FOCUS media journal Volume XXXV 2014 - 2015

Focus i A LETTER FROM THE EDITORS

On behalf of this year’s Focus Media Journal staff, I would like to thank those who contributed their time, finances and effort to making this journal a reality. Being this year’s “editor-in-chief” has been a great and challenging experience. I began this process with very little experience, and as a result it has been an arduous one. I would like to personally thank Joe Palladino and Charles Wolfe for their unbridled support and guidance, for I realize that my inexperience has required a superhuman amount of patience on their part. I would like to extend this gratitude for unbridled patience to the rest of the faculty that aided us in the editing process and made this journal a possibility by unquestioningly giving us their time and expertise.

We began the process of putting this issue together by settling on a theme: Prog- ress. We chose such a nebulous and all-encompassing theme to allow for an unre- stricted multiplicity of interpretations. The goal was to acknowledge and discuss the ways in which our field of study has progressed to this point, and how it might continue to progress in coming years. As such you, the reader, will find papers ex- ploring new media (such as video games), female representation within film and the film industry, and media policy among others. This issue is the most lean that has been published in years, but this is out of a desire to only include the best this year’s undergraduates had to offer.

Having said all this, we are very proud of what we have accomplished, and you should all be too for this issue, like the ones before it, belongs to you all. I had hoped to collapse hierarchy within our editorial team, and the production of this issue achieved just that. This has been a collective effort in every sense of the word. This “Letter from the Editor” is a vestige of that hierarchy, but, at the risk of sound- ing redundant (and trite), this issue truly is by all of you, for all of you.

Yours in solidarity,

Alberto Lopez

Editor-in-Committee

ii Focus Focus iii CONTENTS CONTENTS

Evolution of Representation FOX News Network: Inaccurately Informing the Public on Climate Change 41 Opulent Emptiness: by Jacqueline Kane Why Sofia Coppola Traps Complex Female Characters in One- 4 Dimensionally Lavish Worlds by Suzanne Cimolino The Sacred and the Profane: Rome and the Duality of Modern Life 47 by Berthold Wahjudi Nora Ephron: The Creation and Validity of a Female Writer/Director in 9 Evolution of Interaction Hollywood Videogames as Art: by Lisa Gumm 54 Beyond the Limits of Film Discourse by Alberto Lopez The Unfettered Princess in Disney’s 18 Snow White by Annahita Ashe Guiding Light: How Modern 3D Games Direct the Player along the Intended Path 60 Evolution of Consumption by David Wills The Politics of Penetration: 28 Twitch: Censorship, Homophobia, and a Reimagining of the Penis 66 The Sidelines of Virtual Gaming by Justin Minor by Christopher Risden

Music Copywrong 35 by Nicole Johal Staff and writers 71

iv Focus Focus v vi Focus Focus 1 SECTION 1: Evolution of Representation

2 Focus Focus 3 Opulent Emptiness: positive image? In truth, Positive Image’s onto them. Like Artel and Wengraf, Lost Why Sofia Coppola Traps Complex Female Characters in essentialist thesis seems to be what Cop- In Translation’s supporting characters cre- One- Dimensionally Lavish Worlds pola critiques indirectly; she positions ate essentialist notions of what/who Bob Charlotte as “the other” as a kind of con- and Charlotte ought to be. by Suzanne Cimolino scious commentary on the way emotional If anyone has strict pressures and ex- women are (and have historically been) pectations of who she ought to be— or at lthough a Google search of “So- story—if a woman can direct an award- positioned as other. Rather than create least, a performance of who she ought to fia Coppola style” returns- im winning film about a male bomb-disposal idealized non-sexist films or characters, be—it’s Marie Antoinette. Aside from her Aages on what the Academy team, everything is up for grabs. Still, Coppola depicts authenticity. royal duties and decorum, Marie Antoi- Award and Golden Globe nominee wears female directors are constrained by con- Charlotte’s and Bob’s muted - real nette has a surfeit of expectations to ful- (shoes, clothes, etc.)—labeling her a “style vention, tradition, and societal standards, ity—set against Japanese people wearing fill as a woman— all eyes on her. Unlike icon”—a deeper investigation of her just as the main female characters of their bold patterns and bright colors, a loud ka- The Piano’s Ada, who “expresses herself style addresses her filmic style. Linger- films are stifled by cinematic surround- raoke club, alcohol, and obsessions with through her Victorian persona,” Marie ing, dreamlike1, and contemplative2 are ings. fame and pseudo-fame (e.g. Anna Farris’ Antoinette is drowned in the gluttony all terms commonly used to describe her Lost In Translation’s Charlotte may not character)— is enhanced by Coppola’s of sweets, champagne, jewels, feathers, films. They are so subtle and even occa- be the positive “role model” Artel and subtle attention to detail. For example, lace… and ginormous wigs. Only mate- sionally lighthearted in plot (with the ex- Wengraf advocate, but she does “encour- John and Kelly’s run-in in the hotel lobby rial objects and other people create her ception of The Virgin Suicides) but at the age awareness.”3 Though she does not fly sets Charlotte at a distance, literally and persona, as expressed by her statement same time they are heavy with implica- planes— nor adventure too far outside of figuratively. The camera positions her to Duc de Choiseul at the beginning of tion. The scene of the young boys watch- the hotel—Charlotte’s physical and emo- directly in the middle of their over-the- the film: “I shall never forget that you ing Lex Lisbon through the telescope chal- tional space in the film is substantial. Her top enthusiastic conversation, leaving are responsible for my happiness.”5 Her lenges the gaze and, more importantly, questions about life verbalize what many her awkwardly staring while they smile, individual self is defined by France and, the way women are often labeled wanton others try to ignore; but Charlotte can- laugh, reminisce, and flirt. Plus Kelly’s similarly, aristocratic men; her environ- quicker than men are labeled sexually ad- not ignore her melancholy, which often bright orange blouse and blond-er hair ment, again, is overpowering. For exam- vanced. Coppola’s larger themes concern leaves her pondering in her underwear push Charlotte aside to blend in with the ple, the scene in which she first arrives at alienated and subdued women, while vi- or staring out windows (or both at the pale-gray light. And the only words Char- Versailles—with hundreds of glaring and sually they elucidate grandiose, opulent, same time). Perhaps her rolemodel quali- lotte utters (“nice to meet you too”) are judgmental eyes pointed at her—situates intricate, and bright geographical char- ties materialize in the way she faces her drowned out by Kelly and John’s laugh- her as the other. Like the aforementioned acters. For example: Charlotte appears emotions amidst a society that tells her to ter. Throughout the film, Charlotte is scene from Lost In Translation, Marie An- reserved amidst busy, flashing Tokyo in ignore them. Moreover, Artel and Wen- overpowered— except by Bob, who actu- toinette is centered in the frame, left to Lost In Translation, as Marie Antoinette is graf might criticize Charlotte because she ally listens. No doubt Charlotte’s parallel, awkwardly command the space. Cop- despondent living amongst rococo Ver- “doesn’t know what [she’s] supposed to Bob experiences the same loss in transla- pola even uses a POV shot here to further sailles in Marie Antoinette. And while Cop- be,”4 even though this is a “normal” fear tion, especially when Coppola sets him emphasize Marie Antoinette’s otherness. pola’s careful style contrasts with Kath- for most women Charlotte’s age. Maybe against the Japanese people directing his Because she cannot express her real self to ryn Bigelow’s energetic edge-of-your-seat she makes a truly strong role model for whisky photo shoot— and their miscom- all of her people, she is forced to express action, the two acclaimed female direc- women because of her relatability. In munication is deeper than just a language an image of herself as the new queen: tors ultimately achieve similar goals: de- other words, her strength is in her con- barrier. Bob makes a joke out of exactly shaky and perhaps unsure on the inside picting women who are trapped—or at frontation of her emotions. And equally what his director encourages: “more mys- and confident and smiling on the out- least constrained—by their surroundings important, Lost In Translation’s main male terious!” Then the photographer lists a side (as though she is in a job interview). (physical and otherwise). Therefore, Cop- character is depicted just as sad and emo- few major Hollywood stars for Bob to em- Throughout, Marie Antoinette’s purpose pola’s and Bigelow’s films exemplify one tional as the film’s main female character. ulate, even though Bob is already beyond is to prove herself. Her mother’s letter of the most critical themes in the larger According to Artel and Wengraf, Bob blasé about his own celebrity. Although reminds her that she “represents the fu- category of women’s cinema; they prove Harris’s emotional vulnerability creates he and Charlotte are unsure of who they ture” and must produce an heir, an idea that essentialism is illegitimate, as there is a positive image, so why, then, should genuinely are, others (photo shoot direc- that brings her to look in the mirror and nothing essential about gender, style, or Charlotte’s emotions detract from this tor and John) project specific identities size herself up, recognizing her respon-

4 Focus Focus 5 sibility—possibly Ms. Antoinette’s Laca- the female/male polar opposition”—she Coppola and Bigelow are more than the ie.”12 She describes the film’s characters as nian moment. Coppola certainly recre- does this in part by employing some an- limiting adjectives many articles use to “over-privileged young women who re- ated the most lavish, opulent world, full drogynous characters (versus the im- describe them. They—along with Cheryl fuse to speak in full sentences or really at of performance, in order to accentuate the mensely “feminine” Marie Antoinette Dunye and Rose Troche—are certainly all.”13 Dobbins mistakes “frivolity” with struggle of her main character. and Lex Lisbon).7 But like Coppola, Big- the best possible people to be directing irony, thus rendering her blind to… any It is important to note that Coppola elow’s characters “find a way to articulate films featuring women because they are other way of seeing the film. But Senses of traps her female characters in lavish their downplayed subjectivities.”8 Cop- often set aside and made other as female Cinema’s Anna Rogers seems to get it. She worlds ironically rather than sincerely. pola and Bigelow may work in differ- directors. Actually, these directors’ per- too advocates a more complex reading of These lingering moments (Charlotte and ent genres, but their films represent the sonal characteristics cause many scholars Coppola’s films, noting: “her approach Marie Antoinette maneuvering awkward- same “othered” female. Charlotte and and journalists to doubt their films. Cop- demands that she match this extrava- ly around people who ignore them) are Jean (The Weight of Water) are both intel- pola and Bigelow somewhat reflect their gance in the film’s very construction.”14 unique to Sofia Coppola’s style and repre- lectual, contemplative, and a bit tousled own characters: Charlotte, Marie Antoi- Rogers continues, “Whilst her considered sent her exploration of women defined by in appearance, set against ditzy femmes nette, Megan, Maya, and so on. approach to mise en scéne… creates an society. Coppola’s films satirize exactly fatales, while Marie Antoinette and - Me Like Lost In Translation and Marie An- affecting and primarily visual style… this what Molly Haskell finds fault with: gan Turner both hold significant positions toinette, almost all of Coppola’s films jux- same style also serves to cover the spectre “Then there are ‘ordinary’ women— of power and must perform accordingly tapose opulence in setting with subtlety of something dark and insidious.”15 She women whose option have been fore- (both in behavior and in dress). Still, Cop- in character, even as she shifts genres or notes Coppola’s attention to the “person closed… their heroines are defined nega- pola’s and Bigelow’s very different styles explores different types of relationships. in transition”16 (or translation) rather than tively and collectively by their mutual both undermine essentialism. If weaker Namely, Somewhere depicts the hollow a preoccupation with complicated plot— limitations… they embrace the audience feminine and stronger masculine female and distant relationship between a girl something Martin Scorsese has said he as victims… the purpose of these fables characters can both exemplify the way so- and her celebrity father, set in Los An- prefers when he is watching a “picture.”17 is not to encourage ‘woman’ to rebel or ciety confines women, then who’s to say geles’ most exclusive, elegant, VIP ho- Interestingly, Rogers stresses the impor- question her role, but to reconcile her to that there is a single way to depict women tel: Chateau Marmont. Like Bob Harris, tance of the fact that some of Coppola’s it.”6 in film? Johnny confines himself mostly to his films— though they are often considered Actually, if Haskell were to explore a se- Speaking of identity, it is worthwhile hotel, drinking alcohol and being mildly “specifically female”— actually consider miotic approach, she may find that Cop- to mention who Sofia Coppola and Kath- entertained (or distracted) by a couple of male melancholy (The Virgin Suicides, Lost pola’s “victims” are just heroines in dis- ryn Bigelow are as directors and the ways strippers/dancers/hookers/working girls. In Translation).18 Considering this point guise; for Coppola, there is more than one in which journalists tend to compartmen- Even as Coppola’s female characters vary on an even deeper level, Coppola’s depic- way to depict women, one of them being talize both of them according to certain from child to young wife to queen, her tion of both male and female otherness is an authentic depiction. It seems Artel and connections, stylistic choices, or even themes of constraint and desolation re- even more truthful than simply depicting Wengraf and Haskell have only a narrow, physical traits. First, Interview Magazine main consistent. one or the other. Again, she challenges too-perfect idea of the “positive” woman. labels Coppola a “legend,” highlighting Overall, Coppola’s and Bigelow’s essentialism, and specifically, the miscon- Kathryn Bigelow’s films help to fur- her place in the esteemed Coppola family films are sometimes met with the same ception that a female director will only ther delegitimize essentialism in analyz- as though her success is entirely attribut- criticism: that they produce style over sub- depict females. Instead, Coppola directs ing women in/and film. Another director ed to her name alone.9 Moreover, articles stance. Vulture’s Amanda Dobbins even gendered issues as human ones. who is often discussed first for her ap- on Bigelow—like the harshly critical one has a piece under the “Unpopular Opin- Of course, Coppola’s and Bigelow’s pearance, Bigelow represents, perhaps, an by Hanna Rosen of New Republic— often ions” section titled, “In Defense of Sofia Golden Globe and Academy Award ac- even deeper subversion of gender norms put questions about a woman directing Coppola’s Marie Antoinette.”11 It seems to claim quiets many of the bitter critics. But than Coppola; first, that Bigelow directs war films at the forefront of any -real is be a trend that critics have to defend why they represent only a small portion of fe- “male” genre films (action, thriller, war, sues. they like women’s films, as opposed to male directors, while many others are left etc.) and second, that she often features Rosen opens with: “how improbable why they dislike films directed by men, out, without even much harsh criticism— women in roles typically reserved for that, of all working Hollywood direc- as if it is unfashionable or nonconformist let alone positive review. The study of men. More explicitly than Coppola, Bi- tors… Kathryn Bigelow should be the to dislike a man’s film. Dobbins is thus women in/and film is important because gelow “questions rigid conceptions of one to best channel the global war on ter- guilty of the same shallow readings Artel, representations are always in flux, which gender by thematically emphasizing the ror.”10 Like the nameguessing game the Wengraf, and Haskell offer—even reduc- reflect fluctuating social environments. instability and ‘deconstructability’ of royal partygoers play in Marie Antoinette, ing Marie Antoinetteto a “highschool mov- Sofia Coppola’s films are especially- im

6 Focus Focus 7 portant, as they challenge what many women: intellectually and emotionally Nora Ephron: feminist film theorists before her have so complex, even if seemingly muted by her The Creation and Validity of a Female Writer/Director in adamantly upheld. Coppola paints a dif- bright, busy surroundings. Hollywood ferent, more realistic positive image of by Lisa Gumm

Endnotes ora Ephron: writer-playwright- hit has become the standard by which 1. Simon Reynolds, “How To Make a Sofia Coppola Movie – The Bling Ring Director’s Style,” Esquire, 30 June 2013, http://www.esquire.co.uk/culture/film-tv/4235/sofiacoppola-film-guide/. screenwriter-director extraordi- all subsequent romantic comedies are 2. Lisa Krueger and Emma Brown, “Legends: Sofia Coppola,” Interview Magazine, April 2000, http://www. naire. It is not very often that a judged, at least in the world of pop cul- interviewmagazine.com/film/legends-sofia-coppola. N Hollywood writer becomes a household ture. The article begins by claiming that 3. Linda Artel and Susan Wengraf, “Positive Images: Screening Women’s Films,” In Critical Methodology: Women and Representation, 9. name, let alone a female Hollywood romantic comedy has been around since 4. Lost In Translation, directed by Sofia Coppola, (2003; Focus Features), DVD. writer, and Ephron has become more the dawn of cinema, but that Nora Eph- 5. Marie Antoinette, directed by Sofia Coppola, (2006; Columbia Pictures Corporation), DVD. than that. Ephron has become a brand in ron and Rob Reiner brought something 6. Molly Haskell, “The Woman’s Film,” In From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in the Mov- cinema. She is the wit and the marketing new to the table and “We’ve been living ies,” (Chicago: New English Library, 1974), 23. 1 7. Christina Lane, “From The Loveless to Point Break: Kathryn Bigelow’s Trajectory in Action,” In Cinema strategy. She is one of the few to success- in its wake ever since.” This is quite a Journal, (Texas: University of Texas Press, 1998), 60. fully navigate romantic comedy and her bold statement, in that it skips quite a lot 8. Ibid. films mark a temporary revival in the art of what was happening to get to this point 9. Ibid., Interview Magazine. 10. Hanna Rosin, “The Auteur of Unease,” New Republic, 6 February 2013. form; for even though aspects of her films in romantic comedy, such as trends of the 11. Amanda Dobbins, “In Defense of Sofia Coppola’s Marie Antoinette,”Vulture , 18 June 2013. have formulaic elements, she has brought eighties and even earlier work by Woody 12. Ibid. to the table a fresh female perspective rare Allen. However, this article does bring a 13. Ibid. 14. Anna Rogers, “Sofia Coppola,”Senses of Cinema, November 2007. in cinema. This paper attempts to explain very important point to light and that is 15. Ibid. Nora Ephron’s rise in Hollywood: how that Ephron (alongside her collaborators) 16. Ibid. she became a marketable brand in Rom- hit a sweet spot that was so widely loved 17. Martin Scorsese, “Martin Scorsese Breaks Down the Difference Between Story & Plot,” interview by Justin Morrow, No Film School, 29 July 2014, Coms, and how in doing so was able to and so widely marketable that it enabled 18. Anna Rogers, “Sofia Coppola,”Senses of Cinema, November 2007. bring a valuable, relatable and surprising- Ephron to create many more films of that ly honest female voice to a male dominat- form within romantic comedy. Much ed industry. Her rise in Hollywood and of this has to do with the broad array of her branding will be examined by taking demographics that this film creatively ap- an in depth look at the mass appeal and pealed to. When Harry Met Sally achieves marketing of her first romantic comedy, this mass appeal in a number of ways: 1. When Harry Met Sally, and at the success the film follows Harry and Sally through of this film, which contributed to her shift about a fifteen year period of their lives. in production roles from writer to writer/ The film begins just after their college director (a shift that also affected how graduation as they embark on a journey her films were marketed). Her value as from Chicago to New York City. This a female filmmaker will be appraised by unlikely duo is united by Sally’s friend observing her self-reflective sensibilities who happens to be Harry’s girlfriend at which establish exceptionally strong and the time. Beginning the film in this way relatable female protagonists. appeals to members of the population Traces of Ephron’s success are still who are in college or who are finishing lingering today. Just this past February up college by giving them something to New York Magazine posted an article on identify with. The film hooks younger their website that was titled, “The 25 Best viewers at the beginning who might Romantic Comedies Since When Harry have otherwise thought, “How is this Met Sally.” It seems that Ephron’s biggest relevant to me?” But this film is so loved

8 Focus Focus 9 and adored because it does not only ap- eration of thirty-something’s who them- on the left across from Harry on the right, them too. peal to younger audiences (a quality that selves, like the characters, are getting back New York City at their feet beneath the ti- many contemporary romantic comedies into dating. For those happily married tle and in between Harry and Sally are the Meaningful Communication are lacking), but also to a variety of older couples who may not currently be feeling words “Can two friends sleep together A faceless guy rips off your clothes demographics. After Harry and Sally part any insecurity in their sex lives, the film and still love each other in the morning?” and that’s the sex fantasy you’ve ways when they arrive in New York, the is intercut with couples describing how (see fig. 1). Sex is appealing and a great been having since you were film races forward in time and visits them they met and were married. Additionally, tool for getting people to see movies, but twelve? Exactly the same? in their mid twenties. Each of the protago- each of these couples are elderly which this advertising is a bit of a misrepresen- Well sometimes I vary it a little… nists has established themselves success- appeals to yet another demographic. tation because this statement implies that Which part? fully in New York City. Sally works for While this film appeals to nearly the this film is about attempting to have a What I’m wearing. a prominent New York newspaper, and entirety of adult white America in terms friends-with-benefits relationship instead Harry as a consultant. This appeals to of age (it is apparent that the culture that of what the film is really about: whether Sensitivity young people who are themselves pursu- is being marketed to is that of success- or not men and women can be purely You tell her about other women? ing careers. During this section of the film ful, middle-class white Americans since platonic friends. This is a deceptive mar- Yeah. Harry is getting married and Sally has both protagonists, the supporting roles, keting strategy because Harry and Sally Like the other night, I made love to been in a relationship for about a month, as well the majority of the intercut elderly don’t sleep with each other until near this woman and it was so incredi- a typical relationship spectrum for those couples embody this demographic), this the end of the film, and even when they ble, I took her to a place that wasn’t in their mid twenties. The film then jumps film is marketed to anyone in any of these do the actual act is filmically reduced to human. She actually meowed. ahead again to Harry and Sally in their demographics that might enjoy watching an implication formed with a few tears, You made a woman meow? early thirties, both burdened by quite a a couple of friends sleep together to see some kisses, and Harry’s concerned look bit of relationship baggage. Sally and her what becomes of their friendship. To put afterwards with his friend Sally tucked Sexual Compatibility boyfriend Joe have broken up mutually it in simple terms, this film is marketed under his arm under a blanket. This is (A chest up shot of the naked Harry because Joe does not want to have kids, using sex. Luckily sex appeals to mem- hardly the casual sex filled spectacle that and Sally in bed) and Harry’s wife has left him for a lawyer bers of all generations. Allow me to il- is implied by the poster. This same sort Are you comfortable? at work named Ira. This appeals to a gen- lustrate my point: the poster places Sally of sex-marketing occurs in the trailer of Sure. this film in which nearly every line of dia- Supportive Friends logue that occurs has to do with sex. To I need to talk. reiterate my point, these are the majority What happened? of the lines in the trailer. The trailer is bro- What’s the matter? ken up by titles in a white-on-black style Harry came over last night. followed by bits of scenes from the movie. I went over to Sally’s last night The titles are bolded below: Because I was upset that Joe was getting married. Ingredients of a Great Relationship And one thing led to another. Harry And before I knew it we were kiss- Men and Women can’t be friends, ing and then... because no man can be friends with To make a long story short… a woman that he finds attractive. We did it. He always wants to have sex with They did it! her. Sally Well you get the picture. The first So you’re saying that a man can be minute and a half of the trailer is just sex friends with a woman that he finds related talk. But, after these bits of dialog unattractive. and after Meg Ryan and Billy Chrystal’s names appear, that’s when the clever No you pretty much want to nail hardly sexual relationship humor that

10 Focus Focus 11 Nora Ephron is known for is showcased: I could find: than the male part. And I thought, why You’re challenging. Tiramisu am I out there looking for directors? Be- I’m difficult! I’m too structured. What is Tiramisu? cause if you look at a list of directors it’s I’m completely closed off! You’ll see. all boys. It certainly was when I started.” 5 But in a good way. Some woman is going to want me Even though the writing for When Harry And I’m going to be forty! to do it to her, and I’m not going to Met Sally was done by Ephron, she was When? know what it is. listed second to last in tiny print in the Someday! And: trailer, but because she wrote and direct- In eight years. I mean you can’t even turn on the ed Sleepless in Seattle, her name appeared When Harry Met Sally… news nowadays without hearing twice in much larger print in the trailer. It’s not the same for men. Charlie about how some babe thought A similar thing happened in the reviews Chaplain had babies when he was some guy’s butt was cute. of these films: in Caryn James’ New York seventy-three. So how’s my butt? Times review of When Harry Met Sally6 Yeah, but he was too old to pick Not bad Ephron’s name is referred to only twice, ‘em up.2 Really? once in the body of the review and once Yeah. in the credits, but in Vincent Canby’s New Nora Ephron’s screenplay has much Is it cute though? York Times review of Sleepless in Seattle7 more of this sort of clever non-sexual Are you grading on a curve?4 Ephron’s name appears five times. Obvi- dialogue that is full of emotion and in- ously she has a larger role, so this is not spired by real life experience with failed Even at its most lewd, the content of a strong enough case to argue that she is relationships, which is what makes this this trailer is about as sexual as the least becoming more of a brand, unless you marketing seem a bit inaccurate. A great sexual bits of dialogue showcased in the look at the fact that she not only landed scene that could have been used in the When Harry Met Sally trailer. Part of this the deal to do the screenplay for this film, doing so her name gained weight as did trailer is the scene in which the soon-to- could be attributed to the overall less sex- but has also now moved on to directing her power over these films. Ephron recalls be wed couple is fighting about the iconic ually-explicit premise of Sleepless in Seat- (which is no easy feat in Hollywood, es- her shift to directing in these words, wagon wheel coffee table. Harry looses tle: the film largely involves the son of the pecially for a woman, unless there is a “I moved into directing for a couple of it and screams that it doesn’t matter be- Tom Hanks character trying to set up his market for you). Ephron makes a state- reasons. One of which was that a couple cause when they get divorced they’ll be dad with a partner after the death of the ment that backs up my claim: of my scripts were made into movies that suing each other over eight dollar din- boy’s mother. This starkly contrasts When “I don’t think that you are gonna get were disappointing, and it occurred to me ner ware, this is the stuff that Ephron is Harry Met Sally’s primary question (em- a whole lot of creativity, as you’re us- as I watched them that I could have done famous for. This misleading marketing phasized by marketing) of whether or not ing the word, in the major motion pic- just as terrible a job directing as the peo- strategy worked however, as can be seen two friends can sleep together and still ture business where movies are costing ple who did and gotten paid quite a lot of by the film’s gross of aproximately $92 love each other in the morning. While this $90-$100-$110million. I think everybody’s money for it. The other reason was that million.3 After the success of this film, milder content is partially the reason for scared and everyone’s trying to do things when you write movies about some of the the hyper-sexualized approach to mar- the lesser amount of sexual content in the by the book or by the formula. I don’t things I write movies about, the hardest keting was no longer used. This can be marketing, there is something else at play part about them is not writing the mov- seen when looking at the Sleepless in Se- here. Nora Ephron, in the four years after ie, but getting a director to direct them. attle trailer that appeared four years later. When Harry Met Sally (her first romantic Because it doesn’t take you very long to There are plenty of passing conversations comedy), landed herself two other screen- write a screenplay but it takes a director about sex in Sleepless in Seattle, certainly plays before making Sleepless in Seattle. By a year. And most directors, I discovered, less, but still enough to make its trailer re- this time Ephron had proven herself as need to be convinced that the screenplay semble the When Harry Met Sally trailer. marketable in the major motion picture they’re going to direct has something to However there is a shift to showcasing market (especially thanks to When Harry do with them. And this is a tricky thing more of Ephron’s non-sexual relationship Met Sally’s box office). Because of this, if you write screenplays where women comedy. These are the only two remotely Nora Ephron was given the opportunity have parts that are equal to or greater sexual lines of dialogue in the trailer that to direct her romantic comedies and in

12 Focus Focus 13 know how any actor ever gets cast in a also drew a blah response from many ma- his hands in his pockets and is looking that are invented by Ephron. Ephron is part for the first time, because all anyone jor critics, who objected to its transparent at Sally with a mystified interest almost in the characters. Marsha McCreadie in wants to do is use someone who’s been emotional manipulation. But, call them exactly like the Woody Allen poster. And her book The Women Who Write the Mov- used before. It’s amazing to me when cutesy or featherweight, those Ephron in terms of Ephron being a practitioner of ies: From Frances Marion to Nora Ephron, someone like Eric Bana appears. I think films -- with their central questions about character types, the aforementioned New puts it this way, “In Ephron’s other films, ‘How did he do it!’ ‘How did he do it? whether friendship can spawn a couple or York Times writer Caryn James is very ac- you could make a very good case for the Because all they really want to do is you whether true love can surmount any ob- cusatory, “in Nora Ephron’s screenplay, intrusion of her own persona into the fe- know, that horrifying moment when the stacle -- struck a popular chord. Tapping Harry and Sally are defined by their wit- male characters she has created, at least studio calls and says ‘hey we’d love to into a hunger for old-fashioned romance ty, epigrammatic dialog and so never be- in her contemporary comedies. All writ- make this movie and we’ll send you a list and sophisticated wit, they acquired come more than types. Sally is a journalist ing is autobiographical of course, even if of who we’ll make it with’ and then they classic status for many in their genera- who occasionally sits at her home com- it’s not ‘all copy.’”13 It is evident in each send you this unbelievably short list that tion. And when measured today against puter and stares into space; Harry’s job as of the films I am discussing that there are says something on it like ‘Tom Hanks and the overwritten Hallmark porn of, say, a political consultant is even more shad- certain traits that each of the female pro- Tom Cruise. Well great, that’s not want- Crazy, Stupid, Love, the ostentatious life- owy.”11 But there are a couple of prob- tagonists share, and yes some of this may ing to make the movie.”8 style marketing of It’s Complicated or the lems here. Ephron wrote the screenplay be stylistic (costumes, apartments etc.) Ephron has a point, it is a very nepo- insufferably glossy treacle of those Garry for When Harry Met Sally, she didn’t direct and may be marketed in such a way that tistic business, and her own trajectory is Marshall holiday movies, Valentine’s Day it and she wasn’t in charge of marketing. appeals to the quirky art/romance film perhaps evidence of that (her father and and New Year’s Eve (What’s next? Rosh A person could consider the protagonists and yes Woody Allen lovers, however it mother were screenwriters). However, Hashanah?), Ephron’s best romantic com- to be types, but that is quite reductive giv- is Ephron’s touch that makes these pro- she did become a director in Hollywood, edies do hold up.”10 en that each of these characters is much tagonists seem honest. These women are where every choice is a risky chance, Many times the comparison of Ephron deeper than wit and occupation. These believable because they are inspired by a proving her worth enough to land her- to Woody Allen has been brought to my characters are based on real people and real woman, a real woman with anxieties, self a directing role. After this transition attention, especially involving the debut even share the same quirks as their mod- a real woman trying to balance a career took place, Ephron landed herself seven of When Harry Met Sally. So is it true? Is els. In her published script of When Harry and relationships, and a real woman with more screenplays and six directing cred- Ephron just a very good practitioner of Met Sally Ephron discusses her inspira- real flaws. Allow me to be more specific: its over the course of her career, and she types of characters based on previous tion for these characters: An aspect of this personal touch can be also wrote a few books (which seems like successes? Some would consider her “So I began with Harry, based on Rob, found in the occupation of the female an obvious direction for her because she more of a craftsman than an influential And because Harry was bleak and de- protagonists. McCreadie further notes considers herself a writer above all).9 artist. Some might consider her to be pressed, it followed absolutely that Sally that “Sally, like the Meg Ryan character So while Nora Ephron is a household someone who is good at implementing a would be cheerful and chirpy and re- in Sleepless in Seattle (and like Ephron), is name, it is important to take a look at formula and creating a satisfying result lentlessly, pointlessly, unrealistically, a journalist. In When Harry Met Sally, she whether or not she brought any value to instead of someone worth noting who idiotically optimistic. Which is, it turns works at the News; in Sleepless in Seattle the table. Many of her films had a mixed created something new and beautiful. out, very much like me. I’m not precisely she works at a Baltimore paper.”14 But it critical response. Upon her death, David It is true that there are striking similari- chirpy, but I am the sort of person who is goes even farther than that. These are not Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter wrote ties between the marketing of Ephron’s fine, I’m just fine, everything’s fine. ‘I am the only two characters with this writ- an article in which he shares his input on films and Woody Allen’s films. In Annie over him,’ Sally says, when she isn’t over ing emphasis, for also in You’ve Got Mail, this very topic, Hall and When Harry Met Sally, the trail- him at all; I have uttered that line far too Kathleen Kelly (Ryan) owns a children’s “Directed by Rob Reiner from Ephron’s ers are constructed the same way: blips many times in my life, and far too many bookstore, in which she meticulously se- screenplay, When Harry Met Sally ... was of witty dialogue intercut with titles and times I’ve made the mistake of believing lects the best books for her customers. She released in 1989 and dismissed by many actors’ names in a white word on black it was true.”12 KNOWS children’s books. of the more serious critics as Woody Al- background format all accompanied by Ephron’s characters are built from her len lite. The 1993 Sleepless in Seattle was jazzy piano music fitting to artistic shots own life experience, and yes, they may be WOMAN SHOPPER directed by Ephron from a script she co- of New York City. Even the posters look journalists who are picky eaters, but Eph- Do you have the “Shoe” books? wrote with David S. Ward and Jeff Arch, nearly identical (see figures 1 and 2), Sally ron was a journalist and a picky eater. SALESPERSON inspired by the 1957 Cary Grant-Deborah is dressed very much like Annie Hall: in The truth is that there is value to the The “Shoe” books? Who’s the au- Kerr vehicle, An Affair to Remember. It a blazer and baggy clothes. Harry has perspectives presented and the characters thor?

14 Focus Focus 15 WOMAN SHOPPER funny now, but trust me, someday it will curls up in bed with her trusty laptop or ics, established by visits to various time I don’t know. My friend told me be funny.”16 a favorite book. Someday, when this cozy periods of the protagonists’ lives in When my daughter has to read the “Shoe” Kathleen Kelly has this inspiring feature romantic comedy becomes a videocas- Harry Met Sally, gained Ephron a fan base books, so here I am. that Ephron attributes to her mother. She sette, it too will be a comfort object perfect that demonstrated her marketability in KATHLEEN sees the inspiration that a child can get for such moments.”18 the industry and enabled her to move into Noel Streatfeild. Noel Streatfeild from reading books and how books help In conclusion, advertising with sex directing. Directing allowed her to make wrote Ballet Shoes and Skating create more beautiful stories, beautiful and Woody Allen style helped Nora Eph- more influential films that bring aper- Shoes and Theater Shoes and Mov- people and hope. ron’s films reach an established market. sonal female perspective to the romantic ie Shoes... More interesting similarities between The appeal to multiple adult demograph- comedy genre. (she starts crying as she tells her) the characters and Ephron herself are that I’d start with Skating Shoes, it’s my of dress. Yes, Sally Albright resembles Endnotes favorite, although Ballet Shoes is Annie Hall (and that is used for market- completely wonderful. ing purposes), but it is striking how simi- 1. Bilge Ebiri and David Edelstein, “The 25 Best Romantic Comedies Since When Harry Met Sally,” New York Magazine: Vulture. 2014. Accessed June 1, 2014. http://www.vulture.com/2014/02/25-best-romantic- SALESPERSON lar the styles of these three of Ephron’s comedies-since-1989-when-harry-met-sally.html. Streatfeild. How do you spell that? protagonists are, and the clothing style 2. Trailer, When Harry Met Sally. 1989, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc. Accessed from YouTube.com. KATHLEEN is not entirely unlike Ephron’s own style. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1Qk0KxthWg. 3. “When Harry Met Sally…,” Box Office Mojo. Accessed June 6, 2014. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/ S-T-R-E-A-T-F-E-I-L-D. The most obvious comparison is that of movies/?id=whenharrymetsally.htm. WOMAN SHOPPER the Kathleen Kelly character to Ephron, 4. Trailer, Sleepless in Seattle. 1993, TriStar Pictures. Accessed June 6, 2014, from Turner Classic Movies at Thank you.15 since she has the boyish messy short hair tcm.com, http://www.tcm.com/mediaroom/video/62881/Sleepless-In-Seattle-Original-Trailer-.html. and the all black wardrobe of Nora Eph- 5. Nora Epron, interview by Daniel Snyder, Dreams on Spec, YouTube.com. August 24, 2012. Accessed June 1, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYmkNFqTSjI. And it is evident that this character, ron (see figures 3 and 4). How much she 6. Caryn James, “It’s Harry [Loves] Sally in a Romance Of New Yorkers and Neuroses,” The New York Kathleen Kelly, is inspired by a very had to do with these costume choices, I Times, July 12, 1989, accessed May 19, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/12/movies/review-film-it- personal part of Ephron’s life: her own cannot be certain; however writing char- s-harry-loves-sally-in-a-romance-of-new-yorkers-and-neuroses.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbi as%3Ar. mother. Ephron discusses her mother in acters based on personal expertise has 7. Vincent Canby, “When Sam Met Annie, Or When Two Meet Cute,” The New York Times, June 25, 1993, an interview, never hurt, and who could a person be a accessed May 19, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/25/movies/review-film-when-sam-met-annie- “My mother was a real piece of work. She better expert on than themselves. This is or-when-two-meet-cute.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Ar. 8. Nora Epron, interview by Daniel Snyder, Dreams on Spec, YouTube.com. August 24, 2012. Accessed June was something. She was so powerful. She what makes Ephron’s characters so well 1, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYmkNFqTSjI. was a screenwriter with my father and loved: they are relatable because they are 9. Ibid. she was so determined that all of her chil- the creation of a woman, and so when 10. David Rooney, “Why Nora Ephron’s Films Made Such an Impact: A Critic’s Take,” The Hollywood Reporter, June 27, 2012, accessed June 2, 2014, http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/nora-ephron- dren would be writers, without ever be- each of these characters shuts themselves death-when-harry-met-sally-342629. ing stupid enough to say ‘I want you to in, when each one cries in bed, when 11. Caryn James, “It’s Harry [Loves] Sally in a Romance Of New Yorkers and Neuroses,” The New York grow up to be a writer’ because that, she each one walks around in pajamas, when Times, July 12, 1989, accessed May 19, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/07/12/movies/review-film-it- s-harry-loves-sally-in-a-romance-of-new-yorkers-and-neuroses.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbi knew, was never going to work. So she, each one overreacts, each one is 100% as%3Ar. she basically, you know, she brought us woman. Ephron’s thoughts on being a fe- 12. Nora Ephron, When Harry Met Sally…. 1990, Knopf, New York. the greatest books and turned us into pas- male screenwriter say it all, “As a woman 13. Marsha McCreadie, The Women Who Write The Movies: From Frances Marion to Nora Ephron. 1994, Carol sionate readers and taught us to tell sto- screenwriter, my job is not to write some Publishing Group, New York. 14. Ibid. ries in her own completely twisted way, idealized woman, but to write women 15. Nora Ephron and Delia Ephron, You’ve Got Mail, 1998, accessed June 4, 2014, http://www.dailyscript. okay. I mean, what she would say to you, who are real, whatever they are like, who com/scripts/Youve_got_mail.html. if you went to my mother and you said are lovable or not lovable, but who are 16. Nora Ephron, Conversations at KCTS 9, June 28, 2011, accessed May 19, 2014, https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=SXiNEgO-wxo. ‘Oh the worst thing happened to me to- at least as comprehensible and as com- 17. Marsha McCreadie, The Women Who Write The Movies: From Frances Marion to Nora Ephron. 1994, Carol day,’ she had no interest in it, she only plicated as men are in the movies.”17 In Publishing Group, New York. wanted to hear about it when you had a review of You’ve Got Mail Janet Maslin 18. Janet Maslin, “[email protected],” The New York Times, December 18, 1998, accessed May 19, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/1998/12/18/movies/film-review-hanks-ryan-romancecom.html?module=S turned it into a story with a good punch captures in words the appeal of these earch&mabReward=relbias%3Ar. line. And so she always said ‘Everything films: “When Meg Ryan’s character gets is copy. Everything is material. Someday the sniffles and retreats from the world in this will be a funny story, it doesn’t seem You’ve Got Mail, she puts on pajamas and

16 Focus Focus 17 The Unfettered Princess in happy homemakers who lie in a state of of audiences and critics viewing the film suspended animation until a man gives at the time. Disney’s Snow White them a life.”6 Feminist critiques such as In the Walt Disney Company’s 1938 these began to surface in the late 1980s Pressbook, “Still the Fairest of Them by Annahita Ashe and early 1990s, most likely catalyzed by All!”, the Disney Company provides a the new ways of thinking that followed variety of publicity strategies, posters, ar- isney’s Frozen (2013) has been dience were dressed up like princesses. the second wave feminism movement of ticles, and statistics for Snow White.9 This celebrated amongst fans and film This observation inspired an entire line of the 1960s – 1980s. This movement opened book was given to exhibitors in order to Dcritics for being Disney’s most merchandise that became the core of the up for debate issues of sexuality, family, provide them with material for and ideas progressive Disney princess movie of all Disney princess franchise, consisting of the workplace, official legal inequalities, of how to best promote Snow White and time.1 The film, which grossed $1.3 billion Disney princess dresses and accessories. and was marked by the Roe vs. Wade the Seven Dwarfs in 1938. In this Press- at the box office, has also sparked incred- The franchise grew into a revenue-gain- case of 1973.7 Disney responded to such book, there exists an article in which Walt ible revenues from Disney merchandis- ing giant for The Walt Disney Company, feminist critiques with the release of films Disney describes his reasons for adapting ing. An estimated 2.6 million Frozen prin- encompassing activities surrounding Dis- that featured “second wave” princesses, the story of Snow White into a full-length cess dresses were sold after Halloween in ney princess merchandise, special events, beginning with princess Belle from Beauty animated feature. In “Urge to Film ‘Snow 2014, each dress priced at about $49.99- and even Disney Princess coronation cer- and the Beast (1991), who loved to read.8 White’ Founded in Disney’s Youth,” $99.95 at Disney stores.2 The success of emonies at Walt Disney World.3 Since then, Disney has introduced more Disney ascribes his desire to make Snow Frozen exemplifies the profound effect Along with this recent commercial “progressive” princess characters, cover- White and the Seven Dwarfs to six major that the Disney princess has on today’s emphasis on the Disney princess, there ing a greater range of ethnicities and per- factors. audiences. Young girls flock to Disney also have been many critiques of the sonalities, and the Disney princess fran- First, Disney describes having seen a merchandise outlets in order to emulate representation of Disney princesses, es- chise has grown significantly with each silent film version of Snow White when their favorite Arendellien sister, while pecially from a feminist point of view. new addition. he was a small boy, and always having conversations circulating online in film Laura Sells, in her essay “Where do the The question then becomes, how can liked it since. Second, he mentions that reviews and newspaper articles praise the Mermaids Stand?,” criticizes the story of we locate Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs the story is well known and “beloved in film for its treatment of strong, progres- Princess Ariel by dissecting the gender- within this history rather than simply practically every country.”10 This would sive princesses. But why is the concept of related tensions of the film such as the read it in a way that anticipates the Dis- allow for the film to enjoy great success a Disney princess such a prominent topic moment where the little mermaid must ney princess franchise and its contempo- both locally and internationally. Third, in today’s discussions of cinema? Has this give up her voice in attempt at upward rary critique? How can we be mindful of Disney explains that “the seven dwarfs, always been the norm? How can we look mobility and access to a white male all potential routes the Disney Princess we knew, were naturals for the medium at the treatment of the very first Disney system.4 In his essay “The Whole Wide concept could have taken? In the analy- of our animated pictures. In them we princess, Snow White, in a way that opens World Was Scrubbed Clean,” Patrick sis to follow I reposition Snow White and could instill humor, but not only as to up new opportunities for discussion? Murphy voices an argument derived from the Seven Dwarfs as a film whose signifi- their physical appearances, but in their Before I embark on an analysis of “ecofeminism” in relation to the Disney cance does not lie in its gender coding of mannerisms, individual personalities, Snow White in Disney’s Snow White and princess—a common strategy amongst a Disney princess, but in its technological voices and actions.”11 The characters of the Seven Dwarfs (1937), it is imperative Disney princess critics. Murphy applies advancements and in its playfulness with the dwarfs provided Disney with an out- that I foreground my historical posi- ecofeminism’s claim that , “the oppres- pre-existing Disney features such as en- let to practice the same kind of caricature tion in relation to the trajectory of the sion of women and the exploitation of na- dearing animals and caricatured, comic comedy that he had explored in his short Disney Princess concept and franchise. ture are inextricably linked in the history characters. Silly Symphony films. For example, in My historical inquiry takes place fifteen of western and other patriarchal civiliza- Though much of discourse today sur- Arctic Antics (1930), the features of arctic years after the origination of the Disney tions” to Disney’s princess films.5 Kathi rounding Disney princess movies revolve animals, such as penguins’ bellies and a princess franchise as a moneymaking Maio, in an article in New Internationalist around the representation of the princess, walrus’ whiskers, are exaggerated for co- machine. In 2000, Disney executive Andy Magazine seems to sum up the arguments at the time of the production and exhibi- medic effect.12 Dwarfs, already extreme Mooney was in the audience at a Disney of critics like Sells, Murphy, and many tion of Snow White, 1934-1938, the prin- in their height, provided much room to on Ice show when he noticed that many others when she writes, “It’s prototypical cess was not central to the thinking of experiment with caricature. Furthermore, of the little girls alongside him in the au- Disney. Young women are natural-born those creating the film, nor to the thinking Disney recognizes that humor could be

18 Focus Focus 19 instilled in each dwarf’s individual per- creative leeway. The princess is just one of who crashed the market with novelties as illustrated by the statement the Snow sonality, following a pattern found in The the many possible human characters that based on ‘Snow White’”; radio broadcasts White was “Three years in the making!” Three Little Pigs (1933), a Silly Symphony provide this opportunity of experimenta- of songs from the film and announce- in an advertisement that appeared in the in which each pig has a unique personal- tion for Disney. ments from Walt Disney himself flooded same Motion Picture Herald issue. ity that is played with for comedic effect. The last reason Disney provides for the radio stations; and department stores The focus of these advertisements In this regard the dwarf characters were a making Snow White into a full-length all over the country displayed life-size mimic the ideas presented in the 1938 significant driving force in Disney’s deci- animated feature is that the company had character and setting cut-outs to promote Pressbook. Many strategies from the sion to make Snow White. been receiving fan mail for years asking the film.17 There is no doubt that there Pressbook use the dwarfs as the key fig- The fourth reason Disney provides in for a longer picture.16 Snow White as the was an immense effort by the Walt- Dis ures of attraction. For example, a strategy the article also has to do with furthering first full length animated Disney film was ney Company to advertise the film, but entitled “Dwarfs as Ballyhoos” encourag- experimentation with past successes. He partly a response to this fan mail. is there anything in these advertisements es exhibitors to employ “dwarfs” to act as explains that with most of the animation Among all of the reasons Disney pro- and publicity strategies that reveals the messengers for the theater for a week be- taking place in the woods, there would vides for choosing to turn Snow White and driving forces behind the film and how fore the film premiere. They would then be “great opportunity for introducing ap- the Seven Dwarfs into a full-length animat- significant a role a princess concept deliver personal invitations to prominent pealing little birds and animals of the type ed feature film, there is no indication that played? members of the local community to at- we’ve had success with in the past.”13 Silly the princess was central to his thinking. A page in a 1938 issue of Motion Pic- tend the film’s premiere, as well as hand Symphonies like Birds in the Spring (1933) However, we must take into account that ture Herald was devoted to “Denver Snow out advertisements for the film in popu- that featured charming little animals set this information comes from a pressbook White Ads.” The page displays images lar public areas. Another strategy, called a precedent for Disney’s future animated that is inherently biased in that it is meant of nine posters that were used to adver- “Novel Merchandising Plan for Commu- films, includingSnow White. to present all aspects of the film in a posi- tise Snow White in Denver in 1938. Each nity Snow Build Up,” instructs exhibitors The fifth reason Disney provides is tive light for its potential use in publicity. poster depicts the seven dwarfs alongside to make partnerships with local stores, that the human characters in Snow White Because of this bias, some information the title of the film and some information which would hand out a card with a were “fanciful enough to allow us a great was likely excluded, and the Pressbook about it. Nearly all of the posters include dwarf on it to a customer who spent one deal of leeway in our treatment of them.”14 article should not be considered a com- the same information, advertising the dollar at that store. A collection of a com- This statement is the only indication Dis- plete representation of the entirety of film as “Walt Disney’s first full length fea- plete deck of dwarf cards would earn the ney gives as to the significance of the prin- Disney’s thinking about the film. Keeping ture production…Three years in the mak- customer a color still of the film. Other cess. Note that the focus is not on the fact this in mind, further analysis of the Press- ing…All in Marvelous Technicolor!”18 common strategies focused on the ani- that she is a princess; rather, he empha- book and other primary sources must be Almost all of the advertisements for Snow mals of the film. For example, “Pet Mati- sizes the fact that all the human charac- conducted to achieve a deeper under- White I have found in trade journals and nee” was a strategy that“emphasize[d] ters—princess, prince, evil queen, witch, standing. fan magazines of the time follow this for- the appealing animal angle of Snow White huntsman—are “fanciful” fairytale char- In a newspaper article from 1938, a mula. They focus primarily on the dwarfs and the Seven Dwarfs” by hosting a mati- acters, and because of their imaginary, reporter comments on the great amount as the most appealing characters of the nee for children in which they could bring fairytale nature, they allow the animators of publicity that preceded the release of film; if any characters are depicted on the exotic pets with them for free admission, to depict these figures creativity. Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. The ar- advertisements, it is nearly always a few and earn prizes for the most interesting ambition was to create realistic human ticle, “A Tremendous Pre-Release Build or all of the dwarfs. If other characters are pets.19 characters that could still be played with up Such as No Other Picture Ever Won!” included, the animals from the film are of- Though advertisements in primary creatively due to their fairytale identities. comments on the astounding amount of ten depicted as well. Also, the technologi- source papers and trade journals of the In Disney’s Silly Symphony The Goddess of promotional material presented in a va- cal advancement of “Technicolor” is em- film largely lack mention of a princess, Spring (1934) he experimented with creat- riety of papers and magazines. Repro- phasized in nearly every advertisement the Pressbook does recommend some ing a realistic, human animated character, ductions of scenes from Snow White were in these magazines, usually accompanied publicity strategies that use the princess and in this regard the goddess was a kind displayed as full-page color spreads in by a statement highlighting the novelty as an advertisement angle. For exam- of precursor to Snow White.15 The ani- the “more important periodicals,” such of the fact that it is the first ever feature- ple, in a stunt labeled “Celebrate Snow mated Goddess, an attempt at a realistic as Good Housekeeping and Photoplay; com- length animation film made by Disney. White,” exhibitors are instructed to send girl, is also a mythical character, allow- mercial trade magazines such as Play- Another common theme of the advertis- a “beautiful girl, clad in Snow White’s ing some creativity in the same way that things and Toys and Bicycles were packed ing is the exceptional amount of time and simple garb” to visit local shops on horse- Snow White as a fairytale princess allows with advertisements for “concessionaries effort put into the making of the film, back, led by an employee who is dressed

20 Focus Focus 21 like the prince.20 The fact that the girl is re- ebrate in their reviews: the appeal of the on audiences of 1938 could be attributed present at the time of its debut. However, quired to be “beautiful” does raise ques- dwarfs. In his review, critic Jimmy Elder to The Great Depression of the 1930s. these contemporary arguments obscure tions that anticipate contemporary femi- wrote concerning the dwarfs, “In all my The Dwarfs, whose main song in the film historical details related to the film’s pub- nist critiques of Snow White. However, it nineteen years of reviewing I have never consists of the chorus “Heigh Ho! Off to licity and reception.. Critics today cite the is also imperative to understand the stunt met screen characters that more com- work we go!” as they head off to their job one-dimensional, sexist representation of was a marketing strategy, and market- pletely captured my heart.”24 The dwarfs in the mine, are hopeful characters for au- Snow White as the main weakness of the ing strategies have almost always used from Snow White even began to influence diences suffering through the depression. film. However, it would be more accurate the sex appeal of beautiful women and fashion trends. In an article from Picture The Great Depression meant an immense to assert that all of the human characters men to advertise a product. Attributing Play, a reporter described a new trend decrease in demand for, and few alter- inthe filmare weak in this regard. The the requirement that a “beautiful” girl be of women’s hats inspired by the dwarf’s nate sources of, jobs. Areas dependent Prince is charming, Snow White is beauti- featured in this stunt to the gender cod- hats in the film. In keeping with the topics on primary sector industries such as min- ful and pure, the queen is evil and vain, ing of the princess ignores this key factor. prominent in the advertising and public- ing suffered the most.27 Depictions of the and none of these characters develop in Also, though strategies like “Celebrating ity for the film, reviews not only focused cheerful dwarfs at work may have pro- the film in a way that escapes or explores Snow White” are recommended as pub- on the dwarfs, but also on the technologi- vided an escape for audiences from the these stereotypes. A reviewer for The licity stunts in the Pressbook, a great ma- cal achievement of the film. A reviewer harsh reality of massive unemployment, Monthly Film Bulletin at the time picked jority of the stunts in the book, as well as in Box Office called Snow White “the most and also could have offered something up on this notion, noting that, “the char- most advertisements in papers from the important picture from a production per- for audiences to hope for. One of the most acters lack urgency.”29 However, even this time, focus primarily on the animals, the spective since the advent of sound. It has popular songs to come out of Snow White critique superimposes a more modern un- dwarfs, and the technological advance- unusual appeal, seldom, if ever, attained was “Whistle While You Work,” which derstanding of film uponSnow White. The ment in the form of Technicolor. in the realm of celluloid entertainment.”25 topped the singles charts in 1938.28 The characters are one-dimensional as a result Technicolor is a color motion picture Many other critics mused about the ap- success of this song could also be attrib- of the story; it is a charming, triumphant process that was invented in 1916, but pealing woodland animals featured in the uted to the Great Depression for the same fairytale story meant for children. As the had not yet been widely used. The “three- film. Frank Nugent, in his review for the reasons. The Dwarfs also were the come- first feature-length animation film, there color” Technicolor process introduced in New York Times in 1938 said, “No child, of dic characters of the film, providing audi- was no reason to believe at this time that Disney’s Silly Symphonies in 1932, and course, could dream a dream like this. For ences with opportunities for lighthearted a feature-length animation film should used in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Mr. Disney’s humor has the simplicity of laughter in the midst of an economic cri- have multi-dimensional characters.; there in 1937, allowed for a much more broad extreme sophistication. The little bluebird sis. was no established form to model such a spectrum of color range.21 Another new who overreaches itself and hits a flat note By examining the environment in feat after. Disney’s Fantasia (1940), whose technology that employed in Snow White to the horror of its parents; the way the which the film was received, audience soundtrack was its key feature, did not was the multi-plane camera, which al- animals help Snow White clean house, preferences can be more deeply under- include complex characters, and explored lowed for a new three-dimensional effect with the squirrels using their tails as dust- stood. Because of the Great Depression, new ways that animation could be played in animation.22 The combination of these ers, the swallows scalloping pies with the dwarfs rose above the other charac- with. This stands as proof that Disney two new technologies was stressed in the their feet, the fawns licking the plates ters in popularity. The concept of a Dis- was still exploring the many directions a advertisement of Snow White, especially clean, the chipmunks twirling cobwebs ney princess franchise and critiques of full-length animation film could go. Snow the use of Technicolor. about their tails and pulling free; or the Snow White as a flawed representation of White’s purpose, as an experiment with a These same points of emphasis are also ticklish tortoise when the rabbits use his a woman were not issues on the mind of longer animation format, was not to en- the focus of reviews written by critics of ribbed underside as a scrubbing board— most audiences during the Great Depres- courage deep exploration of the human the time. Charlie Chaplin, who was one of all these are beyond a youngster’s imagi- sion; work, excitement about new tech- psyche, but to showcase technological de- the many celebrity guests at the film’s pre- nation, but not beyond his delight.”26 The nology in film, and the enjoyment and velopments in animation. Understanding miere in Los Angeles, told the Los Angeles dwarfs, as well as the other celebrated escape of daily reality that the comedy this helps us to deepen our understand- Times that Snow White had “surpassed features of the film such as animals and of the film provided much more likely ing of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, our highest expectations. In Dwarf Dop- Technicolor, are praised over and over in shaped the frame of mind in which audi- unfettered by contemporary lenses. ey, Disney has created one of the greatest fan magazine, trade journal, and newspa- ences viewed the film upon its release. Snow White was created, publicized, comedians of all time.”23 Chaplin’s favor- per reviews of the film—without much Contemporary critiques do open up and received with attention to the likable able opinion of Dopey echoes one of the mention of the Disney princess. interesting areas of discussion in relation animals and comedic dwarf characters factors that many critics of the time cel- The great effect that the dwarfs had to Snow White, even though they were not in combination with the technological

22 Focus Focus 23 achievements of Technicolor and the less contemporary discussions of the Disney 10. Ibid. novel but still relatively new technology princess are not constructive for they 11. Ibid. 12. Ub Iwerks, Arctic Antics, Walt Disney Silly Symphony, 7 min., June 1930. of the multi-plane camera. Immediately prompt us to ask:. Why did a shift occur 13. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 4. following Snow White Disney produced away from dwarfs and animals as main 14. Ibid. a series of films centered on popular char- features of focus, and toward the Dis- 15. JB Kaufman, (Walt Disney Foundation Press, 2012). acters such as Pinnochio (1940), Dumbo ney princess? The princess’s ascension 16. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 4. (1941), and Bambi (1942). It was not until into cultural popularity did occur. Could 17. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 5. 1950, thirteen years after Snow White’s it be that many classic stories and fairy- 18. Anon, “Denver ‘Snow White’ Ads,” p. 73. 19. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 4. release, that the Disney princess was res- tales include a princess, and this created 20. Ibid. urrected in Cinderella. Furthermore, it is a cumulative “princess effect” so that by 21. Charles Wolfe, “Experimental and Studio Animation: Sound, Color Space,” (Lecture, University of not until after the second wave feminism the time of the third or fourth princess California, Santa Barbara, January 27, 2015). 22. Ibid. movement of the 1960s through the 1980s, movie, the princess became an important 23. John Culhane, “‘Snow White’ at 50: Undimmed Magic,” The New York Times. (New York, NY), July decades after the film’s original release, point of focus in Disney’s films? Might 12, 1987. that Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was we also attribute the cultural prominence 24. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 5. examined through a new lens that found of the Disney princess in part to critiques 25. Ibid. 26. Frank S. Nugent, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,” The New York Times, (New York, NY), January the Disney princess deficient from a femi- that arose after the second wave feminist 14, 1938. nist perspective. movement? Looking deeper into the cir- 27. Lionel Robbins, The Great Depression (New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2009). Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is cumstances of this shift could help us to 28. Steve Hawtin, “Songs From the Year 1938,” tsort.info, 2014. 29. Alan Page, “Snow White and the Fiery Red,” Monthly Film Bulletin, 1938. discussed in contemporary discourses in reconstruct an even richer cultural history ways that superimpose feminist concepts than a production and reception history the significance of a “Disney princess” of Snow White alone provides.. It is clear that did not exist at the time of the pro- that the concept of the Disney princess duction and exhibition of the original film. was not yet central to the planning, adver- Lost in many of these contemporary dis- tising, or the reception of Snow White at cussions of Snow White and Seven Dwarfs the time of its premiere. In 2013’s Frozen, is the historically grounded significance the princesses were the point; in 1937, the of Disney’s achievements in technology princess was a byproduct of other pro- and of creative approach to feature film- duction concerns. making. That is not to say, however, that

Endnotes

1. Gina Luttrell, “7 Moments That Made ‘Frozen’ the Most Progressive Disney Movie Ever,” Mic, Janu- ary 20, 2014, http://mic.com/articles/79455/7-moments-that-made-frozen-the-most-progressive-disney- movie-ever. 2. Brooks Barnes, “3 Million ‘Frozen’ Princess Dresses Sold, Disney Says,” The New York Times (New York, NY), Nov. 4, 2014. 3. Annie Paul, “Is Pink Necessary?” The New York Times (New York, NY), Jan. 21, 2011. 4. Laura Sells, “Where Do The Mermaids Stand?” in From Mouse to Mermaid: The Politics of Film, Gender, and Culture, ed. Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, Laura Sells (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995), 175. 5. Patrick D. Murphy, “The Whole Wide World Was Scrubbed Clean,” in From Mouse to Mermaid: The Poli- tics of Film, Gender, and Culture, ed. Elizabeth Bell, Lynda Haas, Laura Sells (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995), 125. 6. Kathi Maio, “Disney’s Dolls,” New Internationalist Magazine, December 1998. 7. Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, “Second-Wave Feminism,” in A Companion to American Women’s History, ed. Nancy A. Hewitt (Malden: Blackwell Publishing 2005), 414. 8. Kaitlin Esbersol, “How Fourth-Wave Feminism is Changing Disney’s Princesses,” Highbrow Magazine, October 23, 2014. 9. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Clipping Files, reel 4. Margaret Herrick Library, Beverly Hills, CA: Primary Source Microfilm, 1937-38.

24 Focus Focus 25 SECTION 2: Evolution of Consumption

26 Focus Focus 27 The Politics of Penetration: attractions as pathological, dissociation penis as a wholly separate entity from the Censorship, Homophobia, and a Reimagining of the Penis must be created between men and the man, implying its destructive power by natural, physiological response of their labelling it in terms that anti-porn femi- penises to sexual stimuli: an erection. nists would likely deem exemplary of by Justin Minor The erection becomes something to be phallic hegemony. The patriarchal power scrutinized when it corresponds to sexual exacted by the commonly-held concep- n his extensive treatise on censorship phobic fear of arousal. I will also argue stimuli that the man deems to be unnatu- tualization and obscuring of the penis is history in American film and how it that gay male pornography’s power lies ral or abominable. If a man develops an echoed in Laura Mulvey’s sentiment that relates to feature-length hardcore por- in deconstructing the image of the phallus “unnatural” sexual attraction, or para- “the male figure cannot bear the burden I 7 nography’s decline in the early 1970s, Jon as social dominance and repression. This philia (much like internalized homopho- of sexual objectification.” To understand Lewis notes that content regulation “must argument is furthered by the notion of bia), we can assume that an inner turmoil the importance of male objectification be read not in terms of objective criteria “corporeal feminism” and the liberating is created that disembodies the penis and and the manners in which men can be or empirical studies,” but rather in the power of embodiment; after all, in order renders it an object wholly separate from objectified, we can look no further than context of the ideological and systemic to understand body politics, we must ex- the man. This idea is echoed by the “pe- examples from contemporary Hollywood apparatus that governs film censorship amine the specific imagery that offends— nis run amok,” a popular comedic trope films. After all, Hollywood is an- indus in Hollywood.1 Lewis traces a compelling you guessed it—”the body politic.” in (heterosexual) pornographic film. In try that defines its separateness from the economic explanation for Hollywood’s Historical conceptualizations of the an example of an alternative approach to pornography industry by its refusal to renaissance and “porn chic’s” decline in human body lend insight into the me- body acceptance, we can see that much of depict hardcore penetrative sex, and in- the 1970s; however, I raise issue with his chanical or objective view of the body as a the work of feminist discourse pursues stead, represents the penis as a comedic assertion that objective criteria should not complex system of neurological respons- the notions of empowerment through spectacle. be quantified when faced with systemic es. Rene Descartes introduced the concept embodiment.5 To bridge the gap between Attempts to normalize filmic represen- and much more illusory concepts, such of the human body as an “automaton,” men and their penises, the same consider- tations of the penis and the specifications as “morality, ideology, and politics.”2 As or a machine that, like the workings of ations must be applied when considering surrounding their depiction have im- this book locates its argument around a clock, was “subject to improper care male bodies—deconstructing the phallus planted the appendage within the realm the distinctions between Hollywood and management.”3 This critical distance by uniting man and penis. of comedy. Hollywood places strictures and hardcore pornography, it is crucial between men and the workings of their A critical dissociation between the pe- on penile representation to the extent that to discuss the very content that defines body suggests our capacity for assign- nis and phallus demonstrates the differ- it constantly reformulates and evolves its such industrial differentiation. Since the ing specific values to certain appendages ence between the organ and the power premises on how penises can be shown hardcore pornography trade represents that can incite moral objection. By view- differentials that it personifies. Mels Van in films, if at all; the Motion Picture Asso- the “flesh factory” so demonized by Hol- ing the body in these objective terms, it Driel deconstructs the defining features ciation of America operates on a case-by- lywood, we must examine the currency of becomes clear how the commodification of “manhood” in his history of cultural case basis that has led some filmmakers, this trade and its relation to body politics. of human bodies in pornography lends it- conceptualizations of masculinity. He de- like Nicholas Stoller, to exaggerate penile By studying the material that becomes self to enacting specific criteria judgments scribes the penis in terms of its symbolic depictions in their films in order to push censored by governments and self-mon- for what is censored by content regula- meaning, going so far as to liken the penis the boundaries of what can be accepted. itored NGOs, like the MPAA, we can see tion organizations, like the MPAA. Des- to a “well-trained dog,” that under the In a Buzzfeed interview, Stoller describes that a very specific emphasis is placed on cartes’s formulation of the “automaton” best circumstances becomes erect when shooting his film,Neighbors (Stoller, 2014), how bodies can be displayed—particu- connects specifically to the male sex and the man desires it; however, the man must and his understanding of what censors larly male bodies. The penis is the most the nineteenth century study known as account for the consideration that this will allow in terms of penile depictions: heavily censored appendage in Holly- sexology, because the male body was not “dog” may refuse him, “despite the fact “The rule that I heard was that you can wood. Feminist discourse has tradition- to engage in “inappropriate sexual acts or that it is trained, or in more human terms, show a penis in an R-rated movie; it just ally tied this fact to patriarchal hypocri- perversions,” because bodily fluids were socialized.”6 Although his tone is humor- can’t be above 90 degrees. So even if it’s sies in the interest of maintaining phallic “a limited commodity” that were “not ous, by describing the penis in terms of its flaccid, like if you’re flopping it around, if power; but, I will argue that the censor- to be wasted on unnecessary sexual dis- phallic association with “determination, you flop it side to side, it’s fine. If you flop ship of the penis—and primarily, its func- charge”—that is, non-procreative sex.4 It effectiveness, penetration,” Van Driel it up and down you can get into trouble.”8 tion of penetration—represents homo- follows that when men view their sexual contributes to the familiar notion of the The writers of the film also note feeling a

28 Focus Focus 29 sense of “activism” when it came to the the penis as at once lovably mischievous, sure not because it expresses dominion explicit gay or lesbian elements—mostly script they were writing. For their film, and conversely, capable of destruction for or commands the slavish attention of the acts of female bisexuality, acts between This Is the End (Rogen, Goldberg, 2013), demonstrating phallic power as wholly women in the film, but because the maan multiple partners of either sex—and in- Evan Goldberg and Seth Rogen intended separate from the corporeality of the be- worth is determined by his ability to pen- stead forefronts penetrative sex between to push their depictions of sexuality and ing attached to it. etrate. In a sense, if the man is unable to men and women as the primary defining nudity into absurd territories in order to The phallus’s ultimate objectification perform sexually (or as an actor) he has characteristic of the “straight” brand of procure a rating of NC-17 from the MPAA of the man is made apparent in hetero- lost his manhood—he has been castrated. pornography. Any other penetrative act so that they would receive an R upon re- sexual pornography. A common argu- This assumption contains overtures of falls within the realm of “gay”—or, more submitting a “slightly cleaner” version of ment among anti-porn feminists and so- Freud and the “castration myth,” but the aptly termed: “everything else.” Indus- the film for rating.9 Ideas about the seem- cially conservative politicians focuses on connection I draw here is much more lit- try-based divisions in porn represent a ingly arbitrary nature by which, however, pornography’s “deleterious” representa- eral. Feminist discourse that distances the clear divide between male-to-female and penises are censored by the MPAA are tions of women. These groups argue that penis from its literalness by creating the male-to-male penetration. Sex between not isolated to the United States. In the representations of women in violent por- concept of the “phallus” contributes to the women who identify as straight is not ex- United Kingdom, there is a commonly- nography (particularly images that por- objectification of men in heterosexual por- plicitly deemed “gay” porn, even though believed myth that the British Board of tray women “enjoying” rape) send mi- nography. Considering that the audience it features two women engaged in sexual Film Classification used the “Mull of sogynistic messages that encourage men for hardcore heterosexual pornography is play; whether or not the authenticity of Kintyre test,” a comparative test by which to rape and commit other violent acts presumably straight and male, this exci- the lesbian attraction between the actors British film censors would determine that against women;13 however, some research sion of the eroticized penis makes sense, is blatantly apparent, this pornography a man’s penis could not be shown if its suggests that heterosexual hardcore por- assuming that these viewers are deriving falls under the straight umbrella. degree of erectness exceeded the angle nography tips the burden of negative rep- pleasure from gazing at the female bodies For example, the AVN website’s by which the Scottish peninsula, the resentations toward men, precisely be- on display. In this formulation, the penis straight porn webstore contains such se- Mull of Kintyre, protruded into the At- cause “the genre cannot tolerate a small, is summarily de-eroticized because its lections as Wet and Oiled Nymphos (Pow- lantic Ocean.10 The comedic tone of these un-erect penis because the sight of the value in hardcore heterosexual porn is its ers, 2014), a film featuring an extended content regulation strategies is reflected organ must convey the symbolic weight ability to penetrate and stimulate women. lesbian sex scene (complete with strap- in the pervasive presence of comedy in of the phallus.”14 Stephen Prince notes This development reveals that pornog- on penetration) between Layla Price and pornography. While Hollywood self- that a study conducted by the University raphy hinges not solely on the politics of Jodi Taylor.19 Although this specific scene censors and shies away from depictions of Pennsylvania’s Annenberg School of bodies and their display (because pornog- might conceivably locate the film on of the penis, pornography embraces the Communications on a sampling of het- raphy has represented almost every imag- the LGBT side of the industry, it is cat- idea that “laughter, as a neutered redirec- erosexual pornography found that 36% of inable body), but on the politics of pen- egorized among the straight films. It is tion of anxiety, delivers rich spectatorial men featured in these films were anony- etration. The politics of penetration are worth noting that another film in AVN’s rewards for what I will argue is its most mous (lacking dialogue or clearly defined predicated on the penis, the dividing line straight webstore, entitled This Is My preferred consumer: not the male viewer, character) compared to 19% of women, that separates soft-core from hardcore, First: A Gangbang Movie (Powell, 2013), but male viewers.”11 The comedic inclina- also noting that only 69% of men have and straight from gay. Placing the porn features double vaginal and anal penetra- tions of pornography—such as the idea of major speaking roles compared to 83% industry’s premier trade publications, tion of the film’s two female stars, Adri- the “penis run amok”—reflect the notion of women.15 Stephen Prince concludes XBIZ and AVN, side by side, one notices ana Chechik and India Summer, by the of man’s separateness from his penis and that this study proves that because male a clear division between two sides of the film’s predominately male cast.20 While make such a representation more palat- performers “have no name, no occupa- industry, “straight” and “gay.” AVN and double penetration requires the entry of able for male audiences. In a short anima- tional or social features… no dialogue” XBIZ both classify any content outside the two penises into a common orifice, the tion film, Eveready Harton in Buried Trea- that their contribution to the film “is a realm of heterosexual sex as falling under explicit homoeroticism of such an act is sure (“Hardon,” 1929), the protagonist’s strictly sexual one.”16 This contributes to the broad banner of “gay:” XBIZ features downplayed in order to divert focus to penis willfully attaches and detaches it- the principle of the penis as a pleasure- a gay section on its main website,17 while the apparent pleasure of the women in self from its owner’s body, getting itself giving, rather than a pleasure-receiving AVN devotes an entire sister site to the the film—the men are merely there to and Eveready Harton in all kinds of mis- organ in these heterosexual pornographic decidedly queerer side of the industry.18 penetrate the women, not to exhibit any chief in the penis’s “search [for] the pen- representations—the penis’s function in Neither publication allows for the inter- semblance of homosexual desire. Male- etrable.”12 The un-corporeality of the pe- heterosexual porn is merely to penetrate. sectionality of pornographies within the to-male penetration or explicit homo- nis in this short film reinforces the idea of The penis is the object of female plea- realm of “straight” porn regardless of sexual male desire—whether authentic

30 Focus Focus 31 OR “gay-for-pay”—is not present in the cultural confines of what is considered gay audiences alike marks a significant tions of the penis in pornography must be straight section of either publication’s acceptable sex; such a compartmental- difference from the goals of straight por- scrutinized because the penis’s form and website. To illustrate this point further, a ization of sexuality teaches men that nography as evidenced by the selections function have been divorced in feminist successful division of straight pornogra- heterosexual attraction is to be taken for cited from AVN and XBIZ. For Capino, critical discourse—the physiology of the phy is the “cuckolding” selection, which granted—men are merely at the mercy of specific attention to “meat shots” (close- penis renders erections involuntary (re- features men watching their female part- their “natural” physiological responses. ups of male genitalia) and male “sexual flected in the “penis run amok” phenom- ners engage in sexual intercourse with This echoes patriarchal ideas about the acrobatics” would benefit mise-en-scene enon) so men must negotiate their physi- other men—this genre is not deemed gay non-perversity of heterosexuality when analysis in regard to Wakefield Poole’s cal penis and the phallic power associated because there is no penetration between compared with homosexuality. Freud “expertise.”26 For it is when considering with it. If that man were to act on that the male performers. As of June 11, 2014, notes the operation of homosexuality out- homosexual or “gay-for-pay” perfor- “perverse” sexual attraction, his sexual- the number 5 top-selling “specialty” rent- side the bounds of “civilized” sexuality; mances that the psychological distance ity—a penetrative act—would represent al featured on AVN’s front page is Mean for Freud, the expression of homosexu- between man and his penis is closed. a willful denial of patriarchal society and Cuckold 4 (King, 2014);21 however, in this ality and other “perversions” represents While homosexual men do not have bridge the separation between man and film and others, like Forced Bi Cuckolds 2 the crucial deprival of a stage in a sub- any more control over their erections than his penis. This embodying of homosexual (Baren, 2009), the homoerotic sexual acts ject’s psychosexual development and, heterosexual men, homosexual sex in male desire is reflected by the penetrative are used to emphasize the man’s degra- therefore, “cultural sublimation”—or ac- pornography represents a radical—and act in hardcore gay pornography and its dation for the woman’s sexual gratifica- ceptance into the civilized realm.23 This by some measures, very feminist—rejec- subjugation to the gay male gaze. I argue tion. Interestingly, Forced Bi Cuckolds 2 distinction places heterosexual sex (male- tion of patriarchal ideas about normal that the benefits Capino speaks of can be is covered in GayVN, the homosexual to-female penetration) on the level of a and “perverse” sex. The censorship of the found in further analysis of the gay male sister site of AVN.22 Although this film cultural ideal; homosexuality and other penis and the penetrative act lends itself gaze, or the rejection of Mulvey’s prin- adheres to some conventions of the cuck- “perversions” are caused by infantile to industrial and economic concerns and ciple that “man is reluctant to gaze at his olding genre found in the straight section fixations in psychosexual development. this implies that the commodification of exhibitionist like.”27 of AVN, it is located in the gay section Freud believed that a male’s fixation on these phenomena can be quantified, as The censorship of the penis is, there- precisely because the men in the film are the “phallic stage” was a core contributor in the study analyzed by Stephen Prince. fore, not an explicit obscuration in the in- “forced” to engage in penetrative sexual to the development of homosexual feel- When the penis penetrates a man, it rep- terest of retaining patriarchal power, but a acts with each other at the woman’s be- ing.24 resents a willful denial of the strictures rejection of authentic homosexual feeling hest. Presumably, pornography featuring By examining the ways in which sex placed on masculinity by society at large. or homosexual attraction between men in lesbian content can intersect with straight and homosexuality have been classified Homosexual men must negotiate these a display of the discriminatory and pu- pornography precisely because the attrac- through history, we can understand the societal (and sometimes legal) restric- ritanical ideals of homophobia rampant tions between female actors are coded subordination of penetrative homosexual tions on their sexuality while also com- throughout Western history. The sexing in performance, rather than the outward acts in modern society and pornography; ing to terms with the physical response of of the man—and, more importantly, the display of an erect penis or penetrative however, efforts to enact a crossover be- their penis to “perverse” sexual stimuli. penis—is a radical rejection of patriarchal act. tween “straight” and “gay” audiences for Heterosexual men must merely come to norms, rendering gay pornography as an Homosexuality or homoerotic attrac- pornography have been attempted, most terms with the phallus and its phallic indispensable social commentary worthy tion between men remains a taboo in notably by Wakefield Poole—director of power; if a heterosexual man’s erection of further critical discourse that should Western culture precisely because male- Boys in the Sand (Poole, 1971), a homosex- coincides with a stimulus he deems as focus not on the penis, but on the com- on-male penetration represents the rejec- ual “porn chic” film predatingDeep Throat “perverse,” then a duality is created be- plexities of penetration politics. tion of the corporeal distance between (Gerard, 1972). According to Jose Capino, tween the man and his penis. Representa- man and his penis. Industry divisions Poole made an attempt to steep his film that separate “straight” and “gay” por- in “ornate and often ethereal images” in Endnotes nography reflect the difference between order to make the aesthetic dimensions of “traditional” heterosexual sex and the his film pleasing to “not just gay men but 1. Lewis, Jon. Hollywood vs. Hardcore: How the Struggle over Censorship Saved the Modern Film Industry. “other”—a dark continent focusing on ‘straights.’”25 While the film is a sprawling 2. Ibid. 3. Blazina, Chris. The Cultural Myth of Masculinity. 57-58. penetrative acts between men. When the hardcore feature showcasing all male sex, 4. Ibid. penis penetrates a woman in heterosexu- Wakefield Poole’s attempts at making his 5. Armengol, Josep M. Embodying Masculinities: Towards a History of the Male Body in U.S. Culture and Lit- al porn, it operates within the dominant film appealing to straight audiences and erature. 2.

32 Focus Focus 33 6. Van Driel, Mels. Manhood: The Rise and Fall of the Penis. 34-35. 7. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Read- Music Copywrong ings. 833-844. 8. Lange, Ariane. “There Are a Whole Lot of Penises in Neighbors.” Buzzfeed. May 7, 2014. 9. Horn, John. “‘This Is the End’ filmmakers: We expected NC-17, not R, rating.” Los Angeles Times. Web. 10. Shields, Rachel. “Hit & Run: Seen but not hard - the big penis debate.” The Independent. Web. by Nicole Johal 11. Shelton, Emily. “A Star is Porn: Corpulence, Comedy, and the Homosocial Cult of Adult Film Star Ron Jeremy.” 115-146. 12. “Eveready Harton in Buried Treasure.” IMDb page. Climax Fables, 1929. ny piece of creative work takes to inspire innovation. The invention of 13. Nathan, Debbie. Pornography: A Groundwork Guide. time, energy, resources, and skill the printing press brought about the birth 14. Lehman, Peter. Running Scared: Masculinity and the Representation of the Male Body. 184. 15. Prince, Stephen. “Power and Pain: Content Analysis and the Ideology of Pornography.” 31-41. Ato make. Imagine you want to of mass production (Eisenstein 121). Ac- 16. Ibid. write a song of your own after gaining in- cording to Eisenstein, copyright came 17. XBIZ: The Industry Source. Adnet Media, 2014. Web. 11 June 2014. spiration from listening to a Beatles song. about because of the printing print press. 18. AVN: Adult Video News. AVN Media Network, 2013. Web. 11 June 2014. 19. Wet and Oiled Nymphos. Dir. Jim Powers. Powersville, Inc., 2014. Film. The song you have created, however, The evolution for an original work to be 20. This Is My First: A Gangbang Movie. Dir. Eddie Powell. Digital Sin, 2013. Film. has a similar sound to that Beatles song, printed rather than written, however, cre- 21. AVN: Adult Video News. AVN Media Network, 2013. Web. 11 June 2014. which makes you subject to copyright in- ated a line of ambiguity. The concept of 22. “Movie Review: Forced Bi Cuckolds 2.” GayVN. AVN Media Network, Feb. 10, 2009. Web. 11 June 2011. 23. Freud, Sigmund. “‘Civilized’ Sexual Morality and Modern Nervousness.” 2-6. fringement meaning you can be sued for printing raised the question of differen- 24. Freud, Sigmund. “Infantile Sexuality.” Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. up to $200,000. Copyright and the music tiating between what was composed and 25.Capino, Jose B. “In Focus: Visual Culture, Scholarship, and Sexual Images: Seizing Moving Image Por- industry have a marriage that has made it what was copied. Copyright essentially nography.” 121-126. 26. Ibid. nearly impossible for new works to build enabled the for the author’s interests to be 27. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” upon those of the past. Culture builds and protected in order for their work to not be expands upon its past to bring it back to recited or reciprocated. social relevance, but copyright does not The printing press, although leading allow this to happen. In the age of 21st to mass production of original work, did century technology, song remixing, me- not benefit the authors because they did dia streaming, and downloading have not receive a profit. Specifically in relation made copyright law become more intru- to the digital age, technological advance- sive than ever before. Modern technology ments, such as the radio, the television, makes it easy to download a song for free and the internet, contested copyright off the Internet or to remix and mashup­ by creating an uneven balance between several songs. With the Copyright Act be- authors and the public; it let the public ing written in 1976, copyright law is not acquire more access to these works than up to date with this technology. With its ever before, void of copyright law (RiP!: outdated laws, copyright has halted the A Remix Manifesto). With the digital age of advancement of music by locking up any technology beginning to rise, the fear of past musical work to be built and ex- losing ownership brought about the copy- panded upon to move into the future in right extension. According to the United a modern context. Copyright has allowed States Copyright Office, the Copyright for the music industry and their corporate Term Extension Act of 1998 extended the allies to maintain ownership and control, terms of the original 1976 Copyright Act while artistic freedom is confined behind by allowing for copyright terms to ap- bars with little wiggle room. ply to the author’s lifetime plus 70 years Copyright often has a negative conno- and for a corporation to own copyrights tation and associates itself with lawsuits, for 120 years after creation or 95 years money, and industry. The invention of after publication (U.S. Copyright Office). copyright, however, did not have the ini- With this extension act, complete owner- tial intent to hinder innovation; it wanted ship was achieved for corporate interests,

34 Focus Focus 35 essentially. The corporate need to want was left out of the equation. Radiohead 1965, then by the Andrew Oldham Or- the action; they wanted all of it. Music unwavering ownership over content has band member Ed O’Brien revealed that chestra in 1966, and finally again in The remixing and mash­ups (compilations of made it nearly impossible for the public because the corporate giants in charge Verve’s “Bittersweet Symphony” in 1997. several songs to create a product) were to now have access to most works. Due of the record label sought a larger profit, Through this apparent inspiration, the not new. They took past works, rewired to the 1998 Extension, the public domain the problem of “ownership” existed as development and creative capabilities of them, and let them tell a new story. They mostly contained works from the 1920s the issue between the band and the label, music have pressed forward. The expan- simply added to the conversation of mu- and earlier. Culture builds off the past to which the issue was not settled (Kha- sion of new developmental technology sic culture. Through the exercise of copy- and if the past cannot be touched, then ras). Corporations originally did not care and techniques in music over the years right, however, corporations saw it more how can culture move forward? Corpo- much about those that were using sam- has enabled this cycle of influence to oc- as a means to earn a greater profit profit rate interests have put the music industry, ples and parts from other people’s work cur, but once the value for this work was rather than as a negative force for push- among several other branches of creativ- until they saw the monetary value. Own- actualized, corporations saw copyright as ing music forward. ity, at a standstill. ership meant everything and if anyone their right to the prize: money. Developmental technology in music In the music industry, record com- was going to profit off that, corporations In accordance with the corporate posed a problem to outdated copyright panies and the corporate giants that fol- wanted it to be them. stake in copyright and music culture, laws, but digital and distribution tech- lowed copyright law supposedly wanted Ownership has become a major battle innovation’s stunt through the exercise nology of music also increased this issue. to maintain “ownership” for the artist. within copyright law. Corporations have of corporate power in copyright law has The creation of the Internet unleashed an However, corporate interests rarely in- used copyright as an intermediary reason put music on a short leash. Modern art- entirely new monster: piracy. Although cluded the artists in these situations. This to sue artists and consumers for illegally ists face the trouble of having more ob- digital technology enabled for more ef- has been seen as far back as the 1960s and acquiring the music created by others. structed access to practice the same ar- ficient production, the ability for a work 70s between the Beatles and their record The age of sampling (when a portion of tistic freedom artist’s of the past could to go “viral”, and the creation of a dense, label when the label sold additional al- a song is used in another song) and re- practice with ease, especially in relation digital storage, a vast fear of losing own- bums “out the backdoor” without the mixing (when an original work’s parts to the 1998 Copyright Term Extension ership arose (Peters 50-51). Peters states band’s knowledge (Pilato). Issues of own- are reworked to create a new song), how- Act. This is seen through the innovation that “these new technologies make it easi- ership have has also been seen in the late ever, did not happen overnight. Decades of hip-hop. Hip-hop­ and the popularity it er for pirates and those who want to com- 2000s, when Eminem sued his record la- of music have been under the influence gained from certain artists, such as Public pete illicitly with that author to make and bel over manipulated digital royalties that of sampling and remixing. In RiP!: A Re- Enemy and De La Soul, caught corporate distribute infringing copies of the work”. the record company put into a category of mix Manifesto, Gaylor reveals how a well attention. New technology, such as turn- Although digital technology helps spread the contract that gave the company more known blues artist named Muddy Wa- tables, allowed these hip-­hop artists to original work, its creators are left feeling money and less to the artist (Michaels). ters had acquired inspiration for a song remix and sample older music with the jeopardized and “at risk” because of the (This occurred because most contracts he wrote in 1938 from the 1937 record of beats, sounds, and rap lyrics that they powers digital technology and the limited were written before iTunes and various another blues artist named Robert John- created and overlaid on top of the older restrictions the internet facilitates. digital distribution. Rather than rework a son. Waters admitted he had heard the tracks (Copyright Criminals). In the docu- Piracy in the distribution technology contract to take these methods into con- tune before hearing it on Johnson’s record mentary, Hank Shocklee of Public Enemy of music in the digital age was largely sideration, the label dealt with it “as they from the blues artist, Son House, who also states that the turntable (from the deejay visible with Napster. In Communications saw fit”.) released a record in the mid1930s­ (RiP!: culture) helped create hip-hop because of the ACM, Joel Waldfogel describes how Brett Gaylor, the director ofRiP!: A Re- A Remix Manifesto). Sample and remix it enabled them to find the right beat to the invention of Napster in 1998 allowed mix Manifesto, states how the deejay Am- culture has progressed music beyond its build a song with. However, once corpo- for peer to peer (P2P) sharing of music plive remixed several Radiohead songs original years; Son House’s work inspired rate interests realized the music the com- through the Internet and that “Napster the band had released online after leaving Robert Johnson, which then later inspired pany had distributed was being remixed illustrates that copyright’s effectiveness their label, EMI (RiP!: A Remix Manifesto). Muddy Waters. A cycle exists between into another artist’s songs, a red flag went depends crucially on technology [and] After Amplive launched his material on- the work of the old inspiring the work of up. This red flag was not due to the com- while the recent technological challenge line, he was sent a lawsuit threat by EMI’s the new. Gaylor further emphasizes this pany’s desire to want to protect its art- to copyright could have affected any governing corporate group Warner/ musical progression by divulging how a ists and intellectual property; instead, it product that can be digitized—text, au- Chappell, not Radiohead, who parted song written in 1959 by the Staples Sing- was because hip­-hop artists were making dio, or video—in reality the recorded ways with the company. In the midst of ers titled “This May Be the Last Time” profitable music with their remixing. The music industry was the first to face the the corporate thirst for money, the artist was remixed by the Rolling Stones in corporations did not just want a piece of new challenge” (Waldfogel). Napster es-

36 Focus Focus 37 sentially targeted a war on copyright by tallica asserts that those who worked on it and strong supporter of the introduction to be changed; otherwise, anyone who saying that technology is the key to public should have the means to have protection of new copyright law, put it in his book downloads a song off the Internet,- up freedom of accessing content. With Nap- over their original thoughts and ideas; Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technol- loads a video with copyrighted music on ster, there was no single connection need- but, if copyright laws completely halt any ogy and the Law to Lock Down Culture and YouTube, or creates anything with content ed to download this music; the music further use that is not associated with that Control Creativity: they do not explicitly own is technically a was all shared amongst the library of its artist, then how can music progress and “The consequence of this legal uncer- criminal. There is an extent to how much millions of users. The idea that a library move forward? tainty, tied to these extremely high pen- copyright law can be exploited, and with of music could be shared with a simple The Ateneo Law Journal states, “In the alties, is that an extraordinary amount of its crumbling relevance to how society, as Internet connection was unprecedented. mid­-20th century, musical artists started creativity will either never be exercised, consumers and artists, now functions, the Thus, the monster of piracy was born and not only to borrow sounds and composi- or never be exercised in the open. We old laws have overstayed their welcome. still persists today through various web- tions from other artists, they also started drive this creative process underground There is no escaping the past. History sites, such as Beemp3 and emp3world. to ‘manually alter those sounds them- by branding the modern-day Walt Dis- has always built on itself and has learned The music piracy and illegal download- selves’” (De Jesus). Many popular songs neys “pirates.” We make it impossible for new ways to govern and act by doing ing that Napster allowed for permitted have spawned from remixes, such as MC businesses to rely upon a public domain, so, and music should be no different. In the corporations to come down on Nap- Hammer’s “Can’t Touch This” which was because the boundaries of the public do- modern day society, a remix culture that ster’s users hard when the company was remixed from Rick James’ “Super Freak,” main are designed to be unclear. It never wants to create or a consumer that wants shut down. Jammie Thompson, a Napster and Stevie Wonder’s “Pastime Paradise” pays to do anything except pay for the to download a song without paying for it user, was sued by the Recording Indus- was remixed to create Coolio’s “Gang- right to create, and hence only those who is inevitable. Technology has made these try Association of America (the highest sta’s Paradise” (Copyright Criminals). Both can pay are allowed to create” (184). avenues possible because now all that corporate giant of the music industry) of these songs were created by remixing Lessig essentially proclaims that copy- is needed is a computer and an Internet for downloading 24 songs. The answer their ancestors, and both became iconic right law and the need to regulate its connection. The culture of remixing and to copyright infringement is continually hits. By reworking the songs previously implementations puts creators largely at sampling is far wider than perceived to a lawsuit and owing payment to a corpo- produced, those sounds of the past were risk. Lessig largely questions what good be and cannot be stopped. Many people ration of a large interest group. As Nap- brought back to the forefront. Some may these laws are really accomplishing if download music illegally off the Internet ster pointed out, copyright in the music argue that using samples and remixing copyright’s original intent to protect the for free not because they lack respect for industry is dependent on technology. older creations is not creative at all and creator’s original creativity is now being the artist or those who have a stake in its Technology continues to promote these is strictly copying, which is why copy- exploited. In an interview for Billboard, contents, but rather because technology infractions against copyright law, but right is an important form of protection. Lessig states that copyright law needs to facilitates it and makes it easy. Copyright nothing has been done to update these This method of creating music, however, be changed because it is more concerned stops the progression and movement of laws to diminish the amount of copyright works both ways. The popular Etta James with those illegally accessing the material, music as well as artistic freedom. The infringement lawsuits that have occurred. song released in 1962, “Something’s Got rather than updating it to fit 21st century laws are outdated and do not help those Napster alone had over 24,000 copyright a Hold On Me”, has been remixed and technological activity that makes it possi- who want to create new music by build- infringement lawsuits (RiP!: A Remix sampled in modern artists’ work, such ble and easy to illegally access it (Bruno). ing on the old. Copyright allows for the Manifesto). as by Christina Aguilera and Flo Rida. New creation, development, and ideas industry and corporate allies to remain Although copyright in the music in- Sampling and remixing not only allows should not be the victim of copyright in- in control and maintain ownership, while dustry is out of date, in some sense it can for the new to build on the old; it also fringement and lawsuits because copy- artists and consumers are left to pay the be justified. Artists and the companies allows for older music to once again be right law is out of date. Copyright needs price. they work with want to protect their work. celebrated and brought back to cultural The rock band Metallica argues that since relevance. Yes, the music from the past millions of dollars were used to create was never forgotten, but with these newer Works Cited that work, the artist should be the ones to techniques of music, a younger audience Bruno, Antony. “Lawrence Lessig.” Billboard 121.6 (2009). Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 Feb. 2015. profit because they are the creators of the can become knowledgeable of artists of content (RiP!: A Remix Manifesto). Essen- the past. It is a cycle: new works build Copyright Criminals. Dir. Benjamin Franzen. 2009. Documentary. tially, their creative ability, compositions, on the old and old works rise to the fore- De Jesus, Joseph Georg Michael D. “Of Girl Talk and Dangerous Mice: Exploring the Clash Between Music and resources were used to launch that ground and again with the new. Sampling, Mashups, and Copyright Law in the Digital Age.” Ateneo Law Journal 57.4 (2013). Academic song into the world. In other words, Me- As Lawrence Lessig, a legal scholar Search Complete. Web. 24 Feb. 2015.

38 Focus Focus 39 Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1979. FOX News Network: Print. Inaccurately Informing the Public on Climate Change Kharas, Kev. “Radiohead: ‘We Left EMI Because They Wouldn’t Give Us What We Wanted’”. DrownedIn- Sound. 03 Dec. 2007. Web. 04 Mar. 2015. by Jacqueline Kane

Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity. London: Penguin, 2004. Print. major source for the public’s tion increase the concentration of carbon knowledge on current events is dioxide in the atmosphere. Since the in- Michaels, Sean. “Eminem Sues Universal over Digital Royalties.” The Guardian. 25 Feb 2009. Web. 29 May 2015. A the mass media. The public’s re- dustrial revolution, humans have signifi- liance on TV news and reporting gives cantly increased the burning of fossil fu- Peters, Marybeth. “The Challenge of Copyright in the Digital Age”. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE Bu- news broadcasting companies’ enormous els and deforestation, thus impacting the reau of International Information Programs, 2006. Print. power when it comes to influencing the extent to which heat is trapped in the at- Pilato, Bruce C. “All You Need Is Litigation.” ABA Journal (1990): 55-59. Academic Search Complete. Web. public. They can’t always control what mosphere. Although this does lead to an 09 Mar. 2015. people think, but they can control what overall global warming, not everyone will RiP!: A Remix Manifesto. Dir. Brett Gaylor. Perf. Brett Gaylor and Greg Gillis. 2008. Documentary. people think about. Events can either be see warming. They will see more intense U.S. Copyright Office. Copyright Basics. U.S. Government Printing Office. shoved into the limelight or can be ne- weather, including flooding, droughts, Copyright.gov. Web. 4 Mar. 2015. glected and never heard of. News broad- tropical storms and blizzards. Climate

Waldfogel, Joel. “Digitization and Copyright: Some Recent Evidence from Music.”Communications of the casting plays a pivotal role in the way the change has become a heated topic for de- ACM 55.5 (2012): 35-37. Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 Feb. 2015. public perceives climate change, specifi- bate in the past decades with strong be- cally human induced global warming. As lievers on both sides. However, the major- an issue that was nonexistent before the ity of the scientific community has argued transformation of the Industrial Revolu- that the greater part of climate change is tion, climate change has become a promi- directly and indirectly a result of anthro- nent phenomenon that affects societies pogenic activities. Scientific consensus across the planet. Due to the ill-suited supports human induced climate change reporting norms that surround the jour- with ninety-seven percent of scientists nalistic milieu - most saliently balanced firmly confirming the notion (Laboratory perspectives - climate change is falsely n.d.). represented, and often misinterpreted. In the U.S., the general public “learns Under the cover of ‘balanced reporting’, much of what it knows about science and FOX News inaccurately portrays climate policy from the mass media,” most no- change by giving equal time to support- tably television (Boykoff 2007). Certain ers and refuters of climate change, choos- reporting norms have developed, form- ing to host non-scientific or minority sci- ing the framework by which broadcasters entists, misinterpreting and issuing false report on information. The most promi- scientific data, and reporting on climate nent practice that has become character- change from political angles. istic of reliable reporting is an unbiased To better understand the topic at viewpoint - a source that does not include hand, some background knowledge on their own opinion, but simply and sole- climate science will be helpful. Green- ly the facts. In order to represent a ‘fair’ house gases are particles that trap heat perspective, reporters typically give each in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the side equal attention, limiting their biases. most influential greenhouse gas on earth, For example, when a reporter airs a story due to its abundance in the atmosphere. about the social effects of putting a park The burning of fossil fuels and deforesta- into an urban neighborhood, he or she

40 Focus Focus 41 would get the opinion of someone who thus causing viewers to more likely agree and global warming, arguing language years, it is clear there has been a global was in favor for the addition and some- with that person who wants the park to be is the main discrepancy when discuss- change in weather patterns, something one who was not in favor. This strategy put in. Exploiting this balanced reporting ing climate change. Both Hayes and Krauthammer overlooked. This is why is effective in giving viewers the pros and strategy, FOX aired a debate, commen- Krauthammer’s claims were inaccurate; hosting scientists in debates concern- cons of the full story. However, when dis- tated by Bill O’Reilly in 2010, between Bill the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ing climate change is beneficial, as they cussing climate change, giving equal time Nye the Science Guy, a human-induced Change’s (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report serve as sources who can understand and to those who argue climate change is due climate change supporter, and Joe Bas- states “the past three decades has been translate scientific data accurately. - Hav to anthropogenic influences alongside tardi, a meteorologist who denies human successively warmer at the Earth’s sur- ing politicians and economists debating those who believe climate change is either involvement. In the seven-minute debate, face than any other preceding decade.” the validity of climate change is compa- non-existent or due to natural causes, de- Nye had been given 185 seconds where Giving eighty percent of the airtime to rable to people from New York debating picts the issue as being inconclusive and he explained data gathered about global two reporters whom provided inaccurate whether or not a park should be added in unclear. This contradicts the stance of the temperatures and carbon dioxide in the information drained out the legitimacy of Los Angeles. Sometimes, hosting profes- ninety-seven percent of the scientific com- atmosphere. Bastardi was given 165 sec- Williams’ statements. To make matters sionals from other fields is suitable, but munity arguing in favor of human influ- onds, in which time he blamed the hot worse, McKelway, who was only meant only when it can be discussed with scien- ences. temperatures on El Nino. While Nye did to moderate the debate, jumped in to sup- tific facts and political opinions. FOX did This paper will focus on addressing have a mere twenty seconds extra to de- port Hayes and Krauthammer. Anyone not host or quote a scientist once in 2014 FOX News, to examine specific examples velop his argument, Bastardi frequently watching the debate who had not seen (Kalhoefer 2015). This illuminated the where news broadcasters address climate interrupted Nye to refute his statements. other reports on the subject would think FOX networks’ biases to refute the effect change. FOX News has been the most This may seem like a fair and balanced the climate change deniers were in the climate change is having globally. watched cable news network for the past debate, and it would be if climate change right, and likely adopt their stance. Giv- It is not only possible to go wrong fifty quarters as of July, 2014 (Wilstein was truly a debatable issue. However, ing equal time to believers and deniers of choosing to feature politicians instead of 2014), averaging 1.779 million viewers with scientific consensus at ninety-seven climate change is dangerous because it scientists. It can also be harmful to selec- during primetime hours (Kissell 2014). percent, the debate illuminated the façade radiates the concept that climate change tively host particular scientists. One of FOX News is known for being conser- that there is no firm stance on climate is debatable, and misconstrues the facts. FOX’s most frequent guests to discuss vatively biased and an advocate for Re- change, and that experts have not agreed The types of people FOX News choos- climate change is Joe Bastardi, a meteo- publican ideologies. As a major player whether or not climate change is occur- es to host also plays a role in determin- rologist who works for the weather fore- in the mass media news outlet, FOX has ring. This falsely depicted the beliefs of ing how accurately they portray climate casting firm Weatherbell. FOX utilizes “the potential to effectively communicate the scientific community. change. In the debate referred to earlier, him as an expert on weather and global anthropogenic climate science, as well as This debate was considerably lib- commentated by Doug McKelway, three atmospheric conditions, continuously be- the potential to misrepresent, misunder- eral compared to many of FOX’s other journalists were hosted, not one of whom ing asked about them in relation to global stand, distort and misinform to varying climate change debates. In 2014, Doug fully understood or sufficiently interpret- climate change. Neil Cavuto, an anchor degrees the climate science they cover” McKelway commentated a debate be- ed the scientific elements of the debate. on the FOX Business Network, hosted (Boykoff 2007). Often, FOX uses ‘bal- tween three journalists about President Krauthammer brushes off the increased Bastardi on his show, referring to him as anced’ reporting and other journalistic Obama’s funding of one billion dollars to intensity of winter by saying the cold “my friend… a WeatherBell chief fore- norms to ultimately amplify the minority the San Joaquin Valley to help overcome weather is simply a natural part of the caster, one of the best and more accurate stance on climate change. the severe drought in California. Steve season. For someone who does not have a reads of things that are going on [in the One of the most significant charac- Hayes and Charles Krauthammer, both scientific background, it seems logical to atmosphere]” (Theel 2013). In many seg- teristics of fair reporting is giving equal of whom are FOX News contributors, think that some winters will naturally be ments, Bastardi offers his reasons why time to both sides of an issue. If a network saw a combined air-time of 390 seconds, worse than others, and that is true. How- global temperatures are not increasing airs five minutes of a person arguing why claiming that there has been no tempera- ever, there is a distinct difference between (when in fact, they are). He has even the city needs a park, but only one min- ture increase in the past seventeen years weather and climate; weather is local said carbon dioxide cannot cause global ute for someone who does not want the and that the intense winter in the east conditions of the atmosphere over a short warming (which is completely inaccu- park, the argument for why the city needs was due to the fact that it was, indeed, period of time, while climate is how the rate) (IPCC 2013). Since he has no train- a park is likely to be stronger. The argu- winter. This is nowhere near equivalent atmosphere behaves over a wider region ing or experience in climate science, his ment would be more in depth and sup- to Juan Williams 90 seconds, in which he and a longer period of time. So when you beliefs are a product of his perceptions ported by exceedingly developed points, distinguished between climate change look at the climate as a whole over many on weather. This is where the differences

42 Focus Focus 43 between weather and climate become an dioxide’s low global warming potential punishing or the U.S. economy will sink to appear unbiased. In FOX News’ Sep- important distinction. The statements (GWP). A low GWP means that one mol- even further” (O’Reilly 2014). However, tember 30, 2013 edition of The Five, Greg he gives on climate issues are based off ecule of carbon dioxide does not trap as all regulations can be seen as punishing, Gutfeld asks “who is the flat earther?… weather interpretations, therefore will not much heat as a molecule that has a larger since they limit a company’s ability to use if only Obama had taken science classes always foster appropriate conclusions. In GWP, such as methane. However, since whatever practices they want. This report instead of bong hits” after reporting that the debate between Nye and Bastardi, Bill the concentration of carbon dioxide is uses politics to twist climate change regu- experts hid the news “that the Earth had O’Reilly says “so once again you have a much greater than that of methane, it has lations into an unnecessary evil that will not warmed in fifteen years despite the meteorological explanation for this.” He a very significant impact on the - warm harm the U.S. economy. O’Reilly goes as increase in emissions.” He continues may have a meteorological explanation, ing of atmospheric temperatures. Cole- far as to say that the U.S. needs to keep on, calling meteorologist Eric Holthaus but that does not mean a meteorological man misinterpreted carbon dioxide’s low up with China, India, and Russia, encour- ‘crooked,’ a “dweeb… drama queen… explanation will produce an accurate an- GWP as meaning it is not a significant aging companies to continue polluting [and a] dishonest hysteric” after Holthaus swer. heat trapping gas. This flawed analysis in order to not lose ground in the global tweeted he would never fly in a plane Misinterpretation is another big issue was then passed on to FOX viewers. A economy. It downplays the impact U.S. again due to their obscene amount of car- with reporting, especially for people who study conducted by the Union of Con- pollutions are having, claiming it will do bon dioxide emissions. There was no hid- are not familiar with the scientific com- cerned Scientists, found that in 2014, FOX nothing as long as other countries are pol- ing his act of framing the issue to convey munity and their jargon. In two separate News had fifty segments that covered luting and comparing it to the setbacks that “this is what dooms environmental- segments FOX mislead viewers by down- climate science, seventy-two percent of regulation will cause to U.S. corporations. ism” and that “their views are extreme playing the global temperature increases. which contained misleading portrayals By discussing climate change in regards turnoffs.” Anyone viewing this segment In FOX’s The Five, “The Debate Over Cli- (Kriegsman 2014). Fifty-three percent of to its relation to public policy, O’Reilly would be led to believe environmentalists mate Change Gets Heated,” commentat- the misleading coverage came from The undermines the role greenhouse gas are lunatics and out of their minds, and ed by Doug McKelway on September 30, Five. emissions play in changing the climate, that there is no threat of global warming 2013, it is stated that global temperatures The context by which topics are dis- and neglects the seriousness of the issue, or climate change. The entire segment is have not risen in the past fifteen years. cussed can have positive or negative thus withdrawing concern from the pub- misleading and contributes to the FOX While the rate of temperature increase effects on interpretation of facts. In an lic. networks’ framing of climate change. has slowed down, it has not stopped analysis done on cable news networks FOX’s inability to accurately report In conclusion, FOX News misrepre- completely. The Five reports also neglect that was posted on Media Matters, they on climate change is in part due to their sents the consensus of the scientific com- the global increase in ocean temperatures. found that “in 2013, 73 percent of climate conservative framing. Bill O’Reilly’s Cli- munity’s view on anthropogenic induced The oceans are cable of holding a vast change coverage on Sunday shows was mate Change Chaos segment displays him climate change by utilizing ‘balanced’ amount of heat and energy that would driven by politics” and in 2014, 52 percent criticizing liberals’ actions concerning reporting practices, choosing unqualified otherwise be in the atmosphere. This still (Kalhoefer 2015). FOX News Sunday had climate change. He claims that climate professionals to host on their programs, has an effect on salinity levels, current only two segments with substantial cov- change is an “issue fueled by Al Gore, misunderstanding and falsely report- flows, and evaporation rates, transversely erage of climate change over the course who literally made a fortune scaring folks ing scientific data, approaching climate affecting global climate. The FOX report- of 2014, and both focused on politics. In about climate… liberals are crazed over change from a political perspective, and ers made statements that could easily be a segment called Climate Change Chaos, man-made climate change… pounding framing topics conservatively to illumi- misinterpreted from complex data, if they Bill O’Reilly opened with a clip of Cali- the table to save the icebergs” (O’Reilly nate the downfalls of climate change. were read through carelessly. On October fornia Governor Jerry Brown issuing a 2014). ‘Scaring,’ ‘crazed,’ and ‘pounding’ Their broadcasting often contradicts the 27, 2014, during The Kelly File, reporter statement saying that the wildfires in Cal- were all dramatically emphasized with ninety-seven percent of scientists who Megyn Kelly and founder of the Weather ifornia were due to climate change. The lingering vowels, and sarcastic intona- agree that human activities significantly Channel, John Coleman, discussed how majority of the segment emphasizes how tion. When stating “some conservatives impact change to the climate. As an agent studies have found carbon dioxide to even if California did cut back on carbon scoff at [scientists who say that pollution of the mass media, FOX News has the be a non-significant greenhouse gas and dioxide emissions, it would have little is changing the Earth], they should not,” ability and power to impact the beliefs of that it does not play an important role in impact on global warming due to China’s O’Reilly has a straight face and an even the public by instilling their skewed per- warming the atmosphere. When Coleman vast quantity of emissions. The report tone, as if it is something he had to say spectives on climate change. stated carbon dioxide “is an tiny, incy claims “some corporations pollute to bitsy greenhouse gas, but it’s not in any make money… they have to be held to ac- way significant,” he is referring to carbon count, but those standards should not be

44 Focus Focus 45 Works Cited The Sacred and the Profane: Boykoff, Maxwell T. 2007. “Lost in translation? United States television news coverage of anthropogenic climate change, 1995–2004.” Springer Science + Business Media. Rome and the Duality of Modern Life IPCC. 2013. “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report.” by Berthold Wahjudi Kalhoefer, Kevin. 2015. STUDY: How Broadcast Networks Covered Climate Change In 2014. January 28. http:// mediamatters.org/research/2015/01/28/study-how-broadcast-networks-covered-climate-ch/202232. n 2014, Paolo Sorrentino’s sixth fea- Marcello Rubini (played by Marcello Kissell, Rick. 2014. Fox News Dominates Cable News Ratings in 2014; MSNBC Tumbles. December ture film La Grande Bellezza won the Mastroianni in Dolce Vita) and Jep Gam- 30. http://variety.com/2014/tv/news/fox-news-dominates-cable-news-ratings-in-2014-msnbc-tum- triplet of BAFTA, Golden Globe and bardella (played by Toni Servillo in Bellez- bles-1201386523/. I Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film. za) are both notorious womanisers. Both Kriegsman, Aaron Huertas and Rachel. 2014. “Science or Spin?” However, some critics reject the films for are writers suffering from a lack of inspi- its stark similarities to Federico Fellini’s ration and both like to spend their time in Laboratory, NASA’s Jet Propulsion. n.d. Global Climate Change. http://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consen- magnum opus La Dolce Vita, calling it what Jep refers to as the “whirlpool” of sus/. an “incoherent pastiche” (Sicinski 2013). the Roman high life (c.f. ‘il vortice della O’Reilly, Bill. 2014. Climate Change Chaos. FOX News. Sorrentino himself denied all allegations mondanità’). Jep and Marcello live their of stealing from La Dolce Vita: “I didn’t lives free from financial worries in mate- Theel, Shauna. 2013. “Fox Denies Temperature Record To Dispute Obama’s Climate Speech.” Media Mat- have any references for this movie. In Il rial affluence surrounded by the rich and ters. Divo there was reference to Fellini and the famous. Yet, both characters are pro- Wilstein, Matt. 2014. Q2 2014 Cable News Ratings: Fox News Hits 50th Straight Quarter at #1. July 1. http:// nobody recognized the inspiration. For foundly melancholic and always followed www.mediaite.com/tv/q2-2014-cable-news-ratings-fox-news-hits-50th-straight-quarter-at-1/. this movie, I didn’t have Fellini in mind” by an air of sadness. La Dolce Vita and La (Donadio 2013). This essay will compare Grande Bellezza reveals the emptiness of the two films and evaluate whether the the “sweet life” by focusing on characters ‘charges of theft’ are justified. The discus- that are lost amidst the excesses of hedo- sion is structured in three sections. First nism of the decadent Roman high society. the essay will analyse and juxtapose the The two protagonists wander through a films’ subject matter. Second, it will dis- series of ephemeral, disjointed episodes sect and compare their narrative struc- longing for inspirational moments of true ture. Third, it will look at how the films beauty but repeatedly get distracted by a portray Rome not only their setting, but never-ending stream of decadent parties. also as a metaphor for the protagonists Both filmmakers show their protagonist internal struggle. This essay will come to navigating the duality between bitter and the conclusion that La Grande Bellezza is grotesque moments of excess and sweet, undeniably a homage to Fellini’s La Dolce almost innocent, moments of self-reflec- Vita. Still, Sorrentino’s film exists in its tion. In their own words, both directors own right. This essay will argue that La identify this portrayal of modern urban Grande Bellezza transposes the themes of life as the philosophical core running La Dolce Vita to the 21st century and re- through their narrative. According to Sor- evaluates them in a post- Berlusconi Italy rentino, La Grande Bellezza “is trying to say setting. that everybody can find a form of beauty One could easily think of a log line in all the moments of his life and also in that would describe both films equally the moments where there is vulgarity well: “A series of stories following a week and squalor” (Donadio 2013). Similarly, in the life of a philandering journalist liv- Fellini expresses the core idea behind La ing in Rome”. The two protagonists of the Dolve Vita as follows: “[I] simply meant to films display very similar character traits. say that in spite of everything, life had its

46 Focus Focus 47 profound undeniable sweetness” (Fellini and acknowledge the emptiness of their debauched Roman society, instead they ernist architecture, the Fascist vision of 1983, p.136). own lives, they simultaneously take “an look at it with affection. the “Esposizione Universale”, is used to The narrative structure of La Dolce Vita immense joy to set up house in the heart When he was asked about the simi- embody Marcello’s alienation with the has often been interpreted as being influ- of the multitude, amid the ebb and flow larities between his film and Dolce Vita modern world: the church in which Mar- enced by modernist ideas. Fellini’s reflec- of movement, in the midst of the fugitive Sorrentino once commented: “Of course, cello meets Steiner, the apartment that tions on the filmmaking process reveal and the infinite” (Baudelaire 1964, p.9). In Roma and La dolce vita are works that Marcello shares with his paranoid lover the impact of constructivist thinking on both films, the disjointed narrative struc- you cannot pretend to ignore when you Emma and the brutalist urban landscapes his understanding of cinema: “We have ture serves a dialectical purpose. Both take on a film like the one I wanted to in which the prostitute Ninni lives. The to make a statue, break it, and recompose films represent the duality of fascination make. They are two masterpieces, and the fleeting moments of ‘sweetness’ in La the pieces. Or better yet, try a decompo- and alienation with the vulgarity of mod- golden rule is that masterpieces should be Dolce Vita take place in more classical set- sition in the manner of Picasso. The cin- ern urban life. The two main characters watched but not imitated” (Willen 2013: tings: the Via Veneto, the Caracalla baths, ema is narrative in the nineteenth-century stumble from episodes of vulgarity and 4). Given the similarities pointed out in the Fontana di Trevi, and the sixteenth- sense: now let’s try to do something dif- decadence into episodes of ‘sweetness’ the discussion above, one could jump to century Odelscalchi castle at Bassano di ferent” (Kezich 1978, p.25). La Dolce Vita’s and innocence only to return to self-in- the conclusion that Sorrentino broke is Sutri (Ricciardi 2000: 211). This use of ar- disjointed narrative reflects these Cubist dulgence afterwards. Fellini regarded it own ‘golden rule’. Still, the two films are chitecture to represent the sacred-profane principles (Ricciardi 2000: 201). Marcello as a moral imperative to interrogate this different in one decisive aspect: their por- dichotomy in La Dolce Vita is most striking Rubini’s struggle to find beauty and in- dilemma of modern life in all of his films trayal of Rome. In both films, Rome plays in the episode in which Marcello’s father spiration is not told in one coherent, linear (Wood 2005: 216) and Sorrentino’s Bellez- a central role not only as the setting of attends the esteemed Kit-Kat club and plot. Rather, the film consists of a various za seems to have followed suit. the stories but also as a metaphor for the drives off with a beautiful young dancer broken up and reassembled narratives. Although both films critically examine characters’ inner struggle. Fellini overtly but as soon as he reaches the dancer’s This allows the audience to see Marcello the excesses of Roman high society, both stated that his representation of Rome home in a modernist apartment complex, from a wide array of viewpoints and filmmakers refrain from passing -norma in La Dolce Vita functions as a metaphor: he suffers from a heart attack. Modern -Ro places him and his internal struggle (i.e. tive judgements about the hedonism they “I have always said that the Rome of La man architecture in La Dolce Vita stands the subject of the film) into a greater con- depict. Fellini always carefully asserted Dolce Vita was an internal city and that the for the mass- produced reality of modern text. Each episode in La Dolce Vita pieces that La Dolce Vita is not supposed to put title of the film had no moral or denigrat- times. Fellini’s message is clear: Marcel- together with the other episodes and cre- forward a moralistic argument. Instead, ing purpose” (Fellini 1983: 136). In fact, lo’s chronic melancholia is an ailment of ates a cubist piece of cinema that reflects his aim was “to film a trial as seen not Fellini originally intended to name his recent times - a modern malaise. on the hollowness of contemporary life by a judge but by an accomplice” (Alpert film “Babylon, Two Thousand Years- Af Paolo Sorrentino on the other hand from a multitude of angles. This frag- 1986, p.151). Paolo Sorrentino assumes ter Christ” (Adams 1995: 110). Babylon is shuns any modernist architecture in La mented narrative structure is character- a very similar perspective in La Grande widely agreed to be the biblical metaphor Grande Bellezza (at least for exteriors). His istic for modernist fiction and features in Bellezza. This is mostly embodied by Jep’s for Rome and as a symbol for all sorts of vision of Rome is that of a living museum. influential novels such as Eliot’sThe Waste cynical attitude towards life. In one par- evil. In the Book of Revelation, Babylon The floating camera work of his cinema- Land and Joyce’s Ulysses (Ricciardi 2000, ticularly striking scene, Jep humiliates a stands for a society steering towards its tographer Luca Bigazzi lets our gaze wan- p.204). Sorrentino’s Bellezza also follows female friend who criticises Roman soci- own destruction. This gloomy outlook to- der past countless numbers of statues, these modernist principles. Like Mar- ety and thus elevates herself to a moral wards the future underpins Fellini’s film. pillars, arches and Renaissance paintings. cello in Dolce Vita, Jep is a flaneur, who high ground. Jep counters by exposing “The prospect is catastrophic, but I accept Sorrentino makes a point to represent aimlessly wanders through the streets of the underlying ‘untruths and fragil- it from several points of view: because as Rome as the ‘eternal city’. Consequent- Rome, stumbling from one episode to the ity’ that underpin her own personal life. a filmmaker I find it enticing, and because ly, he found another mean to symbolise next. Both stories are reminiscent of the He concludes: “instead of acting supe- of the Catholic harassment we have borne the clash of the sacred and the profane works of Charles Baudelaire, the father of rior and treating us with contempt, you for 2000 years” (Fellini 1983: 140-41). In in his film: music. The soundtrack of La modernist literature. Jep and Marcello’s should look at us with affection. We’re La Dolce Vita, everything modern and fu- Grande Bellezza combines modern liturgi- voyeuristic gaze on Roman life can be all on the brink of despair, all we can do turistic is a symbol for the rottenness of cal music with Italian bubble-gum pop. interpreted as a direct analogy to Baude- is look each other in the face, keep each Roman society. This is made evident by The cuts between these two extremes are laire’s descriptions of Parisian life dur- other company, joke a little...” (Sorrentino the way in which Fellini uses architec- sometimes drastic, e.g. the cut between ing the Haussmann era (Ricciardi 2000). 2013). Both Fellini and Sorrentino refrain ture to symbolise the stark contrasts of the first scene in which a Japanese tourist Even though both protagonists recognise from passing moralistic judgement on the the sacred and the profane. Rome’s mod- dies from a heart attack (overwhelmed by

48 Focus Focus 49 Rome’s beauty) to the second scene, de- rentino shows that this was always an in- out La Grande Bellezza, whereas La Grande without La Dolce Vita. picting Jep’s excessive birthday party set tegral part of life in the eternal city. Again, Bellezza would never have been made to the tune of Bob Sinclair’s “Far l’amore”. this idea can be linked back to Charles Whilst this cut is a clear reference to La Baudelaire. Works Cited Dolce Vita (in which Fellini cuts from a “Paris change! mais rien dans ma wide shot of the Vatican to the scream- mélancolie Adams, S.P., Vital Crisis in Italian Cinema. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995. ing face of a Javanese dancer), Sorren- N’a bougé! palais neufs, échafaud- tino’s juxtaposition of the two extremes ages, blocs, Alpert, H. Fellini: A Life (New York: Atheneum, 1986. almost seems like a hyperbole of Fellini’s Vieux faubourgs, tout pour moi Baudelaire, C. The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays, trans. and ed. Jonathan Mayne London: Phaidon motive. Also, by using music instead of devient allégorie, Press, 1964 architecture to represent the banality of Et mes chers souvenirs sont plus Baudelaire, C. , “Le cygne” in Les fleurs du mal Paris: Corti, 1968 life, Sorrentino signalises that the dreari- lourds que des rocs” ness and emptiness of life is all-pervasive - (Baudelaire 1968: 168) Burr, T. 2014. “’The Great Beauty’, ‘La Dolce Vita’ are twin pleasure”. Boston Globe [online]. published and not just linked to certain geographi- Loosely, this can be translated to: “Par- 04/12/2014. available at http://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/movies/2014/04/12/sweet- pairing-the-great- beauty-and-dolce-vita-are-twin- pleasures/2ROiWCpbkKYBo7REa3DfrM/story.html [accessed 12/04/14] cal spaces of the ‘new and modern’ Rome. is changes! but my melancholy did not go Sorrentino takes the argument that Fellini away! New palaces, scaffolding, blocks, Donadio, R. 2013. “La Dolce Vita Gone Sour (and This Time in Color)”. New York Times [online]. published makes in La Dolce Vita and expands it. old suburbs, they all become an allegory 09/08/13. available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/09/movies/paolo- sorrentinos-great-beauty-ex- plores-italys-decline.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 [accessed 12/04/14] Fellini seems to convey the feeling that to me / And my dear memories are heavi- Marcello’s struggle is a modern malaise, er than rocks”. In the same sense, Rome Federico Fellini. 1983. Comments on Film, ed. Giovanni Grazzini. Fresno: The Press at California State i.e. a result of the rapidly changing physi- changed in the over 50 years that lie be- University, Fresno. ognomy of the city. However, by linking tween the two films. But nothing changed Kezich, T. Fellini e altri: bloc-notes per La dolce vita” in Il dolce cinema. Milan: Bompiani, 1978 the same sentiment back to the image of about the absurdity of life in Rome. Sor- Rome as the eternal city, Sorrentino re- rentino adds a postmodern twist to Fell- Ricciardi, A. 2000. “The Spleen of Rome: Modernism in Fellini’s La Dolce Vita”. Modernism/modernity, veals that Jep’s chronic melancholia is not ini’s modernist vision. The journey of 7(2), pp.201-219 a consequence of modernity, but an inte- the two characters Jep and Marcello runs Sicinski, M. 2013. “The Great Beauty”. Cinema Scope [online]. available at: http://cinema- scope.com/ gral part of life itself. parallel only until the very end of the two cinema-scope-online/tiff-2013-the-great-beauty-paolo-sorrentino-italy-special- presentation/ [accessed The discussion above has clearly films. Fellini does not grant Marcello any 05/14/15] shown that the two films share too many sort of redemption. In La Dolce Vita’s last Sorrentino, P. “The Great Beauty – Screenplay”. Rome: Janus Films, 2013. similarities to deny the influence of La episode, the audience is led to falsely be- Dolce Vita on La Grande Bellezza. Sorren- lieve that Marcello might find some sort Willen, N. 2013. “The Great Beauty – Press Kit”. Rome: Janus Films, 2013. tino himself somewhat acknowledges of closure by running into Paola, the Wood, M. P. 2005. Italian Cinema. London: Bloomsburry Academic that he has to pay tribute to Fellini: “La young girl, on the beach. But ultimately, Dolce Vita is a film that tries to understand Marcello enters and exits the story with- the meaning of life in a world that is los- out having become any smarter. Jep Gam- ing this meaning. That is a sensation I can bardella on the other hand recognises the feel right now in Rome, the sense that life subjectivity of his malaise. In the end he is futile, that you can’t find a real sense concludes: “After all, it’s just a trick”. Sor- of purpose.” (quoted in Burr 2014) How- rentino grants his protagonists a form of ever, it would be unfair to shrug Sorrenti- catharsis. Jep Gambardella learns to em- no’s film off as a mere imitation of Fellini. brace the absurdity of life and eventually Rather, the film should be seen as a trans- finds the inspiration to write a new novel. position of Fellini’s ideas into the 21st For this reason, La Grande Bellezza is not century. As such, the film confirms and just a mere pastiche of La Dolce Vita. Rath- expands Fellini’s reflection about urban er, Paolo Sorrentino re- evaluates Fellini’s life. Instead of interpreting the absurdity ideas in the 21st century. But after all, one of urban life as a result of modernity, Sor- thing is clear: La Dolce Vita can exist with-

50 Focus Focus 51 SECTION 3: Evolution of Interaction

52 Focus Focus 53 statement still holds: to judge the artistic He articulated precisely what it was that Videogames as Art: merit or success of any given work of art cinema inherited from theater: “it inherits Beyond the Limits of Film Discourse by the standards of a totally different me- from stage drama the power of delineat- dium is misguided and counterproduc- ing human characters in a series of actions by Alberto Lopez tive.5 Similarly to compare videogames interpreted by actors,” and from acting to cinema, or any other narrative- and “the methods of this visual representa- t is important to consider the critical preceding artistic medium), to better character-driven medium, and then to tion.”8 In the same way videogames in- discourse surrounding film during its understand the medium itself: to under- claim that videogames are deficient as an herit something from all other art forms, Iinfancy to gain a better understand- stand and judge it in relation to itself and art form based on the fact that they do not including cinema, while remaining es- ing of the critical discourse surrounding not in relation to any other medium, for meet the same artistic criteria associated sentially different. From cinema it has videogames now. Emerging art forms are then our understanding of videogames as with the said medium, is misguided and inherited cinematographic techniques always compared to their closest prede- a medium will necessarily be limited by detrimental. of depicting action and perspective, as cessors. In the case of film it was, in its in- our understanding of whatever medium If the critical success of a videogame is well as methods of sequencing narrative fancy, compared to and spoken of in simi- we are comparing it to. Having made that dependent on how cinematic it is, the pos- information from film editing. Just like lar terms as theater; now it is videogames statement, it seems counterproductive sibility remains that those qualities which an entire discursive language evolved which are being compared to and spoken that this paper attempts to establish an ar- are unique to videogames as a medium around film allowed for a more adequate of in similar terms as film. In identifying tistic discourse of videogames by relying are given less importance than those and complete discussion and understand- this parallelism between film and video- on theories applied to film. However, the which make them cinematic. The degree ing of film, a new language must evolve games we can continue this trend in ways theories taken from filmic discourse and of interactivity in a game is sacrificed for around videogames lest it remain limited that are beneficial to establishing a criti- here applied to videogames, are broad a cinematic aesthetic which can only be as a medium by the language which we cal discourse for videogames divorced of enough that they can be applied to media achieved through an increased constraint use to discuss it. As mentioned before, we filmic critical discourse by applying the other than film. Furthermore, in speak- on the player’s agency. This can already must enumerate many elements unique same broad artistic theories which helped ing of videogames in relation to film and be seen in the increasing trend of incor- to videogames so as to help formulate establish film as an art form independent enumerating the many points of diver- porating quick-time events (or QTEs) into new ways of discussing them: these in- of its closest predecessor. gence between each medium (instead, as videogames: in portions of games that clude identifying those auratic qualities These theoretical parallelisms include has been the tendency, of enumerating play less like normal games and more like and formal limitations which make vid- the way in which the technological repro- the many ways in which videogames re- filmic scenes, complex motion, indeed all eogames different from other art forms. ducibility of films and videogames alike semble film) we can begin to develop a motion, is reduced to a few simple button Technological reproducibility elimi- complicate the notion of their auratic language and method for discussing vid- presses, and the intricate, often elegant, nates the aura of the work of art being qualities, and the way in which their re- eogames independent of other media. control schemes used to play the game reproduced because it does away with spective formal limitations are the source In its infancy, cinema was spoken of in proper are made obsolete. It is often the its singularity, the here and now (espe- of their artistry.1 Videogames, in accor- terms similar to those used to discuss the- case that videogames are at their worst cially in performance) which is the basis dance with these theories, are an art form ater.3 It was compared to theater, which when they strive to be more cinematic; for its authenticity.9 Film, whose process because they possess an aura same as any was the standard by which cinema was the same way that films which merely rec- of creation is that of technological repro- other art form, and because they possess judged, as theater was cinema’s closest reated a theatrical experience, whether by duction and which must necessarily be limitations which the artist must either predecessor. V. O. Freeburg considered simply filming a stage play in progress or reproduced many times over in order for overcome in the process of recreating re- that comparing cinema to theater was er- affecting a stage-like aesthetic, are neither a wider audience to be reached, therefore ality or exploit in the process of artistic ex- roneous (and, like Arnheim, he believed great films nor great theater (one excep- lacks these auratic qualities twofold. Vid- pression independent of reality.2 We must its limitations were not necessarily detri- tion that comes to mind is Lars von Trier’s eogames are an interesting permutation clarify auratic qualities and formal limi- mental).4 Of course at the time that Free- Dogville, though he could not recreate that of film in terms of their technological pro- tations unique to videogames because it burg wrote, “It is a common error to judge success in Manderlay).6 duction and reproduction in relation to its is necessary to speak of videogames on the photoplay by the standards of the V. O. Freeburg went on to state, “the auratic qualities. First, I argue, their mode their own terms, to establish a discourse stage drama, and to condemn it because it photoplay as an art medium […] inher- of production, which is a process closer to surrounding videogames independent cannot do what the stage drama can do,” its something from each of the elder arts, animation than live-action filming (par- of filmic discourse (or that of any other he was speaking of silent cinema, but the and yet differs essentially from them all.”7 ticularly in a modern context in which

54 Focus Focus 55 most animated films produced are now enemies re-spawn in the same places after videogames, which share many similari- motion. Indeed, they don’t have to; the animated digitally), is similar to the pro- being triggered in the same ways, and it is ties to these art forms, can thusly also be programming of realistic physics is one duction of more traditional art forms, al- only the actions of the player that change considered an art form.16 Of more interest of many aesthetic measures taken to in- though the process of production is tech- the conditions of the game world. Thus are the limitations unique to the medium crease the illusion of reality. However, if nological. Secondly, the interactive nature the true and static performance contained of videogames. desired physics can be programmed to be of the medium lends it an aura closer to within the text can be found among the Game designer Warren Specter has utterly unrealistic. that of theater or performance art.10 The myriad minutiae of the game world (all of stated, “We’re still making (and remak- Unrealistic physics are integral to the interactivity of the medium means that which have been predetermined) and the ing!) The Great Train Robbery or Birth of a gameplay of games like Gravity Rush and the progression, linear or multi-linear, is player’s behavior within this game world Nation or, to be really generous, maybe Goat Simulator. In the former, gravity is one dictated by the player so that the ex- (which is limited by the parameters of the we’re at the beginning of what might be controlled by the player: the unrealistic perience of playing the game varies from game world itself, parameters that, again, called our talkies period. But as Al Jolson physics which are so integral to the game- player to player and from play through to have been predetermined). said in The Jazz Singer, ‘You ain’t heard play of the game as well as the narrative play through. It is this variation that pro- The move towards perceptual real- nothing yet!’”17 If one is to apply the anal- arc of the game can only be achieved duces the medium’s aura, an aura that is ism in film is a trend mirrored in video- ogy of silent film to the chronology of vid- when the limitation the medium imposes similar to that of a live performance (in games (in fact, there is a lot of overlap in eogame history using silent film history as on the recreation of real-world physics is this case the player is simultaneously au- terms of the technology used to achieve Specter has done, one might say that early embraced.18 In the latter, ragdoll physics dience member and performer).11 greater perceptual realism in film and videogames such as Pong or Space Invaders and bugs (errors in software), two tradi- The aura of a live performance is lost videogames: technology such as motion constitute nothing but a cinema of attrac- tional hallmarks of a deficient game, are when technologically reproduced on film capture and rotoscoping, two techniques tions, and earlier proto-videogames such embraced for their ability to produce co- or otherwise recorded.12 However, the which lend video games some of the in- as OXO and Spacewar! constitute nothing medic moments, essentially transforming live performance given every night after dexicality of film, if in a very watered- more than zoetropes. If this analogy illus- the game into a meta-text that dismantles the first is itself a reproduction of that first down way). That film mechanically - re trates nothing else it illustrates how many the notion that physics and motion in performance: among a constantly morph- produces reality was precisely why many of the limitations faced early on were and games must be realistic and naturalistic ing sea of myriad minutiae, which has the art critics denied film the status of art in still are technological, to the extent that in order for gameplay to be a rewarding effect of duping us into thinking that any its infancy, a view which Arnheim echoes the technological challenge was not how experience: it exposes the fact that every- one performance is different from the last, at the beginning of Film as Art.13 Arnheim faithfully can reality be recreated, but can thing in a game is the creation of an artist, the true and static performance which has argues that the limitations of silent film, it be recreated at all. To ask what the ar- and it is she, not reality, who dictates the been the same since the very first can be and film in general, are precisely what tistic merits of early film and proto-filmic conditions of the game world.19 found. Paradoxically the reproduction qualified it as art: in fact film does not devices were in relation to their limita- Another limitation which arises out of is not physical but thematic and histori- reproduce reality all that well, and thus, tions is moot because these devices could the interactivity of the medium (already cal, yet it is the physicality of aging that the objection of its function as the me- scarcely reproduce natural motion much a source of the medium’s aura) is the il- undoes the aura of the live performance. chanical reproduction of reality gone, it less a naturalistic reality. One must get lusion of choice. Every real-world experi- The same applies to videogames because is an art form.14 This theoretical through more creative to find the true defining ence is directed by free will, by our ability although each play through can never be line can be applied to videogames, which limitation of videogames, and look into to decide how the experience will prog- exactly the same as the last, there is in fact in their infancy possessed many limita- what is unique to videogames: motion ress in space and time or otherwise the a predetermined structure and temporal tions. Of course most modern games, par- through a virtual world. ability of others to impose on our free will geography which the player must inevi- ticularly those by big developers, can be Motion in a videogame is determined and ability to choose their own so that tably adhere to, even in non-linear, multi- described as cinematic, a quality which not by laws of nature, but by the physics the experience becomes a negotiation of linear or open-world games. Progression they strive for, and thus share many of which have been programmed by a pro- opposing wills. A videogame experience has been predetermined long before the the same limitations with film which Arn- grammer. Though physics within a game in its entirety is a continuous negotiation player begins engaging with the text: heim articulates in that essay.15 That those are always getting better (read, closer to between the will of the player and the will there is always a beginning, an end and a limitations apply to videogames is reason real-world physics), programmers can of the game designer. Rather than attempt series of predetermined conditions which enough to label videogames art; in fact not yet account for the infinite qualita- to create the illusion of choice, and thus must be met for progression to be pos- other scholars have concluded that since tive and probabilistic factors which affect spontaneity, dynamism, chaos and entro- sible. In most cases there is no real spon- under any contemporary definition of art matter and motion through space and py (for paradoxically whatever chaos the taneity, only the illusion of spontaneity: film and animation qualify as art forms, time, nor can they simulate every kind of player encounters in the game world has

56 Focus Focus 56 Focus 57 been perfectly orchestrated, and is there- for they reveal the necessity of the artist, 10. Ibid, 253-256, 259-261. fore not true chaos, by a game designer dismantling the notion that technologi- 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. and her team), this limitation must be em- cal media can operate autonomously in 13. Rudolf Arnheim, “Film as Art,” in Film: An Anthology, ed. Daniel Talbot (New York: Simon and Schus- braced. capturing reality.22 In fact technological ter, 1959), 294. The Stanley Parable is one such game media such as photography, film, audio 14. Ibid, 294-323. 15. Ibid. that embraces this limitation and makes recordings and now videogames are not 16. Aaron Smuts, “Are Video Games Art,” in Contemporary Aesthetics 3 (2005). it integral to the gameplay. The player’s autonomous, and their use can extend be- 17. Warren Spector, quoted by Henry Jenkins in “Games, the New Lively Art,” in Handbook of Computer actions are narrated by an unseen narra- yond the mere representation of reality. Game Studies, ed. Jeffrey Goldstein and Joost Raessens (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 175-176. 18. Gravity Rush, by Project Siren (Sony Computer Entertainment, 2012). tor who often narrates what the player The same theories which helped establish 19. Goat Simulator, by Coffee Stain Studios (released via Steam, 2014). will do before the player does it, at which the status of film as art can be applied to 20. The Stanley Parable, by Davey Wreden, 2011 (remake by Galactic Café, 2013). point the player can either choose to do videogames, as I have done, leading to 21. Ibid. what the narrator has stated she will do a better understanding of the medium 22. Rudolf Arnheim, “Film as Art,” in Film: An Anthology, ed. Daniel Talbot (New York: Simon and Schus- ter, 1959), 294-295. 20 or do something completely different. as an art form and to the emergence of a 23. Another consideration that must be taken when doing this type of scholarly work, apart from how In some cases the player’s choices change language or discourse unique to the dis- little academic work there is about this type of medium comparatively speaking, is the pace at which said the course of the game’s narrative, in oth- cussion of this medium. Of course, much scholarly work becomes outdated. 24. And finally, I would not argue that Goat Simulator is great art. er’s the player is returned to the predeter- work can still be done: in terms of the mined track of the game and progression theories which I have applied (this pa- is only possible once the “correct” choice per only exposes the tip of the iceberg, Works Cited is made; the narrator often comments on one might also ask what the limitations Arnheim, Rudolf. “Film as Art.” In Film: An Anthology, edited by Daniel Talbot, 294-323. New the player’s choice.21 Of course the game of independently produced games are York: Simon and Schuster, 1959. only gives the illusion of choice, some- and what they mean in terms of artistic Benjamin, Walter. “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Mechanical Reproduction.” In Selected thing that the narration is aware of. As production, for example), in terms of the Writings, Vol. 4, 1938-1940, edited by Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, 251 with Goat Simulator, the way in which the application of other theories, and in terms 283. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. game embraces this particular limitation of subsequently analyzing my analy- and comments on it makes it a meta-text. sis and those of others so that gradually Canudo, Ricciotto. “The Birth of a Sixth Art.” InFrench Film Theory and Criticism, 58-66. Freeburg, V.O. “The New Art.” In The Art of Photoplay Making, 1-6. New York: MacMillian, Ultimately, what these games show videogame discourse can be refined to a 1918. us is that just as the best, and most artis- point where comparison to film and other tically gratifying films are those which mediums is not a necessity (for example, Gravity Rush, by Project Siren (Sony Computer Entertainment, 2012). embrace their limitations as strengths, analyzing why it is that my examples of Goat Simulator, by Coffee Stain Studios (released via Steam, 2014). the best, and most artistically gratifying artistically successful games are almost Jenkins, Henry. “Games, the New Lively Art.” In Handbook of Computer Game Studies, edited videogames are those that embrace theirs, exclusively meta-texts).23 24 by Jeffrey Goldstein and Joost Raessens,175-192. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005. Munsterberg, Hugo. “The Purpose of Art.” In Hugo Munsterberg on Film, edited by Allan Endnotes Langdale, 109-119.

1. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility: Third Version” Smuts, Aaron. “Are Video Games Art?” Contemporary Aesthetics 3 (2005). (1936-39), in Selected Writings. Vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 251-283. The Stanley Parable, by Davey Wreden, 2011 (remake by Galactic Café, 2013). 2. Rudolf Arnheim, “Film as Art,” in Film: An Anthology, ed. Daniel Talbot (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959), 294-323. 3. Ricciotto Canudo, “The Birth of a Sixth Art,” in French Film Theory and Criticism, 58-66. Canudo is just one example of cinema being spoken of and judged in relation to theater. Munsterberg is another. 4. V. O. Freeburg, “The New Art,” in The Art of Photoplay Making (New York: MacMillian, 1918), 1. 5. Ibid. 6. Hugo Munsterberg, “The Purpose of Art,” in Hugo Munsterberg on Film, ed. Allan Langdale, 113. 7. V. O. Freeburg, “The New Art,” in The Art of Photoplay Making (New York: MacMillian, 1918), 1. 8. Ibid. 9. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technological Reproducibility: Third Version” (1936-39), in Selected Writings. Vol. 4, 1938-1940, ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 253-256.

58 Focus Focus 58 Focus 59 Guiding Light: orient the camera automatically for the go here,” which just ends up making the How Modern 3D Games Direct the Player along the Intended Path player and guide the player in the right experience feel restricted and ultimately direction by facing the camera where the breaks the player’s immersion. Another player should proceed.2 However, games way that some 3D games overcome this by David Wills that give the player complete control of obstacle is by killing the player’s avatar the camera often require much more nu- if they stray too far from the playable he video game is a relatively new direction of where to go next. Direction anced methods of directing the player, space. This method is commonly seen medium for artistic expression, is an especially complicated problem for which is why I will focus on those games in multiplayer games where the player’s Tand the three-dimensional video modern video games, and it is the focus instead. avatar will die if they fall off a cliff or if game is even newer. The three-dimen- of this paper. Like with any visual media, the 3D they stray too far away from the intended sional video game, or 3D game, is unique Even though the 3D game allows game works best when it establishes pat- space. In Battlefield’s 4 multiplayer mode, from other media of artistic expression in the player to explore three-dimensional terns and conveys those patterns to the if a player moves to the edge of the play- that it asks the viewer, or player, to not space, there are limits to where the player player in a subtle, non-intrusive way. A able space, a countdown will appear and only watch and listen to the game, but can go or what the player can do. De- notable example of this in another me- inform the player that their avatar will die also to interact with it and move through signers only code as far as they want the dium is how film might use non-diegetic if they do not return.3 While this method the 3D space within the game. Current- player to move, however they have to jazz music to indicate that two characters is not as frowned upon as the invisible ly, however, the 3D game is limited to a make the environment look and feel real are falling in love. Video games require wall, it still has the potential of breaking two-dimensional plane in the form of a or else it will break the immersion. A first- pattern recognition because many of the player’s immersion in the 3D space television or a monitor. 3D game design- person shooter like Half-Life 2 (Valve Cor- them often have the player doing similar due to its hands-on approach of directing ers need to account for this when they poration, 2004) will render an entire city things repeatedly. Each game introduces the player. develop their games. Players have to ori- while only allowing the player to move in its own set of patterns that distinguishes The most common (and most obvious) ent themselves within the 3D space of the a small portion of that city.1 If the game itself from other games, and to analyze way games keep the player from straying game through the two-dimensional plane only rendered the area in which the player all of these in-depth would require an too far from the playable space is by creat- on which the player is experiencing the can move, the player would not have the essay per game. However, there are com- ing physical barriers that keep the player game. This can prove to be difficult, much feeling that they are within a big city full mon patterns and cues that are ubiqui- from moving any further. Many games more difficult than if the player were ex- of skyscrapers and thus the immersion tous across many critically acclaimed 3D take place in interior areas, which makes periencing the 3D game through a virtual and intended emotional response would games which direct the player in the in- creating these barriers as easy as creating reality headset where total immersion is be broken. However, this introduces a tended direction in an immersive, non-in- walls that block the player from moving simulated. Because of the two-dimension- new problem: if the 3D game renders the trusive manner. These common patterns any further. Portal (Valve Corporation, al plane by which current 3D games are entire city, how can the game designer are what I will be looking at. 2007) is an excellent example of this, as restricted, players are asked to immerse direct the player along the proper path I will start by getting the obvious cues most of the game takes place within a themselves in 3D space the same way a without breaking the player’s immersion? out of the way. As I said before, game de- series of large testing labs that are each film or television show would: through a How does the player know where to go signers will often only code as far as they sectioned off by walls.4 The player is re- flat rectangular image within the player’s next and where not to go next? These are want the player to move, despite what the stricted to the level’s walls, however the real environment (e.g., a living room). the central questions I will address in this game may visually render. Because there rooms created by these walls are large Despite what may seem like a compli- paper, and I will attempt to answer them is only so much explorable space within enough for the player to move around cated problem for the 3D game to over- by analyzing how critically acclaimed the game, designers need to come up with in without getting claustrophobic or los- come, game designers have been solving modern 3D games direct the player on ways to ensure the player stays within ing their sense of orientation. For games the problem for the past 30 years, bringing where to go. this space. Some games utilize invisible that take place in wide open spaces like a artistic experiences and narratives that of- Note that I will be focusing my atten- barriers that keep the player from mov- city, game designers often wall off play- ten resonate with players more than film tion on games where the player controls ing in a particular direction, despite that ers by creating visual barriers within the or paintings because of how much they the position of the camera (i.e., the view- 3D space being visible within the game. environment that block the player from ask of the player. The best 3D game de- able game space). There are some 3D This method is generally frowned upon, proceeding in that direction. This can signers construct experiences that players games out there, such as Super Mario Gal- though. It does not give the player any often be a tricky task because if the bar- can explore without losing orientation or axy 2 (Nintendo EAD Tokyo, 2010), which directional cues other than “you cannot rier looks noticeably out of place in the

60 Focus Focus 61 game’s environment or if it looks like it is that starts in the middle of the room and player in the intended direction. Humans when a player comes across this particu- only there to block the player, it can break continues off-screen towards the right, are especially acute to color recognition, lar cue, they will know that area is acces- the player’s immersion. The military which is the direction the game wants the giving game designers a simple but effec- sible, but only if they can reveal the path shooter series Call of Duty5 often does this player to move. (Figure 1) This line does tive way to establish patterns and direct themselves. Players of Bioshock will recog- by having barbed wire that restricts the not appear to be out of place in the set- the player in the right direction. nize that whenever they see a large chunk player from proceeding in a certain direc- ting, and it is a simple way of guiding the A well-designed game can often di- of ice, they can and probably should go tion while allowing the player to see past player in the proper direction. rect the player through the game’s 3D there at some point, but they can only go the explorable 3D space, all in a way that space entirely through visual cues like there when they use the fire ability to melt is believable within the series’ war-torn color, as it is not uncommon for play- the ice. setting. All of these elements establish the ers to play a video game without sound boundaries for the maze-like structure of (something that is practically unheard many modern 3D games which is essen- of in other audiovisual media like film). tial to keep players in the intended space. However, many games do use audio cues However, game designers still need to di- that compliment visual cues to help guide rect the player through that 3D maze so the player on where to go. In Bioshock, for that the player does not constantly ques- example, the player is told via radio to Figure 1: Batman: Arkham City tion what to do next. find the “Emergency Access route” in or- Environmental design is crucial to di- One of the most significant environ- der to proceed. If the player looks around recting the player, as it can be an effective mental cues that modern 3D games use in the environment, he or she can find a Figure 2: Bioshock hands-off method of guiding the player in to direct the player is lights, specifically door with a sign over it that says “Emer- the right direction without outright tell- non-natural lights. Lights illuminate the gency Access,” indicating the route the Most of the methods of direction ing the player where to go. Because the proper path in a hands-off way that does player needs to go. While the player may I have mentioned thus far are subtle, 3D game is so dependent on the visual not break the player’s immersion. Half- not necessarily utilize this method of di- hands-off ways of directing the player sense to navigate the 3D space, most of Life 2 uses lights for subtle direction very rection, it is there in case the player really in the right direction. However, there the ways environmental design directs effectively; if an area in the game is illu- needs it. are games that use very overt, hands-on the players are visual. One common way minated by a ceiling light or wall light, Another method of player direction methods of guiding the player, especially that game designers indicate a certain especially blue-tinted lights, chances are that game designers use works in con- open world games (i.e., games that allow area is more important than another is by that is where the game wants the player junction with a given game’s overarching total freedom of all of the game’s explor- rendering it in higher detail or in higher to go. Conversely, if an area is not illumi- design philosophy. Many modern games able space from the very beginning). Most focus. The most common application of nated by light, it signals to the player that are designed in such a way that the more open world games provide players with a this is with doors, especially in Half-Life 2. there is probably nothing there and that the player progresses, the more skills or map of the game’s explorable space, com- Lower-resolution doors without protrud- he or she should proceed to an area that is abilities they have at their disposal. Of- plete with a legend and markers for areas ing doorknobs are a sign to the player illuminated. Color works in both in con- tentimes, the game will introduce a new of interest. These maps serve as a constant that they should keep moving, whereas junction with lighting, establishing pat- ability and then immediately introduce reference for players if they ever need an high-resolution doors with protruding terns that the player will intuitively recall. an obstacle that the player can only over- easy way to locate where they should go doorknobs signals that it is an impor- Games often use the traditional green and come with that ability. In Bioshock, for next. Many of these games also let players tant door the player can open and walk red colors to indicate “go” and “stop,” example, there are areas within the game to set their own waypoint, allowing the through. Some game designers also place respectively. Bioshock7 (2K Boston, 2007) space that are blocked by huge chunks player to customize the destination ex- geometric markers within the environ- is a perfect example of this; when a door of ice. (Figure 2) The player cannot pass actly and let the game tell the player how ment that guide the player in the proper is sealed off, a red light will appear, and this area until they receive an ability that to get there. Grand Theft Auto V8 (Rockstar direction. These are often very subtle and when a door is open, a green light will ap- lets them shoot fire from their hands and North, 2013) utilizes this system by allow- work mostly to guide the player’s eye to- pear. However, some games will establish melt the ice away. Any game that uses ing the player to set custom destinations wards areas of significance. The opening their own color patterns that players may this particular design establishes its own on the game map. When a player does sequence of Batman: Arkham City6 (Rock- recognize without even realizing it. Half- visual cues that indicate to the player this, a GPS-like navigation on the player’s steady Studios, 2011) contains a solid Life 2, for example, uses blue-tinted lights which item the player should use to tra- mini-map (i.e., a condensed version of the white line on the ground of the prison more than any other color to guide the verse that particular obstacle. Therefore, game map that is viewable while the play-

62 Focus Focus 63 er plays the game) highlights the shortest ample of this; in order to proceed to the place. However, the video game as a me- and all other media before it, there is a lot driving route that the player can take next area, players have to clear out the dium for artistic expression is still incred- of room for the medium to continue to from their current position to the destina- enemies that are occupying the space that ibly young, as is its discourse. Like film evolve and mature. tion. Some games use an even more overt the player wants to proceed. The player way of guiding the player using some in- repeats this cycle until he or she reaches Works Cited dication that guides the player exactly to the end of the level. This method has be- the next area in the game that the he or come something of a cliché in modern 1. Valve Corporation, Half-Life 2. PC. Bellevue, WA: Valve Corporation, 2004. she should go. Bioshock, for example, uses video games, but it is still used quite often. 2. Nintendo EAD Tokyo, Super Mario Galaxy 2. Wii. Kyoto, Japan: Nintendo, 2010. 3. EA Digital Illusions CE, Battlefield. 4 Xbox One. Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts: 2014. a yellow arrow at the top of the screen Games also use friendly NPCs as a way 4. Valve Corporation, Portal. PC. Bellevue, WA: Valve Corporation, 2007. (which can be turned off) that guides the of guiding the player along the intended 5. Infinity Ward,Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. PC. Santa Monica, CA: Activision, 2007. player to the next important area in the path. Again, the Call of Duty series is a 6. Rocksteady Studios, Batman: Arkham City. PC. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, 2011. 9 game. Dead Space has something simi- prime example of this, as the player of- 7. 2K Boston and 2K Australia, Bioshock. PC. Novato, CA: 2K Games, 2007. lar, although instead of an omnipresent ten has friendly NPCs in their squad that 8. Rockstar North, Grand Theft Auto V. Playstation 3. New York City, NY: Rockstar Games, 2013. arrow, the player can press a certain but- tell the player where they should go next. 9. Visceral Games, Dead Space. PC. Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts, 2008. ton and make a line appear within the 3D Sometimes these friendly NPCs will even space that leads to the player’s current guide the player towards in the proper objective. (Figure 3) Generally speaking, direction and simply ask the player to most games only use such hands-on cues follow. These non-playable characters of directing the player if they contain are hugely important in modern games complicated level structure or large ex- because they often flesh out the game’s plorable spaces, as without these cues the narrative while simultaneously directing player may easily be overwhelmed and the player where to go, and nearly every succumb to misdirection. game out there utilizes them. No game only utilizes one of these methods to direct players. The best games use these in harmony with one another, and there are far more ways available for developers to direct players than I have covered in this paper. Nonetheless, the methods I have covered are the most fundamental and the most common. Of course, many games offer secrets or- bo Figure 3: Dead Space nuses for players who stray off this - di rected path, such as extra health packs The last method of direction I will look or in-game currency. However, these at is arguably the most common, which directional cues and patterns serve as a is the use of non-playable characters, or guiding light for any player who needs to NPCs. Nearly every game contains NPCs, know where to go next. as they serve narrative purposes as well Directing the player is just one of the as gameplay purposes. In many shooting many problems game developers have games, the player will need to shoot and to take into account, though, and many kill enemy NPCs to proceed to the next of these problems are worthy of papers area. Many of these games use the mere themselves. Among other things, devel- presence of these enemies as a sign that opers need to ensure that the directed the player is moving in the right direc- path is engaging enough to make the tion. The Call of Duty series is a prime ex- player even want to continue in the first

64 Focus Focus 65 Twitch: consumption… is being customised by videogames, than something they are taste.”1 Channels like Lifetime and Spike only decently interested in. The Sidelines of Virtual Gaming exemplify this belief and demonstrate Twitch stands out in the media land- that each demographic must be treated scape because of its fully immersive user by Christopher Risden differently. Although the term ‘narrow- experience. Each broadcast has its own casting’ originally referred to television, connected chatroom, which acts like a rom the comfort of his Maryland two opponents by himself. He smiles like streaming services such as Twitch.tv (for virtual space in which viewers can in- home, former professional gamer it’s effortless as he crows at his screen, gamers) and NBAtv (for basketball fans) teract digitally with each other and the FMichael Santana, better known “Get fucked!”…and the crowd goes wild! are the pinnacles of this new Internet age streamer. When gamers like imaqtpie by his gamer tag “imaqtpie,” is living It turns out, Michael “imaqtpie” Santana of narrowcasting. make amazing plays, the chat rooms ex- my childhood dream. From the time he has actually been broadcasting his games, Through narrowcasting, Twitch can plode violently with activity. Thousands wakes up to the time he goes to sleep, he and nearly 30,000 people are tuned in to appeal directly to gamers. In trying to un- of spectators create a virtual arena, and plays videogames—and his mom doesn’t spectate! Thirty thousand people?! derstand gaming culture, Adrienne Shaw, their voices can almost be heard echoing even yell at him. Wow. First of all, aren’t video games meant Assistant Professor of Media Studies at over the game play. In response to imaqt- Michael Santana became a profes- to be played? What confuses me even Temple University, notes that in our so- pie’s solo kill, the chat room vibrates with sional gamer in 2011, when he was just more so, League of Legends is free. Ev- ciety “there is a pervasive sense of video the energy of thousands of voices. The a year out of high school. Unconvinced eryone can download and play for free, game culture as separate from construct- messages scroll by too quickly to even that playing videogames for money was but apparently many would rather just ed mainstream culture.” Popular cul- scan, besides a few glimpses which read a practical career path, Santana was reluc- watch. “Live streaming,” as the kids call ture treats gaming fans just as Newsweek “LOL” and “REKT” (wrecked.) Fans have tant to dedicate his time. Not only do pro it, is now a billion dollar industry. In Au- treated Star Trek fans: like geeks that are the option to donate to streamers, and gamer careers run incredibly short (on gust of 2014, Amazon acquired Twitch.tv, “a problem to be solved [and] a mystery many fans use that as an opportunity to average their careers flame out faster than the platform that hosts almost all video- to be understood.”2 The fact that Twitch develop a more personal connection with NFL players, which last 3.3 years), they game streams, for $970 million. averages over seven hundred thousand their favorite personalities. also offer very few skills relevant outside Twitch is a spin-off of a now-defunct viewers at any given time proves that Donations help devoted fans stand the bubble of videogames. However, the general video streaming site, Justin.tv, gamers would rather see something they out, but streamers almost always inter- allure of playing games for money proved which hosted live feeds of people doing are very interested in, someone playing act with anyone watching. While other too seductive to turn down; so, in what anything from eating Vaseline to being looked like a short-sighted decision, he drunk. Like a live version of Youtube, took a break from college to play video- the website created no content—it merely games full time. Like the Kenny Smith of provided a platform for users share their video games, his playing career is largely own. As Justin.tv grew, the videogame forgettable, but his post-professional section grew even faster. It soon outgrew gaming career has truly shined. the rest of Justin.tv so, in 2011, a spin-off As people sleepwalk through their website was created solely for streaming mornings before their first hit of caf- videogames. By exclusively producing feine, Santana starts his day in the world videogame content, Twitch does an excel- of League of Legends, the game he once lent job of narrowcasting—catering to the played competitively. He furiously clicks gamer demographic. his mouse and clacks the keyboard on Narrowcasting is a phenomenon that an intensely single-minded mission: to arose with the emergence of cable and eliminate his enemy. In a dichotomy of premium cable as a response to the se- sorts, he is incredibly aggressive in game rialization and mass market appeal of while he maintains a relaxed demeanor— broadcast TV. On narrowcasting, James always cheerful, never mad. All of a sud- Curran, Professor of Communications den, he makes an amazing play and kills at Goldsmiths University, writes “media Michael “imaqtpie” Santana pictured here streaming to nearly 30,000 viewers.

66 Focus Focus 67 media forms, like books and movies, can places away from the home (place one) stand independently from their auteur, and workplace (place two) where people live streams are intimately connected to gather and discuss common ideas. Not the personality of the streamer—which everyone speaks, but everyone is a par- we can see through each broadcaster’s ticipant since everyone sees the chat con- chat room. In the case of imaqtpie, his stantly scrolling next to the video. Twitch chat is often filled with memes or One year ago, Michael Santana was inside jokes and lighthearted discussion a middling player on a middling League that reflect his jovial nature. In the case of of Legends team. Now, he is a star within Alex Ich, a current Russian professional the video game world. In the next evolu- gamer, his stream houses a community tion of narrowcasting, he streams himself of Russians. The communities that form gaming for over eight hours every day within the framework of Twitch.tv can and attracts a community of like-minded be referred to as virtual “third places” individuals who love to watch him play or “informal public spaces where people games and crack wise. Twitch.tv is the engage sociably to form and maintain platform that makes it all possible. communities,”3 because they represent

Works Cited

1. James Curran. Misunderstanding the Internet. New York: Routledge 2. Henry Jenkins III. “Star Trek Rerun, Reread, Rewritten: Fan Writing as Textual Poaching.”Critical Stud- ies in Mass Communication 5, no. 2 (May 18, 2009): 85-107. 3. William Hamilton, Oliver Garretson, and Andruid Kerne. “Streaming on Twitch: Fostering Participa- tory Communities of Play.” Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (2014): 1314-24.

68 Focus Focus 69 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS staff

Special Thanks to the following for contributing their time, effort, financial support, and/or for inspiring the publication of this journal:

Associated Students Ellen K. Anderson Anna Brusutti Cynthia Felando The Film and Media Studies Department Jennifer Holt Alberto Lopez: Editor John Majewski Ross Melnick Joe Palladino Nicole Johal: Editor Constance Penley Greg Siegel Bruce Tiffney Christopher Risden: Editor Charles Wolfe Naoki Yamamoto Henry Yang David Wills: Editor

Many thanks to our beloved family and friends for all their support. Maria Nguyen: Layout Editor

70 Focus Focus 71 ABOUT ABOUT

Annahita Ashe Alberto Lopez

Alberto Lopez (writer, staff) is a fourth-year Film & Media Studies major. He hopes you will Anna Ashe is a third year double major in Film & Media Studies and English. Her other in- read this issue of Focus Media Journal in its entirety. terests include entrepreneurship, environmentalism, reading, hiking, and spending time with friends! Justin Minor Suzanne Cimolino Justin is a graduating senior, part-time fry cook, former radio personality, and filmmaker. He wrote and directed ‘A Ghost Story,’ a comedic short that received the Best Writing award at Suzanne Cimolino is a senior film major at UCSB. When she is not studying Bordwell or ana- the Santa Barbara Digital Film Festival. He is currently co-directing a documentary about the lyzing films required for class, she goes to the movies (for fun)… or she rides her horse, Jovi. environmental issues involved in Bigfoot hunting, entitled ‘Saving Sasquatch.’ He plans to After graduation, she plans to do something in Hollywood (she will let you know when she pursue a career in screenwriting and freelance film-making, with an emphasis on wine tasting figures it out) and she won’t forget the little people along the way. and Netflix.

Lisa Gumm Maria Nguyen Lisa Gumm is a graduating senior in the Film and Media Studies major and the Theater Pro- duction and Design minor. Her recent credits include: The Talented Ones (assistant sound Maria is a third year at UCSB who is majoring in Film & Media Studies. In addition to creating designer), The Importance of Being Earnest (assistant lighting designer), AXIOM (lighting de- the layout for this year’s Focus journal, she created the graphics, as well. She’s from San Diego signer), and Soundscapes (sound designer). She is also a singer/songwriter and performs at and enjoys movies, music, great food, and staring at her laptop screen for long periods of time. coffee shops and festivals around the Central Coast. Upon graduating from UCSB she plans to become a children’s book author and a theatrical sound designer. Christopher Risden

Jacqueline Kane Chris Risden is a fourth-year Film and Media Studies student. He lives slow so he can die old.

Jacqueline Kane is a second year at UCSB double majoring in Film & Media and Environmen- tal Studies. In her free time she enjoys going on hikes, hanging out with friends, and contem- Berthold Wahjudi plating the life of inanimate objects. After graduating she hopes to join the Peace Corps. Berthold is a student in interdisciplinary studies. He spent a year studying at UCSB, where he snuck into a bunch of film classes and produced ‘A Ghost Story’ for Film 106 and this year’s Nicole Johal 10-10-10 winner ‘Grounded. Nicole is a first-year Film and Media studies major. She hopes to move to Los Angeles or New York to work with a production group and various non-profits as a director, writer, and cre- ator. She believes that you haven’t done anything until you leave this world a better place than David Wills when you found it. David Wills is a third-year film and media studies major who spends most of his time brows- ing Reddit or playing video games. After he graduates, he wants to get into writing and/or video production, preferably somewhere in the video game industry.

72 Focus Focus 73 74 Focus