the Countries outside the Mediterra- DDT family. Apart from DDT, its nean region also contribute to metal metabolites (DDE and DDD) are also deposition to the Mediterranean Sea. widely observed in the marine environ- Among these, Bulgaria, Romania and ment and may sometimes have a Ukraine appear to be the most greater environmental impact. important. Starting in the 1940s, these compounds were produced and utilised in 2.3.6.3 Persistent toxic substances (PTSs) vast quantities all over the world as This section discusses the sources of PTSs in the insecticides. Subsequently in the Mediterranean and their effects on seawater quality. 1950s and 1960s there was an alarming The levels of PTSs found in biodiversity are discussed in decrease in bird and marine mammal Section 2.1.5.3.b above. populations. This fact, in combination with evidence from laboratory experi- a. Chlorinated pesticides ments indicating toxic effects on Chlorinated hydrocarbons sources organisms exposed to organochlorines and concentration levels led many countries in the northern Organochlorines are a group of hemisphere to ban or strictly regulate organic compounds containing chlo- the use of such compounds in the rine. They are by far the most impor- 1970s. Most Mediterranean countries tant group of persistent organic pol- reported to DAO that in 1985 no chlori- lutants (POPs), since they are char- nated pesticides were used for agricul- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL acterized by high resistance to pho- tural purposes, with the exception of tolytic, biological or chemical degra- gamma-HCH (Lindane), which is con- dation. This fact, in combination with sidered one of the least persistent their low water and high lipid solubil- organochlorines and is still used. ity, leads to their accumulation in According to GESAMP (1990), the fatty tissues of marine organisms. major route of entry of organochlo- They are widespread in the environ- rines into the marine environment is ment and it is unlikely that any signif- through the atmosphere.

Table 2.10 Concentrations (in ng/g ww) of Organochlorinated Compounds in Samples of Fish Tissues collected in the NW Mediterranean

Fish species Habitat DDTs (DDT+D) HCB PCBs (∑7) References Mullus sp. Coastal 4.4–16.8 1.6–6.7 8.7–20.3 — Dicentratchus sp. — 2.6–4.0 0.6–0.8 4.4–6.2 — Lepidorombus sp. Mesopelagic 0.8±0.2 — 2.1±0.3 — Physics sp. — 0.4±0.1 — 1.0±0.2 — Lepidion sp. Deep sea 6.0–7.1 0.14–0.17 8.3–9.4 Porte et al., 2001 Coryphaenoides sp. — 1.9–4.3 0.25–0.67 2.5–4.6 — Bathypterois sp. — 5.0–10.2 0.12–0.25 6.0–10.0 — Mora moro — 7.4–12.6 — 9.0– Solé et al., 1998 71 Among specific uses of DDT still in practice is its production as input to Dicofol as well as application to flori- culture and plant cultures (UNEP/GEF, 2002). • Levels / Loads Concentrations of dissolved DDTs in water samples collected in 1993 in the Western Mediterra- nean (0.8–4.3 pg L-1) were one order of magnitude higher than in the corresponding particulate phase (0.16–0.98 pg L-1). Suspen- ded particulate matter at the Ebro and Rhone River mouths exhibited a surface enrichment indicating a certain riverine input to sea. However, about 80 percent of the input consisted of DDE, indicating a large prevalence of weathered residues (Dachs et al., 1997). Concentra- tions were slightly higher in the continental shelf waters than in the open sea surface. A vertical gradient was also observed in the Straits of Sicily and Gibraltar, which has implications in the exchanges of pollutants with the adjacent seas. Concentrations of dissolved DDT metabolites 2,4’-DDT, 4,4’- DDD and 4,4’-DDE were detected TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY in significant amounts in estuarine water samples of Axios, Loudias and Aliakmon rivers as well as of Thermaikos Gulf during 1992 and 1993 (5–31 ng/l) (Alba- nis et al. 1994; Albanis et al., 1995a). Similar concentrations (1–29 ng/l) were also detected in estuaries of Louros and Arachthos rivers as well as in marine wetlands of Amvrakikos Gulf in North- west Greece during the period from March 1992 to February 1993 (Albanis et al. 1995a; Albanis et al., 1995b). Figure 2.30 shows data on PCBs and DDT in sediments according 72 to published literature. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) ranged from 0.06 to 0.12 ng/l, HCB is predominantly an industrial whereas values one order of mag- product, although its sources (as a nitude lower were found in the marine contaminant) are still not pre- Western basin. Higher concentra- cisely known (UNEP/MAP, 1996a). It is tions were observed near terrestri- mainly used as a fumigant and a fungi- al run-off and river inputs. cide in grain storage. HCB was also Particulate matter had higher con- used in some countries in the produc- centration than the seawater dis- tion of fireworks and to manufacture solved phase (Jeftic et al., 1989). synthetic rubber. Nowadays these uses Concentrations of dissolved a- are banned in most countries. HCB is HCH, b-HCH and lindane were also formed as a by-product, impurity detected in significant amounts in or residue in some industrial processes. estuarine water samples of Axios, For example it is generated as by-prod- Loudias and Aliakmon rivers as well uct during the manufacturing of chlori- as of Thermaikos Gulf during 1992 nated solvents, it is found as impurity and 1993 (1–30 ng/l) (Albanis et in some pesticides, and it is formed al. 1994). Similar concentrations during the incineration of municipal (2–11 ng/l,) were also detected in and hazardous wastes. HCB emissions estuaries of Louros and Arachthos also take place during coating applica- rivers as well as in marine wetlands tion and curing processes in metal sur- of Amvrakikos Gulf in Northwest faces, during the production of sili- Greece during the period from cone-based products, during the man- March 1992 to February 1993 ufacturing of hydrochloric acid, etc. (Albanis et al., 1995a; Albanis et • Levels / Loads al. 1995b). Western Mediterranean coastal waters exhibited concentrations of Dieldrin, Aldrin and Endrin dissolved HCB in the range of The main uses of Aldrin are to con- 0.9–4.3 pg/l, with higher values trol insects on cotton, corn and citrus 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL offshore the Rhone River (10 pg/l) crops, as a wood preservative and for (Grimalt et al., 1988; Burns et al., termite control. In EU countries, its uses 1987). The concentrations in the are very restricted (for some of them dissolved and particulate phases written authorisation is required) and found at the bays of the Ebro delta, some of them are banned (i.e., plant were in the range of 1.0–4.1 and protection use is banned since 1995). 12–31 pg/l, respectively (Grimalt, Dieldrin is easily derived from et al. 1988). Aldrin. Dieldrin is used to control soil plagues and for the treatment of seeds. Hexachlorohexanes Several countries of the region have HCHs are a mixture of isomers of adopted measures to ban this com- which one (gamma-HCH, lindane) is an pound including Israel, Portugal, Turkey insecticide. The atmosphere is the main and the European Union. pathway (99 percent of total input) in Endrin is not included in the PIC the global distribution of HCHs, but Convention, so there are few data they are highly soluble in water so they available. The main uses of Endrin are may be washed out of the atmosphere as a pesticide on cotton, rice, sugar by rain and accumulate in aquatic cane and corn, but at present its use is biota (UNEP/MAP, 1996a). banned or restricted in most of the • Levels countries. In the Mediterranean region, Lindane levels off shore in the Algeria, Cyprus, Israel and Greece have Eastern Mediterranean basin banned all uses, while France, Italy, 73 Portugal and Spain allow very limited time allowed for this ambitious project applications. was too short for any in-depth study of • Levels / Loads each and all pollution sources in the Several studies have been car- Mediterranean. For this reason and by ried out in the mouth of some the fact that the results were pooled for rivers (see section 4.2.7) but no each of the eleven UNEP Mediterranean data are available for seawater. regions, the project did not fulfil the requirements of its first objective, to b. Assessment of major pathways provide the basis for national manage- of PTSs ment and control plans. Discharges via rivers Due to the difficulties and the High pesticide concentrations uncertainties involved in the complex have been found in some specific computations and extrapolations car- studies and are believed to occur in ried out, the results could not be bet- many small rivers that are affected by ter than rough estimates reliable intensive agriculture. The type of pes- within an error margin of one order of ticides may vary from one river to magnitude. Some of these results were another and from one country to proved, at a later stage, to be even another. However, most rivers are not worse. Only a comparative assessment adequately monitored for PTS in order of the regional contributions to the to assess loads, even though they are pollution load could be made. The re- very important. sults showed that the heaviest loads During MED POL Phase I (1975– are discharged into the northwestern 1980), it was attempted through the basin with one-third of the total pol- project MED X to estimate the quantity lution load. The Adriatic Sea receives and nature of riverine inputs in the about one-quarter of the total load. region. The project met with consider- Moderate pollution loads are encoun- able difficulties. Country responses tered in the Tyrrhenian and the Aegean were geographically almost restricted Seas, as they receive each about 10 % to the Northern Mediterranean. Sam- of the total load. The other Mediterra- pling frequency, sample pre-treatment, nean Sea areas each account for no analytical methods and reporting for- more than 5 % of the total. mats varied widely. Some pollutants More recently, accurate estimates TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY were rarely analysed (metals, specific have been obtained for some French organics, organochlorines). Field mea- rivers using linear regression and aver- surements of domestic sewage and age weighted flow models. A survey industrial wastewater were very limited. was carried out during 1994–95 at the No field measurements on agricultural lower course of the Rhone River, far run-off were available. Among 68 rivers from the any marine influence. An registered, only 30 were adequately important conclusion was that the monitored except for PTS. large supply of fresh water (> 70 %) In view of the limitations and diffi- and consequently of dissolved species, culties encountered, assessments of corresponds to the medium-low flow the pollution loads from land-based regimes, whereas the contribution of source (LBS) categories have been car- large flows (> 5000 m3/s) represents ried out, largely, by indirect computa- less than 10 % of the total input. On tions and extrapolations. They have the contrary, these regimes contribute been worked out taking into account with about 80 % of the total input of demographic statistics, the GNP of the suspended particles. All pollutants, countries, industrial production and and notably PTS attached to the parti- 74 manpower, and agricultural data. The cles, are carried to the sea in such episodic events. A preliminary survey c. PCBs has also been recently conducted in PCBs have been produced indus- the Seine River, only for dissolved PTS. trially since 1929 and were manufac- The calculation included dieldrin, tured in many industrial countries, aldrin, endosulfan, heptachlor, HCB, including some on the Mediterranean. a-HCH, c-HCH, pp’-DDE and PCBs They are complex mixtures of biphenyl (seven congeners) as reported in compounds with different degrees of Table 2.11. The load of Lindane was chlorination. 209 homologues and consistent with the use of this com- isomers exist. In the past they were pound in the preceding years (1,500 used as dielectric fluids in transform- tonnes/yr) but the DDE is reflecting ers and capacitors and in hydraulic the leaching of the existing environ- and heat transfer fluids, but now mental stock. there are restrictions in their use. The Similar calculations performed in elimination of old electric appliances the Ebro River in the 1980s gave inputs remains an important source of envi- one order of magnitude lower, consis- ronmental pollution by these com- tent with the difference in water flows pounds. Combustion of PCBs can lead (dieldrin and aldrin, 1 kg/yr; DDTs, 8 to the formation of toxic chlorinated kg/yr; chlordane, 2 kg/yr; PCBs, 12–25 furans and dioxins. kg/yr; HCB about 30 kg/yr; and endo- PCBs, as other organohalogens, sulfan, 1.5 kg/yr) (Cid et al., 1990). An enter the sea by and large through input of 157 kg/yr of PCBs (∑ 7 congs) atmospheric deposition accounting has been reported in 1999 for the for 80 percent of loads (UNEP/MAP, Guadalquivir (OSPAR, 2001). A study 1996a) and through rivers for the carried out in 1993 in Turkey to assess remaining part. the riverine pollutant loads to the • Levels / Loads Black Sea has provided figures in the PCB concentrations in the order of 11 tonnes of aldrin, 31 tonnes northwestern Mediterranean were of dieldrin, 180 tonnes of endrin and comparable to those of other 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL 500 tonnes of DDT per year, with the regional seas, such as the North Sakarya river being the most important Sea, the Pacific, Indian and source. Considering the other data, it Antarctic oceans according to is possible that these figures are large- 1990 reports (Tolosa, 1996). ly overestimated. In fact, the determi- Even though PCBs exhibit high nation of river inputs requires not only particle / dissolved concentra- reliable analytical data, but also an tion ratios, the low levels of sus- optimisation of the sampling strategy pended particles in Mediterra- and statistical evaluation of data nean waters (0.4–1 mg/l) make (modelling), due to the large variabil- the dissolved phase of the open ity of hydrologic regimes of the sea the dominant reservoir of Mediterranean rivers. PCBs. In vertical profiles meas-

Table 2.11 PTS Inputs (in kg/yr) of the Rhone and Seine Rivers into the Sea

River Dieldrin Aldrin DDTs PCBs HCB A-HCH C-HCH (∑ 7 congs) Rhone (1994–95)* Dissolved – – 230 – 14 124 360 Particulate 33 – 51 304 157 23 21 Seine (2000) Dissolved 13 6.3 6.3 – 6.5 79 85 * Qualité des Eaux du Rhône, Évolution 1969–1995, July 1999, Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerranée-Corse. 75 ured in the Gulf of Lions in first step was to estimate the number 1982–83, PCBs recovered from of ships longer than 25 metres. The the particulate fractions of sur- sea traffic of ships that met the face samples ranged from 32–65 requirements was considered. On one percent, whereas in deep waters hand, it was accorded that roughly with lower suspended particle 20 % of merchant marine sail across loads, the fraction was from the Mediterranean Sea; this repre- 11–19 percent (Burns and Ville- sents some 17,000 ships. On the neuve, 1987). other hand, it is supposed that more Finally, a large water sampling than 4,000 ships smaller than 500 was carried out in 1993–94 in the tonnes but longer than 25 metres Western Mediterranean, includ- also circulate in this area. Thus the ing the straits of Sicily and Gib- number of ships considered in this raltar (Dachs et al., 1997). Con- study amounts to a total of 21,000. centrations of dissolved PCBs The average surface in touch with the were almost one order of magni- water that has been considered for tude higher than in the corre- each unit is about 700 m2, so the sur- sponding particulate phase. face susceptive of discharging is Suspended particulate matter at 14,700,000 m2. the Ebro mouth exhibited higher It must be remarked that the dis- concentrations than at the charge rate considered for the esti- Rhone River mouth. A spatial mation of losses of TBTs into the sea, it gradient was also observed from has been chosen upward, bearing in the continental shelf (3.5–26.6 mind that the leaching rate given in pg/l) towards the open sea the IMO regulations is the maximum (1.7–6.6 pg/l). A relatively im- value. So, having considered the for- portant enrichment (8.4 pg/l) mer rate, as well as the total surface was found in open sea stations of ships we obtain the following located in higher productivity approximate release rate: 588 kg/day. frontal zones. This results in an approximate annual release of 214 tonnes of TBT from d. TBTs commercial shipping. The main source of TBTs in the According to previous discus- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY region is through their release from sions, the hot spots for TBT release in antifouling paint in ships. In January the Mediterranean are associated with 2003, however, the new IMO Conven- the major commercial harbours in the tion banning the use of TBT com- Region. We can stretch further the pounds in ship paints entered into previous calculations and deduce force, changing the situation. As far where the Mediterranean areas, paras the present is concerned, there are ticularly around harbours, where larg- no available data about the annual er inputs are in fact located. amount of TBT released to the Medi- Following the MED POL practice, terranean Sea. An effort has been the Mediterranean Sea has been made in this report to estimate the divided into different areas because releases of TBTs to the Mediterranean of the difficulty of estimating the Sea due to maritime activities. exact percentage discharged in the The total discharges of TBT may main harbours. Then, an estimation of be estimated on the basis of leaching the sea traffic in each zone for ships rates. The IMO has recommended a larger than 25 m and with a metallic maximum leaching rate of 4 boat hull has been done; the results 76 mg/cm2/day at 25°C. Therefore, the are shown in Table 2.12. Table 2.12 Estimated Distribution of TBTs in the Mediterranean Sea

Zone Countries Sea traffic / (main harbours) Annual TBT release North / West Spain (Marbella, Alacant, Valencia, Balearic Islands, 26 % / 56 tonnes Barcelona), Monaco, France (Marseille, Nice, Toulon), Italy (Genoa, La Spezia, Livorno) Centre / North France (Corsica), Italy (Cagliari, Catania, Palermo, 28 % / 60 tonnes Civitavecchia, Napoli, Venice, Trieste), Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia & Montenegro, Albania North / Oriental Greece (Piraeus, Iraklion), Turkey (Istanbul, Izmir, 16 % / 34 tonnes Anatolian Peninsula) South / East Syria, Israel (Haifa), Lebanon (Beirut), Cyprus 13 % / 28 tonnes (Famagusta, Limassol), Egypt (Port Said, Alexandria) South / Central Libya (Banghazi, Marsa al Burayqah, Tripoli, El Brega), 3 % / 6 tonnes Malta (La Valletta), Tunisia (oriental coast) South / West Tunisia (Tunis), Algeria (Alger), Morocco (Ceuta, 14 % / 30 tonnes Melilla, Algeciras)

e. Polycyclic aromatic the last ten years (EEA, 2002). There hydrocarbons (PAHs) are no figures or estimates available Origins and major pathways regarding the amount of petroleum of PAHs hydrocarbons carried directly through Sea transportation appears to be land run-off into the Mediterranean. one of the main sources of PAHs pol- Lipiatou et al. (1997) estimated that lution into the Mediterranean. It has the total PAH riverine inputs amount been estimated that about 220,000 to about 5.3 to 33 tonnes per year vessels of more than 100 tonnes each, from the Rhone river and 1.3 tonnes cross the Mediterranean each year from the Ebro river. The difference in and about 250,000 tonnes of petrole- these riverine fluxes is due to differ- um hydrocarbons are discharged due ences in the annual water discharges 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL to shipping operations such as debal- and upstream land use. lasting, tank-washing, dry-docking, An additional source of PAHs is the fuel and bilge oil, etc. result of the sewage sludge management strategies. The three major Accidental pollution sludge producer countries, France, Between 1987 and the end of 1996 Italy and Spain generate an annual an estimated amount of 22,000 load of 2.9 tonnes of PAHs. Of those, tonnes of oil entered the Mediterra- some 1.2 tonnes are spread in the fields nean Sea as the result of shipping due to the use of sludge in agricultural incidents. This figure was derived by applications, and an additional 1.2 REMPEC from reports on all spill inci- tonnes per year are input in the soil via dents in the Mediterranean region landfilling, while some 180 kg/yr are that are regularly received from its returned to the atmosphere mainly National Focal Points and from Lloyd’s through sludge incineration in France. Casualty Reporting Service. On an An additional 220 kg/yr are dumped annual basis there are about 60 mar- into the Mediterranean through sludge itime accidents in the Mediterranean dumping in Spain. of which 15 involve ships causing oil As regards atmospheric inputs, and chemical spills. Lipiatou et al. (1997) reported a total The land-based discharges are PAH input ranging from 35 to 70 tonnes both industrial and urban. These oil per year with a mean value of 47.5 discharges seem to be constant since tonnes (wet / dry mean ratio of ~2–3). 77 Accidental pollution is usually fuel that is classified as a “persistent” related to oil tanker major casualties, and consequently dangerous pollu- such as foundering, grounding, fire tant. In fact heavy fuel used to feed and explosion, collision at sea with most of the high-powered so-called another vessel, contact in a port with “diesel” marine engines is not differ- a quay, a pier or a bridge. These cargo ent from the heavy fuel carried in the oil spills, often involving large quan- cargo tanks of the ill-fated ERIKA. tities of hydrocarbons, attract the Therefore, a spillage from the bunkers attention of the public through their of a very large and relatively fast ship wide coverage by the media, showing such as the most recent post-Panamax terrific pictures of blackened beaches container cargo vessel of 7,000 to and of dead or dying oily birds, otters 8,000 TEU with a propulsive engine in or seals. the range of 80,000 bhp, may cause It should be reminded here that oil more serious damages to the marine accidental pollution may also be gen- environment than the total shipment erated by similar casualties involving of gasoline or even naphtha of a any other type of ship whose bunker 20,000 dwt product tanker. The total tanks and / or luboil ones happen to be bunker capacity of such a vessel is in fractured and release their contents in the range of 11,000 tonnes of which the sea. The volume leaked in most of nearly 90 percent is heavy fuel. these oil bunker spill cases is normally Out of a world total of 8,395 regis- much smaller than the one spilled from tered events, 1,246 have taken place in one of several cargo tank(s) of a dam- a geographical area covering the Me- aged oil tanker, but the quantity of diterranean and Black Seas as well as pollutant entering the sea is only one the Suez Canal. The corresponding per- of the factors to be taken into consid- centage of the world total (14.8) is eration to evaluate the seriousness of only exceeded by the Northwestern a given pollution event for the marine European area —21 percent— and the and coastal environment. Bunkers are wide Far East and Australia area: 18.4 at present mainly composed of heavy percent. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

78 From the same major casualties Routine operation pollution statistical analysis it appears that, Over and above accidental oil among the “Fire / explosion” events spills, the Mediterranean receives high recorded all over the world during the amounts of operational oil pollution. period, 21.7 percent took place in the Due to limited regular aerial surveil- Mediterranean / Black seas area. The lance in the region compared to other corresponding percentage for “Foun- “Special Areas” such as the Baltic Sea dered vessel” events was 16.9 per- and the Northwest European waters, cent, and the one for “Collisions” was and the resulting lack of regional sta- 16.3. Thus, the frequency of the above tistics on pollution arising from rou- casualty categories that are more tine ship operations, estimating oper- likely to provoke cargo and bunker ational oil pollution in the Mediterra- spills was higher for the considered nean has been incomplete. A recent area than the world average. The study by the EU (EC, 2001), using re- especially high percentage of “Fire connaissance carried out over the and explosions” in the Mediterranean entire Mediterranean region through Basin should probably be related to the analysis of ERS-1 and SAR images the importance of oil and chemical presents the following data for the tanker trades in this area, as the ships year 1999. of these types are particularly ex- A considerable number of the posed to this category of casualty. detected oil spills (38.5 percent) dur- Such a global and regional Marine ca- ing the year 1999, were considered to sualty analysis has not been repeated represent without doubt spilling in for a more recent period; however, action. The total area of the 1,638 when the yearly number of major detected spills was estimated to be casualties at the world level happily 17,141 km2. An estimated 13,858 has been on the decrease, there is no metric tones of spilled oil was esti- indication that neither their geo- mated from the satellite images. This graphical distribution nor their typol- amount, considered by many re- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ogy has been much modified during searchers to be a conservative esti- the last decade. mate, is already four times greater Obviously, detailed knowledge of than the average amount of oil spilled the distribution by cargo categories in the region due to shipping acci- volumes and geographical routes of dents (REMPEC, 1998). the merchant ships’ traffic flows and Taking into account the volumes marine casualties is required to ascer- of oily wastes received daily in the tain the environmental risks generat- Mediterranean port facilities and the ed by Maritime Transport activities in number of ships operating in the ports, coastal areas and open sea in a region, it appears clear that dumping given marine area. This requirement is in sea of oily wastes remains the not well addressed in the present favourite option of the ship Masters state of collection and dissemination in the Mediterranean. There are many of sea-borne trade statistics, as it will reasons for such behaviour: be explained hereafter. • Waste oil receiving facilities are In general, the direct ecological absent in many Mediterranean impact is mainly on birds and marine ports; mammals, less so on fish and inverte- • The access to the receiving fa- brates. From the economic point of cilities is usually time consuming; view, the most directly affected activ- • The Mediterranean Port States ities are fishing, fish farming and are not able to identify small oil tourism. spillage; 79 • Even if an oil spillage is identi- primarily to protect the environment, fied, a cost-benefit analysis but rather for a tactical discretion between the money paid as purpose. penalty and the loss of time for The major source of petroleum oily waste disposal in the port hydrocarbon pollution in the marine is in favour of the dumping in environment results mainly from dis- the sea. charge of oily water and residues Most operational pollution causes resulting from the washing and debal- are common to all types of merchant lasting at sea of the cargo tanks. ships (and to many non-merchant Similar problems exist for chemical ones). Some are related to propulsion tankers carrying hazardous sub- plants: oily water and wastes collect- stances. The operational discharge of ed in machinery space bilge tanks, oil comprises also effluents of oily nitrogen acid and other pollutants in bilge water and residues from the machinery exhaust fumes; others to machinery space of all ships. the crew and passengers: garbage and According the IMO MARPOL Con- sewage; others to the ship’s mainte- vention, the Mediterranean Sea has nance and operation: cleaning of been designated as a “Special Area” tanks and piping before repairs, anti- and harmful discharge of hydrocar- fouling organotin paints, unwanted bons is not permitted. Nevertheless, aquatic organism and pathogens fund the problem of operational oil pollu- in ships’ ballast water and sediment tion persists. discharges. The estimated volume of oily However, some well-publicised wastes from tanker operations (espe- pollution causes are specific to the cially deballasting) reaches 450,000 operation of a certain ship type / metric tonnes. Discharges of “oily cargo category combination. The most bilge waters, sludge and used luboils infamous is the operational discharge from ships” are supposed to represent of oil and / or oily wastes at sea as the a further 60,000 metric tonnes (UNEP/ consequence of the washing of cargo- MAP, 1997). tanks of an oil tanker after unloading a shipment of crude or petroleum 2.3.6.4 Pollution Hot Spots products and before loading the next The MED POL report on priority pollution hot TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY one or undertaking a maintenance or spots and pollution sensitive areas developed in 1997 repair operation. The same kind of includes the list of pollution hot spots and sensitive problem exists for tank cleaning in areas not only in GEF-eligible countries, but in all Medi- chemical and LPG tankers which has to terranean countries. In 2002 a revised list of pollution be carried-out each time a cargo hot spots and sensitive areas was developed taking into change occurs in a given tank or group consideration the potential transboundary effect of of tanks. those hot spots, if any. For the selection of pollution hot Fishing and pleasure craft are also spots for pre-investment studies, the aim was to pre- sources of operational pollution and pare a list of such hot spots taking fully into account the the latter are particularly numerous transboundary potential effect of pollution according along the Northern shores of the to established and agreed criteria. The updated list of Mediterranean Sea. A possible, but pollution hot spots and pollution sensitive areas is practically not documented, pollution shown in Annexes III and IV. These hot spots are shown source derives from warship opera- on Figure 2.32, together with pollution sensitive areas. tions in the Mediterranean Sea. In fact, the NATO navies units are well Definition of Pollution Hot Spots equipped and their crews well trained • Point sources on the coast of the Me- 80 to avoid operational pollution, not diterranean Sea which potentially affect human health, ecosystems, Pollution Sensitive Areas biodiversity, sustainability or econ- in the Mediterranean Countries omy in a significant manner. They are Pollution sensitive areas of the the main points where high levels of Mediterranean basin are of great pollution loads originating from importance because of their potential domestic or industrial sources are capacity to become, if not protected, being discharged; future pollution hot spots. If such a 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL • Defined coastal areas where the development takes place, sensitive coastal marine environment is sub- areas will require huge investments for ject to pollution from one or more their rehabilitation, instead of very points or diffused sources on the moderate ones for their actual pro- coast of the Mediterranean that tection. potentially affect human health in a In the document on the “Identifi- significant manner, ecosystems, bio- cation of Priority Pollution Hot Spots diversity, sustainability or economy. and Sensitive Area in the Mediterra- nean Sea” (UNEP/WHO, 1999), sensi- Pollution Hot Spots Indicators tive areas are defined: (primary) “Estuaries and coastal waters of • BOD, COD; natural or socioeconomic value are • nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen); considered sensitive areas if they are • total suspended solids; at higher risk to suffer negative • oil (petroleum hydrocarbons); impacts from human activities. • heavy metals; Natural characteristics may deter- • persistent organic pollutants; mine the vulnerability of a coastal • radioactive substances (whenever system, for example a bay with low applicable); flushing rates is more sensitive to pol- • litter; lution impacts than one, which is well • microorganisms (faecal coliforms, flushed. Human activities determine E. coli). the level of risk; hence planned devel- 81 opment may increase the risk of envi- about 3 million tonnes and shellfish at more than 12,000 ronmental degradation. Both vulnera- tonnes annually. Health risks that may stem from con- bility and risk contribute to the sensi- sumption of contaminated fish / shellfish or ingestion tivity of a particular area or system in of contaminated water while bathing are therefore the context of this assessment”. important public health concerns that extend beyond It has to be clarified that sensitive the boundaries of the basin. areas are not protected areas of great Although there has been significant progress ecological value. Sensitive areas are in combating health-threatening pollution in the Me- aquatic environments already pollut- diterranean, the quality of recreational and shellfish ed, which will become hot spots if no waters still gives rise to concerns. A wide disparity action is taken. Their “sensitivity” exists between regions in data available on the extent refers to their imminent environmen- of damage to human health resulting from waterborne tal degradation. contaminants. The lack of data makes it difficult to Annex IV exhibits the list of pollu- accurately assess the overall situation at present. tion sensitive areas per Mediterranean However, existing evidence suggests that there is a country together with the type of pol- basis for justification of action on an international lution and the proposed actions to be level to mitigate adverse health outcomes arising considered to prevent the develop- from marine pollution. ment of the area into a Hot Spot. 2.4.1 Transboundary elements 2.4 Human Health Risks The human health aspects related to the Medi- Environmental degradation of the Mediterra- terranean Sea have transboundary aspects to them. nean ultimately affects the health of humans who rely Although, as for pollution, much of the input is local on it for fishing, for food supply, and for recreation. and therefore more or less identifiable, the transport of This section surveys the risks to human health tied to the pollutants may achieve transboundary character. microbiological and chemical contamination of the For instance, currents may move pollutants from waters, the main routes by which the pollution affects place-to-place. Migratory fish (such as tuna and human health, and the state of information currently swordfish) may bioaccumulate contaminants and then available. Although GEF actions are addressed primari- translate human health risks to other parts of their ly at ecosystem effects, the stakeholders involved in range. Fish products are distributed from country-to- preparing the TDA felt that human health risks were a country in and out of the Mediterranean, so any exports major priority in the region. Hence its inclusion as one may affect other countries. Finally, vacation-goers the MPPIs. The human health risks discussed here are may take disease back to their countries from illnesses TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY linked to the social-economic impacts of the third caught while swimming in the Mediterranean (hepatitis MPPI: decline in water quality. However, in this section A being one example). they are described in more detail, with specific linkages In summary, the major transboundary elements to the contaminant issues raised in the previous sec- of the Human Health issue are: tion (2.3). • Export trade of contaminated seafood dif- The damage marine pollution might inflict on fuses health concerns both throughout and human health is a highly sensitive topic since the sea beyond the Mediterranean basin; plays a major socio-economic role in all Mediterranean • Demand for seafood linked to foreign travel to states. Apart from the approximately 130 million inhab- the Mediterranean exposes tourists to health itants living permanently along the coastline and inter- risks from contaminated seafood; acting frequently with the water, another over 100 addi- • Risks of adverse health impacts from bathing tional million tourists visit the area annually. During the in contaminated seawater, including dis- summer months, the sea constitutes the main recre- eases such as gastroenteritis, ear, skin and ational amenity for local and tourist populations alike eye infections, and viral diseases like hepati- and tourism is a significant economic lifeline for many tis A and cholera; and areas. Seafood harvested from the Mediterranean is an • Superficial or deep mucoses from contact important part of the diet in the region with consump- with contaminated beach sand while vaca- 82 tion of finfish (imported and homegrown) estimated at tioning in Mediterranean coastal zones. 2.4.2 Environmental impacts infections linked to travel in the Mediterranean give There are no known environmental impacts grounds for such concerns. Stille et al. (1972) esti- arising from human health issues, other than perhaps mated that as many as 19 percent of infectious hepa- introduction of pathogens from the Mediterranean to titis cases occurring in Frankfurt were attributable to other areas of the Mediterranean due to consumption consumption of contaminated oysters and mussels in or other human or animal exposure to pathogens from the Mediterranean by German tourists. the Mediterranean. There has been no documentation • Particular seafood consumer groups exposed of such instances, however, to merit this as a great to risks of adverse health outcomes, person- environmental concern. al distress in addition to high healthcare costs. 2.4.3 Socio-economic impacts Another group of socio-economic concerns Major socio-economic impacts arise from spe- arises from public health risks and associated health cific problems related to human exposure to viral or care costs for particularly exposed population groups. pathogenic agents, such as: Occupational exposure of individuals employed in the • Transmission of viral, bacterial and other fisheries sector is much higher for substances such as infections from polluted waters to man with methylmercury and PCBs. The effects of these persist- short-term adverse health impacts; ent toxic substances would cause individual distress • Public health risks of methylmercury poison- and represent an economic cost to society in terms of ing linked to high seafood consumption with increased health care expenses. long-term impacts; • Occupational hazards posed by marine pol- • Public health risks from toxic effects of PCB lution pose public health and social welfare and dioxin linked to high seafood consump- issues. tion with long-term impacts; Moreover, in case toxicity of certain seafoods • Public health risks from cumulative unknown rises further, the whole fisheries sector would be sub- effects of chemical contaminants as well as ject to adverse large-scale repercussions. The conse- their combined unknown action on humans in quences of potential decline in demand due to health the long run; concerns on seafood consumption, loss of employ- • Public health risks from consumption of ment and regional decline in some areas would have toxin-contaminated fish and shellfish multiple adverse socio-economic consequences. 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL Any increase in health risks from marine pollution can have adverse economic consequences, mainly 2.4.4 Causal Chain Analysis for the tourism, recreation and fisheries sectors in the The causal chain analysis for this issue is essen- Mediterranean. tially the same as for the third MPPI: decline in seawa- • Loss of income from tourism related to ter quality. In order for risk to human health to occur, health concerns associated with travel in the two criteria must be satisfied. First, there must be a Mediterranean. toxicity associated with the contaminants of concern. Concern about actual as well as potential Second, there must be some exposure pathway. health effects could make the basin less attractive as Without toxicity there is no risk. Without pathway for a tourist destination. The nature of tourism character- exposure, there is no risk. ized by prolonged exposure to waters and long bathing Hence, the causal chain analysis for this human season exacerbates risks of exposure to marine pollu- health factor can be summarized by the mechanisms tion. Another concern arises from overcrowded beach that generate toxicity. This is the same mechanistic conditions known to facilitate transmission of infec- framework as that generating decline in seawater tious diseases. quality. Second, there must be a mechanism leading to • Seafood causes significant rise in health care exposure. The exposure pathways are: expenditure among tourists to the Mediterra- • Ingestion of seafood nean. • Ingestion of water while swimming In terms of infections linked to consumption of • Contact with contaminated seafood products contaminated seafood, adverse effects on tourism in (e.g., methyl mercury and the like) the region are also conceivable. Large numbers of spo- • Contact with seawater contaminated with radic cases, particularly among tourists, of various pathogens or viral agents 83 The causal chain analysis in Figure 2.4.1 basi- exposure to various socio-economic impacts (but not cally mirrors the exposure pathway. It also links the environmental impacts). TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

84 2.4.5 Supporting data or taste, and the earliest symptoms of 2.4.5.1 Chemical contamination accumulation in the human body are a. Intake of persistent not, as a rule, specific for chemical toxic substances (PTSs) poisoning and therefore hard to detect. and associated health risks The presence of such pollutants can In spite of the wide distribution of only be determined through relatively PTS in the Mediterranean, data on the sophisticated clinical and biochemical human health effects in the region tests, which, however, may reveal a show remarkable paucity. Since diet, health problem well into its develop- including seafood consumption, ac- ment stage. counts to up to 95 percent of human From a variety of toxic chemical exposure to PTS, however, the pres- substances in the Mediterranean, ence of PTS in various foodstuffs pro- among the most serious effects for vides an initial estimate and relevant human health are linked to methyl- indicator of the risks to human health mercury, a synthetic toxic compound of from pollution of the sea by PTS. Based the naturally occurring mercury. Eating on a recent study (UNEP/GEF, 2002), a relatively high amounts of seafood may selection of PTS and their related expose consumers to wide-ranging effects on human health are present- health risks due to methylmercury poi- ed here as particularly relevant to this soning. Disturbed sensory motor and analysis. cognitive functions, acute fatigue, and Whereas bacterial or viral pollution mild learning difficulties in infants produces relatively short-term effects, borne to infected mothers are among some chemical pollutants are known to the possible health consequences of cause long-term effects. Local popu- methylmercury poisoning. lations are more susceptible to health Diet is the main route of exposure damage from chemical contaminants, to methylmercury as to other PTS, due to chronic exposure (as contrasted accounting for up to 90 percent of to a one-time exposure of a tourist). exposure. As can be seen in Table 2.14, 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL Moreover, in contrast to microbiologi- the risks to public health from methyl- cal pollution, individuals are more like- mercury poisoning affect particular ly to be exposed to chemical contami- groups but are not significant for the nation unknowingly and for prolonged general public whose intake is below time periods. Relatively high levels of the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI). A chemical pollutants in seafood may study by MED POL in early 1980s, cov- have no noticeable effect on its smell ering Italy, Croatia and Greece, by

Table 2.13 Intakes of Persistent Toxic Substances and Corresponding Safety Thresholds

PTS TDI xg/kg/day Organisation Food intake (mean / adults) Source HCHs 0.3 µg WHO 5.3 ng (1.8 %) Italy Chlordane 0.5 µg WHO — — Dioxins (I-TEQ) 1 pg WHO 1 pg (100 %) Italy —— 1.03 pg (103 %) France —— 3.5 pg (350 %) Spain (Catalonia) PCB-DL (I-TEQ) 1.3 pg WHO 2.5 pg (192 %) EU PCB (Aroclor 1260 Eq) 0.02 µg WHO 36.8 ng (180 %) Italy PAHs (BaP Eq) 14 ng DVS 10-4 RIVM 5 ng (36 %) France Hg 0.7 µg WHO 0.25 µg (36 %) France Me Hg 0.47 µg WHO 0.34 µg (72 %) France TDI: tolerable daily intake 85 contrast, showed that individuals who These population groups (infants, consume high quantities of seafood, fish consumers) may exceed TDIs (3–4 such as fishermen and their families times as reported by AFSSA). For are susceptible to health risks from instance, infants exposed through methylmercury poisoning. Young chil- lactation in Serbia and Montenegro dren are also a high-risk group for showed intakes of 1.75 ng the daily methylmercury poisoning. tolerable intake of PCBs (Vukavic et Infants and fish consumers are al., 1997). also high-risk groups due to weakening of the immune capacity and a wide range of other adverse health effects caused by PCB and dioxin intake from TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY seafood. PCBs induce various enzymes in the liver and can produce changes in the immune system, behavioural alterations, impaired reproduction, liver, stomach, and thyroid gland injuries. Some PCBs can mimic or block the action of hormones from the thyroid and other endocrine glands. Few studies of workers indicate that PCBs were associated with certain kinds of cancer in humans, such as cancer of the liver and biliary tract. Both EPA and IARC have determined that PCBs are probably carcinogenic to humans. However, the most commonly reported health effects in people exposed to large amounts of PCBs are skin conditions 86 such as acne and rashes. For dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs) Toxicological effects reported expressed as Total Equivalent (TEQ), for PCDDs and PCDFs refer to the the food exposure is twice the WHO 2,3,7,8-substituted compounds. A (1998) TDI for dioxins and DL-PCBs. variety of effects have been re- For total PCBs the dietary intake ported in animal studies following based on Italian TDIs study is about exposure to these compounds two times the TDI recently revised by (WHO, 1998). The most extensive the WHO and given in Aroclor equiva- data set is available for 2,3,7,8- lent. This observation is well correlat- TCDD; less information is available ed with the over-exposure found for for the other congeners. Among DL-PCBs. Thus, the new TDI of PCBs the most sensitive endpoints of revised by the WHO appeared to be 2,3,7,8-TCDD are endometriosis, pertinent for risk-assessment of total neurobehavioral, developmental PCBs. The EU SCOOP report indicated and reproductive effects, and that fish and fish products contribu- immunotoxic effects. ted to 70 % of the food exposure of The lowest doses giving rise to DL-PCBs. statistically significant effects in the most sensitive endpoints fol- b. Intake of persistent lowing exposure have resulted in toxic substances (PTSs) body burdens (3 to 73 ng of TCDD/ and associated health risks: kg) in the exposed animals that Other PTS of concern overlap, at the lower end, the in the region range of body burdens expressed • Polychlorinated dioxins as TEQ that are found in the gen- and furans (PCDD/Fs) eral population in industrialised PCDD/PCDFs occur as trace con- countries exposed to background taminants in a variety of industrial levels of PCDDs and PCDFs. and thermal processes. As a conse- Of the many non-cancer effects quence, dioxins from so-called pri- evaluated in exposed adult popu- 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL mary sources can be transferred to lations (e.g., herbicide producers other matrices and enter the en- and subjects exposed in incidents vironment. Such secondary sources like Seveso, Italy), many were are sewage sludge / biosludge, transient effects disappearing compost, or contaminated areas. after the end of exposure. The only More than 90 % of human expo- effect that correlates consistently sure to PCDDs and PCDFs is esti- with high exposure of humans to mated to occur through the diet, TCDD was chloracne. A few condi- with food from animal origin, tions appear to be in excess including seafood, being the pre- among the exposed cohorts when dominant source. The daily intake compared to unexposed reference of PCDDs and PCDFs from food has groups including alterations in been estimated to be 210 pg I-TE metabolic parameters, as well as per person in Spain (Domingo et al. mortality from cardiovascular and 1998) and 97 per person in France. non-malignant liver disease. For Italy, a daily intake of 45 pg I- PCDDs and PCDFs have been TE per person has been calculated classified as substances for which considering the only contributions there is evidence of endocrine dis- from food of animal origin (a daily ruption in an intact organism intake of about 60 pg I-TE may be (COM, 1999). 2,3,7,8-TCDD has assumed when contributions from been shown to be carcinogenic in the other foodstuffs are added). several species of laboratory ani- 87 mals at multiple sites. In humans, of the PAHs are genotoxic or prob- the epidemiological evidence from ably genotoxic. The only com- the most highly exposed cohorts pounds for which negative results studied produces the strongest were found in all assays were evidence of increased risks for all anthracene, fluorene, and naph- cancers combined, along with less thalene. Owing to inconsistent re- strong evidence of increased risks sults, phenanthrene and pyrene for cancers of particular sites. IARC could not be reliably classified for concluded that 2,3,7,8-TCDD is genotoxicity. PAHs have generally carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). been reported to have immuno- Other polychlorinated dibenzodi- suppressive effects. oxins and dibenzofurans are not Because of the complex profile classifiable as to their carcino- of PAHs in the environment and in genicity to humans. workplaces, human exposure to • Polycyclic aromatic pure, individual PAHs has been hydrocarbons (PAHs) limited to scientific experiments Sources of general population with volunteers, except in the case exposure to PAHs include contam- of naphthalene that is used as a inated food and seafood in par- moth-repellent for clothing. After ticular. The calculated total daily dermal application, anthracene, intake of PAHs from food has been fluoranthene, phenanthrene and estimated to be 3 µg/day (1.4 benzo[a]pyrene induced specific µg/day carcinogenic PAHs) per skin reactions, which were classi- person in Italy (Lodovici et al., fied as neoplasic proliferations. 1995). • Alkylphenols The acute toxicity of PAHs Exposure to alkylphenols occurs appears to be moderate-to-low mainly from food including sea- (EHC). Short-term studies showed food. The dietary daily intake of al- adverse haematological effects. kylphenols has been estimated to Systemic effects caused by long- be 80 µg/day per person in Italy in term treatment with PAHs have 1995 (Ferrara et al. 2001). The been described only rarely because acute oral toxicity of alkylphenols the end-point of most studies has is usually low. Long-term oral ex- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY been carcinogenicity. posure causes an increase in liver Significant toxic effects are and kidney weight without signifi- manifested at doses at which car- cant histopathological alterations. cinogenic responses are also trig- Alkylphenols are not genotoxic. gered. In studies of adverse effects Nonyl-phenol and 4-tert-octyl- on the skin after dermal appli- phenol have been classified as sub- cation, non- or weakly carcino- stances for which “there is evi- genic PAHs were inactive, whereas dence of endocrine disruption in an carcinogenic compounds caused intact organism” (COM 1999) be- hyperkeratosis. Benz[a]anthra- cause of their estrogenic activity. cene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenz- • Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin [ah]anthracene, and naphthalene and Heptachlor are embryotoxic to mice and rats. Exposure to these pesticides Benzo[a]pyrene also has terato- mostly happens from eating con- genic and reproductive effects. taminated foods, including sea- PAHs have also been studied food. Human breast milk may be a extensively in assays for genotoxi- major route of exposure for nurs- 88 city and cell transformation; most ing infants. The total daily intake of aldrin and dieldrin from food found to be completely absent in has been estimated to be 0.5 the composite diet. µg/day (aldrin + dieldrin) per per- At high levels of exposure, son in Spain in 1990-91 (Urieta et aldrin, dieldrin and endrin mainly al. 1996); in one study in Egypt in affect the central nervous system 1995 (Zeinab et al. 1998) aldrin (EHC). Ingesting moderate levels and dieldrin were found to be of aldrin or dieldrin over a long completely absent in the compos- period may also cause convulsions ite diet. In the same studies, the as a consequence of their bioaccu- daily intake of endrin, heptachlor mulation. The effects of exposure and heptachlor epoxide were to low levels of aldrin or dieldrin

Case Study PCB contamination after the conflicts in Former Yugoslavia The long conflict between the different nations of the Former Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1990s and NATO’s Kosovo intervention in spring 1999, had not only dramatic humanitarian consequences, but also detrimental effects on the environment. The burning or damaging of industrial and military targets resulted in the release of a large number of hazardous chemical substances, including PTS. It was estimated, for example, that more than 1,000 electro-transformer stations, containing PCB oil, were damaged during the war. The karst area of the coast of Croatia was of particular concern for groundwater pollution. A large number of transformer stations were damaged in Delnice, Zadar, Sibenik, Split and Dubrovnik. In a study performed in 1996, significant levels of PCBs were found in soils from Sibenik (exceeding 2,000 mg/kg dw), Zadar and Dubrovnik areas. Daily PCB and DDT intakes were studied among fishermen and their families who consume fish from the coast of Zadar in significant quantities. It was found that many of them (especially those assumed to consume fish caught from the Marina and Vruljica stations, in the Zadar area) ingested more than the acceptable daily PCB intake of 1 µg/kg/day (Picer and Picer, 1998). The cities of Pancevo, Novi Sad, Belgrade, Kragujevac, etc., in Serbia, were also severely attacked during NATO’s intervention, causing numerous industrial accidents. For example, after the heavy bombardment of Kragujevac, 2,500 kg of PCB-based oil from the transformers of the automobile industry ZASTAVA were spilled. High levels of PCBs and PCDD/Fs were found in samples taken around the transformers of the power plant (70–74 g/kg of CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PCBs and 10,200 ng ITEQ/kg of PCDD/F). Underground water reservoirs were found to contain 0.7 mg/L of PCBs, but there were no traces in drinking water in this locality. On the other hand, sediments from the Lepenica river (close to the factory) contained high levels of PCBs (2.4 mg/kg), and the content in water was 18.7 ng/L. The factory is still storing 5–6 tonnes of waste oil containing PCBs. The oil refineries of Pancevo and Novi Sad were also destroyed and around 150,000 tonnes of crude oil and oil products were burnt or leaked. Average contents of total PAHs in soils of the Novi Sad region were of 5.5 mg/kg two years after the aggression (2001), a value that is above the lowest risk level and could affect the safety of the crops grown in the area. Residues of DDTs were also found in all soil samples in levels that exceeded the Maximum Tolerable Concentration, according to the Official Register of the Republic of Serbia (11/1990), although this area was already heavily polluted before bombing (Vojinovic-Miloradov et al., 2002). Water quality of the Sava and the Danube rivers was also assessed right after the accidents by monitoring the PCB levels in freshwater fish. The concentrations of PCBs in fish tissues from the Sava river were in the range of 8–177 µg/kg ww, and from the Danube 2–196 µg/kg ww, which is well below the maximum residue limit for PCB in fish (3 mg/kg). However, PCB have a long half-life in the environment, and it can be expected that concentrations in fish will rise due to bioaccumulation. In order to collect and analyse the consequences for the environment and human settlements of the military actions in the Balkans region, the joint UNEP/UNCHS Balkans Task Force (BTF) was established in early May 1999. The BTF studied the impact of the conflict on the environmental situation in three countries: Serbia and Montenegro, FYR of Macedonia and Albania, and identified the main environmental concerns. More recently, the European Commission has recognised these problems and approved the research proposal APOPSBAL, to be developed in 12 institutions of Croatia (3), Slovenia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Kosovo, Serbia & Montenegro (3), Austria, Czech Republic and Greece. These investigations will provide more precise data about the pollution, especially by PCBs, of the war-damaged area in Serbia and Montenegro. 89 over a long time are not known. some areas of concern have been iden- Some workers exposed to these tified, which include estuaries (e.g., insecticides had reversible nervous Seine, Rhone, Ebro, Po and Nile), system effects with excitation coastal enclosures (e.g., Izmit Bay, leading to convulsions. Studies in Venice Lagoon, etc.), coastal areas animals indicated that these com- (e.g., Northwest Mediterranean and pounds may be immunotoxic. The Northern Adriatic), inland waters (e.g., International Agency for Research Po, Ebro, Seine, Kupa and Lepenica on Cancer (IARC) determined that rivers), and dumpsites (e.g., Durres, aldrin, dieldrin and endrin are not Skopje, Alger, Mustaganem, etc.). classifiable as to their carcino- Apart from areas of intense local con- genicity to humans. tamination, compounds of regional Heptachlor and heptachlor concern are PCBs, DDT, HCH, PAHs, HCB epoxide are moderately toxic to and TBTs. Other compounds, e.g., humans and animals and can phthalates, alkylphenols and PBDE/ damage the nervous system (EHC). PBBs, are suspected to be ubiquitous There are some human data on but data are lacking. brief exposures to high levels. A Few spatial and long-term tempo- few reports showed that people ral trends monitoring of fish, mussels who accidentally swallowed pesti- and seabird eggs have been carried out cides containing heptachlor, or in the Northern Mediterranean. A gen- who spilled pesticides on their eral decline of DDTs has been reported clothes became dizzy, confused or for marine biota along the Mediterra- had convulsions. IARC has classi- nean coast of France and Italy, and fied heptachlor as possibly car- from the Adriatic Sea between the cinogenic to humans. 1970s and 1990s, which is consistent A substantial amount of informa- with the regulatory restrictions on pro- tion exists on the distribution of PTS in duction and use of this compound. the different environmental compart- PCBs, in general, do not exhibit such a ments of the region. In consequence, clear trend. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY

90 Despite the extensive information the continuation of existing existing on PTS levels and trends, data time trend series. Regional sur- are often missing for some compart- veys of emerging PTS and comments, particularly, atmosphere, pounds actually on the market ground and drinking waters, sewage or those difficult to analyse sludges and soils, and storages (e.g., PCDD/F) should be par- (industrial products, pesticides). ticularly envisaged. Moreover, significant geographical • Analysis of food to evaluate the data gaps occur particularly in the general exposure of the popula- South and Southeastern Mediterra- tion and to detect abnormal in- nean basin. creases due to different cases of Apparently, data obtained are contamination. Monitoring de- mainly the result of research projects sign should allow to assess any rather than the existence of monitor- correlation of PTS body-burden ing networks. When data exist, partic- with factors as age and gender ularly in governmental agencies or groups, dietary habits, occupa- institutions, they are not easily avail- tion and education. In this con- able and, in many occasions, data text, total diet studies taking series are discontinued and have not into account regional habits are been quality assessed. Most of the of primary interest. data for chlorinated pesticides, for • Analysis of human tissues example, were obtained in the 1980s (blood, milk) for human body and levels usually show an extremely burdens estimation and risk large span of concentrations, which evaluation. Human tissues are may reflect more the result of analyt- also exposure sources for ical inconsistencies than real differ- developing organisms. Although ences of levels of pollution. this kind of assessment poses a Available data on PTS levels in series of technical and ethical human tissues show a substantial problems, monitoring of human 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL paucity which appears even more tissues provides the best infor- striking if compared to the amount of mation on human exposure to data available for environmental PTS. The data obtained should matrices: biota and food. A represen- allow the validation of exposure tative study of a general healthy pop- models. ulation living in a wide geographic • Domestic and regional monitor- area has never been conducted in any ing efforts should continue to country of the region. Most countries study multi-media transport in the region lack population indica- across air, rivers, seas, and soil, tors on the impact that environmental and the resultant environmental contamination has on human health. and human concentration levels. A major step towards the filling of • According to the regional ex- the existing data gaps in the Region perts, future-monitoring strate- will be the activation of monitoring gies should address the following: programs at three levels: • Intensive monitoring of tempo- • Analysis of abiotic samples or ral trends in appropriate abiotic sentinel species to identify hot and biotic media at a few key spots and transport pathways. locations, and occasionally over Monitoring activities should be wider areas, and continuation established in the correspon- of existing time trend series ding countries to fill the geo- that have proven to be useful graphical data gaps and ensure and informative. 91 • Standardised sampling and logic data in the Mediterranean region analytical methods in order to are as follows: compare results in the studies • There is a lack of toxicological carried out in different coun- and ecotoxicological data for tries must be implemented. many PTS in the region. This Monitoring programs should holds not only for new classes of include improved quality assur- PTS (e.g., alkylphenols, PBDEs, ance / quality control proto- phthalates, PAHs,) but also for cols, possibly linked to other those that have been under international programs, and focus for many years. Special contain reporting procedures attention should be paid to and analysis of data. chronic toxicity studies and to • Monitoring strategies need to be the incorporation of biomarkers / adequate to the technical and bioassays in environmental qua- economical possibilities of the lity indices. different countries. Regional • There is a need for a uniform accredited laboratories may approach and framework for assist contracted monitoring evaluation and monitoring of institutions in the development receiving waters in the region. of quality assurance systems. In Water Quality Indices should be any case, a regional network of improved (various types of in- national intercalibrated labo- dices have been developed which ratories contributing to regional need to be evaluated and inte- monitoring could better improve grated). Multidisciplinary ap- data quality and fill data gaps. proaches should be applied, es- The achievement of these goals pecially for estuaries and deltas. requires national / regional strate- • Specific research to quantify gies, which should provide the basic the role of PTS on the impacts support for an adequate environmen- observed on endangered species tal management of PTS. and ecosystems is considered urgent for setting the pro- c. Regional data availability grammes for maintaining the and gaps on ecotoxicology biovidersity of the Region. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY For humans, the lack of solid data • Sediment exposure (reservoirs) on food PTS intakes strongly limits the and effects to aquatic biota are risk-assessment. There is an urgent important to be assessed by the need for extensive food exposure particular hydrogeographical study, taking as example the best characteristics of the region. In studies performed in some countries this respect, mesocosm studies (market basket and TDS), and the (validation of biological para- areas more heavily contaminated. meters and biomarkers) should Moreover, epidemiological population be encouraged. survey must take into account not only • Modelling is a complementary the morbidity data but also more sub- tool for risk assessment and is tle effects such as parameters linked barely applied in the region. to reproduction (histological and Monitoring and modelling will functional aspects) and neurologic require much attention in par- functions, especially in young children ticular for improving the esti- (brain development, behaviour, etc.). mates of the fate and effects of According to UNEP 2002 the main emissions and pools of existing 92 gaps in currently available ecotoxico- PTS. A task of particular importance will be the improvement of Humans are exposed to marine communication between exist- pollutants mainly through the con- ing chemical and toxicological sumption of fish and other seafood, information for PTS and ecosys- the ingestion of seawater while swim- tem and trophic web models. ming or bathing, and direct contact The experience in recent decades in with sand or seawater. The contribution the European Union and the UN/ECE has of each of the two routes of transmis- demonstrated the advantages of an sion is an open issue. However, when integrated science-based approach, looking at foodborne disease out- linking population, activities, emis- breaks data suggest that consumption sions, transport and effects in a coher- of shellfish and fish continued to be a ent international co-operative risk significant cause of short-term health assessment framework. Such an risk in the 1990s in the Mediterranean approach is cost effective in making (Figures 2.36 and 2.37). better use of available scientific and technical resources and in helping pol- 2.4.5.2 Microbiological pollution icy makers to design effective environ- a. Health risks from mental policy. microbiological pollution Microorganisms present in the Mediterranean coasts are known to give rise to two sorts of health problems: those that affect the gastrointestinal tract and those that affect other parts of the body. Gastrointest- inal infections are spread mainly in areas that receive untreated sewage loads (Cabelli, 1983). Infections can be broadly grouped into three categories according to whether the cause 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL is a bacterium or a virus or a variety of protozoan and metazoan parasites such as Amoebic dysentery. WHO reports for the Northern Mediterranean indicate that salmonella, the principal type of foodborne

93 disease in the northern basin, was sig- shellfish and the temperature of the nificantly linked to consumption of water, but it can be more than 60 days. fish and shellfish for the period Storing contaminated varies according 1993–1998. Figure 2.36 shows that fish to the microbiological quality, shell- and shellfish accounted for 10 percent fish, whether fresh or frozen, does not of notified salmonella-related cases greatly reduce its viral content. in France, Spain and Italy in the period Shellfish quality standards vary 1993–98. Based on conservative esti- widely throughout the Mediterranean mates fish and shellfish consumption region. Production is largely concen- therefore gave rise to approximately trated in three states, Italy, France 5,000 cases of disease annually within and Spain which somewhat reduces the that period. Moreover, this figure is difficulty of risk control. These states suspected by national authorities to have legislation that makes shellfish conceal biases due to underreporting depuration mandatory prior to mar- linked to regional interests. keting. Decontamination techniques, In addition to bacterial infection based on the immersion of bivalves for shellfish is the main transmission 24 to 72 hours in good quality seawater channel for enteric viruses. Numerous or seawater that has been disinfected, epidemics have been described, give good bacteriological results when caused mainly by the gastro-enteritis they are properly applied. On the other and hepatitis viruses found in all sorts hand however, a considerable amount of shellfish, generally eaten raw or of shellfish all over the Mediterranean insufficiently cooked. The shellfish is still not subject to strict depuration concerned comes either from un- procedures or proper control of stor- healthy breeding areas or areas which age after harvest (WHO/UNEP, 1995b). are normally unpolluted but which Moreover, from a virological point of have been temporarily polluted, or view, these techniques are not wholly else the shellfish itself has been satisfactory since the shellfish still insufficiently depurated. sometimes contains viruses after The main viruses implicated in decontamination, particularly when recent epidemics of viral aetiology the shellfish is heavily contaminated. transmitted by molluscs are the gas- The third type of disease causing tro-enteritis viruses (Norwalk virus microorganisms is a variety of proto- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY and the “small round viruses”) and the zoan and metazoan parasites such as hepatitis A virus. Amoebic dysentery, giardiasis, ascari- The transmission of enteric virus- asis etc. The pathogenic microorgan- es via molluscs is easy to understand isms present in the Mediterranean raw when one looks at their eating habits; sewage are given in Table 2.18. shellfish filter up to 20 litres per hour In so far as ingestion of water dur- of water which means that they accu- ing swimming or bathing is relatively mulate pathogenic micro-organisms limited, the diseases mentioned present in seawater. above are more likely to be contracted The potential of shellfish to carry through the consumption of raw or viral disease is magnified many-fold partially cooked shellfish. by the ability of viruses to survive a Raw fish and mussels are possible long time in the shellfish. Viral dis- sources of infection for a number of eases reported apart from hepatitis A pathogenic bacteria biocaccumulated include enteroviruses (coxsackie in the flesh. Microorganisms endemic viruses A and B, echoviruses, reovirus- to seawater, such as Vibrio para- es and adenoviruses). The length of haemolyticus, Clostridium pergringens, 94 time these viruses survive in immersed Hepatitis A virus and Norwalk viruses Table 2.14 Pathogens and Indicator Organisms commonly found in Raw Sewage (Source: Bartram and Rees, 2000)

Pathogen or indicator Disease or role Number per litre Bacteria Campylobacter spp. Gastro-enteritis 37,000 Clostridium perfringens Indicator organism 6x105–8x105 E. coli Indicator organism 107x108 Salmonella spp. Gastro-enteritis 20–80,000 Shigella Bacillary dysentery 10–10,000 Viruses Polioviruses Indicator 1,800 – 5,000,000 Rotaviruses Diarrhoea, vomiting 4,000 – 850,000 Parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts Diarrhoea 1–390 Entamoeba histolytica Amoebic dysentery 4 Giardia lamblia cysts Diarrhoea 125–200,000 Helminths Scaris spp. Ascariasis 5–110 Ancyloistoma spp. Anaemia 6–190 Trichuris spp. Diarrhoea 10–40

have been associated with epidemics fungi species causes more or less worldwide (WHO/UNEP, 1995b). deep mucoses depending on the loca- Cholera is one of the main diseases tion of the pathogen within the host. associated with the consumption of sewage-contaminated shellfish and a b. Origins of the problem major epidemic occurred in Italy in Microbiological pollution of 1973 causing 277 cases and 24 deaths coastal waters and of shellfish is (WHO/UNEP, 1995b). Between October according to experts a major problem 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL and December 1994, a total of 12 of the Mediterranean. Pathogenic and indigenous cases of cholera were reg- other microorganisms enter the marine istered in the southern Italian region of environment through untreated or Puglia. partially treated municipal waste- Apart from diseases that affect water. Although pathogenic contami- the gastrointestinal tract, a number of nation from city wastewater is the disorders affect the eye, ear, upper most serious dimension of city pollu- respiratory tract and other areas in tion for seawater, it is also the least connection to bathing in contaminat- well known. Except for specific studies ed waters. Microorganisms such as pathogenic contamination of waste- Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas water is only monitored for faecal, col- aeruginosa, Clostridium welchii and iform and streptococci content. Candida albicans particularly affect Faecal contamination, indicating individuals with skin lesion or ruptured contamination by animal and human ear or nose membrane. excreta is one of the most direct ways The most common infection cause to assess the hygienic quality of water. due to contact with contaminated One way to detect faecal contamina- sand is Candida albicans. It has been tion is to investigate Biological oxygen isolated in the south of France, Israel demand (BOD) of the water. Micro- and Greece. Infection is highest where biological organisms use oxygen in the crowded beach conditions exist. process of oxidation of the polluting Candida as well as a number of other matter so a test on oxygen require- 95 ments, referred to as BOD5, can yield estimates of faecal concentration. As shown by Figure 2.40, a mere 18 cities contribute half of urban waste containing BOD in the Mediterranean, and five account for one quarter of this waste. These cities are Alexandria, Naples, Izmir, Barcelona and Beyrouth. Fortunately, significant sewage and sanitation programmes are under way in several of the cities, although it is clearly urgent to extend these efforts to others. Wastewater discharge into the sea is the most common manner of final wastewater disposition in coastal urban and industrial zones. Lack of treatment even on a basic scale is therefore the biggest cause of pollu-

tion in terms of BOD5. Currently it is estimated that half of untreated pol-

lution in terms of BOD5 originates from direct discharges. Less than one-third of BOD pollution comes from the discharges of treatment plants and the remainder from storm water during periods of rain. Figure 2.38 shows the percentage of coastal cities (with over 10,000 inhabitants) with wastewater treatment, while Figure 2.39 shows the type of treatment encountered in coastal areas in the Mediterranean (UNEP/ TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY MAP/WHO, 2004). BOD values are tion) while a lesser reduction (20 per- greatly reduced only at the secondary cent) is also achieved through primary treatment level (70–90 percent reduc- treatment (Figure 2.41).

96 c. Cross regional differences are constructed. Egypt is in third in waste treatment place, with an evident problem of an in the Mediterranean insufficient number of treatment This estimate conceals high vari- plants and a major problem posed by ability between countries, however. As the city of Alexandria. France is the large differences in the sanitation country which discharges the least 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL systems as well as total effluent vol- untreated waste water only because umes differ largely among countries, the replies supplied do not mention but also partly due to the quality of this type of discharge, but only the the information. This estimate should size of the treatment plants. However, be treated as an indicative statement in contrast with Spain, the treatment in need of further qualification. plants are all constructed, with one Based on recent regional assess- exception, which is a positive point. It ment of municipal wastewater treat- is nevertheless almost evident that ment data (UNEP/MAP/MED POL, certain direct discharges persist in 2004), Italy is by far the country with reality, even if only through the erro- the highest volume discharged neous connection of domestic waste- (almost 40 percent of the total). waters to storm water systems. Bad Further, the data provided shows that connections exist everywhere, but many cities do not have treatment they are all the more significant where plants and that their systems dis- the connection rate is high. charge wastewater directly into the In a recent regional assessment of sea. This situation weighs heavily in municipal wastewater treatment the assessment. Spain comes in sec- plants in the region (UNEP/MAP/WHO, ond place, as many treatment plants 2004), an updated list of cities with have been planned, with their size > 50,000 inhs. and < 900,000 inhs. to being given in the survey, so that the (total population of 4,239,110) was situation should improve once they developed and shown in Table 2.19. 97 The overall wastewater system average efficiency levels. Countries efficiency in the Mediterranean is with primary treatment plants only mediocre (42 percent). Two countries expectably show the lowest rates of have no wastewater treatment plants wastewater treatment efficiency. By (Albania and Syrian Arab Republic) contrast, countries with secondary and and several others eliminate as low as tertiary treatment facilities show high

10 percent of BOD5 and that at most performances approaching 90 percent, (Croatia, Lebanon, Morocco, Slovenia, which is 23 percent higher than the Turkey and Egypt). It is clear that an average. effort is required to install treatment The higher the coastal population plants where they do not exist and to and the lower the level of treatment, supplement primary treatment sys- the higher will be load of waste treat- tems by secondary and more refined ment plants. High population countries techniques. with inadequate secondary and terti- Where wastewater treatment ary treatment plants, as Greece for plants do exist, individual countries’ instance, will show high levels of treat- performance varies widely from the ment plant loads compared to others such as France and Spain where similar population pressure exists but is met Table 2.15 Cities (> 50,000 and < 900,000 inhs.) with better provision of secondary and without WWTP in the Mediterranean tertiary wastewater treatment facilities. Naturally other countries such as Country City Population Turkey with lower population levels will (in 1,000) show correspondingly lower loads of Albania Vlora 130.00 treatment plant loads, despite relative Albania Durres 140.00 Algeria Arzew 66.19 lack of secondary and tertiary treat- Algeria Taher 72.50 ment. Algeria El Milia 75.60 A vivid illustration of the large Algeria Jijel 124.94 potential to redress coastal pollution Algeria Mostaganem 141.31 by treating urban wastewater is provid- Algeria Skikda 166.76 ed in the example of the city of Algeria Oran 831.34 Marseille. Bathing water quality around Croatia Sibenik 67.20 the large port city in the northeast

TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Croatia Zadar 80.30 coast of France improved dramatically Greece Elefsina 120.00 within 20 years due to action taken to Lebanon Batroun 51.00 Lebanon Jubayl (Jbail, Byblos) 66.00 combat urban wastewater pollution. As Lebanon Sour (Sur or Tyre) 181.00 can be seen in Figure 2.42, in the early Lebanon Jounieh 200.00 to mid 1980s the percentage of water Lebanon Saida / Ghaziye (Sidon) 205.00 that classified as good quality repre- Lebanon Tripoli (Tarabalus) 353.00 sented only about 16 percent. By con- Libya Al Garabulli 80.00 trast twenty years later the entire Morocco Fnideq 52.47 coastal area of Marseille qualified as Spain Ceuta 73.20 good quality water. Spain Algeciras 100.60 Linking all inhabitants to waste- Syria Jableh 58.60 water treatment systems would have Syria Tartous 107.00 Syria Lattakia 387.73 great impacts in decreasing patho- Turkey Dortyol 53.60 genic pollution loads in the Mediterra- Turkey Silifke 64.83 nean. A glimpse at how large the size Turkey Canakkale 75.81 of benefit that would follow from pro- Turkey Kiziltepe 113.14 viding various levels of treatment is 98 shown in Figure 2.42. water drainage systems. Unfortuna- tely as all waters are often drained in the same system, urban wastewaters may overflood in rainy periods when drainage capacity is saturated.

d. Assessment of major pathways of microbiological pollution • Discharge through rivers Rivers may add a considerable amount of microbiological pollution mainly from upstream wastewater discharges. Animal feedlots and domestic wastewater often contain great numbers of bacteria and viruses that are pathogenic for humans and aquatic organisms. An overview of 13 Mediterra- nean rivers (Table 2.17) mainly in Greece and Italy in the late 1980s provides a ranking of rivers in terms of microbiological pollution content (Agence de l’ Eau Rhône — Méditerranée). According to it, Urban stormwater is another way the most polluted rivers are the Po in which coastal waters adjacent to and Tiber rivers in Italy and the cities may become polluted. Despite Ebro river in Spain. According to being considered as unpolluted or only more recent data however, bacte- slightly polluted it may become a sig- rial pollution has been declining 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 2.0 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL nificant source of pollution, especial- with best results observed in the ly where wastewaters infiltrate storm Rhone River.

Table 2.16 Bacteriological Water Quality in some Mediterranean Rivers (Source: “Agence de l’Eau Rhône — Méditerranée — Corse: http://www.rdbrmc.com/)

Rivers Country Coli- Coli- Strepto- Period Sample faecal total faecal nb (n/100 ml) (n/100 ml) (n/100 ml) mean min max mean min max mean min max Rhone France 2,100 30 11,700 515 1 6,000 88–92 52 Akheloos Greece 133 0 4,600 301 0 4,600 32 0 266 84–92 71 Aliakmon Greece 3,520 0 240,000 12,423 6 1,000,000 765 0 24500 82–92 103–104 Axios Greece 5,320 240 46,000 10,740 450 46,000 1,892 0 11,000 83–89 51 Nestos Greece 1,696 0 11,000 3,106 23 24,000 905 0 8,000 82–92 55 Pinios Greece 1,159 0 11,000 2,677 0 37,000 78 0 700 82–91 72–91 Strymon Greece 14,830 43 1,000,000 20,395 110 1,000,000 2,883 0 30,000 82–92 116–117 Adige Italy 2,335 0 36,300 14,007 200 90,200 409 0 4,200 87–92 74 Arno Italy 2,752 50 9,180 7,355 200 24,000 393 20 2,300 88–92 42 Metauro Italy 5,549 10 36,000 6,146 30 100,000 783 0 9,180 84–92 55–58 Po Italy 26,636 1,000 330,000 57,203 1,000 1,000,000 10,133 700 302,000 82–92 113 Tevere Italy 188,454 4,300 2,000,000 284,024 7,500 4,000,000 89–91 17–18 Ebro Spain 11,790 7 456,000 106,756 38 810,000 138 0 2,500 87–92 69–75 99 100 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS

Transboundary issues require cooperation Many of the countries of the South and East do not have among states to define policies, targets and actions at currently the means to enforce compliance with envi- the appropriate levels for assessment, control, preven- ronmental provisions. Below, the major issues associ- tion and / or mitigation of sources and impacts. ated with the national legal and institutional frame- Transboundary environmental problems and their works are briefly outlined. associated impacts must therefore be addressed on At the regional level, great strides have been multiple levels: regional, sub-regional, as well as made with the adoption and then revision of the national. Due to the nature of transboundary issues, Barcelona Convention and its protocols. While all of the the relevant cooperation requires regional and nation- amended protocols are not yet in effect, this conven- al integrative structures and capacities. tion is considered to be by far the most significant Addressing transboundary issues requires ade- regional policy concerning the transboundary environ- quate and appropriate international and national legal mental problems in the Mediterranean. The Barcelona and institutional arrangements. The international legal Convention is described in greater detail in Section 3.2, / institutional framework must provide the legal basis in addition to other relevant subregional, regional and for cooperation among interested / affected countries global legal and policy instruments. and define the procedures to be applied and their institutional aspects. In addition, the role of the said inter- 3.1 Major problems identified national framework is to promote / require the adoption with legal and institutional frameworks of relevant national legal and institutional arrange- in the Mediterranean FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ments, and to provide support, assistance and training During the past decades, significant laws and when needed and requested. policies have been adopted at the national, regional and The national legal and institutional transbound- global levels that directly or indirectly address the ary related framework is supposed to comply with the transboundary environmental concerns in the Mediter- transboundary international framework. The nature of ranean region. The most important of these regional and transboundary issues requires coordination and integra- global laws and policies related to the Mediterranean tion of relevant activities at both regional and national MPPIs are discussed in Section 3.2.2 below. The existing levels, as well as between the two levels. Of utmost legal and institutional frameworks have flaws, however, importance is also the participation in transboundary which hamper efforts to address these transboundary activities of interested / affected stakeholders. concerns. General observations on areas that require The following sections review relevant legal, improvement are discussed below. Activities under the institutional and policy frameworks for transboundary SAP should seek to address these existing problems. environmental protection in the Mediterranean. It is generally viewed that the national legal provisions for 3.1.1 Major problems identified with addressing the priority issues identified in this docu- legal arrangements for addressing ment are adequate, with some exceptions. Although transboundary environemental issues transboundary cooperation is not explicitly provided The following legal and institutional issues have for in national legislation, it is implicit in the texts. The been identified at the regional and national levels that main problem, however, lies with the institutional could hinder effective action to address transboundary capacity to enforce the legislation and regulations. environmental concerns in the Mediterranean region. 101 3.1.1.1 Issues at the national level issues. The lack of integrative capacity and The following issues at the national level are poor implementation of ICZM as a framework considered to be of major importance in the Mediter- for addressing transboundary issues is pres- ranean region: ent in many cases. Monitoring of these causes • Absence of appropriate national transbound- and impacts and their assessment is not con- ary-related institutional arrangements. In sistent, efficient or adequate, and the reme- many cases in the region and to a varying dial programmes are not integrated within the degree, the institutional arrangements and necessary larger context, resulting in absence management in CZ, consequently regarding of control of causative factors and failure of also the transboundary issues, are dispersed, remedial measures. fragmented and not CZ specific. The responsibility for transboundary issues is unclear or 3.1.1.2 Issues at the regional level shared by various authorities. Sectoral, often The following are major issues related non-integrated CZ related decisions, result in addressing transboundary environmental concerns at transboundary impacts; the relevant remedial the regional level: initiatives are either not implemented in a • Absence of or insufficient transboundary timely fashion or have poor results, or result in provisions within relevant regional or global failure. The final consequence is pollution, legal documents. Many of the global and misuse of resources, overexploitation, loss of regional legal documents are not sufficient- habitats and decline in biodiversity. Since one ly transboundary specific or precise, leaving single national institution / agency cannot room for arbitrary interpretations, providing address alone those issues, the need of a escape clauses, lacking provisions regarding National high level Coordinative Body and of a the enforcement mechanism, lacking clear Lead Agency is evident. In most cases in the targets and deadlines. There is a need for a countries of the region there are no trans- more specific, clear and integrated regional boundary related specific arrangements of transboundary legal framework. this kind. • Need to better define and strengthen the • Absence of legal / institutional arrangements role and involvement of international insti- securing participation of the interested / tutions coordinating transboundary-relat- affected general public, NGOs, scientific com- ed initiatives. The absence or weak imple- munity and stakeholders in transboundary ini- mentation of the coordinating and inte- tiatives in parts of the Southern and Eastern grating role of relevant international agen- Mediterranean. In many cases, the interested cies, absence of assistance when needed TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY groups are neither properly, fully nor timely and requested, and of providing resource informed, educated on transboundary related commitments for transboundary initiatives issues, nor are there provisions for: securing and remedial actions in developing coun- such participation, the right of requesting tries involved —calls for legal identification information, and raising issues at national and of the relevant regional body to take the international level. Public hearings, if any, are role of lead agency. This role should be, and not fully informative and / or not transparent. up to a certain level has been already, Consequently, public support for initiatives assigned to MAP in the case of the Mediter- addressing transboundary issues is weak or ranean region. nonexistent. • Absence of provisions in regional trans- • Absence of legal provisions for monitoring, boundary related documents for compulsory securing compliance and enforcement of application of successful procedures and transboundary related regulations and obliga- tools such as EIA and SEA in the transbound- tions. In most cases, and in particular related ary context, and of ICZM as a basic prerequi- to non-ECE member states, there are no such site and tool securing the larger integrated provisions. and proactive approach. This issue is relat- • Insufficient institutional / human capacity of ed both to the national and international 102 authorities responsible for transboundary levels. 3.1.2 Major problems identified with of ministries and agencies have sub-national or local institutional arrangements branches with delegated authority important for and capacity for addressing Coastal Management and transboundary issues. The transboundary environmental issues “local” level units might have considerable authori- The existing institutional arrangements rele- ty, such as urban planning, issuing building permits, vant to addressing transboundary environmental inspection, monitoring, control, etc. issues differ among the littoral countries due to their The existing institutional arrangements estab- differences in the degree of development, length of lish a large number of administrative and decision- coastline, level of development and urbanization of the making entities responsible and or authorized for coast, wealth and ways of exploitation of resources, transboundary issues. Under such conditions, without political system, form and manner of governance, adequate integration it is not possible to avoid over- among others. Other factors must also be taken into lapping and / or conflicting decisions, which are nei- consideration, such as historic, national, cultural, reli- ther environmentally sound nor meet the requirements gious and other aspects. of sustainable development and in many cases have Despite the differences mentioned above, there serious transboundary impacts. That is why the imple- is a general scheme of institutional arrangement rele- mentation of ICZM procedures and tools relevant for vant to ICZM and transboundary environmental issues transboundary issues has to be considered as a pre- in the Mediterranean. That scheme can be defined as requisite for successfully addressing transboundary multi-level and multisectorial, frequently with specific environmental issues in a timely and cost-efficient arrangements within individual sectors and in a certain manner, and has to be secured through appropriate number of cases with specific arrangements of inter- institutional and legal arrangements. sectorial integration. It could generally be said that: • from the point of view of policy structure 3.2 Existing Legal and Policy Frameworks variables, there is a wide array ranging from in the Mediterranean strong administrative control to pronounced, The following sections outline the most impor- but not exclusive, rights of private interest tant of the many subregionals, regional and global groups; laws and policies that address the priority environ- • administrative variables range from prevail- mental concerns in the Mediterranean region identi- ingly sectorial planning to, often insuffi- fied in this document. The most significant of these, ciently developed, broad functional respon- the Barcelona Convention along with its protocols, is

sibilities; described in Section 3.2.1. Additional legal and policy FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL • policy orientation is increasingly turning instruments relevant to the issues of seawater quality, from the sectoral towards the integrated biodiversity and fisheries in the Mediterranean are approach within the concept of sustainable discussed in the sections following. development. The sectorial governance arrangement fol- 3.2.1 The Barcelona System lows, more or less, the standard sectorial classifica- The Convention for the Protection of the Marine tion, which is, as a rule, more diversified in developed Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterra- countries. Due to various reasons, in many countries nean (as amended in 1995), or the Barcelona the sectoral activities most relevant for transbound- Convention, is the most important regional policy con- ary issues are organized in larger sectorial units, such cerning the transboundary environmental problems in as fisheries and aquaculture within the ministry of the Mediterranean. Under the United Nations agriculture, land-use planning and / or environmen- Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 1982; tal protection within the ministry of building, tourism hereinafter UNCLOS) “States have the obligation to within the ministry of industry, ministry of economy, protect and preserve the marine environment” (Art. or even within the ministry of interior, or maritime 192) taking measures “necessary to protect and pre- transport within the ministry of transports, commu- serve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat nications and maritime affairs. of depleted, threatened or endangered species and Functions important for transboundary issues other forms of marine life” (Art. 194, para. 5). are sometimes located in “non-standard” adminis- The Barcelona Convention on the Protection of trative bodies and agencies. A considerable number the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (the original 103 convention which entered into force on 12 February • the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in 1978) is a notable instance of such cooperation. Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea Concluded under the auspices of UNEP, the Convention by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of involved a considerable degree of legal imagination, Emergency (Barcelona, 16 February 1976; in such as opening up membership to regional groupings force since 12 February 1978), which is intend- sharing the objectives of the Convention, albeit not ed to be replaced by the Protocol Concerning necessarily wholly contained within the Mediterranean Co-operation in Preventing Pollution from basin. In fact, the European Community is a Contracting Ships and, in Cases of Emergency, Combating Party to the Convention and its protocols, together with Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea, signed in seven States, which are today members of the Valletta on 25 January 2002, hereinafter “the Community (Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Emergency Protocol” (not yet in force); Slovenia and Spain) and provides a significant contri- • the Protocol for the Protection of the Mediter- bution to the functioning of the Barcelona system. ranean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based Since 1994, several components of the Sources (Athens, 17 May 1980; in force since 17 Barcelona system have undergone important June 1983), which, as amended in Syracuse on changes. The objective of the revision was to mod- 7 March 1996, changes its name to the ernise the Convention to bring it into line with the Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterra- principles of the Rio Declaration, the philosophy of nean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based the new Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Sources and Activities, hereinafter “the LBS progress achieved in international environmental law Protocol” (the amendments are not yet in in order to make it an instrument of sustainable force); development. The revised Convention also aimed to • the Protocol concerning Mediterranean progress from an essentially proclamatory form of law Specially Protected Areas (Geneva, 1 April to a much more prescriptive law setting out obliga- 1982; in force since 23 March 1986), which has tions. The scope of its protocols was extended and been replaced by the Protocol Concerning new protocols were adopted either to replace the Specially Protected Areas and Biological existing ones or to cover new fields of co-operation. Diversity in the Mediterranean, signed in In addition, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the Barcelona on 10 June 1995, hereinafter “the new provisions, the need for new capacities as well as SPA and Biodiversity Protocol” (in force since public participation and access to information 12 December 1999); including the adoption of a reporting procedure were • the Protocol Concerning Pollution Resulting part of the revision process. from Exploration and Exploitation of the The structure of the present Barcelona legal sys- Continental Shelf, the Seabed and its TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY tem includes the following instruments (see Annex V): Subsoil, signed in Madrid on 14 October • the Convention which, as amended in Barce- 1994, hereinafter “the Offshore Protocol” lona on 10 June 1995, changes its name to the (not yet in force); and Convention for the Protection of the Marine • the Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of Environment and the Coastal Region of the the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Mediterranean, hereinafter “the Convention” Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their entered into force on 9 July 2004; Disposal, signed in Izmir on 1 October 1996, • the Protocol for the Prevention of the Pollu- hereinafter “the Hazardous Wastes Protocol” tion of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping (not yet in force). from Ships and Aircraft (Barcelona, 16 The recent updating of the Barcelona legal February 1976; in force since 12 February framework shows that the Parties consider it to be a 1978), which, as amended in Barcelona on 10 dynamic system capable of being subject to re- June 1995, changes its name to the Protocol examination and improvement, if appropriate. for the Prevention and Elimination of Pollu- It is a disappointment to note that the tion of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping amendments to the two protocols adopted in 1995 from Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at and 1996 have not yet entered into force. But this is Sea, hereinafter “the Dumping Protocol” (the not necessarily due to a lack of political will by the 104 amendments are not yet in force); States called upon to become Parties to the updated instruments. In fact it is rather the great number of run-off and disposal under the amendments involving considerable technicality in seabed with access from land. their final provisions, as well as the high threshold of The Protocol, as amended in acceptance necessary for their entry into force that 1996, takes into account the have been a factor of delay. objectives laid down in the Global Programme of Action for 3.2.2 Regional Protocols the Protection of the Marine and Policy Instruments Environment from Land-based This section surveys the policy responses adopt- Activities, adopted in Washing- ed to address the MPPIs identified in the Mediterranean. ton on 3 November 1995 by a The first type of concern generally referred to as pollu- UNEP intergovernmental con- tion here, spans diverse activities causing pollution ference. including land-based activities, marine transport and seabed exploitation. The second type of concern relates • The Emergency Protocol to the conservation of biodiversity. The third type of The 2002 Emergency Protocol, environmental concern is linked to the sustainable which is intended to replace the exploitation of fishery resources in the Mediterranean. 1976 Protocol, is the latest Policy responses on a regional, global and EU level are entry into the Barcelona legal presented for each type of the three above concerns, system. The new Emergency while some subregional approaches are also considered. Protocol aims at introducing the provisions necessary to imple- 3.2.2.1 Pollution ment the Regional Strategy on Regional Agreements and Prevention of Marine Pollution Policy Instruments related to of the Marine Environment by the Barcelona Convention Ships, adopted by the Parties in The major regional agreement 1997. related to pollution control in the While it can hardly be denied Mediterranean is the Barcelona Con- that pollution from ships is a vention and its association Proto- typical area where global regu- cols. In this section, these and other lation is most appropriate as

policy instruments relating to land provided within UNCLOS, it FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL and sea-based pollution are dis- should also be added that, for cussed. Additionally, the similarities certain aspects of the matter, and differences of the EU WFD and the regional co-operation also has SAP MED, the two most important a role to play. For instance, it is regional action plans for addressing evident that prompt and effec- land-based sources of pollution, are tive action in taking emergency outlined. measures to fight against pollution arising from maritime acci- Protocols: dents needs to be organized at • The Land-Based Sources (LBS) the national, sub-regional and Protocol is a regional policy regional levels. response, applying to dis- But the Emergency Protocol is charges originating from land- not limited (as the former in- based point and diffuse sources strument was) to dealing with and activities in the Mediterra- emergency situations. It also nean. Such discharges reach covers the aspect of the preven- the sea through coastal dispos- tion of pollution from ships with als, rivers, outfalls, canals or the purpose of striking a fair other watercourses, including balance between action at the ground water flow, or through global and action at the region- 105 al level. The Emergency Protocol conformity with generally acknowledges in the preamble accepted international rules the role of IMO, which is general- and standards and the global ly considered the competent mandate of the International international organization in the Maritime Organization, the field and the importance of co- Parties shall individually, bilat- operating in promoting the erally or multilaterally take the adoption and the development necessary steps to assess the of international rules and stan- environmental risks of the rec- dards on pollution from ships ognized routes used in maritime within the framework of IMO. traffic and shall take the appro- This is a clear reference to the priate measures aimed at various conventions which are reducing the risks of accidents already in force at the global or the environmental conse- level, such as the International quences thereof”. Convention for the Prevention of The Emergency Protocol also Pollution from Ships as Amended acknowledges “the contribution by the Protocol (London, 1973– of the European Community to 1978; the so-called MARPOL) or the implementation of interna- the International Convention on tional standards as regards mar- Oil Pollution Preparedness, itime safety and the prevention Response and Co-operation of pollution from ships”. In fact, (London, 1990) and the more the Community has enacted a recent instruments which are ex- number of legal instruments pected to enter into force in the relating to the control and pre- future, such as the International vention of marine pollution from Convention on the Control of ships that apply in addition to Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on rules adopted under the aegis of Ships (London, 2001). It is also a IMO. The most recent ones are reference to the competences Directive 2001/106 of 19 Decem- that IMO already exercises as ber 2001 concerning the en- regards the safety of shipping forcement, in respect of shipping (such as decisions on traffic se- using Community ports and sail- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY paration schemes, ships’ reporting in the waters under the juris- ing systems, areas to be avoid- diction of Member States, of ed, etc.). All such instruments international standards for ship and competences are in no way safety, pollution prevention and prejudiced by the Emergency shipboard living and working Protocol. conditions (port State control); The Emergency Protocol also Directive 2002/6 of 18 February recognizes that regional co- 2002 on reporting formalities for operation is important in pro- ships arriving in and / or depart- moting the effective implemen- ing from ports of the Member tation of international regula- States of the Community; and tions in this field. A notable Regulation 417/2002 of 18 instance of such a spirit of har- February 2002 on the accelerat- monization of the global and ed phasing-in of double hull or regional levels of regulation and equivalent design requirements action is Art. 15, dealing with for single hull oil tankers. Other the environmental risk of mar- Community legislation is in the 106 itime traffic. It provides that “in process of elaboration. The European Commission, the insti- the Parties involved, co-ordi- tution of the Community man- nate the activity of the facilities dated to negotiate treaties, put into operation by these played an active role during the Parties. The issue of port recep- negotiations for the Emergency tion facilities, which has consid- Protocol. erable economic implications, is The “added value” brought by already the subject of provisions the new Protocol may be found set forth in the MARPOL and a in several of its provisions. It recent European Community covers not only ships but also directive. Under the Emergency places where shipping accidents Protocol, Parties shall ensure can occur, such as ports and off- that such facilities are available shore installations. The defini- and are used efficiently without tion of the “related interests” of causing undue delay to ships. a coastal State has been en- The lessons arising from the larged to include also “the cul- Erika accident are particularly tural, aesthetic, scientific and evident in the provision accord- educational value of the area” ing to which the Parties shall and “the conservation of biolog- define strategies concerning ical diversity and the sustain- reception in places of refuge, able use of marine and coastal including ports, of ships in dis- biological resources”. A detailed tress presenting a threat to the provision on reimbursement of marine environment. the costs of assistance has been Finally, the Emergency Protocol elaborated. does not affect the right of The Emergency Protocol sets Parties to adopt stricter domes- forth some obligations directed tic measures or other measures to the masters of every ship in conformity with international sailing in the territorial sea of law in the matters covered by the Parties (including ships fly- the Protocol. This provision may ing a foreign flag), namely to apply also to rules adopted by FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL report incidents and the pres- the European Community and ence, characteristics and extent binding on its member States. of spillages of oil or hazardous and noxious substances; to pro- • The Offshore Protocol vide the proper authorities, in The Offshore Protocol relates to the case of a pollution accident pollution resulting from explo- and at their request, with ration and exploitation of the detailed information about the continental shelf and the seabed ship and its cargo and to co- and its subsoil. All activities in operate with these authorities. the Offshore Protocol area, The obligations in question, including the erection of instal- which have a reasonable pur- lations on site, are subject to the pose and do not overburden prior written authorization of the ships, do not conflict with the competent authority of a party. right of innocent passage pro- Before granting authorization, vided for in the UNCLOS. the authority must be satisfied Where the Parties cannot agree that the installation has been on the organization of an opera- constructed according to inter- tion to combat pollution, REM- national standards and practice PEC may, with the approval of all and that the operator has the 107 technical competence and fi- cal materials). On the contrary, nancial capacity to carry out the the previous text of the Protocol activities. Authorization shall be was based on the idea that refused if there are indications dumping was in principle per- that the proposed activities are mitted, with the exception of the likely to cause significant prohibited matters listed in adverse effects on the environ- Annex I (the so-called black list) ment that could not be avoided and the matters listed in Annex II by compliance with specific (the so-called grey list) which technical conditions. This obli- required a prior special permit. gation can be seen as an appli- The logic of the previous text is cation of the precautionary prin- thus fully reversed in order to ciple. Special restrictions or con- ensure better protection of the ditions may be established for environment. the granting of authorizations On the world level, the 1996 for activities in specially pro- Protocol to the 1972 Convention tected areas. on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Wastes and Other • The Dumping Protocol Matter introduces a similar The Dumping Protocol applies to reversal of the logic followed in any deliberate disposal of the parent convention. It is also wastes or other matter from based on the assumption that ships or aircraft, with the excep- the Parties shall prohibit the tion of wastes or other matters dumping of any wastes or other deriving from the normal opera- matter with the exception of tions of vessels or aircraft and those listed in an annex. In the their equipment (which fall 2000 report of the Secretary- under the label of pollution from General of the United Nations on ships). The Protocol, as amend- oceans and the law of the sea, ed in 1995, presents two major the 1996 Protocol was seen as a changes with respect to the pre- “milestone in the international vious text. regulations on the prevention of First, the Protocol applies also to marine pollution by dumping of TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY incineration at sea, which is pro- wastes” and “a major change of hibited (Art. 7). It is defined as approach to the question of how “the deliberate combustion of to regulate the use of the sea as wastes or other matter in the a depository for waste materi- maritime waters of the Mediter- als” (United Nations General ranean Sea, with the aim of ther- Assembly document A/55/61 of mal destruction and does not 20 March 2000, para. 159). The include activities incidental to same could be said of the Medi- the normal operations of ships terranean Dumping Protocol. and aircraft”. Second, the Protocol is based on Policy Instruments: the idea that the dumping of • The MED POL Strategic Action wastes or other matter is in prin- Programme to Address ciple prohibited, with the excep- Pollution from Land-Based tion of five categories of mat- Activities (SAP MED) ters specifically listed (such as For the implementation of the dredged materials, fish waste, LBS Protocol to the Barcelona 108 inert uncontaminated geologi- Convention, the Strategic Action Programme (SAP MED) was piece of legislation. The SAP MED established. The SAP MED is an and the WFD are similar in their action-oriented MAP/MED POL approach so that it may be con- initiative identifying priority sidered that in implementing target categories of substances their obligations under the WFD and activities to be eliminated the EU-Mediterranean countries or controlled by the Mediterra- would in effect be fulfilling their nean countries. The timetabled general obligations under the schedule for the implementation SAP MED. of specific control measures and The Water Framework Directive interventions extends over 25 adopts a combined approach, years. including both measures involv- The key land based activities ing controls that concentrate on addressed in the SAP MED are what is achievable at source linked to the urban environment, through the application of tech- (particularly municipal waste- nology, as well as measures water treatment and disposal, involving controls that deal with urban solid waste disposal and the needs of the receiving envi- activities contributing to air ronment in the form of quality pollution from mobile sources) objectives. and to industrial activities, tar- Both the SAP MED and the WFD, in geting those responsible for the its “Strategy against pollution of release of toxic persistent and water”, establish a list of priority bioaccumulative (TPB) sub- substances for which water qual- stances into the marine environ- ity standards and emission con- ment, giving special attention to trols must be applied. Of these persistent organic pollutants priority substances, certain will (POPs). be subject to cessation or phas- Also addressed are the release of ing out of discharges, emissions harmful concentrations of nutri- and losses within an appropriate

ents into the marine environ- timetable. In general these in- FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL ment, the storage, transporta- clude toxic, persistent and bio tion and disposal of radioactive accumulative substances, sub- and hazardous wastes and activ- ject to phasing out at the latest ities that contribute to the around 2025(SAP)–2027(WFD). destruction of the coastline and For the remaining priority sub- coastal habitats. stances the SAP has predeter- mined percentage reductions to Additional Regional Agreements be achieved within a specified and Policy Instruments time schedule. The Water • EU Water Framework Framework Directive on the other Directive (WFD) hand has as a requirement the On the EU level, the legal instru- achievement of “good status” of ment provided to safeguard the waters, involving both good eco- ecological status of waters from logical status and good chemical land-based point and diffused status. As already mentioned sources is the Water Framework good ecological status is defined Directive (2000/60/EC) (WFD) in terms of the quality of the bio- designed to integrate a number logical community, the hydro- of earlier directives tackling logical characteristics and the water pollution into a single chemical characteristics that 109 would be expected to exist in for an international legally bind- conditions of minimal human ing instrument for implementing impact. Good chemical status is international action on certain defined in terms of compliance persistent organic pollutants in with all the quality standards Johannesburg (December 2000). established for chemical sub- The objective of this Convention stances at European level. Good is to protect human health and ecological status as defined in the environment from persistent the WFD is a requirement that the organic pollutants. The selected SAP does not tackle with directly. list of POPs is of direct relevance As regards good chemical status to the UNEP assessment of PTSs. the specific requirements will be The Convention was opened for dealt with in greater detail in the ratification signatures on 23 May forthcoming sections of the 2001 in the Intergovernmental analysis. Conference held in Stockholm. The protocol will enter into force International Conventions as soon as it is ratified by 50 and Policy Instruments countries (23 ratifications regis- The following multilateral environ- tered in October 2002, none from mental agreements (MEAs) interact the Region). with the existing regional and international agreements aiming to combat • The Basel Convention strictly pollution in the Mediterranean. The fol- regulates the transboundary lowing are particularly relevant to movements of hazardous wastes reducing pollution from PTS: and provides obligations to its Parties to ensure that such • International Convention for wastes are managed and dis- the Prevention of Pollution posed of in an environmentally from Ships, 1973, as modified sound manner when moved by the Protocol of 1978, across national boundaries. (MARPOL 73/78) The so-called Ban Amendment to The MARPOL Convention is a the Basel Convention bans the combination of two treaties export of hazardous wastes for TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY adopted in 1973 and 1978. It final disposal and recycling from covers all technical aspects of Annex VII countries (Basel Con- pollution from ships, except the vention Parties that are members disposal of waste into the sea by of the EU, OECD, Liechtenstein) dumping, and applies to ships of to non-Annex VII countries (all all types. The Convention has five other Parties to the Convention). annexes covering oil, chemicals, The Basel Convention on the Con- sewage, garbage, and harmful trol of Transboundary Move- substances carried in packages, ments of Hazardous Wastes and portable tanks, freight contain- their Disposal was adopted in ers, etc. 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992. • Stockholm Convention on Most countries of the Region Persistent Organic Pollutants comply with the Basel conven- (POPs) tion although some of the south- The convention was adopted at ern countries lack the appropri- the meeting of the intergovern- ated management structures to 110 mental negotiating committee implement the convention. • The Rotterdam Convention The Prior Informed Consent (PIC) on the Prior Informed is an important component of Consent Procedure the Code of Conduct. Under the for Certain Hazardous Rotterdam convention on PIC, Chemicals and Pesticides “pesticides that are banned or in International Trade severely restricted for reasons of The Rotterdam Convention on health or the environment are the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) subject to the Prior Informed Procedure for Certain Hazardous Consent procedure. No pesticide Chemicals and Pesticides in in these categories should be International Trade was adopted exported to an importing coun- at a Conference of Plenipoten- try participating in the PIC pro- tiaries in Rotterdam on 10 Sep- cedure contrary to that coun- tember 1998. The Convention try’s decision.” enables the world to monitor and Implementation of the PIC control the trade in very danger- Convention is carried out jointly ous substances and according to by FAO and the International the Convention, export of a Register of Potentially Toxic chemical can only take place Chemicals (UNEP/IRPTC) and with the prior informed consent includes almost all countries of of the importing party. The the region. Pesticides under Convention covers a list of five national review for PIC (FAO, industrial chemicals and 22 pes- 1990) are: Aldrin, Chlordane, ticides, including aldrin, chlor- Heptachlor, DDT, Dieldrin and dane, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, HCHs (mixed isomers). HCB and PCBs. 3.2.2.2 Conservation of Biodiversity • International Code of conduct Protocols and Policy Instruments on the distribution and Associated with the Convention use of pesticides of Barcelona:

This Code of Conduct, adopted • The Specially Protected Areas FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL by FAO and its member coun- and Biodiversity Protocol tries in 1985, recognises that: According to Agenda 21, States, “In the absence of an effective acting individually, bilaterally, pesticide registration process regionally or multilaterally and and of a governmental infra- within the framework of IMO and structure for controlling the other relevant international availability of pesticides, some organizations, should assess the countries importing pesticides need for additional measures to must heavily rely on the pesti- address degradation of the cide industry to promote the marine environment. This should safe and proper distribution be done, inter alia, by taking and use of pesticides. In these action to ensure respect of areas circumstances foreign manu- that are specially designated, facturers, exporters and im- consistent with international porters, as well as local formu- law, in order to protect and pre- lators, distributors, repackers, serve rare or fragile ecosystems. advisers and users, must accept Agenda 21 stresses the impor- a share of the responsibility for tance of protecting and restoring safety and efficiency in distri- endangered marine species, as bution and use.” well as preserving habitats and 111 other ecologically sensitive components of biological diver- areas, both on the high seas sity in the Mediterranean; con- (para. 17.46, e, f) and in the tain ecosystems specific to the zones under national jurisdiction Mediterranean area or the habi- (para. 17.75, e, f). In particular, tats of endangered species; are “States should identify marine of special interest at the scien- ecosystems exhibiting high levels tific, aesthetic, cultural or edu- of biodiversity and productivity cational levels”. The procedures and other critical habitat areas for the establishment and listing and provide necessary limita- of SPAMIs are specified in detail tions on use in these areas, in the Protocol. For instance, as through, inter alia, designation regards the areas located partly of protected areas” (para. or wholly on the high seas, two or 17.86). more neighbouring Parties con- The 1995 SPA and Biodiversity cerned” must make the proposal Protocol which implements the and the decision to include the objectives of Agenda 21, extends area in the SPAMI List is taken by the geographical application of consensus by the Contracting the previous 1976 Protocol to all Parties during their periodic Mediterranean waters irrespec- meetings. tive of their legal condition, as Once the areas are included in well as to the seabed, its subsoil the SPAMI List, all the Parties and to the terrestrial coastal agree “to recognize the particu- areas designated by each party, lar importance of these areas for including wetlands. the Mediterranean” and —this is In view of the lack of exclusive also important— “to comply with economic zones across the Medi- the measures applicable to the terranean the new protocol in- SPAMIs and not to authorize nor cludes two very elaborate dis- undertake any activities that claimer provisions (Art. 2, paras. might be contrary to the objec- 2 and 3) that have a simple aim. tives for which the SPAMIs were On the one hand, the establish- established”. ment of intergovernmental co- With respect to the relationship TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY operation in the field of the with third countries, the Parties marine environment cannot pre- shall “invite States that are not judice all the legal questions Parties to the Protocol and that are of a different nature. On international organizations to the other hand though, the very co-operate in the implementa- existence of such legal questions tion” of the Protocol. They also should not jeopardize or delay “undertake to adopt appropri- the adoption of measures neces- ate measures, consistent with sary for the preservation of the international law, to ensure that ecological balance of the Medi- no one engages in any activity terranean basin. contrary to the principles and The SPA and Biodiversity Protocol purposes” of the Protocol. This provides for the establishment of provision aims at facing the a List of specially protected potential problems arising from areas of Mediterranean interest the fact that treaties, including (the SPAMI List). The SPAMI List the SPA and Biodiversity Proto- may include sites that “are of col, can produce rights and obli- 112 importance for conserving the gations only among Parties. The new Protocol is completed by under development establishes a three annexes, which were adopt- measurable framework of actions ed in 1996 in Monaco. They are the for the implementation of the Common criteria for the choice of 1995 SPA Protocol. protected marine and coastal The SAP BIO assesses the status areas that could be included in of marine and coastal biodiversi- the SPAMI List (Annex I), the List ty, evaluates the main problems of endangered or threatened affecting biodiversity and identi- species (Annex II) and the List of fies concrete remedial actions at species whose exploitation is reg- national and regional level. ulated (Annex III). The basic objective of this Stra- Important tasks for the imple- tegic Action Programme is to be mentation of the Protocol, such used within the context of the as assisting the Parties in estab- SPA/BIO Protocol to (i) improve lishing and managing specially the management of existing and protected areas, conducting pro- favour the creation of new Marine grammes of technical and scien- and Coastal Protected Areas; tific research, preparing manage- (ii) favour the implementation of ment plans for protected areas SAP BIO NAPs and Priority and species, formulating recom- Actions; (iii) enhance the pro- mendations and guidelines and tection of endangered species common criteria, are entrusted and habitats; (iv) contribute to with the Regional Activity Centre the reinforcement of relevant for Specially Protected Areas, national legislation and national located in Tunis. and international capacity build- It was a remarkable achievement ing; (v) foster the improving of for the XIIth Meeting of the knowledge of marine and coastal Contracting Parties (Monaco, biodiversity and (vi)contribute to 2001) when the first twelve fund raising efforts. SPAMIs were inscribed in the List. The Rio Principles adopted by the

They were the island of Alboran, United Nations Conference on FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL the sea bottom of the Levante de environment and Development, Almeria, the cape of Gata-Nijar, UNCED Rio 1992, should be con- Mar Menor and the oriental coast sidered as the basic ones taken of Murcia, the cape of Cresus, the into account by SAO/BIO. In line Medas islands, the Coulembretes with the WSSD targets, the SAP islands (all proposed by Spain), BIO’s operational targets in- Port-Cros (proposed by France), clude: (i) to contribute to the Kneiss islands, La Galite, achieving the WSSD targets con- Zembra and Zembretta (all pro- cerning establishing by 2004 a posed by Tunisia) and the French- regular process under the United Italian-Monegasque Sanctuary Nations for global reporting and (jointly proposed by the three assessment of the state of the States concerned). The last SPAMI marine environment, including covers also areas of high seas. socio-economic aspects, both current and foreseeable building • The Strategic Action Programme on existing regional assess- for Biodiversity in the ments; (ii) to contribute to Mediterranean Region (SAP BIO) achieving the WSSD targets con- The Strategic Action Plan for cerning the establishing of Biodiversity (SAP BIO) currently marine protected areas consis- 113 tent with international law and The Bern Convention is being based on scientific information, implemented in all the European representative networks, by 2012 countries, and the EU birds and and time area closures for the habitats directives are imple- protection of nursery grounds mented in the EU countries. and periods, proper coastal land use; (iii) to contribute to achiev- • Action plan for the ing the WSSD targets concerning conservation of cetaceans the achievement by 2010 of a in the Mediterranean Sea significant reduction in the current state of loss of biological • Action plan for the diversity. management of the In addition SAP BIO targets Mediterranean monk seal include improving the scientific (Monachus monachus) understanding and assessment of marine and coastal ecosystems; • Action plan for the to strengthen cooperation and conservation of Mediterranean coordination among global ob- marine turtles serving systems and research programmes for integrated global • Action plan for the observations, taking into account conservation of marine the need for building capacity vegetation in the and sharing of data from ground Mediterranean Sea based observations, satellite remote sensing and other sources EU Community Legislation among all countries. In terms of on Biodiversity building public support for the The legislation on specially pro- conservation of biodiversity, SAP tected areas of the Mediterranean BIO includes public awareness States that are members of the and public participation among European Community must conform the areas where further invest- with EC Council Directive No. 92/43 of ment should be made. 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Other regional Agreements flora. The directive was enacted having and Policy Instruments: regard, inter alia, to the fact that ‘the • The Convention on the preservation, protection and improve- Conservation of Migratory ment of the quality of the environment, Species of Wild Animals including the conservation of natural (Bonn Convention) (1979). habitats and of wild fauna and flora, are an essential objective of general • A special Agreement for the Con- interest pursued by the Community as servation of Small Cetaceans of stated in Article 130r of the Treaty’ the Black Sea, Mediterranean establishing the EC (Rome, 25 March Sea and Contiguous Atlantic 1957 and subsequently amended). area (ACCOBAMS) was made in The directive aims to achieve con- 1996 under the Bonn Convention. servation of natural habitats and species of wild fauna and flora. Its • The Convention on the geographical scope includes the inter- Conservation of European nal waters and the territorial sea along Wildlife and Natural Habitats the coasts for the four EC Mediterra- 114 (Bern Convention) (1979) nean countries. The Directive sets up a coherent 3.2.2.3 Fisheries ecological network of special areas of Regional and Subregional Policies conservation under the title ‘Natura • FAO General Fisheries 2000’. This network is composed of sites Commission for the hosting the natural habitat types of Mediterranean (GFCM) Community interest listed in Annex I, and FAO ADRIAMED and habitats of the species listed in and COPEMED Projects Annex II (species of wild fauna and flora On a regional level the FAO of Community interest) whose conser- General Fisheries Commission for vation requires the designation of spe- the Mediterranean (GFCM), in cial areas of conservation. However, force since 1952, is a regional under Art 4, para 1, for aquatic species body aimed at establishing man- that range over wide areas, such sites agement measures for fishery will be proposed only where there is a resources. More specifically it clearly identifiable area representing aims to promote the develop- the physical and biological factors ment, conservation and manage- essential to their life and reproduction. ment of living marine resources occurring in the Mediterranean, International Conventions the Black Sea and connecting • Global Convention on the waters, both in areas under Protection of Biological Diversity national jurisdiction and on the The Convention on Biological high seas. In order to achieve its Diversity negotiated under the foal, the GFCM, can, by a two auspices of the United Nations thirds majority, adopt recom- and in force since 1993, enlists mendation on the measures for among its parties all Mediterra- the conservation and rational nean littoral states. As the Stra- management of living marine tegic Action Plan for conserva- resources. These measures may tion of Biodiversity (SAP BIO) has regulate fishing methods and taken into account the Jakarta gear, prescribe the minimum size

Mandate, where principles of the of species of fish, establish open FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CBD relating to marine and and close fishing seasons and coastal biodiversity were con- areas and determine the amount sidered, it is expected that its of total catch and fishing effort implementation will enhance as well as their allocation among synergies with the CBD. member states. Member states must give effect to these recom- • Convention on International mendations, unless they object to Trade in Endangered Species doing so, within 120 days from the of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) date of notification. CITES is an international agree- It was not until 1995 that the ment between Governments. Its GFCM formulated binding recom- aim is to ensure that interna- mendations. It adopted ICCAT tional trade in specimens of wild management measures regard- animals and plants does not ing the taking and landing of threaten their survival. bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus (Resolution No. 95/1). This reso- • RAMSAR Convention on lution specifies, for instance, Wetlands of International inter alia, the size of vessels and Importance especially the time of the year for which as Waterfowl Habitat (1971) fishing are allowed. 115 Three other binding recommen- networks to facilitate coordina- dations were adopted in 1997. tion to support fisheries man- They concern the type of driftnet agement in the Mediterranean. (Resolution No 97.1) on vessels COPEMED area covers the flying the flag of a GFCM Con- Western and Central sub-regions tracting party, the banning of of the Mediterranean. Morocco, purse seine fishing for bluefin Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Malta, tuna during August, as well as Italy, France and Spain have the use of helicopters and planes adhered to the Project. The proj- in support of fishing operations ect began at the end of 1996. in the month of June (Resolution With an initial duration of 5 No 97/3). Furthermore, the GFCM years, the project has been calls upon states which are not extended up to 2004. members of the GFCM, but whose vessels engage in fishing activi- • International Commission for the ties in the region, to become Conservation of Atlantic Tunas members of the GFCM or other- (ICCAT) of the Convention for the wise cooperate in implementing Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, the recommendations made by in force since 1969, is designed the Commission. It also urges the to ensure the sustainable ex- member states to report to the ploitation of Atlantic tuna and Commission on any fishing activ- tuna-like species not only in the ities by vessels flying the flag of Atlantic ocean but in adjacent non member states which under- seas and therefore in the Medi- mine the effectiveness of GFCM terranean too. Among the Con- recommendations (Resolution tracting Parties to the Con- No 97/2). vention for the Conservation of The establishment of the GFCM Atlantic Tunas are France, Mo- Scientific Advisory Committee rocco, Libya, Croatia, Tunisia and (SAC) in 1999 represented a sig- the EU. On the basis of scientific nificant step in coordinating sci- research ICCAT can make recom- entific efforts on fisheries and mendations aiming at ensuring resources with a view to support- the maximum sustainable catch. TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY ing policy-making. Prior to the These recommendations, if not creation of the SAC despite the objected to by a majority of Par- availability of scientific research ties, are binding on all Parties, and knowledge of a considerable except those that register formal level in the basin, its integration objections. into policy making for fishery resources was weakened by the EU Common Fisheries Policy lack of an overarching scientific The Community has exclusive com- forum. petence in international relations in the Other FAO projects on a subre- domain of fisheries. It is empowered to gional level in the Mediterranean undertake international commitments include ADRIAMED, fostering sci- towards third countries or international entific cooperation to promote organisations in matters relating to responsible fisheries in the fisheries. The European Commission, on Adriatic. FAO COPEMED, another behalf to the Community, negotiates Mediterranean Project focuses fisheries agreements with third coun- on advice, technical support and tries and participates in various region- 116 establishment of cooperation al fisheries organisations (RFOs). At the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, the regular review of 2002. Among oth- States agreed to ensure rational and ers a plan to ensure the sustainability sustainable fishing. The Community of fisheries in the Mediterranean was accordingly was involved in the draft- adopted in October 2002. The measures ing of the United Nations Food and foreseen in the Action Plan include: a Agriculture Organisation code of con- concerted approach to declaring fish- duct for responsible fishing. It has also eries protection zones, the use of fish- participated in the United Nations ing effort as the main instrument in Conference on the Conservation of fisheries management, improving fish- Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly ing techniques so as to reduce the Migratory Fish Stocks —stocks that are adverse impact on stocks and the found both in international waters and marine ecosystem and promoting exclusive economic zones. international co-operation. The common fisheries policy (CFP), in operation since 1983, is the Euro- Global Policy Framework pean Union’s instrument for the man- • FAO Code of Conduct agement of fisheries and aquaculture. for Responsible Fisheries It was created to manage a common This Code adopted in 1995, sets resource and to meet the obligation set out principles and international in the original Community Treaties. standards of behaviour for re- The CFP has to take into account sponsible practices with a view to the biological, economic and social ensuring the effective conserva- dimension of fishing. It can be divided tion, management and develop- into four main areas dealing with con- ment of living aquatic resources, servation of fish stocks, structures with due respect for the ecosys- (such as vessels, port facilities and tem and biodiversity. fish processing plants), the common The Code is global in scope and is organisation of the market and an directed toward members and external fisheries policy which includes non-members of FAO, fishing fishing agreements with non-Commu- entities, subregional, regional nity members and negotiations in and global organizations, whether FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL international organisations. governmental or non-governmen- The first CFP review in 1992 showed tal and all persons concerned with that if there are too many vessels for the conservation of fishery the available resources, technical resources and management and measures and control alone cannot development of fisheries, such as prevent overfishing. The amount of fishers, those engaged in process- fishing has to be regulated too. In ing and marketing of fish and fish- order to make the common fisheries ery products and other users of policy more effective the link between the aquatic environment in rela- its component parts was reinforced. tion to fisheries. Control measures were also developed While the Code is voluntary, cer- to ensure that rules are respected tain parts of it are based on rele- throughout the industry. New tech- vant rules of international law, nologies are being used to transmit including those reflected in the data to the authorities and to monitor United Nations Convention on the larger vessels through satellite track- Law of the Sea of 10 December ing systems. 1982. The Code also contains The Common Fisheries Policy of the provisions that may be or have EU recently underwent extensive already been given binding effect changes launched on the occasion of by means of other obligatory 117 legal instruments amongst the Parties, such as the Agreement to Promote Compliance with Inter- national Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1993, which, according to FAO Con- ference resolution 15/93, paragraph 3, forms an integral part of the Code. One of the basic principles on which the Code is established is the obligation of states and users of living aquatic resources should conserve aquatic ecosystems. According to the Code, the right to fish carries with it the obligation to do so in a responsible manner so as to ensure effective conservation and management of the living aquatic resources. The Code also articu- lates that fisheries management should promote the maintenance of the quality, diversity and availability of fishery resources in sufficient quantities for present and future generations in the context of food security, poverty alleviation and sustainable development. In addition, management measures, according to the Code, TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY should not only ensure the conservation of target species but also of species belonging to the same ecosystem or associated with or dependent upon the target species. Moreover, States, according to the Code, should prevent overfishing and excess fishing capacity and should implement management measures to ensure that fishing effort is commensurate with the productive capacity of the fishery resources and their sustainable utilization. States should take measures to rehabilitate populations as far as possible and 118 when appropriate. 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS 3.0 LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL

119 120 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 4.0 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS

The following sections briefly discuss the role of NGOs stakeholders in the Mediterranean environment and, NGOs provide an energizing, critical and more specifically, in MAP activities. demanding vision that adds to the quality of the regional debate on the envi- 4.1 Mediterranean Stakeholders ronment and sustainable development. In the Mediterranean, the pursuit of participa- They broaden its audience, taking these tory structures of environmental governance is often concerns out to the public upon whom an uphill struggle. This is largely because the concept effective environmental protection of delinking economic growth from environmental depends. damage still exerts only a limited influence on the Recent years have witnessed a prolifera- policies of many partners in the Mediterranean. tion of NGOs with specific concerns as well Economic efficiency continues to prevail over sus- as pan-Mediterranean NGO networks. In tainable development in most Mediterranean coun- itself, this growth reflects the rising tries, while current international trends associated grassroots concern for the Mediterranean with globalisation and technological progress only environment. NGOs are key partners for

intensify the pressure towards this end. other stakeholders because of their spe- ANALYSIS 4.0 STAKEHOLDER Despite these difficulties, the Mediterranean cialist knowledge and their outreach region has embarked upon a number of local, national potential. They have also proved compe- and regional initiatives involving civil society through tent at highlighting examples of good its multitude of stakeholder groupings aiming to shape practice. the governance of environmental resources. A number of public constituents, such as those Business actors discussed below, are included as stakeholders of the Business actors are obvious key players Mediterranean environment. These stakeholders have in the drive to tie commerce to conserva- varying degrees of involvement in environmental deci- tion concerns. It is crucial to mobilize sionmaking in different regions of the Mediterranean, them for long-term sustainable develop- as is discussed in more detail in Section 4.3. Each one ment in the region, as all activities and of them has the potential to play a unique role in the initiatives depend on the autonomous region’s environmental debate. decisions of economic actors and governments. While some groups are well Local authorities organized with a history of participating Local authorities are set to play an in public affairs, the prevalence of SMEs increasingly important role as Mediter- and the strong presence of multination- ranean countries are following the glob- als make networking harder. al trend for decentralized power and Raising awareness among entrepreneurs increased privatization. They facilitate about the need to integrate environ- positive changes while benefiting from mental concerns into business develop- any visible improvement to the environment is vital, however, to halting ment. economies from expanding without due 121 regard for the environmental repercus- to action. This cooperation with civil society actors sions of economic growth. has been formalized with the development of a list MAP Partners. The list of MAP Partners serves to iden- Other socio-economic actors tify the most appropriate partner for participation in Other socio-economic actors included its activities, recognize the relevance of the partner as stakeholders in the Mediterranean are to MAP’s objectives and programmes, and to allow the those who have a financial stake in the partners to get to know each other better through protection of the environment or whose contacting one another. economic activities affect the Mediter- MAP has embarked upon a regular revision of ranean environment. Often these are one the list of NGOs, research institutes and business and the same. This category includes partners that form its link to civil society. When the fishermen, tourists and those engaged in list is revised every two years, the partners are ranked the tourism industry, farmers, etc. according to a set of established criteria that were adopted in the Twelfth Ordinary Meeting of the Con- Universities and research institutes tracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention(Monaco, Universities and research institutes have November 2001). The most recent version of the a strong ability to influence other parties Directory of MAP Partners published in November 2003 due to the knowledge-based character of lists 70 official MAP Partners. their intervention. Moreover, their recommendations in natural, social and 4.3 Suggestions for Improving Cooperation economic issues play a key part in the with MAP Civil Society Partners shaping of the debate on environmental In October 1997, the MAP Secretariat called for protection. action to enhance the participation of civil society partners when it was realized that more than 80 per- Intergovernmental institutions cent of its NGO partners were from the Northern part of Several intergovernmental institutions the Mediterranean, and that those from the Southern and agencies, particularly of the UN and and Eastern parts did not participate sufficiently in the EU families, play an effective role in MAP activities. In response to these concerns, a report participating in and stimulating dialogue was prepared on “MAP cooperation with its partners in and partnerships or providing finance civil society” (UNEP, 2001) based on MAP documents and technical assistance to projects and interviews with NGOs. Much of the following infor- involving the public. mation is taken from this report. It is recognized that the differing levels of par- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Religious groups and churches ticipation between the Northern and the Southern and Traditionally religious groups and church- Eastern civil society partners results largely from two es have participated only rarely in public factors: supervised freedom of association in some dialogues on issues related to environ- countries and lack of resources and capacity of NGOs. mental problems, such as land-based Civil society in the Southern and Eastern regions sources. Many of them are becoming of the Mediterranean is far from homogeneous. While increasingly active, however, and are there is supervised freedom of association in certain keen to participate in a dialogue on sus- countries, still in others there is greater freedom. The tainable development issues related to components of civil society in its broadest sense (asso- moral and ethical values. ciations, NGOs, socio-economic actors, local authorities) hardly can be considered to constitute real col- 4.2 MAP Civil Society Partners lective forces capable of influencing development and Since its launch in 1976, MAP has endeavoured the future of their societies in the Southern and Eastern to include the various stakeholders listed in Section parts of the Mediterranean. 4.1 in its activities. Recognizing the potential pivotal A second problem is that many of these civil role of wider Mediterranean society in the area’s society organizations in the region lack adequate future rehabilitation, MAP has established concrete financial resources to fully participate as partners. The 122 partnerships with civil society actors as a prerequisite difficulty in mobilizing financial resources is among the major obstacles to full participation. Rare are the NGOs from the South and East that have found solid and independent sources of financing; most of them continue to depend on foreign sources. To address the abovementioned and other hin- drances to full participation by MAP Partners, a set of recommendations was developed. These include: 1. Reducing differences in levels of development • Taking into account the specific characteristics of partners from the South and East • Strengthening assistance to partners in the South and East • Improving the capacities of partners in the South and East 2. Improving MAP’s operational tools • Improving current partnership tools • Strengthening MAP as a focal point for partnership 3. Promoting concerted action by the partners • Further defining the role of the partners • Promoting partnership networks • Including new partners It was concluded that efforts needed to be made by both MAP and its partners in the North to enhance the cooperation of partners in the Southern and Eastern sections of the Mediterranean. 4.0 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS 4.0 STAKEHOLDER

123 124 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs)

In order to facilitate and organize the identi- 3. Conserve the Marine Biodiversity and Eco- fication of interventions to address the MPPI, this system: Addresses MPPI 1. TDA has used the tool of Environmental Quality Objectives. 5.1 Objective 1: Reduce the Impacts In this section, we address the major EQOs for of LBS on Mediterranean Marine the Mediterranean Sea, Provide specific targets for Environment and Human Health making progress towards those EQOs, and then rec- Targets and needed activities at regional and ommend specific regional and national activities to national level are identified by the SAP MED, structured achieve those targets. The EQOs address the specific in two areas (urban and industrial) and a number of MPPIs and root causes. categories within each area as highlighted within the There are three overarching EQOs, listed below following tables. with their primary linkage to the MPPIs. 1. Reduce the impacts of LBS on Mediterra- 5.1.1 The Strategic Action Programme nean Marine Environment and Human to address pollution from LBS Health: addresses MPPIs 3 and 4, and to a a. Urban environment: lesser extent MPPIs 1 and 2. (i) Municipal sewage; 2. Sustainable Productivity from Fisheries: (ii) Urban solid waste; and addresses MPPI 2. (iii) Air Pollution 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL

Table 5.1 SAP Urban Environment EQOs

Issue Targets 2005 Targets 2025 Regional Activities National Activities Municipal dispose sewage dispose all sewage • update guidelines • update national regulations sewage from cities in conformity • develop programmes • develop national plans and > 100,000 with LBS Protocol for sharing and programmes for the in conformity exchanging technical environmentally sound with LBS Protocol information and management of sewage advice for sewage • connection to sewer treatment • outfalls siting • promote research • tertiary treatment programmes • good housekeeping • reissue of treated wastewater • separate collections • reuse of sludge • prohibit discharge of sludge into seawater Urban solid waste solid waste • guidelines for SWM • national plans for reduction solid waste management management for • develop reduction and recycling system in cities all urban of recycling • national SWM systems > 100,000 agglomerations for cities > 100,000 Air cities > 100,000 cities ambient • formulate and • promote traffic management pollution ambient air air quality adopt air quality • lead free petrol quality conform to objectives • inspection of vehicles conform to standards • use of national gas standards • public transport 125 b. Industrial development: (ii) Other Heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Cr); (i) Toxic, Persistent and Liable to Bio- (iii) Organohalogen compounds; accumulate substances (TPBs): (iv) Radioactive substances; Persistent Organic Pollutants (v) Nutrients and suspended solids; (POPs); Heavy metals (Hg, Cd, Pb) and and Organometallic compounds; (vi) Hazardous waste.

Table 5.2 SAP Industrial Development EQOs

Issue Targets Targets Targets Regional Activities National Activities 2005 2010 2025 Industrial — 50% point • guidelines for WWT • inventory of point sources pollution reduction sources • EQO for point sources • national regulations of TPB discharge • information • priority to SME and programme • environmental management emissions • research programme conformity • guidelines for BEP, BAT with LBS • environmental Protocol and management standards TPB / POPs 50% phase out — • provide technical • inventory of POPs and PAHs reduce inputs information • phase out use of pesticides of inputs of POPs • guidelines for • safe disposal of PCBs collect and BEP and BAT and pesticides dispose • emission values for • reduce emissions of HCB, all PCBs point source dioxins, furans discharges for PAH — 25% phase out — • apply BEP & BAT reduction inputs of PAH of PAH inputs • Heavy 85% 50% phase out — • apply BAT & BEP metals reduction reduction discharges • national programmes (Hg, Cd, emissions • adopt emissions of 0.5 g Hg/t Pb) of chlorine or 5 g Hg/t depending on process 2 g Hg total releases and losses • Organo phase out 50% phase out • guidelines for • inventory of organometallic Hg, Pb, organo Hg reduction of organo Pb, BAT & BEP • phase out the use of Sn discharges organo Sn • EQO and standards organotin as antifouling compounds and cooling systems • apply BAT & BEP and environmental management TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY • Zinc, — reduce eliminate • guidelines for • adopt 1 mg/l of zinc 0.5 mg/l copper, discharges discharges BAT & BEP of copper releases into chromium • EQO and standards the sea • apply BAT, BEP and environmental management Organo- — reduce eliminate • guidelines for • apply BAT, BEP and halogen discharges discharges BAT & BEP environmental management compounds • EQO and standards • adopt 1 kg/t of pulp • Halo- of AOX release genated • inventory of pesticides Aromatic • adopt national programmes hydro- for reduction carbons • reduce uses of chlorinated • Halo- solvent genated • reduce and control use aliphatic of 2.4D and 2.5T and hydro- chlorophenols carbons • participate in regional • Chlorinated and international related phenolic programmes compounds • Organo- halogen pesticides » 126 Issue Targets Targets Targets Regional Activities National Activities 2005 2010 2025 Radioactive — — eliminate • information system • environmental management substances inputs of radioactive waste • apply BAT, BEP to reduce input • reporting Nutrients and suspended solids • Urban and — 50% all waste • guidelines for • reduce discharge industrial reduction disposed BAT & BEP • environmental management waste form according to • EQO and standards of waste water water industry LBS protocol • apply tertiary treatment • good housekeeping • reuse of treated waste water • environmental management of sludges • Agriculture ——reduce • guidelines for • assess fertilizers inputs rational use of • assess quantities of ma... fertilizers and losses • rational use of fertilizers of nutrients • good agriculture practices • participate to FAO • participate to FAO related related programmes programmes • implementation of convention on desertification • Atmo- ———— — spheric emissions Hazardous — 20% dispose • prepare Mediterranean • national strategy for wastes reduction of in safe strategy for the management of generation environ- management of hazardous wastes of hazardous mental hazardous wastes • national plans for waste sound • adopt common management of 50% safely manner antipollution measures hazardous wastes disposed • environmental sound disposal of hazardous wastes • ratify hazardous wastes protocol • Obsolete collect and — — • programmes for • training programmes chemicals dispose in information exchange for recycling, collection a safe treatment, disposal environ- • inventories QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL mental manager • Luboil 50% — — • adopt standards • inventories collect and for PCB content • pilot programmes dispose in (50 mg/kg) for recycling, collection a safe treatment, disposal environmental manner • Batteries — 20% dispose all — • nation inventories reduction of batteries in • pilot programmes generation an environ- for recycling, collection 50% mental treatment, disposal disposed in manner • special programmes an environ- for public and military sectors mental manner

c. Physical alterations and destruction 5.2 Objective 2: of habitats. Sustainable Productivity from Fisheries In most of the countries, sea fisheries have not been sustainably developed; disturbing effects have been noticed in many areas. This being so, there has recently been a general recognition of the need 127 to lighten the pressure of fishing on the resource by and institutional framework required for the reducing the effort and improving the quality of fish- exercise of responsible fisheries and in the ing gear and its use in terms of time and place. formulation and implementation of appro- Fishing practises themselves should also be priate measures; d. provide guidance which improved by developing fishing that is as rational as may be used where appropriate in the formu- possible. lation and implementation of international So far, the failure of traditional management agreements and other legal instruments, measures (quotas, restrictions on size controlling the both binding and voluntary; effort, period closure...) to halt the over-exploiting of • facilitate and promote technical, financial stocks and degrading of habitats must be recognised. and other cooperation in conservation of fish- The principle of the Code of Conduct for respon- eries resources and fisheries management and sible Fishing, is accepted by the Mediterranean coun- development; tries. But strengthening this Code requires real political • promote the contribution of fisheries to food will. Practical indicators and measures must still be security and food quality, giving priority to elaborated and put into effect. For the purpose of this the nutritional needs of local communities; TDA, the Code of Conduct is considered as the EQOs for • promote protection of living aquatic re- fisheries issue in the Mediterranean. Selected chapters sources and their environments and coastal of Code are enumerated hereafter. areas; • promote the trade of fish and fishery products 5.2.1 Code of Conduct in conformity with relevant international rules for Responsible Fisheries and avoid the use of measures that constitute • Article 2: Objectives of the Code hidden barriers to such trade; • Article 3: Relationship with other international • promote research on fisheries as well as on instruments associated ecosystems and relevant envi- • Article 4: Implementation monitoring and up- ronmental factors; and dating • provide standards of conduct for all persons • Article 5: Special requirements of developing involved in the fisheries sector. countries • Article 6: General principles 5.2.3 Relationship with other • Article 7: Fisheries management International Instruments • Article 8: Fishing operations The Code is to be interpreted and applied in con- • Article 9: Aquaculture development formity with the relevant rules of international law, as • Article 10: Integration of fisheries into coastal reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY area management the Sea, 1982. Nothing in this Code prejudices the • Article 11: Post-harvest practices and trade rights, jurisdiction and duties of States under interna- • Article 12: Fisheries research tional law as reflected in the Convention. The Code is also to be interpreted and applied: 5.2.2 Objectives of the Code • in a manner consistent with the relevant pro- The objectives of the Code are to: visions of the Agreement for the Implemen- • establish principles, in accordance with the tation of the Provisions of the United Nations relevant rules of international law, for res- Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 ponsible fishing and fisheries activities, tak- December 1982 Relating to the Conservation ing into account all their relevant biological, and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks technological, economic, social, environ- and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks; mental and commercial aspects; b. establish • in accordance with other applicable rules of principles and criteria for the elaboration and international law, including the respective implementation of national policies for res- obligations of States pursuant to internation- ponsible conservation of fisheries resources al agreements to which they are party; and and fisheries management and development; • in the light of the 1992 Declaration of • serve as an instrument of reference to help Cancun, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environ- 128 States to establish or to improve the legal ment and Development, and Agenda 21 adopted by the United Nations Conference on the adoption of measures to address the needs of Environment and Development (UNCED), in developing countries, especially in the areas of finan- particular Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, and other cial and technical assistance, technology transfer, relevant declarations and international training and scientific cooperation and in enhancing instruments. their ability to develop their own fisheries as well as to participate in high seas fisheries, including access to 5.2.4 Implementation, monitoring such fisheries. and updating All members and non-members of FAO, fishing 5.2.6 General principles entities and relevant subregional, regional and global States and users of living aquatic resources organizations, whether governmental or non-govern- should conserve aquatic ecosystems. The right to fish mental, and all persons concerned with the conserva- carries with it the obligation to do so in a responsible tion, management and utilization of fisheries resources manner so as to ensure effective conservation and and trade in fish and fishery products should collabo- management of the living aquatic resources. rate in the fulfilment and implementation of the objec- Fisheries management should promote the tives and principles contained in this Code. maintenance of the quality, diversity and availabili- FAO, in accordance with its role within the ty of fishery resources in sufficient quantities for United Nations system, will monitor the application present and future generations in the context of food and implementation of the Code and its effects on security, poverty alleviation and sustainable devel- fisheries and the Secretariat will report accordingly to opment. Management measures should not only the Committee on Fisheries (COFI). All States, whether ensure the conservation of target species but also of members or non-members of FAO, as well as relevant species belonging to the same ecosystem or associ- international organizations, whether governmental or ated with or dependent upon the target species. non-governmental should actively cooperate with States should prevent overfishing and excess FAO in this work. fishing capacity and should implement management FAO, through its competent bodies, may measures to ensure that fishing effort is commensu- revise the Code, taking into account developments in rate with the productive capacity of the fishery fisheries as well as reports to COFI on the implemen- resources and their sustainable utilization. States tation of the Code. should take measures to rehabilitate populations as States and international organizations, whether far as possible and when appropriate. 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL governmental or non-governmental, should promote Conservation and management decisions for the understanding of the Code among those involved in fisheries should be based on the best scientific evi- fisheries, including, where practicable, by the introduc- dence available, also taking into account traditional tion of schemes which would promote voluntary accept- knowledge of the resources and their habitat, as well ance of the Code and its effective application. as relevant environmental, economic and social factors. States should assign priority to undertake 5.2.5 Special requirements research and data collection in order to improve sci- of developing countries entific and technical knowledge of fisheries including The capacity of developing countries to their interaction with the ecosystem. In recognizing implement the recommendations of this Code should the transboundary nature of many aquatic ecosys- be duly taken into account. tems, States should encourage bilateral and multilat- In order to achieve the objectives of this Code eral cooperation in research, as appropriate. and to support its effective implementation, countries, States and subregional and regional fisheries relevant international organizations, whether govern- management organizations should apply a precau- mental or non-governmental, and financial institu- tionary approach widely to conservation, management tions should give full recognition to the special circum- and exploitation of living aquatic resources in order to stances and requirements of developing countries, protect them and preserve the aquatic environment, including in particular the least developed among taking account of the best scientific evidence avail- them, and small island developing countries. States, able. The absence of adequate scientific information relevant intergovernmental and non-governmental should not be used as a reason for postponing or fail- organizations and financial institutions should work for ing to take measures to conserve target species, asso- 129 ciated or dependent species and non-target species their obligations concerning the collection and provi- and their environment. sion of data relating to their fishing activities. Selective and environmentally safe fishing gear States should, within their respective compe- and practices should be further developed and applied, tences and in accordance with international law, to the extent practicable, in order to maintain biodi- cooperate at subregional, regional and global levels versity and to conserve the population structure and through fisheries management organizations, other aquatic ecosystems and protect fish quality. Where international agreements or other arrangements to proper selective and environmentally safe fishing gear promote conservation and management, ensure and practices exist, they should be recognized and responsible fishing and ensure effective conservation accorded a priority in establishing conservation and and protection of living aquatic resources through- management measures for fisheries. States and users out their range of distribution, taking into account of aquatic ecosystems should minimize waste, catch of the need for compatible measures in areas within and non-target species, both fish and non-fish species, beyond national jurisdiction. and impacts on associated or dependent species. States should, to the extent permitted by The harvesting, handling, processing and distri- national laws and regulations, ensure that decision- bution of fish and fishery products should be carried making processes are transparent and achieve timely out in a manner that will maintain the nutritional solutions to urgent matters. States, in accordance with value, quality and safety of the products, reduce waste appropriate procedures, should facilitate consultation and minimize negative impacts on the environment. and the effective participation of industry, fishwork- All critical fisheries habitats in marine and ers, environmental and other interested organizations fresh water ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves, in decision making with respect to the development of reefs, lagoons, nursery and spawning areas, should be laws and policies related to fisheries management, protected and rehabilitated as far as possible and development, international lending and aid. where necessary. Particular effort should be made to International trade in fish and fishery products protect such habitats from destruction, degradation, should be conducted in accordance with the princi- pollution and other significant impacts resulting from ples, rights and obligations established in the World human activities that threaten the health and viabili- Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement and other rele- ty of the fishery resources. vant international agreements. States should ensure States should ensure that their fisheries inter- that their policies, programmes and practices related ests, including the need for conservation of the to trade in fish and fishery products do not result in resources, are taken into account in the multiple uses obstacles to this trade, environmental degradation or of the coastal zone and are integrated into coastal negative social, including nutritional, impacts. area management, planning and development. States should cooperate in order to prevent TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Within their respective competences and in disputes. All disputes relating to fishing activities and accordance with international law, including within the practices should be resolved in a timely, peaceful and framework of subregional or regional fisheries conser- cooperative manner, in accordance with applicable vation and management organizations or arrange- international agreements or as may otherwise be ments, States should ensure compliance with and agreed between the parties. Pending settlement of a enforcement of conservation and management meas- dispute, the States concerned should make every effort ures and establish effective mechanisms, as appropri- to enter into provisional arrangements of a practical ate, to monitor and control the activities of fishing nature that should be without prejudice to the final vessels and fishing support vessels. outcome of any dispute settlement procedure. States authorizing fishing and fishing support States, recognizing the paramount importance vessels to fly their flags should exercise effective con- to fishers and fishfarmers of understanding the control over those vessels so as to ensure the proper appli- servation and management of the fishery resources on cation of this Code. They should ensure that the activ- which they depend, should promote awareness of ities of such vessels do not undermine the effectiveness responsible fisheries through education and training. of conservation and management measures taken in They should ensure that fishers and fishfarmers are accordance with international law and adopted at the involved in the policyormulation and implementation national, subregional, regional or global levels. States process, also with a view to facilitating the implemen- 130 should also ensure that vessels flying their flags fulfil tation of the Code. States should ensure that fishing facilities • biodiversity of aquatic habitats and equipment as well as all fisheries activities allow and ecosystems is conserved and for safe, healthy and fair working and living condi- endangered species are protected; tions and meet internationally agreed standards • depleted stocks are allowed to adopted by relevant international organizations. recover or, where appropriate, are Recognizing the important contributions of actively restored; artisanal and small-scale fisheries to employment, • adverse environmental impacts on income and food security, States should appropriate- the resources from human activities ly protect the rights of fishers and fishworkers, partic- are assessed and, where appropri- ularly those engaged in subsistence, small-scale and ate, corrected; and artisanal fisheries, to a secure and just livelihood, as • pollution, waste, discards, catch by well as preferential access, where appropriate, to tra- lost or abandoned gear, catch of ditional fishing grounds and resources in the waters non-target species, both fish and under their national jurisdiction. non-fish species, and impacts on States should consider aquaculture, including associated or dependent species culture-based fisheries, as a means to promote diver- are minimized, through measures sification of income and diet. In so doing, States including, to the extent practica- should ensure that resources are used responsibly and ble, the development and use of adverse impacts on the environment and on local selective, environmentally safe and communities are minimized. cost-effective fishing gear and techniques. 5.2.7 Fisheries management States should assess the impacts of Management objectives environmental factors on target stocks Recognizing that long-term sus- and species belonging to the same tainable use of fisheries resources is ecosystem or associated with or depen- the overriding objective of conserva- dent upon the target stocks, and assess tion and management, States and the relationship among the populations subregional or regional fisheries man- in the ecosystem. agement organizations and arrangements should, inter alia, adopt appro- Management framework and procedures 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL priate measures, based on the best To be effective, fisheries manage- scientific evidence available, which ment should be concerned with the are designed to maintain or restore whole stock unit over its entire area of stocks at levels capable of producing distribution and take into account maximum sustainable yield, as quali- previously agreed management meas- fied by relevant environmental and ures established and applied in the economic factors, including the spe- same region, all removals and the bio- cial requirements of developing coun- logical unity and other biological char- tries. acteristics of the stock. The best sci- Such measures should provide inter entific evidence available should be alia that: used to determine, inter alia, the area • excess fishing capacity is avoided of distribution of the resource and the and exploitation of the stocks area through which it migrates during remains economically viable; its life cycle. • the economic conditions under States seeking to take any action which fishing industries operate through a non-fishery organization promote responsible fisheries; which may affect the conservation and • the interests of fishers, including management measures taken by a those engaged in subsistence, competent subregional or regional small-scale and artisanal fisheries, fisheries management organization or are taken into account; arrangement should consult with the 131 latter, in advance to the extent practi- organizations or arrangements in an cable, and take its views into account. internationally agreed format and provide them in a timely manner to the Data gathering and organization or arrangement. In cases of management advice stocks which occur in the jurisdiction of When considering the adoption of more than one State and for which there conservation and management meas- is no such organization or arrangement, ures, the best scientific evidence avail- the States concerned should agree on a able should be taken into account in mechanism for cooperation to compile order to evaluate the current state of and exchange such data. the fishery resources and the possible Subregional or regional fisheries impact of the proposed measures on management organizations or arrange- the resources. ments should compile data and make Research in support of fishery conser- them available, in a manner consistent vation and management should be pro- with any applicable confidentiality moted, including research on the re- requirements, in a timely manner and in sources and on the effects of climatic, an agreed format to all members of environmental and socio-economic fac- these organizations and other interest- tors. The results of such research should ed parties in accordance with agreed be disseminated to interested parties. procedures. Studies should be promoted which provide an understanding of the costs, Precautionary approach benefits and effects of alternative man- States should apply the precaution- agement options designed to rationalize ary approach widely to conservation, fishing, in particular, options relating to management and exploitation of living excess fishing capacity and excessive aquatic resources in order to protect levels of fishing effort. them and preserve the aquatic environ- States should ensure that timely, ment. The absence of adequate scien- complete and reliable statistics on tific information should not be used as catch and fishing effort are collected a reason for postponing or failing to and maintained in accordance with take conservation and management applicable international standards and measures. practices and in sufficient detail to If a natural phenomenon has a sig- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY allow sound statistical analysis. Such nificant adverse impact on the status of data should be updated regularly and living aquatic resources, States should verified through an appropriate sys- adopt conservation and management tem. States should compile and dis- measures on an emergency basis to seminate such data in a manner con- ensure that fishing activity does not sistent with any applicable confiden- exacerbate such adverse impact. States tiality requirements. should also adopt such measures on an In order to ensure sustainable man- emergency basis where fishing activity agement of fisheries and to enable presents a serious threat to the sus- social and economic objectives to be tainability of such resources. Measures achieved, sufficient knowledge of taken on an emergency basis should be social, economic and institutional fac- temporary and should be based on the tors should be developed through data best scientific evidence available. gathering, analysis and research. States should compile fishery-relat- Management measures ed and other supporting scientific data States should ensure that the level relating to fish stocks covered by subre- of fishing permitted is commensurate 132 gional or regional fisheries management with the state of fisheries resources. When deciding on the use, conserva- States should maintain, in accor- tion and management of fisheries dance with recognized international resources, due recognition should be standards and practices, statistical given, as appropriate, in accordance with data, updated at regular intervals, on all national laws and regulations, to the tra- fishing operations allowed by them. ditional practices, needs and interests of States should, in accordance with indigenous people and local fishing com- international law, within the framework munities which are highly dependent on of subregional or regional fisheries fishery resources for their livelihood. management organizations or arrange- In the evaluation of alternative con- ments, cooperate to establish systems servation and management measures, for monitoring, control, surveillance their cost-effectiveness and social and enforcement of applicable meas- impact should be considered. ures with respect to fishing operations The efficacy of conservation and man- and related activities in waters outside agement measures and their possible their national jurisdiction. interactions should be kept under con- States should ensure that health and tinuous review. Such measures should, as safety standards are adopted for every- appropriate, be revised or abolished in one employed in fishing operations. the light of new information. Such standards should be not less than States should take appropriate the minimum requirements of relevant measures to minimize waste, discards, international agreements on conditions catch by lost or abandoned gear, catch of work and service. of non-target species, both fish and States should make arrangements non-fish species, and negative impacts individually, together with other States on associated or dependent species, in or with the appropriate international particular endangered species. Where organization to integrate fishing oper- appropriate, such measures may include ations into maritime search and rescue technical measures related to fish size, systems. mesh size or gear, discards, closed sea- States should enhance through edu- sons and areas and zones reserved for cation and training programmes the 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL selected fisheries, particularly artisanal education and skills of fishers and, fisheries. Such measures should be where appropriate, their professional applied, where appropriate, to protect qualifications. Such programmes should juveniles and spawners. States and sub- take into account agreed international regional or regional fisheries manage- standards and guidelines. ment organizations and arrangements States should, as appropriate, main- should promote, to the extent practica- tain records of fishers which should, ble, the development and use of selec- whenever possible, contain information tive, environmentally safe and cost on their service and qualifications, effective gear and techniques. including certificates of competency, in accordance with their national laws. 5.2.8 Fishing operations States should ensure that measures Duties of all States applicable in respect of masters and States should ensure that only fish- other officers charged with an offence ing operations allowed by them are relating to the operation of fishing ves- conducted within waters under their sels should include provisions which may jurisdiction and that these operations permit, inter alia, refusal, withdrawal are carried out in a responsible manner. or suspension of authorizations to serve States should maintain a record, as masters or officers of a fishing vessel. updated at regular intervals, on all States, with the assistance of rele- authorizations to fish issued by them. vant international organizations, should 133 endeavour to ensure through education Fishing activities and training that all those engaged in States should ensure that fishing is fishing operations be given information conducted with due regard to the safety on the most important provisions of this of human life and the International Mari- Code, as well as provisions of relevant time Organization International Regu- international conventions and applica- lations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, as ble environmental and other standards well as International Maritime Organ- that are essential to ensure responsible ization requirements relating to the or- fishing operations. ganization of marine traffic, protection of In the event of an accident to a fish- the marine environment and the preven- ing vessel or persons on board a fishing tion of damage to or loss of fishing gear. vessel, the flag State of the fishing ves- States should prohibit dynamiting, sel concerned should provide details of poisoning and other comparable de- the accident to the State of any foreign structive fishing practices. national on board the vessel involved in States should make every effort to the accident. Such information should ensure that documentation with regard also, where practicable, be communi- to fishing operations, retained catch of cated to the International Maritime fish and non-fish species and, as Organization. regards discards, the information required for stock assessment as decided Port State duties by relevant management bodies, is col- Port States should take, through lected and forwarded systematically to procedures established in their nation- those bodies. States should, as far as al legislation, in accordance with inter- possible, establish programmes, such national law, including applicable as observer and inspection schemes, in international agreements or arrange- order to promote compliance with ments, such measures as are necessary applicable measures. to achieve and to assist other States in Research on the environmental and achieving the objectives of this Code, social impacts of fishing gear and, in and should make known to other States particular, on the impact of such gear on details of regulations and measures biodiversity and coastal fishing commu- they have established for this purpose. nities should be promoted. When taking such measures a port TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY State should not discriminate in form Fishing gear selectivity or in fact against the vessels of any International cooperation should be other State. encouraged with respect to research Port States should provide such programmes for fishing gear selectivi- assistance to flag States as is appropri- ty, and fishing methods and strategies, ate, in accordance with the national dissemination of the results of such laws of the port State and international research programmes and the transfer law, when a fishing vessel is voluntarily of technology. in a port or at an offshore terminal of the port State and the flag State of the Protection of the aquatic environment vessel requests the port State for assis- States should introduce and enforce tance in respect of non-compliance with laws and regulations based on the Inter- subregional, regional or global conser- national Convention for the Prevention vation and management measures or of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modi- with internationally agreed minimum fied by the Protocol of 1978 relating standards for the prevention of pollu- thereto (MARPOL 73/78). tion and for safety, health and condi- Owners, charterers and managers of 134 tions of work on board fishing vessels. fishing vessels should ensure that their vessels are fitted with appropriate States and owners, charterers and equipment as required by MARPOL 73/78 managers of fishing vessels as well as and should consider fitting a shipboard fishers should follow international compactor or incinerator to relevant guidelines for the disposal of CFCs, classes of vessels in order to treat HCFCs and Halons. garbage and other shipboard wastes generated during the vessel’s normal Harbours and landing places service. for fishing vessels Owners, charterers and managers of States should establish an institu- fishing vessels should minimize the tak- tional framework for the selection or ing aboard of potential garbage through improvement of sites for harbours for proper provisioning practices. fishing vessels that allows for consulta- The crew of fishing vessels should be tion among the authorities responsible conversant with proper shipboard pro- for coastal area management. cedures in order to ensure discharges do not exceed the levels set by MARPOL Abandonment of structures 73/78. Such procedures should, as a and other materials minimum, include the disposal of oily States should ensure that the stan- waste and the handling and storage of dards and guidelines for the removal of shipboard garbage. redundant offshore structures issued by the International Maritime Organization Protection of the atmosphere are followed. States should also ensure States should adopt relevant stan- that the competent fisheries authori- dards and guidelines that would include ties are consulted prior to decisions provisions for the reduction of dangerous being made on the abandonment of substances in exhaust gas emissions. structures and other materials by the Owners, charterers and managers of relevant authorities. fishing vessels should ensure that their vessels are fitted with equipment to Artificial reefs and reduce emissions of ozone depleting fish aggregation devices 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL substances. The responsible crewmem- States, where appropriate, should bers of fishing vessels should be conver- develop policies for increasing stock sant with the proper running and main- populations and enhancing fishing tenance of machinery on board. opportunities through the use of artifi- Competent authorities should make cial structures, placed with due regard to provision for the phasing out of the use the safety of navigation, on or above the of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and seabed or at the surface. Research into transitional substances such as hydro- the use of such structures, including the chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) in the re- impacts on living marine resources and frigeration systems of fishing vessels the environment, should be promoted. and should ensure that the shipbuilding States should ensure that, when industry and those engaged in the fish- selecting the materials to be used in ing industry are informed of and comply the creation of artificial reefs as well as with such provisions. when selecting the geographical loca- Owners or managers of fishing vessels tion of such artificial reefs, the provi- should take appropriate action to refit sions of relevant international conven- existing vessels with alternative refriger- tions concerning the environment and ants to CFCs and HCFCs and alternatives safety of navigation are observed. to Halons in fire fighting installations. States should, within the framework Such alternatives should be used in of coastal area management plans, specifications for all new fishing vessels. establish management systems for 135 artificial reefs and fish aggregation social consequences resulting from devices. Such management systems water extraction, land use, discharge of should require approval for the con- effluents, use of drugs and chemicals, struction and deployment of such reefs and other aquaculture activities. and devices and should take into account the interests of fishers, includ- Responsible development of ing artisanal and subsistence fishers. aquaculture including culture-based States should ensure that the fisheries within transboundary authorities responsible for maintaining aquatic ecosystems cartographic records and charts for the States should protect transboundary purpose of navigation, as well as rele- aquatic ecosystems by supporting re- vant environmental authorities, are sponsible aquaculture practices within informed prior to the placement or their national jurisdiction and by coop- removal of artificial reefs or fish aggre- eration in the promotion of sustainable gation devices. aquaculture practices. States should, with due respect to 5.2.9 Aquaculture development their neighbouring States, and in accor- Responsible development dance with international law, ensure of aquaculture, including responsible choice of species, siting culture-based fisheries, in areas and management of aquaculture activ- under national jurisdiction ities which could affect transboundary States should establish, maintain aquatic ecosystems. and develop an appropriate legal and States should consult with their neigh- administrative framework that facili- bouring States, as appropriate, before tates the development of responsible introducing non-indigenous species into aquaculture. transboundary aquatic ecosystems. States should promote responsible States should establish appropriate development and management of aqua- mechanisms, such as databases and culture, including an advance evaluation information networks to collect, share of the effects of aquaculture develop- and disseminate data related to their ment on genetic diversity and ecosystem aquaculture activities to facilitate co- integrity, based on the best available operation on planning for aquaculture scientific information. development at the national, subregion- TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY States should produce and regularly al, regional and global level. update aquaculture development strate- States should cooperate in the devel- gies and plans, as required, to ensure opment of appropriate mechanisms, that aquaculture development is ecolog- when required, to monitor the impacts ically sustainable and to allow the of inputs used in aquaculture. rational use of resources shared by aquaculture and other activities. Use of aquatic genetic resources States should ensure that the liveli- for the purposes of aquaculture hoods of local communities, and their including culture-based fisheries access to fishing grounds, are not neg- atively affected by aquaculture devel- Responsible aquaculture at opments. the production level 9.4.1 States States should establish effective should promote responsible procedures specific to aquaculture to aquaculture practices in support undertake appropriate environmental of rural communities, producer assessment and monitoring with the organizations and fish farmers. aim of minimizing adverse ecological States should promote active par- 136 changes and related economic and ticipation of fishfarmers and their communities in the development of States should develop, as appropri- responsible aquaculture management ate, institutional and legal frameworks practices. in order to determine the possible uses States should promote efforts that of coastal resources and to govern improve selection and use of appropri- access to them taking into account the ate feeds, feed additives and fertilizers, rights of coastal fishing communities including manures. and their customary practices to the States should promote effective farm extent compatible with sustainable and fish health management practices development. favouring hygienic measures and vac- States should facilitate the adop- cines. Safe, effective and minimal use of tion of fisheries practices that avoid therapeutants, hormones and drugs, conflict among fisheries resources antibiotics and other disease control users and between them and other chemicals should be ensured. users of the coastal area. States should regulate the use of States should promote the estab- chemical inputs in aquaculture which lishment of procedures and mecha- are hazardous to human health and the nisms at the appropriate administra- environment. tive level to settle conflicts that arise States should require that the dis- within the fisheries sector and between posal of wastes such as offal, sludge, fisheries resource users and other dead or diseased fish, excess veteri- users of the coastal area. nary drugs and other hazardous chemical inputs does not constitute a hazard Policy measures to human health and the environment. States should promote the creation States should ensure the food safety of public awareness of the need for of aquaculture products and promote the protection and management of efforts which maintain product quality coastal resources and the participa- and improve their value through partic- tion in the management process by ular care before and during harvesting those affected. and on-site processing and in storage In order to assist decision-making 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL and transport of the products. on the allocation and use of coastal resources, States should promote the 5.2.10 Integration of fisheries assessment of their respective value into coastal area management taking into account economic, social Institutional framework and cultural factors. States should ensure that an appro- In setting policies for the manage- priate policy, legal and institutional ment of coastal areas, States should framework is adopted to achieve the take due account of the risks and sustainable and integrated use of the uncertainties involved. resources, taking into account the States, in accordance with their ca- fragility of coastal ecosystems and the pacities, should establish or promote finite nature of their natural resources the establishment of systems to moni- and the needs of coastal communities. tor the coastal environment as part of In view of the multiple uses of the the coastal management process using coastal area, States should ensure physical, chemical, biological, eco- that representatives of the fisheries nomic and social parameters. sector and fishing communities are States should promote multi-disci- consulted in the decision-making plinary research in support of coastal processes and involved in other activi- area management, in particular on its ties related to coastal area manage- environmental, biological, economic, ment planning and development. social, legal and institutional aspects. 137 Regional cooperation ties are considered in the development States with neighbouring coastal of related laws, regulations and poli- areas should cooperate with one cies without creating any market dis- another to facilitate the sustainable tortions. use of coastal resources and the conservation of the environment. Responsible international trade In the case of activities that may The provisions of this Code should be have an adverse transboundary envi- interpreted and applied in accordance ronmental effect on coastal areas, with the principles, rights and obliga- States should: tions established in the World Trade • provide timely information and, if Organization (WTO) Agreement. possible, prior notification to po- International trade in fish and fish- tentially affected States; and ery products should not compromise • consult with those States as early the sustainable development of fish- as possible. eries and responsible utilization of States should cooperate at the sub- living aquatic resources. regional and regional level in order to States should ensure that measures improve coastal area management. affecting international trade in fish and fishery products are transparent, Implementation based, when applicable, on scientific States should establish mechanisms evidence, and are in accordance with for cooperation and coordination internationally agreed rules. among national authorities involved in Fish trade measures adopted by planning, development, conservation States to protect human or animal life and management of coastal areas. or health, the interests of consumers or States should ensure that the the environment, should not be dis- authority or authorities representing criminatory and should be in accor- the fisheries sector in the coastal dance with internationally agreed management process have the appro- trade rules, in particular the principles, priate technical capacities and finan- rights and obligations established in cial resources. the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 5.2.11 Post-harvest practices and trade and the Agreement on Technical TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY Responsible fish utilization Barriers to Trade of the WTO. States should adopt appropriate States should further liberalize measures to ensure the right of con- trade in fish and fishery products and sumers to safe, wholesome and unadul- eliminate barriers and distortions to terated fish and fishery products. trade such as duties, quotas and non- States should establish and maintain tariff barriers in accordance with the effective national safety and quality principles, rights and obligations of the assurance systems to protect consumer WTO Agreement. health and prevent commercial fraud. States should not directly or indi- States should ensure that interna- rectly create unnecessary or hidden tional and domestic trade in fish and barriers to trade that limit the con- fishery products accords with sound sumer’s freedom of choice of supplier conservation and management prac- or that restrict market access. tices through improving the identifi- States, aid agencies, multilateral cation of the origin of fish and fishery development banks and other relevant products traded. international organizations should States should ensure that environ- ensure that their policies and practices 138 mental effects of post- harvest activi- related to the promotion of international fish trade and export production Relevant technical and financial international do not result in environmental degra- organizations should, upon request, support States in dation or adversely impact the nutri- their research efforts, devoting special attention to tional rights and needs of people for developing countries, in particular the least devel- whom fish is critical to their health and oped among them. well being and for whom other comparable sources of food are not readily 5.3 Objective 3: Conserve the available or affordable. Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem 5.3.1 SAP Bio objectives and targets Laws and regulations relating This section is derived from the SAP BIO. The to fish trade SAP BIO is a comprehensive document that should be States, in accordance with their reviewed for more detail of the attached items. national laws, should facilitate appropriate consultation with and of indus- Objectives of the SAP BIO try as well as environmental and con- • Improve the management of Marine sumer groups in the development and and Coastal Protected areas; implement at participation ion of laws • Enhance the protection of endan- and regulations related to trade in fish gered species and habitats; and fishery products. • Reinforcement of relevant national legislation; 5.2.12 Fisheries Research • Forster the improving knowledge of States, as appropriate in cooperation with marine and coastal biodiversity. relevant international organizations, should encourage research to ensure optimum utilization of fishery Interventions resources and stimulate the research required to Implementation of the Strategic support national policies related to fish as food. Action Programme for Mediterranean States should conduct research into, and Biodiversity (SAP BIO) including Invest- monitor, human food supplies from aquatic sources ment Portfolio. and the environment from which they are taken and ensure that there is no adverse health impact on con- 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL sumers. The results of such research should be made publicly available. States should ensure that the economic, social, marketing and institutional aspects of fisheries are adequately researched and that comparable data are generated for ongoing monitoring, analysis and policy formulation. States should carry out studies on the selectivity of fishing gear, the environmental impact of fishing gear on target species and on the behaviour of target and non-target species in relation to such fishing gear as an aid for management decisions and with a view to minimizing non-utilized catches as well as safeguarding the biodiversity of ecosystems and the aquatic habitat. States should ensure that before the commercial introduction of new types of gear, a scientific evaluation of their impact on the fisheries and ecosystems where they will be used should be under- taken. The effects of such gear introductions should be monitored. 139 140 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA aiastomapsby scientistsandmanagers Facilitateexchangeofandaccess cartographyofsensitivehabitats campaignswithoceanographicboatsof UndertakeinternationalMediterranean tomapsensitivehabitats Imp. Time nationalandsub-nationalprogrammes B Specific MT habitats sensitive ofthesensitivehabitats and marine IncreaseavailabilityofGIStechnology coastal, wetland, Action of Mediterranean Enhancenationalcapabilitiesandsupport (by sub-region) mappingofthespatialdistribution inventory and integrated DescriptionandGIS-based Make acomplete (Priority Actions) Activity Objective T osa definingsamplingandexperimental principles,aswellstandardisedsampling Elaboratearegionalmonitoringbooklet onseveralMPAs A Aphroditeproject,alreadyongoing numberofsamples,etc.) ST andtemporalallocationofsampling, protected areas protectedareastobemonitoredtaking coastal ofthe intoaccountthemethodology coastalprotectedareas Determinesamplingprotocols(spatial Defineplannedobjectivesofexisting of marineand basedmonitoringprogrammeson effectiveness theeffectivenessofmarineand survey ofthe Implementsoundscientifically- monitoring and adequate Promote the A techniquesandmethodsofendangered ST Establishstandardadequatemonitoring species threatened forendangeredspecies Implementamonitoringsystem endangered and s a monitoring Establish of able 5.3 SAP BIOEQOs se f trgoa ee andthreatenedspecies atregionallevel ystem of SAP BIOindicatorsby 2006(6a,b,c,d,e) protected areasby 2004(2a;3a;4a;5a) Standard monitoringprotocolsforsocio-economicimpacts,globaltrade,endangeredspecies,effectivenessof Mediterranean Checklistsofspeciesby 2006(1b,d) GIS-based mappingofsensitivehabitatsby 2008(relevantobjective/s:1a) Specific targets Plan ofImplementationtheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment–Johannesburg, September2002) aspects, bothcurrentandforeseeable,buildingonexistingregionalassessments.” (ExtractfromParagraph 34b, Nations forglobalreportingandassessmentofthestatemarineenvironment,includingsocio-economic “Contribute toachievingtheWSSDtargets concerningestablishingby 2004aregularprocessundertheUnited General objective I. Inventorying,MappingandMonitoringofMediterraneanCoastalMarineBiodiversity ogtr otn oioig ovn hmtcwrsosb ye S A Setupregionalprogrammes tomake ST Supportmonitoringprogrammes at nationallevel,tobeimplementedby variables withinsensitivehabitats ofhabitat,toelaboratestandardised B biomass andotherassemblage Convenethematicworkshopsby types regionalmonitoringprogrammes temporal variabilityofabundance, MT programmes, inordertodefine Long-term routinemonitoring by taxonand/orhabitat Formregionalworkgroupsofspecialists habitat associated witheachsensitive Complete checklistofspecies ouain Modelpopulationdynamicsinorder B MT eachendangeredspecies Listspecificthreatsaffecting populations and riskstatusofendangered Establish andupdatethehealth A ST regionalworkgroupswhen necessary) by taxonand/orhabitat(assistedby all theMediterraneancountries Formnationalworkgroups ofspecialists marine andcoastalspeciesfor Elaborate nationalchecklistsfor » by national workgroupsinselectedsites and /orcountry(cf. Target dbelow) such checklistsby sub-region protected areasresultsatregional level Undertake acomparativeanalysis of of theAphroditeproject) level (takingintoaccountthemethodology spanning arepresentativesetat regional programmes inselectedprotectedareas Implement standardisedsampling comparable data protocols establishedtoacquireuseful, of eachspecies Revise periodicallytheconservationstatus each species to forecastdifferentscenariosconcerning Implement standardmonitoringprotocols to undertakenationalchecklists Set upnationalprogrammes e.g., marineandcoastalprotectedareas)

types ofhabitat(atundisturbedsites, Framework Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Improve methods of management Evaluate, at regional level, effectiveness ST A planning, implementation of management measures in relation and monitoring to planned objectives Analysis of the applicability of new management measures Refine management measures Identify, Elaborate a regional strategy on Convene a regional workshop ST A develop, and SAP BIO indicators on SAP BIO indicators validate Form a working group in charge of adequate elaborating and validating a set biological and of SAP BIO indicators socio-economic Elaborate a list of useful Define objectives of the set of indicators ST A indicators SAP BIO indicators to be used to assess Elaborate a catalogue of indicators the ecological (taking into account the indicators proposed health of by other international institutions) sensitive habitats Specify the methodological constraints and species, and linked to each indicator to evaluate the Select useful indicators effectiveness of management Existing and new data collected Evaluate the availability of existing data ST B measures to construct selected Elaborate standardised protocols SAP BIO indicators to collect new data Decide periodicity and implementation calendar of selected indicators Undertake sampling programmes to collect new data where necessary Construct SAP BIO indicator set Gather regional data MT B starting from the collected data Construct indicators Publish the results at regional level Validate selected Establish the states of MT B SAP BIO indicators SAP BIO implementation Evaluate the usefulness, accuracy and precision of selected indicators Possibly, refine list of SAP BIO indicators LT: Long Term MT: Medium Term ST: Short Term A: High level. Immeditate applicability B: Medium level C: Low level, logistic / economic, institutional conditions are not met

II. Conservation of Sensitive Habitats, Species and Sites 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL General objective Contribute to achieving the WSSD targets concerning the establishing of Marine Protected Areas consistent with international law and based on scientific information, representative networks, by 2012, and time / area closures for the protection of nursery grounds and periods, proper coastal land use (Extract from Paragraph 31c Plan of Implementation” of the World Summit on Sustainable Development — 4 September 2002, Johannesburg) Specific targets Effective protection of endangered species by 2012 (relevant objectives 7a, b; 8d) Increase (50%) by 2012 the surface area covered by MPAs (10 a, b, c, f) Attain the protection of 20 % of the coast as marine fishery reserves by 2012 (10 e) Set up a representative Mediterranean network of marine and coastal protected areas by 2012 (11 a, b) Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Update, Fill in existing gaps in national Ensure that measures adopted within MT A coordinate and legislation about the protection the framework of regional conventions, enforce of such habitats, species arrangements or organizations to which legislation to and areas countries are party are incorporated conserve in national legislations biodiversity Clarify at national level competencies regarding the management of littoral areas Ensure the completion, Assess the general level of compliance LT C enforcement and implementation with current legislation in the region of existing and updated legislation Develop guidelines on root cause analysis of non-compliance that would help to identify the real problems in various non-compliance scenarios Set up of a specific national police body, for the protection of biodiversity in coastal areas (any other police task being excluded) » 141 142 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA nldn n (cf. priority#9) priority#1)furthertotheiridentification asprioritysitesby NationalReports A ST andcoastal habitats(linkswithcf. Identifykeysitesimportantforharbouring representative,well-conservedmarine andeasternMediterranean Identifyofnewareasdeserving including in protectionmeasuresinthesouth protected areas and marine new coastal and develop Declare rtc aie eeo n oriae apino olcino aauig — PreparedetailedActionPlanstoprotect — inidentifiedsite Campaignofcollectiondatausing theStandardEntryDataForm sitesandareasidentified by NationalReports protectionactionsforpriority interest identified particular sites of Develop andcoordinate and coastal Protect marine sites C: Lowlevel,logistic/economic,institutional conditionsarenotmet Mediumlevel B: High level.Immeditateapplicability A: S MT: MediumTerm L FillintheSDFforeachidentifiedarea the highseas RefineNAPs toprotectthreatened assuretheflowofinformation amongtheNAPs Imp. Time Duringtheimplementationphase A intheimplementationofNAPs ST Specific species theSAPBIOProject Preparecommonguidelines, specieselaboratedwithin documentstoassistcountries Mediterranean marine) Action ofNational ActionPlans(NAPs) (coastal and Organize subregionalworkshops forthreatenedandendangered endangered threatened and Coordinatetheimplementation to conserve Develop actions (Priority Actions) Activity Objective osa ConveneworkshopsofC&MPA managersto harmoniseandimprovemanagementissues B MT managementofexistingProtectedAreas Dedicateresourcestofundingthe existingProtectedAreas Protected Areas Coastal Enhancethemanagementof Marine and Develop existing T: LongTerm T: ShortTerm amns,udt,ipeet c.pirt 7 — — — — — — (cf. priority#10,target d) species dependprotected (cf. priority#7) Habitats onwhichselected and enforceadequatelegislation (cf. priority#4) Harmonise, update,implement for thesespecies Establish amonitoringsystem on thesespecies e po e rtce aie onre elr e &P TC MT thenecessarytoolstoassure ProvidethenewM&CPA withall CountriesdeclarenewM&CPA and easternMediterranean and coastalareasinthesouth Set upofnewprotectedmarine — — (cf. priority#4.a,4.b) Increase knowledge rantok atparticularlocations intowider B MT Integratespecificprotectionmeasures area networks Establish andsupportprotected C and/orimportantpelagicecosystem MT representative,deepmarinehabitats deserving protectionmeasures C Identifykeysitesimportantforharbouring offshore (includingthehighseas) Identify andprotectofnewareas LT Definetheminimumareaneededtofully endangeredspecies Definehabitatfeaturesofselected highly endangeredspecies or reservestoconservesensitive, Increase thenumberofC&MPAs at regionallevel(cf. Priority#11, Coordinate protectionactions representative habitats south andeasternMediterranean Establish ofasub-regionalnetwork their functioning Ta and endangeredspecies (cf. priority#5) and assessmentunderanetworkingscheme Undertake specificresearch,monitoring particular existingProtectedAreas management plansandstructuresof Coordination andharmonisationbetween Marine ProtectedAreas large-scale networksofCoastaland management plans,aswellinto large-scale networks(cf. Target bbelow) Integrate specificprotectionmeasuresinto offshore protectedareas The involvedcountriesdeclareandsetup (links withcf. priority#1) of othermeasuresprotection) areas (declarationofMPA orimplementation Prepare detailedActionPlansforthese Select areastoprotectthesespecies protect highlyendangeredspecies (cf. Target 11.bbelow) r get bbelow) Framework III. Assessing and Mitigating the Impact of Threats on Biodiversity General objective Contribute to achieving the WSSD targets concerning significant reduction by 2010in the current rate of loss of biological diversity (Extract from Paragraph 42 Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development — 4 September 2003, Johannesburg) Specific targets Updated assessment of the potential impact of threats on Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity by 2008 (12a, b; 13a) Maintain or restore fishery stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield with the aim of achieving these goals for depleted stocks on an urgent basis and where possible not later than 201520 (21 a, b, c, d, e, f ,g, h, i) Urgently develop and implement national and plans of action, to put into effect the FAO international plans of action, in particular the international plan of action for the management of fishing capacity by 2005 and the international plan of action to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing by 2004 (relevant objective/s: 21f). Establish effective monitoring, reporting and enforcement, and control of fishing vessels, including by flag states, to further the international plan of action to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing20 (21a, c, e, f, h, i) Control and regulate the urban development of coastal area, land use planning and aquaculture practices within a wider management plan by 2010 (16a; 17a; 20a, b, c) Legal regulation of recreational activities by 2008 (18 b) Reinforce control and mitigation of the introduction and spread of alien species by 2006 (15 a, b, c) Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Monitor of Implement monitoring systems Establish monitoring protocols and ST A global trade for consequences of global trade standards, in order to evaluate and economic and economic policies the effects of international trade policies and on Mediterranean biodiversity trends from a Implement standard monitoring Mediterranean protocols perspective, Propose recommendations at regional to analyse their level to undertake specific actions to scope and counter trade effects on biodiversity probable effects and sustainable development on biodiversity Coordinate monitoring and action plans at regional and international level (e.g., UNCTAD/UNDP, ICTSD, etc.) Establish Implement monitoring systems Establish monitoring protocols and ST A a regional for socio-economic impacts standards, in order to evaluate monitoring of changes in biodiversity the socio-economic effects of changes programme in biodiversity following up the Implement standard monitoring socio-economic protocols

impact of QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL changes in biodiversity Assess Inventory and monitor of Geographical identification of priority ST A the potential biodiversity elements and / or areas likely to be threatened impact of areas likely to be impacted by climate change and rise in sea level climate change by climate change Establish a monitoring network and rise in to describe long-term change sea level on Acquire the necessary knowledge Ascertain the relationship between MT B Mediterranean to model and forecast likely the Mediterranean Sea and coastal and effects of climate change the global ocean atmosphere and marine its response to local forcing biodiversity Monitoring long-term variability of the thermo-haline circulation, biogeochemical content and transport in the whole Mediterranean Sea Quantify and accurately model regional hydrological cycles (evaporation, precipitation, river run-off, groundwater) Fill in geographical gaps on key processes in the Mediterranean Sea Assess Inventory of biodiversity Geographical identification of priority MT B the potential elements and / or areas likely to areas likely to be affected by threats impact of be impacted by threats on biodiversity threats on on biodiversity Establish a monitoring network Mediterranean to describe long-term change coastal and marine biodiversity » 143 144 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA fainad ofalienspeciesviaships’ballastwater andsedimentshullfouling Regionalprojecttoreducetransfer C B LT ST Setupaspecificnationalpolicebody, ofaliensviaaquacultureandaquaria Regionalprojecttoreducetransfer threatenedandendangeredspecies invasive species notyet included Developappropriateinstitutional practices(cf. Priority#20) of alienand measures to fightagainst particularsourcesofalienspecies and spread UpdateCITESlistswithMediterranean the introduction and mitigate Control Imp. Time notincluded inCITES A ST trade,focusingespeciallyonspecies Specific species Improvemonitoringofinternational wildspecies endangered theimpactofharvesting trade in Improveresearchandcontrolon Action international impact of the direct Mitigate (Priority Actions) Activity Objective fcatl regulationsandpropertymanagement tocontroltouristurbanisationandprotect tothecarryingcapacitiesthusdefined » Strengthenorestablishlegislativetools, C MT stepstoensurethattheofferislimited Carryoutevaluationsofdestinationsites’ carryingcapacityandtakethenecessary integratedmanagementplans infrastructure of coastal Inserturbandevelopment and construction ofcoastalareasintowider urbanization coastal and mitigate Control mlmn einlcodnto Eaoaeadaota einllvl TB nationalauthorities ST guidelinesintendedtoassisttherelevant and spreadofalienspecies network tomitigateintroduction Elaborateandadoptatregionallevel Implement aregionalcoordination B Makeconsumersandpotentialpurchasers ST sensitivetointernationalwildlife-trade harvestedandexported (from harvesterstoconsumers) trade inalienspecies Createaneco-labeltocertifythat wildlifeproductshavebeenlegally in thechainofcatchingand measures targeting stakeholders Adopt marketandawareness bu le pce monitoring, etc.aimedatimproving B ST Carryoutresearchwork,datacollection, about alienspecies Fill inexistinggapsknowledge the introductionofnon-indigenousspecies neighbouring statestopreventandcontrol Coordinate theactionstakenby of alienspeciesviafishingpractices Regional projecttoreducetransfer of alienspeciesviaplasticdebris Regional projecttoreducetransfer measures issues, throughadequateawareness (cf. priority#7b) for theprotectionofbiodiversity and managingnaturalcultural sites from thetouristsectorforprotecting (whenever possible)afinancialcontribution Implement mechanismsenabling areas favouringtheenvironment the rehabilitationofmaturedestination Implement programmesenabling Prohibit theconstructionofartificialbeaches of marinasandsportharbours In particular, controltheproliferation sensitive species,habitatsandsites measures ofpreventionandcontrol scientifically-backed regionally-harmonised Encourage theimplementationof concerted actionatregionallevel Support informationexchangeand lists ofnon-indigenousspecies and Mediterranean-widereference information forthenational for theregularprovisionofsupplementary Coordinate theactionsthatarenecessary the availableknowledge Support cooperationatinternationallevel Framework Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Control Promote the integration of land Carry out evaluations of carrying MT C the effect used planning into wider capacity of the littoral zone concerning l and mitigate integrated management plans and use, and take the necessary steps of changes that the offer is limited to the carrying in land use capacities thus defined Define (at national and sub-regional level) interference, incompatibility and synergy between different land uses in the littoral zone Undertake the zoning of littoral areas at sub-national level Define and promote adequate, environmentally-friendly agricultural practices Define and promote adequate, environmentally-friendly water management practices Define and promote adequate, environmentally-friendly reforestation practices Regulate and control mining activities under an integrated management scheme Promote Increase sustainable tourism, Promote eco-labelling and other quality LT B eco- and soft including non-consumptive and environmental procedures tourism, eco-tourism taking into account (e.g., certification, charters, etc.) control and the spirit of the International at regional level mitigate Year of Eco-tourism 2002, Support private eco-tourism initiatives impact of the United Nations Year for Awareness programmes among tour recreational Cultural Heritage in 2002, operators, tourist businesses (travels, activities the World Eco-tourism Summit 2002 hotels, sport facilities, etc.) and its Quebec Declaration, and public sector administrations on and the Global Code of Ethics the benefits of environmentally-friendly for Tourism as adopted by tourist practices the World Tourism Organization Avoid ghetto-like, high-standing tourist (taken from paragraph 41, facilities unconnected with local conditions “Plan of Implementation” of Promote respect for local architecture the World Summit on and the historical heritage Sustainable Development, Facilitate the exchange of tourists and 4 September 2002, Johannesburg) local populations and cultures

Minimize waste production, and energy QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL and water consumption by tourist facilities Promote the use of public transport Develop all means that may lead to spreading the tourist season over the entire year Develop international, regional cooperation Control and mitigate the impact Make an analysis and collect information MT C of recreational activities on the most significant environmental on coastal and marine impacts of recreational activities Mediterranean biodiversity and tourism Geographical identification of priority areas likely to be affected by recreational activities Regulation and enforcement of recreational practices, in particular of high-impacting activities (e.g., 4x4, diving, motor navigation, hunting, recreational fishing, sea-watching, etc.) Management and regulation of access and use of beaches by the public as well as their use by professionals, in accordance with environmental factors Study and promote the use of eco-taxes for the general public visiting protected areas, as well as other economic and financial tools to protect biodiversity Develop the alternative use of coastal and marine areas, based on the utilization of natural landscapes MT C » 145 146 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA olto disposalofrejectflow,ameliorate process(e.g.,constructionofpipelinesfor tominimizetheimpactofdesalination desalinationplants Defineandevaluatetechnicalmeasures theenvironmentalimpactofcoastal Imp. Time C MT Specific quantifyandcharacterize pollution Establish aregionalprogrammeto sources of impact of Action environmental ofdesalinationtechniques Assessandpreventtheimpact prevent the strategies to elaborate of Assess and (Priority Actions) Activity Objective oto h rlfrto f sals einlporme TC LT Establisharegionalprogramme toquantifyplasticproliferation floating plasticobjectsanddebris Control theproliferationof nert fauclue ar u vlain fcryn aaiy TB aquaculture, andtakethenecessarysteps LT Carryoutevaluationsofcarryingcapacity ofthelittoralzoneconcerning management plans practices intowiderintegrated Integrate ofaquaculture environmentalimpacts ofmaritime C Enhanceandsupportactivities LT internationalagreementson casualty, concerningpollutionfromships and hydrocarbon pollution pay specialattentiontonoise Enhanceandsupportactivitiesunder techniques; transport andnavigation Achieve non-pollutantmarine » about theuseandwasteofplasticdebris (oriented tousersandthegeneralpublic) Establish awarenesscampaigns beach-cleaning initiatives Promote andsupport bio-degradable plastics toproducephoto-and of technology Promote theresearchandapplication of plastics Enhance recuperationandrecycling about thedumpingofplasticsinsea Support internationalagreements the proliferationofplasticdebrisinsea areas likelytobeaffectedby Geographical identificationofpriority in theMediterranean coastal managementplans plants intowiderintegratedwaterand Insert theplanningofnewdesalination incinerators oftoxicwaste,etc.) energy projects(e.g.,powerplants, to maskenvironmentally-unfriendly (e.g., solar);avoiddesalinationprojects Promote clean-energy desalinationplants desalination technology, etc.) taking intoaccountzoning in acase-by-case approach, tobeused Adapt aquaculturetechnology Identify zonessuitableforaquaculture at sub-nationallevel Undertake thezoningoflittoralareas and plans,otherusesofthelittoralzone and synergy betweenaquacultureprojects level) interference,incompatibility Define (by country, andatsub-national the carryingcapacitiesthusdefined to ensurethattheofferislimited as definedby theIMO) (Particularly SensitiveSeaAreas, Support thedeclarationofPSSA in anti-foulingsystems future useofotherharmfulsubstances a mechanismtopreventthepotential paints usedonships;establish the useofharmfulorganisms anti-fouling Organization (IMO)convention prohibiting Support theInternationalMaritime aquatic organisms to preventthetransferofharmful Regulations forballastwatermanagement (mineral production,pingers,ringers,etc.) sources ofnoisepollution and militaryengines,aswellother to minimizetheimpactofnoisefromships Undertake aRegionalProgramme on theenvironmentalimpactsofoilspills regulations underinternationalagreements in thesea Framework Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Develop research and measures Standard environmental impact ST B to minimise the impacts assessment procedures convened of aquaculture practices Regulate of the use of pingers on the marine and coastal Regional programme to reduce environment the invasion of alien species from aquaculture Regional programme to minimise pollution caused by organic matter and nutrient enrichment from aquaculture farms Regional programme to minimise the impact of wild seed to stock fish farms (e.g., red tuna) Regional programme to minimise genetic pollution Regional programme to minimise chemical pollution; disinfectants, anti-foulants, flesh colorants and medicines (including vaccines) Adopt measures to avoid Prohibit in all the Mediterranean ST A the impacts of aquariology countries the use of potentially invasive on the marine and coastal species (e.g., caulerpas) in open environment or semi-open aquarium systems Improve fishing statistics Identify the main problems and gaps ST C in getting accurate fishing statistics Propose mechanisms to improve fishing statistics at regional level In particular, design, implement and evaluate data collecting systems at national level Establish a network of institutions responsible for acquiring statistics at national level Mediterranean strategy for the Assess the status of vulnerable fish ST A conservation and sustainable and invertebrate populations subject management of vulnerable fish to commercial fisheries and invertebrates, including Determine adaptive and precautionary 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL sustainable related fisheries management schemes for the preservation of vulnerable populations Assess the suitability of a complete ban on the exploitation of certain particularly vulnerable species at regional level Assess (and eventually implement) the inclusion of species listed in the annexes of the SPA Protocol in the appropriate CITES lists Develop selected case studies for different vulnerable species / groups carried out in different parts of the Mediterranean in order to draw up guidelines on vulnerable species management and conservation valid for the region Improve inter- and intra-specific Carry out research on effects of by-catch, MT A selectivity of gear and fishing discard and ghost-fishing on threatened practices, addressing particularly and endangered species the problems of by-catch, Enhance research on fishing technology, discard, and ghost-fishing fishing strategies and possible gear modifications to avoid by-catch, discards and ghost-fishing Favour new consumption habits and technology to process unavoidably by-catched, under-consumed species » 147 148 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ciiyOjcieSeii cinTm Imp. Time Specific Action (Priority Actions) Activity Objective n e id andseabirds A ST priorityareaswithsignificantimpacts oncetaceans,monkseals,seaturtles and seabirds of marinemammals,turtles Geographicalidentification of fishing-related mortality toreduce Mediterranean strategy eierna taeyt eue egahclietfcto fpirt S A ST oftowedgear areaswithaverifiedhighimpact towed gearoncriticalhabitats Geographical identificationofpriority the impactoftrawlingandother toreduce Mediterranean strategy oto esrswithFAO andotherregionalinstitutions) A ST Organize workinggroups(coordinated control measures Develop andrefine“traditional” A ST Identifyofproblemsassociatedwith areaswithasignificantoccurrenceof: Geographicalidentificationofpriority harmful fishingpractices to eliminateparticularly Mediterranean strategy » species andimplementedinselectedsites on pilotstudiesaffectingdifferentgroups/ based Establish anadaptivemethodology from fishingfleetsintheregion Assess therelianceofseabirdsondiscard fishing restrictions of no-takezonesorareaswithsevere Assess thepossibleimplementation and temporalrestrictionsonimpactinggear Assess theapplicabilityofspatial technical improvements Assess thepotentialrelevanceofexisting on vulnerablegroups to counterthenegativeeffectsoffishing Develop Mediterranean-specificapproaches information obtainedatthenationallevel the aboveandothercomplementary of impactedpopulations,basedon its significancewithrespecttotheviability Detailed analysisofthethreat,and Assess theeffectivenessofnewprevention to preventillegaltrawling Assess theeffectivenessofartificialreefs on deepseaecosystems intheregion including likelyshort-termdevelopments, by and developdraftsforsuitableimprove Identify shortcomingsinlegislation, around theMediterranean of refinedmanagementmeasures Support theimplementation legally harvested,etc.) sex orsexualmaturityoffishthat maybe minimum sizeoffish-meshsize, species, on “outputs”(e.g.,weightofcatchorquota, to developandrefinemeasuresacting F Organize workinggroups(coordinatedwith and equipmentused,etc.) characteristics ofthefishinggear number ofvesselsauthorizedinthefishery, closed seasons,limitsonfishingtime, on “inputs”(e.g.,closedareas, to developandrefinemeasuresacting regarding harmfulfishingpractices at GFCMlevel,includingbindingdecisions Promote regionalpolicyinitiatives species, ortopossibleremedies depending ontheireffectsvulnerable to thetotalbanningoflegaldriftnets, Adopting measuresleadingeither the eradicationoflegaldrift-nets Identify problemsassociatedwith as by-catch inlegaldrift-nets inflicted onvulnerablespeciescaught Ascertain thereallevelofdamage areas withhighlevelsofdrift-netfishing Geographical identificationofpriority the eradicationofthesepractices measures (cf. target hbelow) AO andotherregionalinstitutions)

current deep-waterfishingpractices, Framework Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Develop new management Organize working groups ST A techniques (coordinated with FAO and other regional institutions) to develop and refine new management techniques (e.g., marine protected areas, artificial reefs, temporal closures —by season, area, etc.— market tools, remote location and positioning of fishing ships, etc.) Support the implementation of refined management measures Increase the number of marine Calculate total surface per country LT C fishery reserves to manage to be protected to reach fishery stocks to attain the 20% threshold the protection of 20% Decide location, habitats included, of the coast size and number of marine fishery reserves based on participative schemes, taking stakeholders’ needs and experience into account Involve stakeholders in planning, managing, monitoring and exploitation issues; support their participation in the whole protection process Undertake socio-economic and biological planning and monitoring of adopted measures Define adaptive / flexible mechanisms to manage such areas Coordinate management issues at regional level (cf. Target 11.b below) Control recreational Identify the main problems and gaps MT B fishing activities in getting accurate recreational fishing statistics Propose mechanisms to improve recreational fishing statistics at regional level In particular, design, implement and evaluate data collecting systems at national level Establish a network of institutions responsible for acquiring statistics at national level Regulate and enforce recreational fishing LT: Long Term

MT: Medium Term QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ST: Short Term A: High level. Immeditate applicability B: Medium level C: Low level, logistic / economic, institutional conditions are not met

IV. Developing Research to complete Knowledge and fill in Gaps on Biodiversity General objective Improve the scientific understanding and assessment of marine and coastal ecosystems (From paragraph 34 of “Plan of Implementation” of the World Summit on Sustainable development – Johannesburg, September 2002) Specific targets Launch research programmes before 2006 in order to fill in identified gaps (22a, b) Increase more than 50 the number of PHD taxonomists in the Mediterranean region by 2010 (23 a, b, c) Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Improve and Convene a workshop (under Identify potential organisers ST A coordinate the UNEP MAP coordination) Identify potential participants biodiversity to identify gaps in knowledge Agree about objectives research of Mediterranean coastal and of the workshop marine biodiversity Organisation of a workshop to identify (at genetic, species and gaps in knowledge of Mediterranean communities / ecosystems level) coastal and marine biodiversity Create and fund research Set up a network of excellence of ST B programmes at regional level, national institutes of research on aiming at filling in gaps and the issues identified through completing knowledge of a workshop (cf. priority # 22 a) coastal and marine biodiversity, Elaborate research programme as well as transfer knowledge on the issues identified through between countries a workshop (cf. priority # 22 a) » 149 150 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA C: Lowlevel,logistic/economic,institutional conditionsarenotmet Mediumlevel B: High level. Immeditateapplicability A: S MT: MediumTerm L diverseskillsandknowledge,toensure Recruitpermanentstaffcovering A Imp. Time Establishnetworkingsystems and ST Specific andresponsibilities) Organize theorganisms and (determiningroles ofUNEPMAP activities developedwithintheframework conservation SPA/RAC, etc.)reinforcedand institutionsinvolved coastal exchange Theavailableclearing-house Action to focuson marine and mechanism mechanisms(nationals,CBD, “clearing-house” Achieve (Priority Actions) Activity Objective C: Lowlevel,logistic/economic,institutionalconditionsarenotmet Mediumlevel B: Highlevel.Immeditateapplicability protocols A: S MT: MediumTerm L Imp. Time B MT bilateraland/ormultinational Specific Encouragetheestablishmentof Promoteandco-ordinateMSc andPhDprogrammes allgroups,inordertoincrease thenumberofspecialists Action Implementtrainingprogrammes formoderntaxonomistscovering in theregion expertise taxonomic Improve (Priority Actions) Activity Objective ln NP) pce f roiy#8 Establishproceduresintheframeworkof theflowofinformationamongNAPs Duringtheimplementationphaseassure A WhenandifnecessaryrefineNAPs ST speciescf. priority#8) dealingwithcommonissues threatenedandendangered (regardingtheNAPs on Organize subregionalworkshopsonNAPs Plans (NAPs) National Action theSAPBIOProject to implement Coordinatetheimplementation of commontools ofNAPs elaboratedwithin and development Coordination T: LongTerm T: LongTerm T: ShortTerm T: ShortTerm 4 September2002,Johannesburg) (taken fromparagraph119a,“PlanofImplementation” oftheWorld SummitonSustainableDevelopment— based observations,satelliteremotesensingandothersourcesamongallcountries(23a,b;24a,b) ed globalobservations,takingintoaccounttheneedforbuildingcapacityandsharingofdatafromground- Strengthen cooperationandcoordinationamongglobalobservingsystems andresearchprogrammesforintegrat- Objective: V.

Capacity Building:CoordinationandTechnical Support the species,etc. raino u-einl e psbrgoa idvriycnrsS C ST of geneticsequencesidentifying A and livespecimens,publication and picturesofbothpreserved Setupsub-regionalbiodiversitycentres Internet-available descriptions ST coupling publishedwork, Recruitpermanentstaffforthesecentres of Mediterraneanbiodiversity, classifiedbibliographicinformation representative collections biodiversity centrestostoreof Creation ofsub-regional Systematiseexhaustiveandwell bibliographic information Gather andcirculatetaxonomic ehns Establishfundingstrategiesin A MT Promotetheuseofclearing-house mechanismattheregionallevel mechanism the Mediterraneanclearing-house Ensure permanentupdatingof to developparticipationinclearing-house Provide start-upassistancetocountries and relatedinitiatives(e.g.,CBD, GPA) Co-ordinate thedifferentconventions the neededinfrastructure Devote fundstoorganize mechanism completion oftheclearing-house information-exchange platforms Organise Internet-based and specialists Organise theexchangeofstudents grants programmes (cf. Priority#24,Target aabove) the implementationofNAPs the clearing-housemechanismtocoordinate evaluation system Establish aquality-control, the medium-andlong-term mechanism Framework Framework VI. Information and Participation Objective: Increased public participation in conservation initiatives Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Facilitate Enhance capacity building Provide the clearing house mechanism ST B the access to to ensure free access (cf. Priority # 24) with capability information to Mediterranean to ensure access to information for managers environmental information Coordinate national, regional and and decision- international agencies aiming makers, at providing and promoting the free as well as access to environmental information stakeholders (e.g., INFOTERRA) and the Update and encourage right Harmonise national legislations on ST B general public of access to environmental access to environmental information information Encourage public authorities of countries to provide public access to the environmental information Promote public Promote public participation Encourage countries public authorities MT C participation, of countries to facilitate public within an participation in environmental integrated decision-making processes with management significant environmental implications scheme Build up adequate mechanisms to facilitate participation by NGOs and the general public in environmental decision-making processes Implement effective training programmes of public officials to improve their understanding of their responsibilities in granting the public access to information and facilitating public participation in environmental decision-making Update and harmonise national legislation concerning public participation in environmental decision-making Coordinate regional initiatives regarding public participation with other comparable national, regional and international initiatives and Conventions Preserve the Preserve, as heritage, Form a working group specifically MT B traditional traditional knowledge about addressing this issue at regional level, knowledge of marine and coastal elements trying to recuperate, compile and stakeholders publish traditional knowledge Promote national and regional legislation to preserve traditional knowledge QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL Involve local communities in management actions for the conservation of Mediterranean biodiversity Coordinate regional actions with other regional and international, related initiatives (e.g., UNEP, CBD, WIPO, WRI, etc.) LT: Long Term MT: Medium Term ST: Short Term A: High level. Immeditate applicability B: Medium level C: Low level, logistic / economic, institutional conditions are not met

VII. Awareness Raising Objective: Increase awareness raising on marine and coastal biodiversity conservation Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Develop International cooperation and Coordinate regional action with ST C international coordination on educational other subregional, regional, and collaboration and awareness programmes international, related activities in order to Coordinate awareness actions enhance at regional level (e.g., through regional the UNEP/MAP clearing-house public mechanism) (cf. Priority # 24) awareness » 151 Activity Objective Specific Action Time Imp. (Priority Actions) Framework Organise Raise awareness on key themes Undertake studies to identify needs MT B coordinated and gaps in public knowledge concerning Mediterranean- threats to biodiversity, in particular: level campaigns responsible tourism; trade in rare species; focusing on illegal or irresponsible fishing specific regional Produce material (leaflets, brochures, biodiversity posters, CDs, TV documentaries, etc.) issues for circulation (addressed Produce educational material to be used both to in the framework of formal education specific Organize and / or encourage regional stakeholders and sub-regional international, and to the more-or-less specialized, youth general public) work-camps dealing with environmental issues (e.g., restoring disturbed habitats, mapping sensitive habitats, collecting socio-economic information, compiling traditional knowledge, extracting invasive species, measuring pollution, informing tourists, etc.) Encourage national and sub-national governments about the importance of education issues to conserve biodiversity and support national NGOs in this field Involve scientific institutions and researchers in awareness actions and initiatives Organise general public, itinerant exhibitions, conferences and dissemination seminars Main issues discussed in SAP/BIO Produce brochures and posters in relevant ST A brought to the attention of languages on SAP/BIO themes a wide public, including including threats; species and sites; decision-makers, NGOs, international cooperation scientists and researchers, Produce a regional electronic newsletter tourist operators, fishing industry about SAP BIO and biodiversity conservation issues Convene a regional workshop to educate managers and other stakeholders, to promote critical, adaptive and flexible management approaches LT: Long Term MT: Medium Term ST: Short Term A: High level. Immeditate applicability B: Medium level C: Low level, logistic / economic, institutional conditions are not met

5.3.2 SAP BIO Portfolio a) National Action Plans for specific priority TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA ANALYSIS DIAGNOSTIC TRANSBOUNDARY This section presents: issues (NAPs), as prepared by national teams • Summary information and assessment of all b) National Priority Actions, other than those actions needing investments, per three included in NAPs (ONPAs), identified by the basic categories and per countries. National Reports, • The investment strategy. c) Regional Actions (RAs), as identified by • Approaches to funding strategies at regional the regional process of SAP BIO elabora- and national levels. tion. Information presented in this chapter For the purpose, all priority actions are is a synthesis of the respective more exten- grouped in three categories: sive documents:

Number of Actions and Total of Investment needed (per Category)

Category Number of Actions Investments estimated (US$) a) National Action Plans 57 38,795,000 b) Other National Priority Actions 168 57,848,000 c) Regional Priority Actions 30 40,055,000 Grand Total 255 136,698,000 152 • “Extensive SAP BIO Investment Portfolio”, presenting all individual investments per category and country in tabular form, • “Summary of National Action Plans”, and • “Breakdown of costings for Regional Actions”. Lists of National Action Plans for the Con- servation of Biodiversity and Regional Biodiversity Priority Actions are given in Annex VI. 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY OBJECTIVES (EQOs) 5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL

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Survey of pollutants from ent immunity and on nonspecific resistance following land-based sources in the Mediterranean. MAP long-term exposure in young versus aged rats. Toxicol. 162 Technical Reports Series (UNEP, Athens), #109: 188 pp. Appl. Pharmacol., 105: 144–155 Vukavic T., Vojinovic-Miloradov M., Pavkov S. Sustainable Development of the Mediterranean and and Nikolic D. (1997). Exposure of newborns to pesti- Black Sea Environment. Thessaloniki, 28–31.5.2003 cide residues and PCBs in colustrum during UN Security (http://www.iasonnet.gr/program/program.html). Council sanctions for Serbia & Montenegro. Prenat. Zeinab S.A., Brunn H., Paetzold R. and Hussein L. Neonat. Med., 2: 356–359. (1998). Nutrients and chemical residues in an Egyptian Walker D.I. and Mccomb A.J. (1992). Seagrass total mixed diet. Food Chemistry, 63: 535–541. degradation in Australian coastal waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25: 191–195. Wania F. and Mackay D. (1996). Tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol., 30: 390A–396A. WDF/WDOE (1985). Washington Department of Fisheries / Washington Department of Ecology. Use of the insecticide Sevin to control ghost and mud shrimp in oyster beds of Willapa bay and Grays Harbour. Final Environ- mental Impact Statement. Olympia, Washington, USA. Wheeler D. (1990). The real risks of bathing in water contaminated by sewage. Environmental Health, 98, 10: 285–287. WHO (1989). Microbiological quality control in coastal recreational and shellfish areas in the Mediter- ranean. Document ICP/CEH 083/6 (WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen). WHO (1991). Health impact of human exposure to fresh and saline waters. Report on WHO Working Group. Rimini, 1990. Document UCP/RUD 153 (WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen). WHO (1998). Guidelines for safe recreational- water environments. Geneva, 1998.

WHO/FAO/UNEP (1989). Mediterranean health- 6.0 REFERENCES & SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY related environmental quality criteria. Document EUR/ICP/CEH 059: 37 pp. WHO/UNEP (1995a): Health risks from marine pollution in the Mediterranean. Part I. Implications for policy makers. WHO/UNEP (1995b). Health risks from marine pollution in the Mediterranean, Part II. Review of hazards and health risks. Zahar Y. and Albergel J. (1999). Hydrodyna- mique fluviale de l’oued Medjerdah à l’aval du barrage Sidi Salem. Evolution récente. Paper presented at Hydrological and Geochemical Processes in Large River Basins. Manaus Conference, Brazil (15–19.11.1999). Zanetto G. and Soriani S. (1996). Tourism and Environmental Degradation: The Northern Adriatic Sea. Sustainable Tourism / European Experiences (eds.: Prestley G.K., Edwards J.A. and Coccossis H.). CAB Inter- national, Guilford. Zenetos A., Todorova V. and Alexandrov A. (2003). Marine biodiversity changes in zoobenthos in the Mediterranean Sea. Invited talk in: Conference on 163 164 TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS (TDA) FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA Annex I Contributors to Report

The concept of TDA was elaborated in an nean”, was presented and discussed. The document expert meeting held in Athens 29–30 January 2003, was prepared by Mr. J. Albaiges. where a background document “Assessment of the The list of experts who attended the meeting Transboundary Pollution Issues in the Mediterra- is as follows:

Mr. Albaiges, Joan Mr. Ben Sari, Driss Department of Environmental Chemistry LAPR-EMI CID-CSIC Post: 1, Rue Amir Sidi Mohamed Post: Jordi Girona Salgado, 18–26 Souissi 08034 Barcelona Rabat Spain Morocco Tel.: (+34) 93 4006152 Tel.: (+212) 37 752249 Fax: (+34) 93 2045904 Fax: (+212) 37 752249 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Baric, Ante Mr. Civili, Francesco Saverio

GEF Project Manager MED POL Coordinator Annex I Contributors to Report Post: c/o Coordinating Unit for the Post: c/o Coordinating Unit for the Mediterranean Action Plan Mediterranean Action Plan 48 Vassileos Konstantinou Avenue 48 Vassileos Konstantinou Avenue 11635 Athens 11635 Athens Greece Greece Tel.: (+30) 210 7273102 Tel.: (+30) 210 7273106 Fax: (+30) 210 7253196/7 Fax: (+30) 210 7253196/7 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Benoit, Guillaume Mr. Friaa, Jafaar Director, BP/RAC METAP Blue Plan / Regional Activity Centre Middle East and North Africa Region Post: 15, Avenue Beethoven Post: 1818 H. Street Sophia Antipolis N.W. 20433 06560 Valbonne Washington D.C. France USA Tel.: (+33) 4 92387130/33 Tel.: (+1) 202 4737315 Fax: (+33) 4 92387131 Fax: (+1) 202 4771374 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

165 166 Annex I Contributors to Report and MarineEcology -al [email protected] E-mail: T P UMS2196 Centred’OcéanologiedeMarseille(COM) Université delaMéditerranée(AixMarseilleII) Mr. Laubier, Lucien [email protected] (+961)9540580 E-mail: Fax: T P Lebanese University D Mr. Lakkis,Sami [email protected] (+30) 2107253196/7 E-mail: Fax: T P World HealthOrganization WHO/EURO Scientist Mr. Kamizoulis,George [email protected] (+357)22775955 E-mail: Fax: T P and Environment Ministry ofAgriculture,NaturalResources Director, DepartmentofFisheries Mr. Gabrielides,Gabriel l:(+33)491041601 el.: (+961)9540580 el.: (+30)2107273105 el.: (+357)22807867 el.: s:StationMarined’Endoume ost: P.O. Box138 ost: c/oCoordinatingUnitforthe ost: 13AeolouStreet ost: ir ect or , Laboratory ofOceanography Marseille Lebanon Byblos Greece 11635 Athens 48 Vassileos KonstantinouAvenue Cyprus Nicosia France Mediterranean ActionPlan -al [email protected] (+254) 2623557 E-mail: Fax: T Po International Waters/GEFFacility Senior ProgrammeOfficer, Mr. Mamaev, Vladimir [email protected] (+972)26553752 E-mail: Fax: T Po Ministry oftheEnvironment Marine andCoastalEnvironmentDivision Coordinator, Land-BasedSources Mr. Malester, Ilan -al [email protected] (+90)3245212327 E-mail: Fax: T Po UNEP/GIWA CoordinationOffice Global InternationalWatersAssessment(GIWA) Coordinator, NorthernHemisphere Ms. Rautalahti-Miettinen,Elina [email protected] (+216)71797349 E-mail: Fax: T Po Regional ActivityCentre Specially ProtectedAreas/ Scientific Director, SPA/RAC Mr. Rais,Chedly l:(+254)2624607 el.: (+972)26553745/6 el.: l:(+90)3245213434 el.: (+216)71783034 el.: t c/oUNEP st: 3Khayatt Street st: t University ofKalmar st: B.P. 337 st: Kenya Nairobi Bo P.O. Israel 31333 Haifa P Sweden 39182 Kalmar T 1080 Tunis cedex unisia .O. Box33583 UNEP/GEF CoordinationOffice x 30552 Mr. Romana, Louis Axel Mr. Uslu, Orhan Centre IFREMER de Toulon-La-Seyne Department of Environmental Engineering Département Polluants Chimiques Faculty of Engineering Post: B.P. 330 Dokuz Eylul University 83507 La Seyne sur Mer Post: Kaynaklar Kampusu France Buca 35160 Tel.: (+33) 4 94304902 Izmir Turkey Fax: (+33) 4 94065529 Fax: (+90) 2324 534279 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Scoullos, Michael President, MIO/ECSDE Mediterranean Information Office for the Environment, Culture and Sustainable Development Post: 28 Tripodon Street 10558 Athens Greece Tel.: (+30) 210 3247267 Fax: (+30) 210 3225240 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Skourtos, Michalis S.

Department of Environmental Studies Annex I Contributors to Report University of Aegean Post: Alkaiou 1 81100 Mytilini Greece Tel.: (+30) 251 36252, 36271, 36222 Fax: (+30) 251 36252 E-mail: [email protected]

Mr. Trumbic, Ivica Director, PAP/RAC Priority Actions Programme / Regional Activity Centre Post: Kraj Sv. Ivana 11 21000 Split Croatia Tel.: (+385) 21 343499 Fax: (+385) 21 591171 E-mail: [email protected]

167 168 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Threatened SpeciesintheMediterranean Annex II Zostera noltii Cystoseira amentacea Phaeophyta Caulerpa ollivieri Chlorophyta Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology P Magnoliophyta Species Ecology, Distribution,Status,ThreatsandCurrentProtection » Zostera marina Cystoseira mediterranea sdnaoenc Posidonia osidonia oceanica ncranrgoso h israrerandmorelocalized in certainregionsofthe (phenomenon ofvicariousness) clgclrl nsm mksi unrbet France andSpain. Protectedby lawin habitatlossor found mainlyincoastal makesitvulnerableto degradation. Mediterranean, whereitis Itsrarityandlocalization Rare andverylocalizedinthe Mediterranean lagoons. ecological roleinsome It playsanimportant eierna) herbivores,makingit Mediterranean). Mediterranean). closetoalllarge urban ListedinAppendixI stricta spicata totheBernConvention (eastern Mediterranean), pollution,thespecieshas three varieties: Highlysensitiveto Mediterranean. Specieswith Infralittoral Endemictothe ListedinAppendixI totheBernConvention isolated,usually ofless (France, Lybia,Spain,Turkey). Sitesareextremely Endemic totheMediterranean theMediterranean). meadowsisirreversible. fishing.Atahumantime countries.Listedin scale,thedestructionof along mostofthecoastline severalMediterranean Convention(limitedto Mediterranean, present AppendixItotheBern explosivesillgallyusedfor mooringofboats,trawling, coastline). Endemictothe watertransparency, flows (stabilityofthe pollution,loweringof in controllingsedimentary plays animportantrole Mediterranean; italso of biodiversityforthe aon.weei a bnat AppendixItothe lagoons. whereitwasabundant. inCôted’Azur (France).Listedin Disappearedfromsites Mediterranean. Catalonia(Spain)and lagoons. intheAtlanticand Mediterranean coastal Protectedby lawin important roleinsome Itregressedconsiderably Mediterranean. Itplaysan Rare andverylocalizedinthe (except forIsrael). etr eierna.than western Mediterranean. sameasfor ListedinAppendixI replacing Statusandthreatsarethe Mediterranean. Species Infralittoral Endemictothe wsen by severalmicro- (western Arai)ad areas. Itisappreciated (Adriatic) and ytsiaaetcaamentacea Cystoseira amentacea edwi oe epyi ersin Protectedby lawin Deeplyinregression, meadow isapole amentacea h he rnhsts Mediterranean). have indeedalready (limitedtothe the threeFrenchsites than onehectare.Two of liable toovergrazing. disappeared. Cystoseira mediterranea eee osdrby (limitedtothe receded considerably P osidonia oceanica Cystoseira amentacea oee (limitedtothe ; however Cystoseira . Bern Convention (Mediterranean only). Mediterranean). to theBernConvention Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Phaeophyta Cystoseira sedoides Distribution restricted to the Its limited area of Listed in Appendix I coasts of Algeria (from around distribution and the rarity to the Bern Convention Algiers to El Kala), Tunisia and of sites make Cystoseira (limited to the the extreme south of Italy sedoides a threatened Mediterranean). (island of Pantelleria). species. Probably sensitive to pollution and overgrazing. Cystoseira spinosa Endemic to the Mediterranean, The species seems to have Listed in Appendix I with a subspecies in the formed until the sixties to the Bern Convention Adriatic, Cystoseira spinosa large forests, which have (limited to the adriatica. now disappeared almost Mediterranean). everywhere, leaving at best, isolated individuals. Suggested causes for the rarification of Cystoseira spinosa include pollution, uprooting by nets and trawlers and also overgrazing by sea urchins. Cystoseira zosteroides Found in deep water at the The species has become Listed in Appendix I bottom of the infralittoral rare in many sites where it to the Bern Convention level and mainly in the was once abundant. (limited to the circalittoral level (down to Threats: increase in water Mediterranean). depths of 100 m) on hard turbidity, increase in substrates, mainly in sectors sedimentation and with unidirectional currents. overgrazing by sea urchin. Endemic to the Mediterranean. Laminaria rodriguezii Lives at great depths (60 to The threat is the reduction Listed in Appendix I 150 m) and requires cold and of water transparency, to the Bern Convention very clear water, swept by resulting from (limited to the seabed currents. Endemic to eutrophization and / or Mediterranean). the western Mediterranean. increased turbidity. Highly localized sites. Rhodophyta

Goniolithon byssoides Endemic to the Mediterranean. Rare species, its cushions Listed in Appendix I Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Highly localized sites are vulnerable to trampling to the Bern Convention (Corsica, Sicily, Algeria, (fishermen on foot, sea (limited to the Adriatic). bathing) and to pollution Mediterranean). (hydrocarbon film on the surface of the sea). Lithophyllum lichenoides In a few sites, it builds up small Threats mainly concern the Listed in Appendix I mounds (better known as mounds through surface to the Bern Convention “pavements”), up to 2 m wide, pollution (hydrocarbons?) (limited to the in formations unique to the and trampling. The building Mediterranean). Mediterranean. up of a mound takes about a thousand years; its destruction is therefore irreversible at a human level. Ptilophora mediterranea Endemic to a limited area of The threat is mainly from Listed in Appendix I the Mediterranean (between reduction of water to the Bern Convention mainland Greece and Crete). transparency, either from (limited to the eutrophization and / or Mediterranean). turbidity. Schimmelmannia Algae of a rare beauty. The very rare sites of Listed in Appendix I schousboei Species with highly localized Schimmelmannia to the Bern Convention sites (Southern Italy schousboei are susceptible (limited to the and Libya). of destruction by coastal Mediterranean). development. » 169 170 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Astroides calycularis Cnidaria Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology Asbestopluma hypogea P Species P Ircinia pipette Ircinia foetida Geodia cydonium Axinella polypoides Axinella cannabina Aplysina cavernicola » T ethya sp.plur. etrobiona massiliana orifera ae(rne.singlesitemaybevisited Mediterranean). itmaybefearedthatits cave (France). Known onlyinoneunderwater t itiuini h collectedby scuba-divers Mediterranean). fordecorativepurposes. (limitedtothe to thesouthernpartof Itsaestheticvaluemakes itsusceptibleofbeing Mediterranean isrestricted Its distributioninthe ListedinAppendixII totheBernConvention between 2and70mdepth. TheMediterraneanrange ofthespeciesisreducing. in sciaphilousbiotopes its brightorangecolour, living Spectacular speciesdueto totheBernConvention on smallpreys( zoologicalcuriosity species abletocatchandfeed Small nrsigseislvn s aeseis — — Rarespecies. to theMediterranean. semi-dark caves.Endemic Encrusting specieslivingis the nearAtlantic. Mediterranean and — below 45–50m.Presentinthe Living indeepwaters, reaching 50–80cmindiameter. totrawling. Large massivesponge, 20 and25mdepth. — Itsslowgrowthmakesthe sand bottoms,between speciesvulnerable bottoms, inparticularcoarse (limitedtothe Lives onsandyandmuddy ListedinAppendixII totheBernConvention collectedby scuba-divers Mediterranean). Mauritania). the Atlantic(Senegaland fordecorationpurposes. the Mediterraneanand Susceptible of being Its distributionrangeinclude 30 and100mdepth. Relativelyrare. isregular. on rockybottomsbetween Large ramifiedsponge,living Mediterranean. bottomswheretrawling lives mainlyinthesouthern Endemic totheMediterranean circalittoral level. speciesunsustainableon (limitedtothe Mediterranean). muddy bottomsatthe species,thegrowthis veryslowmakingthe Asfortheother and 50mdepth,mainlyon Lives betweenthesealevel to theBernConvention sponge, yellow incolour. (underwatercaves). Beautiful large ramified specialbiotope the NorthAdriatic. Itisdependenton from CapCorseand ListedinAppendixII Marseille region(France), Reports especiallyfromthe Relativelyrarespecies. Endemic totheMediterranean. the westernbasin. — infralittoral biotopes. Rarespecies. living insciaphilous Small roundspecies,mainly nteArai.thatitisazoological diversandthefact Mediterranean). cavernsby underwater caverns.Theincreasing in theAdriatic. (limitedtothe Western Basinand ListedinAppendixI known insomesitesthe totheBernConvention frequentationofthese numberofunderwater Endemic totheMediterranean, isonlyknowninalimited and adepthof30m. Thespeciesisrareand caves, betweenthesurface dark zonesofunderground It isalivingfossil.Livesin Cladorhizidae Crustacea pne ic tcntttsa ListedinAppendixII Sinceitconstitutesa sponge . crioossog) (limitedtothe (carnivoroussponge), ). try andraiseitinaquaria damage orgatheritto involuntarily cause by or asacuriosity. threats. curiosity areadditional

divers whomay Axinella — Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Cnidaria Errina aspera Nearly endemic to the Rare species, the threat Listed in Appendix II Mediterranean. Only two sites comes from the very to the Bern Convention are known, the Straits of limited area of (limited to the Gibraltar and their environs distribution. Mediterranean). (Atlantic coast) and the Straits of Messina (Italy). Gerardia savaglia Lives on secondary hard Sometimes caught up and Listed in Appendix II substrates, often the dead brought up to the surface to the Bern Convention trunk of another gorgon, in fishing nets. (limited to the towards depths of Also harvested by divers Mediterranean). (25) 40–50 m. Mediterranean for decoration. The species and near Atlantic. has probably never been very abundant, but today it seems to be increasingly rare. Echinodermata Asterina pancerii Small starfish dependent on It now seems to be in Listed in Appendix II deep Posidonia oceanica decline. The threat comes to the Bern Convention meadows. Endemic to the from trawling in Posidonia (limited to the Mediterranean. oceanica meadows. Mediterranean). Reported from France, Italy, Greece, Libya and Spain. Centrostephanus Very rare in the northwestern Rare species, the threat is Protected in France longispinus Mediterranean, a little more from collection by divers (1992). Listed in common in the eastern for decoration. Appendix II to the Mediterranean. Bern Convention (limited to the Mediterranean). Ophidiaster ophidianus Known in the southwestern Rare species, the threat Listed in Appendix II Mediterranean (from Morocco comes from its collection to the Bern Convention to Sicily and to the southern by divers. (limited to the Italian mainland) and in the Mediterranean). Adriatic, is rarer in the northwestern and eastern Mediterranean. Bryozoa Hornera lichenoides Colony-forming species on Colonies are susceptible —

muddy coastal sites. to be damaged by trawling. Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Found in Northern Atlantic and in North-Western Mediterranean. Mollusca Charonia lampas lampas It is the largest gastropod The shell is very The species is from the Mediterranean sea appreciated in decoration; included in and reaches up to 30 cm trawling and decoration “Livre rouge des in length. It feeds mainly upon are the main origin of espèces menacées large echinoderms. threat. Its populations en France. Tome 2” have been strongly (Beaufort & Lacaze, diminished over the last 1987). Listed in years; the species almost Appendix II to the disappeared in some Bern Convention polluted coastal zones (limited to the of the NW Mediterranean Mediterranean). and Tyrrhenian sea. Charonia tritonis Gasteropoda species, which The isolated populations The nominal variegata was recorded exclusively in of the eastern basin of subspecies, Charonia the eastern basin (Russo the Mediterranean may tritonis tritonis et al., 1990). According to be consider as vulnerable is included in the these authors, the sill between and will probably IUCN invertebrate Sicily and Tunisia is the only soon move into the red data book. geographical area where the “endangered” category. Listed in Appendix II distribution of both Decoration and collection to the Bern Convention Mediterranean species of are the main origin (limited to the triton may overlap. of threat. Mediterranean). » 171 172 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean pce clg itiuinSau het Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology Dendropoma petraeum Mollusca Species Gibbula nivosa Erosaria spurca » Mitra zonata Luria lurida Lithophaga lithophaga ra nrhArc,esen eeomn fte Mediterranean). (limitedtothe ofthesebiogenic ListedinAppendixII constructionsisirreversible this littoral.Thedestruction totheBernConvention The bioconstructionsbuiltby Spain, SicilyandMalta). developmentofthe tramplingandthe Themainthreatare Mediterranean, southeast thesurfacepollution, areas (northAfrica,eastern only presentinthewarmest Mediterranean, whereitis Endemic speciesofthe creates newhabitatsonthe as biologicalengineersthat of therecentsealevelchanges, in thecoastline,asindicator geomorphological processes considered asmodulatorsof points ofview:theycanbe very importantfromdifferent ie nsalwwtr egahclrne protectedby law Mediterranean). geographicalrange, Thisspeciesis collectorsalloverthe ( (limitedtothe algae ormarine Dueitsveryrestricted (0–10 m),inbottomswith totheBernConvention Lives inshallowwater appreciatedby shell Endemic speciesofMalta. ListedinAppendixII areamongthemost Thespeciesofthisfamily last decade. diminished duringthe number hasbeenstrongly In theMediterraneanits narrow intertidalfringe. in theeasternbasin. It hasnotbeenrecorded records existfromFrance. Alboran sea.Someisolated Sardinia, Tyrrhenian and It hasbeenalsofoundinSicily, common intheAdriaticsea. Mediterranean itismost and Madeira.Inthe Mediterranean). collectionandtrawling. (south ofPortugal), Azores recorded fromAlgarve asvulnerable.Themain (limitedtothe originofthreatare coast. Ithasbeenrecently anditmustbeconsidered Mediterranean towestAfrican lastdecade.Itmay be totheBernConvention ListedinAppendix II It rangesfromthewestern wholeareaofdistribution mud between10and60m. Mediterranean). Thisspeciesisrareinits bottoms mixedwithsandand It livessemi-buriedindetritic totheBernConvention ListedinAppendixII diminishedduringthe (limitedtothe havebeenstrongly collectors.Itspopulations Itspopulationsareunder rarely deeper. water (0–20m)andmore apressureby shell It livesmainlyinshallow and westAfricancoast. throughout Mediterranean considerabledamageto This speciesranges Mediterranean). (limitedtothe someplaces),causing drills(andexplosivesin entire Mediterranean. destructive,by using underwaterpneumatic in westernAtlanticandthe totheBernConvention from Portugal toMorocco, speciesishighly habitat. Thespeciesranges Protectedby lawin destruction oftheentire Theharvestingofthis life, itscaptureimpliesthe Because itspeculiarmodeof Itisbecoming rarein substrata tunnels in Rock-boring bivalvedrilling P tpeet otra ais dvlpeto h Mediterranean). (developmentofthe It presentsnocturnalhabits. Cymodocea nodosa osidonia oceanica Gasteropoda hr tlvs hg aktvle ListedinAppendixII highmarketvalue. where itlives. calcareus phanerogames pce r onahumanscale. species are . h ua rsue (limited to the thehumanpressure ). n bcmn nagrdb BernConvention becomingendangeredby and main originofthreat. world. Collectionisthe of threat. Collection istheorigin considered vulnerable. as awhole. substrata biocenosis the infra-littoralhard are theshellcollectors. Another originofthreat where itispresent. littoral) overthefewbays osdrda unrbe AppendixIItothe considered asvulnerable, Gibbula nivosa ayaesbcueo t ItalyandFrance. many areasbecauseofits utb inMalta.Listed must be Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Mollusca Patella ferruginea At the present times It is the Mediterranean Listed in Appendix II Patella ferruginea is limited species most seriously to the Bern Convention to some areas of the threatened with rapid (limited to the south-western part of the disappearance. Mediterranean). Mediterranean. Its most Its numbers have fallen viable populations are drastically in a few years, located in some areas of at least in some places north African coast, from such as Corse, Sardinia Morocco to Tunisia. and southern Spain. Relict populations are Its reproductive potential present in Corse, Sardinia and dispersal abilities are and south Spain. It lives in very low. It is possible that the upper mid-littoral fringe its numbers are below the over vertical rocky surfaces. critical threshold in some areas. The main threats are the human consumption and its use as bait for amateur fishing, but also the littoral development. Patella nigra It is basically a west African No evidence of danger Listed in Appendix II species that reaches the exists, considering the to the Bern Convention Alboran sea as the northern whole area of distribution (limited to the limits of its area of and the Mediterranean Mediterranean). distribution. It is common in populations seem to be the upper sublittoral level stable up to date. (0–5 m in depth) of rocky The need to protect it is shores from Morocco south related to its resemblance to Angola. The only European to Patella ferruginea, which populations are located would make it illusory to in south Spain (coasts of protect only one of the Cadiz and Malaga). two species. Populations of both species overlap in the Mediterranean. Pholas dactylus It is a burrowing species, In the Mediterranean it is Listed in Appendix II boring into compacted sand a common species in some to the Bern Convention and mud, limestone and places, but becoming (limited to the schists, from the mid-littoral scarce and vulnerable in Mediterranean).

down to a few meters deep. most part of its area of Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean It ranges from the British distribution, due to the Isles south to Morocco and increase of exploitation the entire Mediterranean, for human consumption. including Black Sea. Its harvesting causes a considerable damage, because implies the destruction of the entire habitat. Pinna nobilis Endemic species from the Its populations have been Fan shell is protected Mediterranean, where is continuously decimated by law in Croatia widespread all around. during the last decades and France. It is the largest Mollusc along with the decline Listed in Appendix II species of the Mediterranean of Posidonia oceanica to the Bern Convention and one of the largest of meadows and with the (limited to the the world. Reaches up development of the littoral. Mediterranean). to 80 cm in length. It is highly appreciated as souvenir by tourists and has been overfished by local people and divers. The breakage by boat anchors and trawling is another origin of threat. Pinna nobilis have disappeared in wide areas, but is still common in a few unaltered zones. » 173 174 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Aphanius fasciatus Acipenser naccarii Pisces Ocypode cursor Crustacea Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology Pinna rudis Mollusca Species P Zonaria pyrum T Schilderia achatidea Ranella olearia » Acipenser sturio onna galea achylasma giganteum ato h etr ai ishbtt Mediterranean). (limitedtothe itshabitat. ListedinAppendixII totheBernConvention (Corsica, Sardinia,mainland part ofthewesternbasin thedegradationof Mediterranean andtheeastern themainthreatbeing Thespeciesisrare, coastal lagoonsoftheeastern Small specieslivingmainlyin nw nArai.Lvso Rr pce ih — spawn andreturnstothesea Mediterranean). Heads upriverinspringto Rarespecieswith restricted range. exceeding adepthof40m. sandy andmuddybottomnot Known inAdriatic.Liveson (limitedtothe totheBernConvention ListedinAppendixII by tourists. useofitshabitat predator ofnewlyhatched Threatscomefromthe Mediterranean. Knownas the easternpartof Lives onsandybeachesin totheBernConvention ListedinAppendixII intheMediterranean. of thewesternbasin.Itlives Rareandvulnerable present inthewarmestarea In theMediterraneanitisonly frcysbtae,bten hl olcos (as Mediterranean) shellcollectors. of rockysubstrates,between appreciatedby mainly infissuresandcrevices Italy). sea turtles. Mediterranean). (limitedtothe collectorsconstitute ListedinAppendixII totheBernConvention asvulnerable.Theshell andtrawlingarethe andhastobeconsidered localities fromnorthAfrica. mainthreats. Thespeciesis veryrare (limitedtothe Greek islandsandinsome totheBernConvention more frequentinsouthern Therefore,decoration In theMediterraneanitis Mediterranean). between 20and80m. andtrawlingarethe muddy bottoms appreciatedfor decorativepurposes. semi-buried insandyor thisshellisvery ListedinAppendixII Greek coasts.Itcanbefound Adriatic andMaltese Becomingrarebecause Collection,decoration relatively frequentinthe In theMediterraneanitisonly Mediterranean). totheBernConvention veryvulnerablespecies. 100 mdeep). (limitedtothe with mud(from50to ListedinAppendixII highvalueforshell It livesindetriticbottoms collectorsmakeita distributioninthe Mediterraneanandits of thewesternMediterranean. records existinotherareas Itsrestrictedareaof totheBernConvention (limitedtothe Alboran sea.Someisolated mainly restrictedtothe Listed inAppendixII In theMediterraneanitis Themainthreatsare shellcollectors. Very appreciatedby and scarceinotherareas. common intheAlboransea In theMediterraneanitis 5 and30mdeep. Italy, EasternAlgeria,Tunisia). somecountries. mainthreatsbeing isforbiddenin rareintheMediterranean, Itsexploitation of theMediterranean. Thespecieshasbecome along thenortherncoasts Present intheBlackSeaand after laying. eierna.Seiskon Mediterranean). (limitedtothe totheBernConvention restrictedrange. in Sicily(StraitsofMessina, ListedinAppendixII Mediterranean. Speciesknown beingrelatedtoits sites. Endemictothe Rarespecies,thethreat substrate inrelativelydeep Small specieslivingonhard main threats. Mediterranean). and decoration. trawling, collection erdto.to the BernConvention ListedinAppendixII degradation. fisheries andhabitat the mainthreat. Pinna rudis svr (limitedtothe is very Mediterranean). (limited tothe Pinna pernula ). Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Pisces Aphanius iberus Endemic to the Mediterranean: The threat comes from its Listed in Appendix II south and southwest of Spain rarity, its extremely to the Bern Convention and west of Algeria. Lives in restricted geographical (limited to the fresh and brackish waters and area and the reduction Mediterranean). feed on small invertebrates. of its habitat. Carcharodon carcharias Present throughout the basin, Rare throughout the region. Listed in Appendix II including the Adriatic and It has been incidentally to the Bern Convention Aegean Seas. caught in semi-industrial (limited to the fisheries. Mediterranean). IUCN status is: vulnerable la lbcd+2cd. Cetorhinus maximus Reported from the entire There are presently no — Mediterranean except for directed fisheries for this the waters adjacent species in the to Libya, Egypt and Mediterranean, although the Levantine basin. it was occasionally captured in the past, particularly off southern France. Accidental captures are reported in pelagic driftnets and longlines as well as in bottom gillnets and purse seines. IUCN status is: vulnerable la lad+ 2d. Hippocampus Lives at the infracoastal level The species has probably Listed in Appendix II hippocampus in alga populations on hard never been very common to the Bern Convention substrates and in marine but has now become (limited to the Magnoliophyte meadows. genuinely rare. Its simi- Mediterranean). larity with Hippocampus ramulosus makes it necessary to associate them in the protection. Hippocampus Lives at the infracoastal level, Once very common, it has Listed in Appendix II ramulosus in rock alga populations and become less so and in to the Bern Convention

especially in Posidonia places rare, especially in (limited to the Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean oceanica meadows; the northwestern Mediterranean). can penetrate coastal Mediterranean. lagoons. The threat comes from the regression of its biotope and trawling in meadows. Huso huso Lives in the sea at depths Vulnerable because Listed in Appendix II between 70 and 180m, of its rarity. to the Bern Convention penetrates fresh water (limited to the (rivers) to reproduce. Mediterranean). Lives mainly in the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Rare in the Mediterranean, where it is known for the Aegean and Adriatic seas. Lethenteron zanandreai Fresh water lamprey species Rare and vulnerable. Listed in Appendix II endemic to Po basin. to the Bern Convention (limited to the Mediterranean). Mobula mobular Found in pelagic waters High mortality rates are — throughout the Mediterranean, reported from accidental including the Aegean Sea and catches in pelagic driftnets. the eastern basin. It is also accidentally Rare in the Adriatic. captured in longlines, purse seines and trawls. » 175 176 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean » Lepidochelys kempii Dermochelys coriacea Chelonia mydas Caretta caretta Reptiles Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology canestrini P Pisces Species Va tortonesei P Eretmochelys imbricata omatoschistus omatoschistus lencia hispanica eierna secpinl r eotd Mediterranean nationaltreaties,same Concerninginter- Protectedinafew countries. Catchesinfishinggears arereported. Mediterranean isexceptional. Its occurrenceinthe AlgiersConvention, Mediterranean (classA)ofthe Protectedinseveral Mediterranean is arereported. Catchesinfishinggears Its nestinginthe the Mediterranean. occurring althoughrarein Large species,regularly protectedspecies areadditionalthreats. totheBernConvention, onthelistof ordeliberateandpollution AppendixIVofthe HabitatDirective, of view(deme). ListedinAppendixII developmentofthe coastalarea.Catchesin fisheries,eitherincidental reproductive point population froma countries. of theMediterranean Protectedinseveral evidence oftheisolation nestingsitesdueto comesfromthelossof Genetic studiesfound Cyprus andTurkey. Mediterranean Themainthreattothe number ofsitesmainlyin Mediterraneanpopulation part. Nestinginalimited occurs mainlyintheeastern In theMediterraneanit atr ai.fsiggasad totheBernConvention, fishinggearsand ListedinAppendixII Mediterranean countries. incidentalcatchesin Protectedinseveral isdiminishing. Mainthreatsare Mediterraneanpopulation eastern basin. along thecoastof reported onsandybeaches totheBernConvention Mediterranean, nesting Found throughoutthe (limitedtothe Reported inDalmatia(Croatia) and brackishwaters. ae.Peeti iiy (limitedtothe Mediterranean). Mediterranean). French Catalonia. totheBernConvention west ofLibya (Farwah). localizedspecies. (Marsala) andintheextreme water. PresentinSicily brackish lagoonsinshallow and intheVenice lagoon(Italy). usinbe as Mediterranean arereported. Protectedinafew Catchesinfishing gears in theMediterranean. Occurring onlyoccasionally questionable. ie nfehadbaks Rr pce ihvr — restrictedrange. Rarespecieswithvery part ofSpainand waters. Endemictoeastern Lives infreshandbrackish ml pce iigi rs Rr n unrbe ListedinAppendixII Rareandvulnerable. Small specieslivinginfresh ml pce iigi Rr n ey ListedinAppendixII Rareandvery Small specieslivingin oso etn ie.AppendicesIIandIV loss ofnestingsites. national treaties,same Concerning inter- countries. of theBonn in AppendixIandII Convention and the Washington in AppendixIof national treaties,same Concerning inter- countries. as as Convention. Bonn Convention. in AppendixIIofthe Convention and the Washington in AppendixIof Algiers Convention, (class A)ofthe of protectedspecies Directive, onthelist of theHabitat Chelonia mydas Chelonia mydas Chelonia mydas . . . Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Reptiles Trionyx triunguis Lives in Nile basin and coastal The species has died out Listed in Appendix II hydrographic networks of the in Egypt. It is on the edge to the Bern Convention eastern Mediterranean of extinction in Israel and (limited to the (from Israel to Turkey). Syria. Main threats are Mediterranean). Trionyx triunguis is essentially (i) habitat loss or a freshwater turtle, but it degradation due to also frequents coastal human development, saltwater lagoons and even (ii) pollution, seems to use the sea (iii) incidental catches, environment for its (iv) deliberate killing dispersion from one by fishermen, estuary to another. (v) collisions with boats. Mammalia Balaenoptera Very rare in the western There have been some The species is listed acutorostrata Mediterranean, where the cases of accidental in Appendix III of the species is an occasional capture in driftnets Bern Convention, visitor from the North Atlantic. in the Mediterranean. in Appendix I and Specimens were sighted or IUCN status: Appendix II of stranded off Spain, France Lower risk: the Washington (continental and Corsica), near threatened. Convention and Italy (Ligurian and Tyrrhenian in Annex IV of the coasts, Sicilian Channel), EU Habitats Algeria and Tunisia. Directive. Balaenoptera borealis Extremely rare in the No viable population of The species is listed Mediterranean, where this this species exists in in Appendix III of the species is vagrant from the Mediterranean. Bern Convention, the North Atlantic. IUCN status: in Appendices I and II Endangered / A1abd. of the Washington Convention and in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Balaenoptera physalus The second largest cetacean, Recent genetic evidence The species is listed reaching 27 m (southern supports the hypothesis in Appendix II of the hemisphere) and 75 t. that fin whales in the Bern Convention, In the Mediterranean, Mediterranean are a in Appendices I and II reliable length measurements resident population, of the Washington are considerably smaller reproductively isolated Convention and (< 22 m) Abundant in the from the Atlantic. in Annex IV of the western and central (Ionian IUCN status: EU Habitats Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Sea) Mediterranean, Endangered / A1abd. Directive. rare in the eastern region. Delphinus delphis Once common everywhere in The causes of this species’ The species is listed the Mediterranean, it is now sharp decline in the region in Appendix II of the rare throughout the region are unknown. Bern Convention, except than in the Alboran The Mediterranean in Appendix II Sea and in the coastal waters population(s) should be (limited to western of western Greece (Ionian Sea). considered endangered Mediterranean, Small communities may also and is regarded as a North and Baltic Seas, persist in yet unexplored conservation priority by Black Sea and eastern areas of the eastern and the IUCN 1996–1998 tropical Pacific southern portions of Action Plan for the populations) of the the Mediterranean. Conservation of Cetaceans. Bonn Convention, Common dolphins are in Appendix II of accidentally caught in the Washington fishing gear and their Convention and tissue contaminant levels in Annex IV of the are often very high. EU Habitats Directive. Eubalaena glacialis The species is exceptional in There is no viable northern The species is listed the Mediterranean, certainly right whale population in in Appendix II of the reflecting its status of near the Mediterranean. Bern Convention, extinction in the eastern The northern right whale in Appendix I of the North Atlantic. is the most endangered of Bonn Convention, the large whale species. in Appendices I and II IUCN status is: of the Washington Endangered / C1, D1. Convention and in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. » 177 178 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Kogia simus Grampus griseus Monachus monachus Mesoplodon densirostris Megaptera novaeangliae pce clg itiuinSau het Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology Globicephala melas Mammalia Species » eta tl.oftheWashington inAppendixII BernConvention, inAppendixIIIofthe Thespeciesislisted theMediterranean. central Italy. Noviablepopulationin of onespecimenin limited tothestranding the Mediterraneanis Its knownoccurrencein (limitedtoNorth inAppendixII someindividualshave beenaffectedby BernConvention, Thespeciesislisted throughout thebasin. captureinfishingand continental slopes Therehavebeensome frequent inwatersoversteep odontocete A commonMediterranean n a ln n EUHabitats inAnnexIVofthe oftheWashington Conventionand oftheBonn inAppendicesIandII Criticallyendangered/C2a. and Capblancin inAppendicesIandII Madeira archipelago Mediterranean andinthe vertebrates. inAppendixIIofthe North Africainthe itsmostendangered Thespeciesislisted to alesserextent, of Greece,Turkey and, exceedinglyrareinthe BernConvention, located alongthecoasts Themonksealistoday Mediterraneanandamong scattered groupsmainly specimens, isdividedinafew BernConvention, estimated to300500 The overallpopulation, inAppendixIIIofthe intheMediterranean. Blainville’s beakedwhales Thespeciesislisted Noviablepopulationof the Mediterranean. of thespeciesin Only onecertainoccurrence inAppendixIIofthe Thespeciesislisted BernConvention, theMediterranean, where Noviablepopulationof humpbackwhalesin the northwesternbasin). Mediterranean (limitedto Extremely rareinthe h atr ai.inAppendixII BonnConvention, populations)ofthe andBalticSeas (limitedtoNorth the easternbasin. BernConvention, from theAdriaticSeaand hydrocarbon spills. inAppendixII Sea andarevirtuallyabsent havebeenaffectedby captures.Someindividuals become rareintheTyrrhenian inAppendixIIofthe Thespeciesislisted west ofSardinia,pilotwhales bycatch eveninmass Pilotwhalesareknownto Balearic watersand occurinpelagicdriftnet portions oftheAlboranSea, Gibraltar andinthedeepest Common intheregionof h tatc Directive. the Atlantic. atclry ntne facdna inAppendix IIofthe instancesofaccidental , particularly aadfcet BonnConvention, populations)ofthe andBalticSeas Data deficient. IUCN statusis: hydrocarbon spills. aadfcet of theWashington in AppendixII Data deficient. IUCN statusis: inAnnexIVofthe EUHabitats vulnerable /A1ad. oftheWashington IUCN statusis: population. Convention inAppendicesIandII theBonnConvention, eastern NorthAtlantic from anowveryreduced inAppendixIof were certainlyvagrants the specimensobserved and IUCN statusis: EU Habitats in AnnexIVofthe Convention and EU Habitats in AnnexIVofthe Convention and of theWashington Directive. EU Habitats in AnnexIVofthe Convention and of theWashington in AppendixII Directive. Directive. EU Habitats in AnnexIVofthe Convention and Directive. Directive. Convention, Species Ecology / Distribution Status / Threats Protection Mammalia Orcinus orca Uncommon in the No viable population of Listed in Appendix II Mediterranean, where it is killer whales in the of the Bern Convention, considered an occasional Mediterranean. in Appendix II visitor from the North Atlantic. The species is known to (limited to eastern have been accidentally North Atlantic captured in fishing gear. and eastern North IUCN status is: Pacific populations) Lower risk: of the Bonn conservation dependant. Convention, in Appendix II of the Washington Convention and in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Phocoena phocoena Despite its regular occurrence The presence of the The species is listed in the Black Sea (Phocoena harbour porpoise in the in Appendix II of the phocoena relicta) and Mediterranean is highly Bern Convention, in the eastern North Atlantic questionable. in Appendix II (Phocoena phocoena IUCN status is: (limited to North phocoena), this species is Vulnerable / A1cd. and Baltic Seas, virtually absent from western North Atlantic the Mediterranean. and Black Sea populations) of the Bonn Convention, in Appendix II of the Washington Convention and in Annexes II and IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Physeter macrocephalus Found throughout the Considered common in The species is listed Mediterranean in deep waters, the Mediterranean in the in Appendix III of the particularly where the older literature, Bern Convention, continental shelves slope sperm whales are in Appendices I and II is steepest. Although the currently infrequent. of the Washington species appears to be more Convention and frequent in the western basin in Annex IV of the and in the Ionian Sea, EU Habitats it is present in the eastern Directive. Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean basin as well. Pseudorca crassidens Quite rare in the No viable population in The species is listed Mediterranean, as a vagrant the Mediterranean. in Appendix II of the from the North Atlantic. Bern Convention, in Appendix II of the Washington Convention and in Annex IV of the EU Habitats Directive. Stenella coeruleoalba Today the commonest High mortality rates are Listed in Appendix II pelagic cetacean in reported for this species of the Bern Convention, the Mediterranean, from accidental takes in Appendix II the striped dolphin is in driftnets, considered (limited to western found throughout the unsustainable. Mediterranean and region in deep waters. Mediterranean striped eastern tropical dolphins were affected Pacific populations) by a severe outbreak of of the Bonn morbillivirus epizootic Convention, in 1990–91, possibly in Appendix II linked to high levels of of the Washington contamination by PCBs Convention and and other organochlorine in Annex IV of the compounds. EU Habitats IUCN status is: Directive. Lower risk: conservation dependant. » 179 180 Annex II Threatened Species in the Mediterranean Ziphius cavirostris T pce clg itiuinSau het Protection Status/Threats /Distribution Ecology Steno bredanensis Mammalia Species ursiops truncatus sseps.IC ttsi: Conventionand IUCNstatusis: oftheWashington inAppendixII BernConvention, inAppendixIIofthe intheirtissuesappear toberelativelylow. Thespeciesislisted thedriftnetbycatch. Contaminantlevels is steepest. Knowntooccurin the continentalslope particularly where in deeppelagicwaters, Mediterranean Sea, Found throughoutthe inAppendixIIofthe BernConvention, habitsexposeit Thespeciesislisted toextremelyhighlevels Thisspecies’coastal in theMediterranean. marine mammal The commonestcoastal arn rm UNsau s BernConvention, inAppendixII inAppendixIIofthe IUCNstatusis: Datadeficient. theMediterranean. the NorthAtlantic. Thespeciesislisted a vagrantfrom where itisconsidered Noviablepopulationin Rare intheMediterraneanSea, aadfcet inAnnexIVof Data deficient. inAnnexesIIandIV Conventionand oftheWashington Data deficient. inAppendixII Convention, IUCN statusis: oftheBonn coastal environment. encroachment onthe NorthandBalticSeas) vulnerable tohuman dolphins particularly BlackSeaand Mediterranean, (limitedtowestern inAppendixII and makebottlenose elements (Anon.,1992) compounds andtrace from organochlorine of contamination EU Habitats in AnnexIVofthe Convention and of theWashington Directive. the EUHabitats Directive. of theEUHabitats Directive. Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots with Potential Risk of Transboundary Effect

Albania

Pollution Hot Spot Type Durres Domestic waste Durres Industrial waste Vlore Industrial solid waste

Algeria

Pollution Hot Spot Type Alger Urban and industrial waste Annaba Urban and industrial waste Oran Urban and industrial waste Skikda Urban and industrial waste Bejaia Urban and industrial waste Mostaganem Urban and industrial waste Ghazaouet Urban and industrial waste

Bosnia & Herzegovina Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots Annex III List of Regional Pollution Pollution Hot Spot Type City of Konjic Domestic, industrial and solid waste City of Mostar Domestic and industrial waste Alumina factory, Mostar Industrial waste City of Bileca Domestic and industrial waste City of Neum Domestic waste

Croatia

Pollution Hot Spot Type Rijeka Domestic and industrial waste Kastela Bay Domestic and industrial waste Dubrovnik Domestic waste Split Industrial and domestic waste Sibenik Domestic and industrial waste Pula Domestic and industrial waste Oil Refineries, Mlaka and Urinj Industrial waste Neretva River Domestic and industrial waste Ston Domestic and industrial waste Zadar Industrial and domestic waste

181 182 Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots amnMunicipaldischarge Industrialdischarge Municipaldischarge Municipaldischarge Mixed(industrialdischarges; riverdischarges) Naaman Ashdod Nahariya Industrialwaste Akko Activatedsludgefromsewage treatment Municipalandindustrialwaste Shafdan (Tel-Aviv region),Yalmachim outfall Haifa Bay Municipalandindustrialwaste P Municipal andindustrialwaste Israel Municipaland industrialwaste Municipalandindustrialwaste Nea Karvalibay North-Western Saronicgulf Elefsis bay Gulf ofHeraklion P Industrialwaste P Domesticwaste Inner Saronicgulf Domesticandindustrialwaste Thermaikos gulf P Domesticandindustrialwaste Greece P Brewery Domesticwaste Abu QirBay Alexandria El-Mex Bay Domesticwaste WineryandDistillery Lake Manzala Brine P Egypt Dhekelia DesalinationPlant KEO B KEO L SODAP ETKO P Cyprus E Domesticwaste OEL gstksgl Municipalandindustrialwaste Municipalandindustrialwaste Domesticandindustrialwaste agasitikos gulf atraikos gulf ort Said luinHtSo Type ollution HotSpot Type ollution HotSpot Type ollution HotSpot Type ollution HotSpot plant discharged 5kmoutatsea Italy

Pollution Hot Spot Type Genova Port, mixed La Spezia Port, mixed Livorno Port, industry Rosignano Solvay Cl-NaOH, ethelene Golfo di Napoli Port, refinery, domestic waste Milazzo Port, refinery, domestic waste Gela Port, refinery, domestic waste Augusta-Melilli Port, refinery, domestic waste Taranto Port, refinery, domestic waste Brindisi Port, refinery, domestic waste Bari-Berletta Domestic waste Manfredonia Port, industry, domestic waste Ancona-Falc. Port, refinery Ravenna Port, refinery Porto Marghera (VE) Port, industry, domestic waste

Lebanon

Pollution Hot Spot Type Greater Beirut Municipal, industrial and agricultural waste Saida (Sidon) Gazieh Municipal, industrial and agricultural waste Tripoli Municipal and agricultural waste Jbail (Byblos) Municipal and agricultural waste Sour (Tyr) Municipal and agricultural waste Batroun-Selaata Municipal, industrial and agricultural waste Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots Annex III List of Regional Pollution

Libya

Pollution Hot Spot Type Abo-Kammash Chemical waste Zawia City Municipal and industrial waste Janzour City Municipal and industrial waste Tripoli City Municipal waste Misratah City Municipal and industrial waste Ras-Lanouf Petroleum fertilizer Benghazi Municipal waste Tobruk Municipal waste

Malta

Pollution Hot Spot Type Wied Ghammieq Mixed Cumnija Mixed Ras il-Hobz Mixed 183 184 Annex III List of Regional Pollution Hot Spots alhMunicipalandindustrialwaste Municipalandindustrialwaste Municipalandindustrialwaste Mixed Jableh Mixed Ta Lattakia Banias Mixed P Syria Domesticandagriculturalwaste Algeciras Domesticwaste Cartagena Domesticandindustrialwaste Domesticandindustrialwaste V T Barcelona Domesticandindustrialwaste P Spain Domesticandindustrialwaste Dragonja Badasevica Domesticandindustrialwaste Piran Izola River Rizana P Slovenia Nador Al Hoceima T T P Morocco —— P Monaco raoaMixed arragona Domesticandindustrialwaste Domesticandindustrialwaste etouan anger lni Mixed alencia luinHtSo Type ollution HotSpot Type ollution HotSpot Type ollution HotSpot Type Type ollution HotSpot ollution HotSpot tu Municipalandindustrialwaste rtous Tunisia

Pollution Hot Spot Type Gabès Domestic and industrial waste (fertilisers, phosphates) Sfax Sud Domestic and industrial waste (fertilisers, phosphates) Lac Sud de Tunis Domestic and industrial waste (oil, textiles) Lac de Bizerte Domestic and industrial waste (metal-working, oil, cement)

Turkey

Pollution Hot Spot Type Mersin Mixed Erdemli Mixed Silifke Domestic waste Tarsus Domestic waste Antalya Domestic waste Alanya Domestic waste Side Domestic waste Manavgat Domestic waste Adana Mixed Ceyhan Domestic waste Antakya Domestic waste Iskenderun Domestic waste Dortyol Domestic waste Kirikhan Domestic waste Bodrum Domestic waste Marmaris Domestic waste Datca Domestic waste

Foca Domestic waste Hot Spots Annex III List of Regional Pollution Cesme-Alacati Domestic waste

185 186 Annex IV List of Regional Pollution Sensitive Areas sensitive areaperMediterraneancountrytogetherwith List ofRegionalPollution Sensitive Areas Annex IV tl aoLgr Actionneededonthenearpowerstation Monitoring To beidentified Municipal, agricultural Vado Ligure Amvrakikosgulf Italy LakeBardaweel Needsactiontoimprovestatus Greece France Domestic,industrial Egypt Krkaestuary Croatia WWTP:Construction Urban,industrial GulfofGhazaouet Algeria WWTPandconstructionofasewerage Domestic,industrial RemedialAction Kuna-Vain lagoons OriginofPollution RevisedSensitiveAreas Albania Country » Needsactiontoimprove Liopetriand Cyprus The Table belowexhibitsthelistofpollution ecedlaMlraAvoiddamping ofmaterials Secche dellaMeloria rd,Mrn, SoilRemediationofallarea, Grado, Marano, V P WWTP:Construction WWTP:Construction WWTP:Reorganization, Expansion Urban,industrial Urban,industrial WWTP:Reorganization Urban, industrial Bay ofZemmouri Urban,industrial Bay ofBéjaia WWTP: Construction Gulf ofSkikda Urban, industrial Bay ofAnnaba Dredgingofoutletchanneland Establishmentofpropermanagement Gulf ofArzew- Agriculturerunoff, Domestic Narta lagoon Karavasta lagoon alsGl WWTPforallarea Naples Gulf T To beidentified theenvironmentalstatus Municipal Require regularmonitoring Lagoon ofMesologgi Requireregularmonitoring Industrial V Domestic,industrial Ay. Napabay PTIW:Implementation Limski channel Malostonski Bay WWTP:Construction Urban,industrial Bay ofAlgiers Mostaganem rics,ec DelocalizationofCaffaroimplant orviscosa, etc. sr evaIncreasingefficiencyofWWTPin esaro Cervia nc n t aon Delocalization ofIndustrialDistrict enice anditslagoons siio a Needsactiontoimprove assilikos bay ae xrcinestablishmentofpropermanagement water extraction prevent thedevelopmentofitintoHotSpot. the typeandproposedactionstobeconsidered basin toavoidhighcontent the areanearby; WWTPonthePo river from harbour, increasingefficiency PTIW: Implementation with appropriatemonitoringprogramme with appropriatemonitoringprogram proper management s around Venice lagoon for allareas;Soilremediation of Porto Marghera; AdequateWWTP of Nutrientsandorganic compound of WWTPintheareanearby the environmentalstatus PTIW: Implementation PTIW: Implementation PTIW: Implementation PTIW: Implementation PTIW: Implementation ystem withestablishmentof (2002) Country Revised Sensitive Areas Origin of Pollution Remedial Action Lebanon Jbail (Byblos) Municipal, agricultural Sour (Tyr) Municipal, agricultural Malta Anchor Bay Construction of Sewage Construction of Sewage Treatment Plant Treatment Plant Marsamxett Harbour Better monitoring and Better monitoring and control control of maritime- of maritime-related activities related activities Marsaxlokk Bay Better monitoring and Better monitoring and control control of maritime- of maritime-related activities related activities Morocco Tanger bay Municipal To be identified Smir Bay Municipal To be identified Moulouya estuary Municipal To be identified Slovenia Koper Bay Piran Bay Spain Albufera de Valencia Control of agricultural development Mar Menor Control of discharges and tourism development Albufera de Mallorca Control of tourism and agricultural development Aiguamolls de l’Emporda Control of tourism development Delta del Llobregat Monitoring of urban and industrial development Lagunas de la Mata Monitoring of tourism development y Torrevieja Delta del Ebro Monitoring of land reclamation Cabo de Gata Regular monitoring Syria Umit Tiur Protection from urban development, prohibition of excavation of sand, designation as public beach Arwad island Management plan for organizing tourism activities, removal of illegal buildings Wadi Qandeel Rehabilitation plan, prohibition / control of illegal fishing, preservation of submarine life Lattakia beach Characterization as specially protected (southeast) area suitable for passive recreation only (bathing, sightseeing boat tours) Rasl Fassouri Management plan for tourism activities, restoration of surrounding environment Tunisia Ghar El Melh Domestic, industrial (Network + WWTP) Sensitive Areas Annex IV List of Regional Pollution (various) tertiary pretreatment Estuaire de Domestic To be identified Oued Miliane Canal de rejet Domestic To be identified Choutrana Turkey Adana, Heavy pollution load To be identified Seyhan River Mouth, discharged into Ceyhan River Mouth the Mediterranean Sea Izmir Bay, Heavy pollution load To be identified Bakirçay River Mouth, discharged into Gediz River Mouth, the Aegean Sea Küçük Menderes River Mouth Içel, Heavy pollution load To be identified Göksu River Mouth, discharged into Lamas River Mouth, the Mediterranean Sea Tarsus River Mouth Mersin-Kazanli Marine pollution, To be identified coastal erosion and breeding dunes for Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta Hatay-Samandag Transboundary marine To be identified pollution, especially solid waste, endangered species Aydin, Heavy pollution load Büyük River Mouth, discharged into Mugla, the Aegean Sea Dalaman Stream Mouth 187 188 Annex V Status of Signatures and Ratifications to the Barcelona Convention and its Protocols Barcelona ConventionanditsProtocols Status ofSignaturesandRatificationstothe Annex V * The amendments SUC AP AC T T Syria Spain Slovenia Montenegro Serbia & Morocco Monaco Malta Libya Lebanon Italy Israel Greece France Egypt Community European Cyprus Croatia Herzegovina Bosnia & Algeria Albania P Contracting urkey unisia arties on 09.07.2004. into force have come adopted in1995, Convention, to theBarcelona Accession Succession Approval 1 16.02.76 25.05.76 — 16.02.76 — — 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 31.01.77 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 13.09.76 16.02.76 — — — — Signature CONVENTION BARCELONA 12.02.1978 Entry intoforce*: 16.02.1976 Adopted (Barcelona): ( against Pollution of theMediterraneanSea for theProtection The Convention Barcelona Convention 1 06.04.81 30.07.77 26.12.78 17.12.76 15.03.94 16.07.02 15.01.80 20.09.77 30.12.77 31.01.79 08.11.77 03.02.79 03.03.78 03.01.79 11.03.78 24.08.78 16.03.78 19.11.79 08.10.91 01.03.92 16.02.81 30.05.90 Ratification ) AC AC AC AP AP AP SUC SUC AC AC 18.09.02 01.06.98 10.10.03 17.02.99 08.01.03 — — 11.04.97 28.10.99 — — 07.09.99 — 10.03.03 16.04.01 11.02.00 12.11.99 15.10.01 03.05.99 — 09.06.04 26.07.01 Amendments of Acceptance PROTOCOL DUMPING 16.02.76 16.02.76 13.09.76 16.02.76 — — — — Signature 2 16.02.76 25.05.76 — 16.02.76 — — 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 31.01.77 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 11.02.77 12.02.1978 Entry intoforce*: 16.02.1976 Adopted (Barcelona): ( from ShipsandAircraft by of theMediterraneanSea of Pollution for thePrevention The Protocol Dumping Protocol

Dumping 2 11.03.78 24.08.78 16.03.78 19.11.79 08.10.91 01.03.92 16.03.81 30.05.90 Ratification 06.04.81 30.07.77 26.12.78 17.12.76 15.03.94 16.07.02 15.01.80 20.09.77 30.12.77 31.01.79 08.11.77 03.02.79 01.03.84 03.01.79 ) AP AP AP SUC AC AC AC AC AC SUC 16.04.01 11.02.00 12.11.99 18.07.03 03.05.99 — — 26.07.01 Amendments of Acceptance 18.09.02 01.06.98 — 17.02.99 08.01.03 — 05.12.97 11.04.97 28.10.99 — — 07.09.99 — — 16.02.76 16.02.76 13.09.76 16.02.76 — — — — Signature PROTOCOL EMERGENCY 3 16.02.76 25.05.76 — 16.02.76 — — 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 31.01.77 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 16.02.76 by of theMediterraneanSea in CombatingPollution concerning Co-operation 12.02.1978 Entry intoforce*: 16.02.1976 Adopted (Barcelona): ( in casesofEmergency Harmful Substances The Protocol Emergency Protocol

Oil andother 3 (14.09.2004) 11.03.78 24.08.78 12.08.81 19.11.79 08.10.91 01.03.92 16.03.81 30.05.90 Ratification 06.04.81 30.07.77 26.12.78 17.12.76 15.03.94 16.07.02 15.01.80 20.09.77 30.12.77 31.01.79 08.11.77 03.02.79 03.03.78 03.01.79 ) AP AC AP SUC SUC AC AC AC AC AC 25.01.02 — 25.01.02 25.01.02 25.01.02 — 25.01.02 — Signature PROTOCOL NEW EMERGENCY 4 — 25.01.02 25.01.02 25.01.02 25.01.02 — 25.01.02 25.01.02 25.01.02 25.01.02 — 25.01.02 22.01.03 25.01.02 17.03.2004 Entry intoforce*: 25.01.2002 Adopted (Malta): ( of theMediterraneanSea Combating Pollution in casesofEmergency, from Shipsand, in PreventingPollution concerning Co-operation The Protocol e Emergency Protocol New 4 04.06.03 — — — 16.02.04 — — 03.04.02 18.02.03 — — — — — 02.07.03 — 25.06.04 — 01.10.03 — — — Ratification ) LBS SPA SPA & BIODIVERSITY OFFSHORE HAZARDOUS WASTES PROTOCOL5 PROTOCOL6 PROTOCOL7 PROTOCOL8 PROTOCOL9

Signature Ratification Acceptance Signature Ratification Signature Ratification Signature Ratification Signature Ratification of Amendments — 30.05.90 AC 26.07.01 — 30.05.90 AC 10.06.95 26.07.01 — 26.07.01 — 26.07.01 — 02.05.83 AC — — 16.05.85 AC 10.06.95 — — — 01.10.96 — — 22.10.94 SUC — — 22.10.94 SUC — — — — — —

— 12.06.92 SUC — — 12.06.92 SUC 10.06.95 12.04.02 14.10.94 — — — 17.05.80 28.06.88 12.10.01 — 28.06.88 AC 10.06.95 15.10.01 14.10.94 15.10.01 — — 17.05.80 07.10.83 AP 12.11.99 30.03.83 30.06.84 AP 10.06.95 12.11.99 — — — —

— 18.05.83 AC — 16.02.83 08.07.83 10.06.95 11.02.00 — — 01.10.96 — 17.05.80 13.07.82 AP 16.04.01 03.04.82 02.09.86 AP 10.06.95 16.04.01 — — — — 17.05.80 26.01.87 10.03.03 03.04.82 26.01.87 10.06.95 — 14.10.94 — 01.10.96 — 17.05.80 21.02.91 — 03.04.82 28.10.87 10.06.95 — 14.10.94 — — — 17.05.80 04.07.85 07.09.99 03.04.82 04.07.85 10.06.95 07.09.99 14.10.94 — 01.10.96 — 17.05.80 27.12.94 — — 27.12.94 AC — — — — — — 17.05.80 06.06.89 AP — — 06.06.89 AC 10.06.95 — — — 01.10.96 — 17.05.80 02.03.89 28.10.99 03.04.82 11.01.88 10.06.95 28.10.99 14.10.94 — 01.10.96 28.10.99 17.05.80 12.01.83 26.11.96 03.04.82 29.05.89 10.06.95 03.06.97 14.10.94 — 01.10.96 — 17.05.80 09.02.87 02.10.96 02.04.83 22.06.90 10.06.95 — — 01.07.99 20.03.97 01.07.99 — 16.07.02 — — 16.07.02 — — — — — —

— 16.09.93 AC 08.01.03 — 16.09.93 AC — 08.01.03 10.10.95 — — — 17.05.80 06.06.84 17.02.99 03.04.82 22.12.87 10.06.95 23.12.98 14.10.94 — 01.10.96 — — 01.12.93 AC — — 11.09.92 AC — 10.10.03 20.09.95 — — — 17.05.80 29.10.81 01.06.98 03.04.82 26.05.83 10.06.95 01.06.98 14.10.94 01.06.98 01.10.96 01.06.98 — 21.02.83 AC 18.05.02 — 06.11.86 AC 10.06.95 18.09.02 — — 01.10.96 03.04.04 Annex V Status of Signatures and Ratifications to the Barcelona Convention its Protocols

5 The Protocol 6 The Protocol 7 The Protocol 8 The Protocol 9 The Protocol for the Protection concerning Mediterranean concerning for the Protection on the Prevention of the Mediterranean Sea Specially Protected Areas Specially Protected Areas of the Mediterranean Sea of Pollution against Pollution (SPA Protocol) and Biological Diversity against Pollution resulting of the Mediterranean Sea from Land-based Sources in the Mediterranean from Exploration by Transboundary (LBS Protocol) Adopted (Geneva): (SPA & Biodiversity and Exploitation Movements 03.04.1982 Protocol) of the Continental Shelf of Hazardous Wastes Adopted (Athens): Entry into force*: and the Seabed and their Disposal 17.05.1980 23.03.1986 Adopted (Barcelona): and its Subsoil (Hazardous Wastes Entry into force*: 10.06.1995 (Offshore Protocol) Protocol) 17.06.1983 Entry into force*: 12.12.1999 Adopted (Madrid): Adopted (Izmir): 14.10.1994 01.10.1996 Entry into force*: Entry into force*: — —

189 190 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation of Biodiversity for theConservationofBiodiversity Overview ofNationalandRegionalActivities Annex VI gp 1. Bio-resources assessmentofMediterraneancoastalwatersEgypt, Egypt 1. Action PlanforanetworkofMediterraneanwetlandsinCroatia: Croatia freshwaterandterrestrialhabitatsplantcommunities 1.ActionPlanfortheidentificationandpreservationofendangeredmarine, Herzegovina Bosnia & 1. Action Planforsettingupanetworkmonitoring Algeria eao 1. Action Planfororganising awarenesscampaigns Lebanon sal1 cinPa o h osraino aieadcatlbrsi sal127,000 1. Action PlanfortheconservationofmarineandcoastalbirdsinIsrael Israel 1. Action PlanfortheproclamationofMarineNationalPark Title Albania Country National ActionPlansfortheConservationofBiodiversityperCountry:TitlesandCosting(US$) » 2. Development andmaintenanceoftheMatruhNature 4. Action Planonbiodiversityconservationasapart 3. Action Planformapping,assessmentandprotection 2. Action PlantocombatnegativeImpactofhunting,poaching 4. Action Planforinventoryingandsettingupmarine 3. Action Planforreducingfishingactivitypressureoncoastalarea 2. Action Planforsettingupaprogramme tothecollectofdata 3. Action Planfordeterminingthephysicalparameters 2. Action Planforupdatingoflegislationanddevelopmentguidelines 2. Action PlanfortheconservationoffishalongIsraelicoast .Ato lnfrPl sad yeCatNtr eevs412,000 1,040,000 6. Action PlanforPalm Islands&Tyre Coast NatureReserves 5. Action Planfordevelopingmonitoringstrategies 4. Action Planforestablishingconservationstrategiescoastalhabitats 2,855,000 3. Bedouin operatedbio-diversityconservationandrestorationprogramme 893,000 745,000 4. Action Planforbuildingandexploitationofartificialreefs 3. ActionPlanfortheDalmatianpelicaninAlbania 2. ActionPlanfortherehabilitationofKune-Vain lagoonsystem 2. Action Planforthesustainabledevelopmentofmarineand nteMdtraenzn fBsi ezgvn 275,000 in theMediterraneanzoneofBosnia&Herzegovina osrainSco MC)1,701,000 2,753.000 120,000 1,025,000 400,000 300,000 69,000 181,000 Conservation Sector(MNCZ) and publicawarenessforbio-conservation development ofMediterraneanBio-DiversityDatabase, 1,254,000 of integralcoastalzonemanagementplanning 49,000 of submerged karsticphenomena including introductionofnewgamespeciesonislands 638,000 and commercialcollectingoncoastalzonebiodiversity, 160,000 Management andrestoration 908,000 adjacent watersofBosnia&Herzegovina:crossborderco-operationissue and coastalprotectedareasinAlgeria biodiversity hotspots on theMonkseal of Posidonia oceanicameadows for thefisheriesalongAlbaniancoast of Karaburuniarea o osa n aieboiest; 416,000 420,000 2,750,000 180,000 534,000 for coastalandmarinebiodiversity; of theLebanesemarineenvironment for marineandcoastalconservation for theLebanesecoastalcommunitiesandpublicsector of Mediterranean Costing (US$) Country Title Costing (US$) Libya 1. Action Plan for the conservation of marine and coastal birds in Libya 420,000 2. Action Plan on proposed new marine and coastal protected areas and national parks 320,000 3. Action Plan for the conservation of marine turtles and their habitats in Libya 133,000 Malta 1. Action Plans for the conservation of cetaceans in Maltese waters 901,000 2. Action Plan for estimating the sustainability of grouper fishing in Malta 797,000 3. Action Plan for the conservation of sharks, rays and skate in the Maltese Islands 260,000 4. Action Plan for the micro-cartography, mapping and surveillance of the Posidonia oceanica meadows in the Maltese Islands 86,000 Morocco 1. Action plan for mapping Morocco’s Mediterranean coast 103,000 2. Action Plan for a research programme on Morocco’s Mediterranean biodiversity 225,000 3. Action Plan for elaborating programmes and projects on education and awareness, and elaborating a guide to Morocco’s endangered species and ecosystems 510,000 4. Action Plan for improving the national legislation 12,000 5. Action Plan for making best use of the Mediterranean marine biodiversity 10,000 Slovenia 1. Action Plan on Habitat cartography supported by the Geographic Information System with special emphasis on seagrass meadows 155,000 2. Action Plan for biological invasions and possible effects on biodiversity 30,000 3. Action Plan on the impact of alien populations used in mariculture on genome of wild populations of same species 33,000 4. Action Plan on Slovene commercial fishery by-catch 48,000 5. Action Plan for Sensitive ecosystems: Posidonia oceanica meadow ecological conditions, cartography and monitoring based on the GIS Posidonie methodology 79,000 Syria 1. Action Plan for the conservation of sea turtles along the Syrian coast 1,550,000 2. Action Plan for marine and coastal protected areas 2,575,000 3. Action Plan on invasive species and their impacts on marine biodiversity 1,125,000 4. Action Plan for determination of physical parameters of national marine waters 1,750,000 Tunisia 1. Action Plan for the impact of fishing activity on littoral biodiversity 615,000 2. Action Plan for a pilot monitoring of Posidonia meadows 440,000 3. Action Plan for Protecting coralligenous communities 450,000 4. Action Plan for the co-ordination and training on legal and institutional aspects 280,000

5. Action Plan for studying invasive species 200,000 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation Biodiversity 6. Action Plan on awareness raising and education on biodiversity 430,000 7. Action Plan for establishing Centre for the protection of sea turtles 400,000 Turkey 1. Conservation of marine turtles in Turkey 2,450,000 2. Creation of marine protected areas along the Turkish coasts 375,000 3. Reducing the negative impacts of detrimental fishing practices (trawl, purse seine, spear fishing, use of explosives) on sensitive ecosystems and on vulnerable species 183,000 4. Conservation of cetacean species in the Turkish water of the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea 645,000

191 192 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation of Biodiversity nldn ntehg es(16,300,000) including inthehighseas Declare anddevelopofnewCoastalMarineProtectedAreas n osa rtce ra (5,500,000) Assess thepotentialimpactofclimatechangeandriseinsealevel Establish amonitoringregionalprogrammefollowingup from aMediterraneanperspective,toanalysetheirscope Monitor globaltradeandeconomicpoliciestrends and coastalprotectedareas Assist countriesinthedevelopmentofexistingmarine erainlatvte 3,100,000 75,000 50,000 6,000,000 115,000 100,000 Control andregulationofaquaculturepractices 35,000 40,000 recreational activities 10,000 Control andmitigatetheeffectofchangesinlanduse 510,000 of coastalinfrastructure 1,000,000 and invasivespecies Mitigate thedirectimpactofinternationaltradeinendangeredspecies coastal andmarinebiodiversity 115,000 on Mediterraneancoastalandmarinebiodiversity the socio-economicimpactofchangesinbiodiversity and probableeffectsonbiodiversity 110,000 (50,000) 20,000 Issue of particularinterest Estimated Assist countriestoprotectmarineandcoastalsites Mediterranean species,asidentifiedby NationalReports Develop actionstoconservethreatenedandendangered(coastalmarine) Update, coordinateandenforcelegislationtoconservebiodiversity of managementmeasures of sensitivehabitatsandspecies,toevaluatetheeffectiveness and socio-economicindicatorstoassesstheecologicalhealth Identify, develop,andvalidateadequatebiological (180,000) 1,150,000 of marineandcoastalprotectedareas Promote theadequatemonitoringandsurveyofeffectiveness Establish amonitoringsystem ofendangeredandthreatenedspecies of Mediterraneancoastal,wetland,andmarinesensitivehabitats Biodiversity PriorityActions Regional BiodiversityPriorityActions mrv aooi xets ntergo 1,280,000 100,000 (1,370,000)** (125,000)** Improve taxonomicexpertisein theregion Improve andcoordinatebiodiversity research impact offisheriesonbiodiversity Assessment, controlandelaborationofstrategiestoprevent the environmentalimpactofsourcespollution Assess andelaborateofstrategiestoprevent Promote eco-andsofttourism,controlmitigateimpactof Control andmitigatecoastalurbanizationconstruction Control andmitigatetheintroductionspreadofalien Assess thepotentialimpactofthreatsonMediterranean » Make acompleteandintegratedinventory(by sub-regions) 15,000,000 netetCategory Investment 1,300,000 5,000,000 1,000,000 150,000 370.000 500,000 10,000 75,000 40,000 30,000 50,000 U$ * (US$) M M M M M M M M M M H H H H H H H H H H H H L L L L L L L III III III III III III III III III III IV II II II II II V I I I I I I Biodiversity Priority Actions Estimated Issue Investment Category (US$) * Achieve “clearing-house” mechanism to focus on marine and coastal conservation activities 400,000 H VI Coordinate and develop common tools to implement National Action Plans (NAPs) 50,000 H VI Facilitate access to information for managers and decision-makers, as well as stakeholders and the general public 20,000 H VI Promote public participation, within an integrated management scheme 700,000 H VI Preserve traditional knowledge of stakeholders 100,000 H VI Develop international collaboration in order to enhance regional public awareness 100,000 H VI Organise coordinated Mediterranean-level campaigns focusing on specific regional biodiversity issues (addressed both to specific stakeholders and to the general public) (1,250,000) 250,000 H 1,000,000 L VI Total 40,055,000

H High, first priority rank M Medium, second priority rank L Low, third priority rank * Issue Categories: I Inventorying, mapping and monitoring Mediterranean coastal and marine biodiversity II Conservation of sensitive habitats, species and sites III Assessing and mitigating the impact of threats to biodiversity IV Developing research to complete knowledge and fill gaps in biodiversity V Capacity-building to ensure coordination and technical support VI Information and participation, and awareness raising ** Support for other programmes

Regional Biodiversity Priority Actions: Structure of Investment needed per Priority Ranking

Priority Rank Respective Totals (US$) % of Grand Total High priority 31,720,000 79.3 Medium priority 5,980,000 14.9 Low priority 2,355,000 5.8 Total 40,055,000 100.0 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation Biodiversity

Regional Activities to support National and other Actions in the Preparatory Phase

Activity Costing Estimate (US$) 1. Assistance to countries for further refining of costings 60,000 2. Preparation of the operational strategy for funding and implementation of SAP/BIO at national and regional levels (strategy, preparation of funding requests, contacts with donors and partners, etc.) 75,000 3. Information, co-ordination, capacity building workshops 60,000 4. Launching Conference (preparatory activities, preparation of national and regional reference documents, resource persons, participants expenses) 75,000 5. Co-ordination costs 25,000 Total 295,000 193 194 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation of Biodiversity yi 1)— 375,000 — 4,540,000 1,200,000 460,000 2,500,000 20,505,000 3,100,000 7,590,000 748,000 (13) 7,290,000 13 17 5 4,520,000 (5) 3 27 1 9 29 7,000,000 6 345,000 EstimatedInvestment(US$) T 22 860,000 T 2,044,000 873,000 Syria 11 Slovenia 547,000 5,332,000 Malta Libya 7,309,000 NumberofONPAs Italy 1,845,000 Israel Greece 1,553,000 Egypt 4 4,184,000 Cyprus 435,000 Croatia 5 Bosnia &Herzegovina 5 4 Algeria 3 Albania Country 6 2 3 Other NationalPriorityActions(Totals perCountries) 4 4 EstimatedInvestment(US$) 4 T T 2 T Syria Slovenia Morocco NumberofNAPs Malta Libya Lebanon Israel Egypt Croatia Bosnia &Herzegovina Algeria Albania Country National BiodiversityActionPlans(Totals perCountries) tl1857,848,000 168 38,795,000 otal 57 otal re 53,705,000 25 3,653,000 2,815,000 urkey 4 7 urkey unisia Investment and Implementation Strategy local level, private partnership and/or sponsorship, In order to define a realistic and fact-based economic instruments and mechanisms, fund-rais- investment strategy, the summary of investment data ing, and other national or issue specific sources, if presented in the previous sub-chapter should be con- any. Providing proper approaches are applied, and if sidered from various points of view, in particular con- classic unattractive, outdated forms and mecha- cerning: a) the present level of actions programmes nisms are abandoned, large national funds might be elaboration, b) readiness for implementation, exclud- secured in almost all countries. ing funding aspects, and c) the rank of priority. Among potential external sources to be Due to funding aspects, capacity for imple- analysed, the following might be mentioned: mentation, and from an operational point of view, a) sub-regional or multi- or bilateral co- implementation of SAP BIO needs to be phased, at operation (N/S or N/E type, not excluding regional and national level. After the adoption of SAP the S/S type), BIO, a short-term preparatory phase is needed, to b) international funding programmes, pend- allow the preparation of inputs for launching and ing eligibility: GEF, UNDP, WB, METAP, etc. implementing the regional and national SAP BIO c) international foundations, private part- components. nerships, sponsorships, grants, etc. This preparatory phase should consist of: d) various EU sources, pending eligibility • immediate contacts and preliminary agree- e) other international funds, if appropriate. ments with partners and donors, Previous experience related to the imple- • refining of national investment portfolios, menting of similar large international programmes • defining of funding and implementation indicates as realistic the formulation of an outline strategies, for a large SAP BIO Umbrella Project, where as com- • provision of assistance to countries to meet ponents are envisaged: the needed prerequisites, and a) regional component including: (i) regional • harmonization of all respective activities. actions to be implemented at regional In all cases provision of permanent sources for level, (ii) regional actions to be imple- implementation, such as market instruments for SAP mented in the countries themselves, and BIO and private sponsorship should be considered. (iii) assistance to countries, In principle, the potential national sources to b) the countries’ related components, com- be looked for are: budgets and funds at national and posed of the set of national programmes.

Facts relevant to the SAP BIO Investment Strategy

Category Number Total Costing Costing: Programme Implementability Priority of Actions (US$) justified Elaboration Pending Funding Rank Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation Biodiversity 1. NAPs 57 38,800,000 Yes Satisfactory Implementable H 2. RPAs 30 40,000,000 Yes Satisfactory Implementable H/M/L (RPAs/H) (31,700,000) H RPAs/M (6,000,000) Yes Satisfactory Not yet M implementable RPAs/L (2,300,000) Yes Satisfactory Not yet L implementable 3. ONPAs 168 57,800,000 Rough Not yet Most not yet — estimates elaborated implementable H: High, first priority rank M: Medium, second priority rank L: Low, third priority rank

195 196 Annex VI Overview of National and Regional Activities for the Conservation of Biodiversity