Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries

RTI Press Occasional Paper July 2017

Anne M. Hayes and Jennae Bulat RTI Press publication OP-0043-1707 RTI International is an independent, nonprofit research organization dedicated to improving the human condition. The RTI Press mission is to disseminate information about RTI research, analytic tools, and technical expertise to a national and international audience. RTI Press publications are peer-reviewed by at least two independent substantive experts and one or more Press editors.

Suggested Citation Hayes, A. M., and Bulat, J., (2017). Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries. RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707

This publication is part of the RTI Press Research Report series. Occasional Papers are scholarly essays on policy, methods, or other topics relevant to RTI areas of research or technical focus. Cover photo: Tusome Early Literacy Programme RTI International 3040 East Cornwallis Road ©2017 RTI International. RTI International is a registered trademark and a trade name of Research Triangle PO Box 12194 Institute. The RTI logo is a registered trademark of Research Triangle Institute. Research Triangle Park, NC This work is distributed under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution- 27709-2194 USA NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 license (CC BY-NC-ND), a copy of which is available Tel: +1.919.541.6000 at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode. E-mail: [email protected] https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 www.rti.org/rtipress Website: www.rti.org Contents Abbreviations Used i Using Itinerant Teachers/Specialist Teachers 18 About the Authors ii Engaging Teacher Assistants 19 Acknowledgments ii Moving From a Diagnosis-Based Approach to an Individualized One 19 Abstract ii Identification of Children With Disabilities 19 Introduction 1 Challenges of Labeling 20 Structure and Purpose of the Guide 2 Summary of the School and Classroom Disabilities Guide 2 Adaptable Learning Environments and UDL 21 What Is Inclusive Education? 3 Inclusive Teaching and Learning Materials 21 Dispelling Myths about Inclusion and the Education of Learners Teacher Training 22 with Disabilities 4 Embed Disability in All Preservice and In-Service Trainings 23 Myth 1. Inclusive Education Will Have a Negative Impact on Include All Teachers, Regardless of Specialization, in Teacher Students Without Disabilities 5 Training 23 Myth 2. Inclusive Education Is More Expensive Than Educating Promote the Diversification of Skill Sets 23 Students in Special Education Settings 5 Address Potential Attitudinal Barriers 23 Myth 3. Segregated Schools and Classrooms Are More Effective Than Inclusive Schools and Classrooms for Educating Provide Follow-Up and Hands-On Experience 23 Students with Disabilities 6 Data Collection, Prevalence Rates, and Enrollment 24 Myth 4. When Faced with Limited Resources, Inclusive Budgeting for Inclusion 25 Education Can and Should Only Be Addressed Once the Education of “Normal Students” Is Achieved 6 Per Capita or Cost-Based Models 25 Myth 5. Educating Students with Disabilities Is a “High-Income Resource- or School-Based Models 26 Country Luxury” and Does Not Apply to LMI Countries 6 Output-Based Models 26 Understanding Inclusive Education Policies 6 Monitoring Systems for Improvement 26 International Policies and Frameworks for Inclusive Education 7 Conclusion 27 National Policies for Inclusive Education 8 References 28 Refining National Education Plans 13 Appendix A. Inclusive Education Systems and Understanding the Systems Approach to Inclusive Education 14 Policy Checklist 33 Engaging Stakeholders 14 Appendix B. Glossary of Disability Inclusive Models of Moving From a Segregated System to an Education Terminology 35 Inclusive One 18 Developing Resource Centers 18

Abbreviations Used CRPD United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with READ-TA Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed Technical Disabilities Assistance (USAID) DPO disabled persons’ organization SDG Sustainable Development Goal EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment UDL Universal Design for Learning EMIS Education Management Information System UN United Nations IEP Individualized Education Plan UN CRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child LMI low and middle income UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural MOE Ministry of Education Organization OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization Abstract Having a disability can be one of the most marginalizing factors in a child’s life. In education, finding ways to meet the learning needs of students with disabilities can be challenging, especially in schools, districts, regions, and countries with severely limited resources. Inclusive education—which fully engages all students, including About the Authors students with disabilities or other learning challenges, in quality education—has Anne M. Hayes, MA, is an international disability and proven particularly effective in helping all students learn, even while challenges to development consultant. implementing inclusive education systems remain. This guide provides suggestions

Jennae Bulat, PhD, directs the for developing inclusive education systems and policies, especially for low- and Teaching and Learning team in the middle-income countries that are moving from a segregated system toward an International Development Group at inclusive system of education. We specifically address the needs of countries with RTI International. limited resources for implementing inclusive education. However, our strategies and recommendations can be equally useful in other contexts where inclusive education Acknowledgments practices have not yet been adopted. The authors thank reviewers Elizabeth Randolph, Alastair Rodd, Pamela Baird, and Ann Turnbull and editors Amy Morrow and Lynda Grahill for their expert input and recommendations. They express sincere appreciation to Felice Sinno- Lai for her diligent and responsive assistance in the preparation of this paper. RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 1

Introduction with disabilities, and it includes explicit language stating that children with disabilities have the right to Disability is present in every race, ethnicity, gender, receive education in an inclusive setting and with the sexual orientation, age, and religion. More than a supports needed to succeed. Currently, 173 countries billion people, or 15 percent of the world’s population, have ratified the CRPD (UN Division for Social have some category of disability. Of these, an Policy and Development: Disability, 2016)1 and are estimated 150 million children have a disability, and developing new policies and reforming educational 80 percent of these children live in the developing systems to align and comply with the treaty. world (World Health Organization [WHO], 2011). These children often face conditions of extreme For many low- and middle-income (LMI) countries, poverty, exclusion, and discrimination and are denied ratifying the CRPD signals that they are following the basic services offered to their peers without the global shift of moving from a system where disabilities. The United Nations Children’s Fund children with disabilities are educated in segregated (UNICEF) estimates that 90 percent of children schools or classrooms toward a system that allows with disabilities in low-income countries have never for children to be educated in the same classrooms received any form of education (UNICEF, 2014a). as their nondisabled peers. However, many countries Also, once enrolled, students with disabilities are struggle with this development and are seeking more likely to drop out of school than students recommendations on how to transition and examples without disabilities. of proven good practices in special education and inclusive education reform. This guide provides It is estimated that only 5 percent of all students with recommendations for developing inclusive education a disability complete primary school (Peters, 2003). policies and systems and examples of effective models Even when students with disabilities attend school, from around the world. Although each country will a curriculum that has not been adapted to their undoubtedly approach reform differently based upon needs may mean they do not have the same access to its cultural context, current education programs, and education as their classmates do. Moreover, teachers existing special education systems and needs, the may not know how to accommodate the needs of recommendations provided in this guide can serve as students with disabilities, books may not be available an additional resource to help each country meet its in braille for students who are blind, and teachers goal of inclusive education reform. may not know sign language for students who are deaf (International Disability and Development At the heart of this guide is the premise that all Consortium, 2013). children can and deserve the right to learn and reach their full potential. For many children with The United Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights disabilities, this means receiving specialized supports of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) signifies a or special education to address students’ individual paradigm shift from seeing disability as a clinical learning differences and needs. This guide discusses and social welfare issue toward recognizing that the supports that should be provided within an disability is a fundamental human rights issue and education system and provides suggestions on how to that meeting the development goals of persons with adjust education systems to affect improved learning disabilities is necessary to meeting overall global outcomes for students with, and without, disabilities. development goals. This Convention provides a legal framework for all issues related to the lives of persons Special education is a service, not a place.

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was adopted in 2006 and entered into full force in 2008 (UN Division for Social Policy and Development: Disability, 2006). 1 Country ratification status as of May 2017.

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 2 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper

Structure and Purpose of the Guide This guide does not address barriers that extend The guide’s primary audiences are policymakers beyond the school system, such as those related to and national-level education stakeholders working inadequate transportation systems or parental or on education reform, although international community-based resistance to enrolling children organizations working in the field of education with disabilities in school. Such barriers are real, and other education program implementers can relevant, and deserve serious attention in all also benefit from understanding and, hopefully, communities. However, they are not included in this supporting the strategies provided. Disabled persons’ guide so that the guide can focus more deeply on organizations (DPOs) and parents may also find the characteristics, constraints, and opportunities of the guide helpful when advocating for improved education systems themselves. educational policies and programs. The principles of this guide align closely with Article 24 of the UN Summary of the School and Classroom Disabilities CRPD and the recent general comments on Article 24 Guide (http://www.ohchr.org/). A user-friendly checklist This guide serves as a companion piece to the School included as Appendix A to this paper covers the core and Classroom Disability Inclusion Guide for Low- and elements that are typically found in inclusive systems Middle-Income Countries (School and Classroom and policies based upon the guidance provided by the Guide) (Bulat et al., 2015), which provides school- Committee on the CRPD on Article 24. Appendix B and classroom-based guidance for including children provides a glossary of terms related to disabilities with mild to severe disabilities in general education inclusive education. schools and classrooms. The School and Classroom Guide provides practical classroom strategies and This guide encourages strategies that are specifically suggestions that build upon the Universal Design intended to support inclusive education strategies for Learning (UDL) model and that encourage for all children, regardless of the type or severity of instruction that benefits all children, regardless of the disability, because an ideal system would be able to presence or type of disability. serve all children equitably. At its core, this guide recognizes that inclusive schools and classrooms The School and Classroom Guide is particularly benefit all students, not just those with disabilities, useful for schools that have not yet implemented and that students do not need to be officially inclusive education or are only beginning to do so. identified as having a disability to benefit from Basic concepts of Response to Intervention and inclusive education strategies. practical modifications to classroom instruction to ensure that children with physical, sensory, This guide outlines the relevant international communication, and intellectual disabilities benefit legislations and policy frameworks that have set from instruction are also highlighted within the the stage for inclusive education and highlights guide. Together, the School and Classroom Guide and the core principles of these documents that may this guide on inclusive education systems and policies be relevant for countries looking to develop more can provide policymakers and implementers with inclusive education systems. This guide also provides recommendations and concrete suggestions regarding recommendations for elements to include in national how to better provide quality education services for education policies to help ensure compliance with students with disabilities. the CRPD and suggestions for other components that often exist in successful inclusive systems. Finally, the guide introduces models for how to move from Response to Intervention is a tiered framework for segregated systems toward inclusive ones, including identifying students who may need additional educational basic suggestions for teacher training budget support and then providing them with increasingly development, data collection, and monitoring. intensive supports as needed to meet learning objectives (RTI Action Network, n.d.).

What Is Inclusive Education? Noninclusive Models of Special The goal of educating children with disabilities is the Education same as that of educating children without disabilities: Segregated Education. Children are educated in different schools because of their disability and are to support children in reaching their full potential typically educated with students with similar diagnoses and leading productive lives as active members of (e.g., schools for students who are blind). In many LMI their communities. Children with disabilities often countries, these schools do not follow the national require specialized services and supports to master curriculum. In many cases, students with disabilities are content being taught. Unfortunately, however, in not taught literacy or math skills; rather, instruction is often many countries, specialized education services take focused on “life skills.” Segregated schools are typically located within urban areas and often provide residential the form of segregating students with disabilities in services because of issues related to transportation. separate classrooms or schools, with no opportunities for engaging with peers who do not have disabilities Integrated Education. The definition of integrated education may vary depending on language, culture, or and often no access to the curriculum that these peers context. Some refer to integrated classrooms as general are learning. Shifting away from segregation toward education settings that include students with disabilities including all students in general education classrooms but do not provide the accommodations or supports and schools means providing all students in these needed for those students to learn and participate classrooms with the unique supports and services effectively. Others refer to integrated schools as general that they need—such as access to assistive devices, education schools that include students with disabilities but give those students instruction solely or predominantly teacher assistants, and an adapted curriculum—to in specialized or segregated classrooms. Typically, in 2 participate effectively in the classroom. This shift is these instances, students with disabilities have limited often a substantial one that requires time, political interaction with their peers without disabilities and often will, and an understanding of the benefits of inclusive lack access to the national curriculum. education for all students. That said, no universal definition of disability exists. categorization based on diagnosis to education The CRPD states that disability is an “evolving systems themselves. concept and that disability results from the Similarly, there is no single concept of inclusive interaction between persons with impairments and education that applies across all contexts. Most attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder fundamentally, inclusive education is considered to be their full and effective participation in society on an the “least restrictive environment” for children with equal basis with others.” The CRPD further elaborates disabilities. As such, it is the preferred educational that “Persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective Inclusive Model of Special Education participation in society on an equal basis with others” Within an inclusive education system, the student (UN Division for Social Policy and Development: with a disability is educated in the least restrictive Disability, 2006). This definition provides important environment, typically along with peers who do not have disabilities. In an inclusive education system, supports guidelines for disability but leaves specific needed by students with disabilities are ideally provided in the classroom by either the teacher or designated support 2 Note that inclusive education does not mandate that students must staff, but can also be provided outside of the classroom by spend 100 percent of time with their peers. Specialized intensive instruction in alternative settings—such as pulling a child out of specialists—such as speech therapists, physical therapists, a general education classroom for intensive literacy or language or intensive literacy or mathematics coaches—as best support—may also be helpful for some students in some areas of meets the student’s needs. Time spent outside of the instruction. However, it is important to ensure that removing a student classroom should be minimized, however, and limited to from the classroom does not become the default practice and that this only those services or supports that are needed by the practice is used sparingly and only in cases where such intensive and specialized instruction is not feasible in the general education class and student. is clearly beneficial for that student.

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 4 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper setting, as specified in Article 24 of the CRPD and as they develop and strengthen special education many domestic laws, including the US Individuals systems. Following is a text box below that provides with Disabilities Education Act. a general overview of what are—and are not— characteristics of inclusive education. However, some organizations and countries have used a broader definition of inclusion that includes the Dispelling Myths about Inclusion and the Education education of all individuals who may be marginalized. of Learners with Disabilities For example, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education Misperceptions related to the education of students states that inclusive schools should: with disabilities can impact the motivation of government officials, school administrators, teachers, accommodate all children regardless of their communities, and international development staff to physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or implement or support inclusive education systems. other conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children In some cases, the largest resistance to the shift from remote or nomadic populations, children from from segregated to inclusive systems comes from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children special education teachers themselves, who may from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or be concerned about their place within inclusive groups. (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural systems and can have unsubstantiated prejudices Organization [UNESCO], 1994) against inclusion (McLeskey & Waldron, 2000). This Regardless of how inclusive education systems are section helps to dispel some of the more frequently defined, educational stakeholders should have a clear held myths about inclusive education and teaching understanding of the principles of inclusive education students with disabilities.

Characteristics of Inclusive Education

Inclusion means… Inclusion does not mean… • Students with disabilities attend their neighborhood • Placing students with disabilities into general education schools or the schools they would attend if they were not classrooms without careful planning and adequate support. disabled. • Reducing services or funding for special education services. • Each student is in an age-appropriate general education • Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk classroom. in one or a few designated classrooms. • Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and • Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time valued member of the class and the school community. teaching or adapting the curriculum for students with • Special education supports are provided to each student disabilities. with a disability within the context of the general • Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, education classroom. or academically within the general education school or • All students receive an education that addresses their classroom. individual needs. • Jeopardizing the achievement of general education • No student is excluded based on type or degree of students through slower instruction or a less challenging disability. curriculum. • All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, • Relegating special education teachers to the role of students, and parents) promote cooperative/collaborative assistants in the general education classroom. teaching arrangements. • Requiring general and special education teachers to • There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and team together without careful planning and well-defined ownership of all students and programs. responsibilities.

Adapted from McLeskey and Waldron (2000).

Myth 1. Inclusive Education Will Have a Negative Impact on Students Without Disabilities Decades of research in the United States and other The Cost of Exclusion high-income countries have demonstrated that • In Bangladesh, the exclusion of people with disabilities from the labor market results in an estimated total loss of inclusive education benefits not only students with US$891 million/year. disabilities but also students without disabilities. • In Morocco, lost income resulting from the exclusion Inclusive classrooms teach all students about the of individuals with disabilities from work has been importance of diversity and acceptance. Evidence also estimated to result in national-level losses of 9.2 billion indicates that students with and without disabilities dirhams (approximately US$1.1 billion). who are educated in inclusive classrooms have better • In South Africa, lost earnings per adult with severe academic outcomes than students who are educated depression or anxiety disorder per year averaged in noninclusive classrooms. For example, several US$4,798 (approximately half of the gross domestic studies have shown that students without disabilities product per capita), totaling $3.6 billion when aggregated to the national level. make significantly greater progress in reading and • Conversely, inclusion could lead to substantial gains. In math when taught in an inclusive setting with Pakistan, for example, it was estimated that rehabilitating students with disabilities (Cole, Waldron, & Majd, people with blindness could lead to gross aggregate 2004; Cosier, Causton-Theoharis, & Theoharis, 2013). gains in household earnings of $71.8 million per year One meta-analysis of existing research demonstrated (Banks & Polack, 2014). that 81 percent of the reported outcomes showed that including students with disabilities in the general were 7 to 9 times higher than those for inclusive education classroom resulted in either a positive education systems (Labon, 1999). Furthermore, or neutral effect on students without disabilities ignoring the costs of establishing and maintaining (Kalambouka, Farrell, & Dyson, 2007). A possible segregated schools—thus denying students with reason for this improved educational outcome is disabilities the opportunity to receive an inclusive that all students benefit from differentiated learning education—is ultimately a financial liability to a techniques and other accommodations—such as country. visual schedules, manipulatives, and comprehension strategies—that are used in inclusive classrooms. A recent international study of the costs of exclusion compared to the gains of inclusion found that Myth 2. Inclusive Education Is More Expensive Than exclusion results in lower employment and potential Educating Students in Special Education Settings earning, which impacts individuals with disabilities Inclusive education is the most pedagogically effective and their families and limits a country’s national way to support the education of students with economic growth. That study also demonstrated disabilities; it is also the most financially effective. that increased education of students with disabilities More than 100 studies have shown that establishing results in lower crime rates, improved health and segregated, separate, and parallel education systems family planning, and increased citizen participation within a country (i.e., one system of schools for (Banks & Polack, 2014). Additionally, a World Bank the general population and a different system of study showed that the return on investment for segregated schools for students with disabilities) is educating a student with a disability tends to be two more expensive and less sustainable than inclusive to three times higher than that for educating students education models (McGregor & Vogelsberg, 1998). without disabilities (Patrinos, 2015). This is partly because segregated school systems incur Although there are initial costs associated with additional costs for transportation, infrastructure, establishing an inclusive system, special education and in many countries, on-campus residences. (regardless of setting) can have associated costs For example, the 1999 Organisation for Economic above and beyond the general education for students Co-operation and Development (OECD) report without disabilities and should be budgeted for estimated that the costs for segregated school systems accordingly. The recurring costs required to maintain

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 6 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper an inclusive system are less than those needed to children and youth is not only unethical, a social maintain two parallel systems. injustice, and contradictory to most countries’ internal laws, international policies, and the UN Sustainable Myth 3. Segregated Schools and Classrooms Development Goals (SDGs), it is also a financial Are More Effective Than Inclusive Schools and liability for a country, as illustrated above. Classrooms for Educating Students with Disabilities No studies conducted since the 1970s have shown Myth 5. Educating Students with Disabilities Is a students with disabilities who are educated in “High-Income Country Luxury” and Does Not Apply separate settings (Falvey, 2004) perform better than to LMI Countries students in inclusive settings. In fact, the amount Education for All goals and the new SDGs, which of time a student with a disability spends in the include learners with disabilities as part of Goal 4 general education classroom is positively correlated (“Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and with higher test scores in math and reading, less promote lifelong learning”), cannot be achieved disruptive behavior, and increased future employment unless the global needs of children with disabilities opportunities. Indeed, this positive correlation has are considered (UN, 2016b). As practitioners work to been found in all students with disabilities, regardless improve policies and systems, they should consider of the type of disability or its severity (Wagner et international best practices on inclusive education and al., 2006). Inclusive education may also have other build upon local lessons learned to strengthen policies benefits, including increased community awareness and systems that include all individuals. In other and acceptance. For example, a 14-nation UNESCO words, all nations, not only high-income countries, study showed that in countries where there were must provide inclusive education to children and youth laws requiring inclusion, teachers expressed a more with disabilities. favorable view of inclusion (Bowman, 1986). Conversely, segregated classrooms or schools Understanding Inclusive Education Policies perpetuate the misconception that individuals Inclusive education can only exist with strong support with disabilities are fundamentally different from from the government and specific legislation (UNICEF, their nondisabled peers and need to be isolated or 2014b). Fortunately, the general understanding that separated. This approach can negatively impact both children with disabilities have the right to education the classroom climate and students’ attitudes about is growing. Indeed, most countries currently have diversity and acceptance (Fisher, Sax, Rodifer, & laws or regulations specifically designed to ensure that Pumpian, 1999). children with disabilities have equal opportunities to receive an education (UNICEF, 2012). The quality and Myth 4. When Faced with Limited Resources, details of these laws, however, vary significantly. Also, Inclusive Education Can and Should Only Be even where there are laws or provisions promoting Addressed Once the Education of “Normal Students” inclusive education, these commitments have not yet Is Achieved necessarily been harmonized with general education Many practitioners are reluctant to include children planning (United States Agency for International with disabilities within their general education Development [USAID], 2010). In some countries, programs because they are concerned that doing such as Egypt, laws simply state that children with so might distract from the educational needs of disabilities have the right to education. Other students without disabilities. Prioritizing education countries, such as Ethiopia, are more prescriptive. In based on a child’s disability or other factors, such the case of Ethiopia, the National Plan of Action of as gender, race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation, is Persons with Disabilities not only describes the rights discriminatory and should not be supported by the of individuals with disabilities but also addresses international development community. Creating an outputs, activities, and indicators associated with those education system that does not serve all of a country’s

Here we present a summary of some of the Education in Schools for Children Who most prominent international policies and legal Are Deaf frameworks that promote inclusive education for Typically, the deaf community sees sign language disabilities. as part of its culture, and many parents and individuals prefer that education be provided among other students United Nations Convention on the Rights of the who use sign language to promote social inclusion and communication. The World Federation of the Deaf Child promotes the use of bilingual education that educates Adopted in 1989, Article 23 of the UN Convention on students in both local sign language and the national the Rights of the Child (CRC) specifically addresses written language. In the past, the desire to be educated the rights of children with disabilities and states that with others who use sign language has been interpreted children with disabilities should have access to and as supporting segregated education. Recently, the World Federation of the Deaf has clarified its stance on this issue, receive education in a “manner conducive to the stating that schools for students who are deaf should child’s achieving the fullest possible social integration be viewed as linguistic immersion schools that provide and individual development” (UN Office of the bilingual education but follow the national curriculum. High Commissioner for Human Rights, 1989). The These schools should be open to any individual, regardless Committee on the Rights of the Child further clarified of hearing ability, as long as they are willing to be fully that inclusive education, not segregated education immersed in the use of sign language in the classroom. systems, must be the goal of educating children with disabilities (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2007). rights (Ethiopia Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, 2012). World Declaration on Education for All This section of the guide provides an overview of Adopted in 1990 with support from UNESCO, relevant international policies related to inclusive UNICEF, and the UN Development Program, the education, describes components that should be World Declaration on Education for All served as one included in national policies, and introduces the of the first milestones to support inclusive education importance of national inclusive education strategies throughout the world. A total of 155 countries or plans. adopted the Declaration, which asks countries to commit to universal primary education and stresses International Policies and Frameworks for Inclusive the need to provide access to education for all Education children with disabilities (UNESCO, 1990).3 International legislation and legal frameworks, such Salamanca Framework for Action as the CRPD, describe human rights principles and legal requirements for upholding those principles. Adopted in 1994 at the World Conference on Special Studies have demonstrated that countries with ratified Needs Education, the Salamanca Framework for human rights treaties are associated with better or Action highlights the necessity to educate children improved human rights practices (Hathaway, 2002). with disabilities within the general education Anecdotal evidence also suggests that champions for system. This statement urges governments and improved education for persons with disabilities are the international community to endorse inclusive using these legislative tools to advocate effectively for education as the best approach to educating children 4 improved laws and services within their countries. with disabilities (UNESCO, 1994). For example, within the first 4 years of the CRPD, 91 percent of countries that had ratified the legislation 3 Disability is mentioned throughout the World Declaration on Education for All. For example, disability is mentioned within the had already adopted national laws for people with goals and target section, Article 3.3 (d), and as part of the overall disabilities and 72 percent of those countries’ laws commitment. included a definition of reasonable accommodation 4 The Salamanca Conference, which developed the Framework of Action, was attended by more than 300 participants representing 92 (Ruh, 2012). governments.

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 8 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Donor Policies on Disability-Inclusive Adopted in 2006, the CRPD provides the most Development comprehensive international legal framework for Article 32 of the CRPD requires that countries that have ratified the CRPD must provide international supporting the educational rights of children with cooperation support in a manner that is fully inclusive of disabilities. The CRPD states that countries that have and accessible to individuals with disabilities. As a result, ratified the CRPD must ensure an inclusive education the vast majority of bilateral and multilateral international system at all levels and that children with disabilities donor agencies have adopted policies, guidelines, have the right to free primary and secondary frameworks, and/or strategic plans requiring the inclusion education and cannot be discriminated against based of individuals with disabilities within their supported programs. Any education project funded by such agencies on their disability. Other requirements related to should likely, therefore, have a requirement to include the education of individuals with disabilities include children with disabilities as beneficiaries. Examples of the following (UN Division for Social Policy and international donor agencies that have taken public and Development: Disability, 2006): proactive measures to include persons with disabilities in their programs include the Australian Department of • All schools must be accessible (tied to Article 9 Foreign Affairs and Trade; European Commission; Ministry on Accessibility), both physically and regarding of Foreign Affairs of Finland; German Development information and communication. Cooperation; Norwegian Development Cooperation; Swedish International Development Cooperation; United • Students with disabilities should receive reasonable Kingdom Department of International Development; accommodations within the classroom. USAID; United States Department of State; and World Bank. • Schools should address the academic, social, and life skills needs of each student. education targets (UN Division for Social Policy and • If needed, alternative learning methods should Development: Disability, 2016): be used, such as braille instruction or alternative communication devices. • Target 4.5. “By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels • Local sign language instruction should be provided of education and vocational training for the for students who are deaf to promote linguistic vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, identity. indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable • Individuals with disabilities should have access to situations.” tertiary, vocational, and adult education. • Target 4.a. “Build and upgrade education facilitates In 2015, the Committee on the CRPD drafted that are child, disability and gender sensitive and the General Comments on the right to inclusive provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective education. This document provides additional learning environments for all.” information about the systems and legal frameworks As governments work to implement the education that countries should establish based upon the goal, the data that are gathered and monitored will CRPD. Appendix A presents a checklist based on this provide valuable information that will hopefully document and the CRPD. For the full document, see inform and strengthen education systems in the http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRPD/Pages/ future (UN, 2016c). GCRightEducation.aspx. National Policies for Inclusive Education Sustainable Development Goals Once a country has committed to the concept of Established in 2015, the SDGs serve as a set of inclusion in education, it is important to adapt aspirational goals for countries to work toward national policies and laws. The education of children over the next 15 years. Goal 4 on education with disabilities and the importance of inclusive specifically addresses disability within two of the

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 9 education are best integrated into the country’s is seeking to achieve through its national inclusive overall education strategic plan, with implementation education policy and legislation. In addition, strategies reflected in the national education strategic policies and legislation should clarify that the implementation plan. In this way, the commitment goal of inclusion is for children, regardless of type to inclusive education is clearly reflected in national or severity of disability, to have the right to free policy and strategic planning in general, included primary and secondary education within their in the education budget, and recognized in bilateral public neighborhood schools (UN Office of the High and multi-lateral partnerships with funding agencies. Commissioner for Human Rights, 2015). According to UNESCO’s Policy Guidelines for Inclusion in Education, national legal frameworks Reasonable Accommodations should, at a minimum, achieve the following National disability inclusion policies should include (UNESCO, 2009): language related to reasonable accommodations, • Recognize inclusive education as a right; as required in the CRPD. Article 2 of the CRPD defines reasonable acommodation as “the necessary • Identify minimum standards in relation to the and appropriate modification and adjustments, not right to education, including physical access, imposing a disproportionate or undue burden where communication access, social access, economic needed in a particular case to ensure to persons access, early identification, adaption of curriculum, with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an and individualized student supports; equal basis with others of all human rights and • Identify minimum standards regarding the right fundamental freedoms” (UN Division for Social to education and ensuring that families and Policy and Development: Disability, 2006). The CRPD communities are active participants in inclusive Committee also clarifies that there is not a “one size education; fits all” formula for reasonable accommodations • Ensure a transition plan for students with and that different students with the same type of disabilities;5 disability may require very different accommodations • Identify stakeholders and their responsibilities; based on the severity of their disability and their personal learning preferences. The type of reasonable • Provide resources for students with disabilities; and accommodations provided should be determined by • Establish monitoring and evaluation mechanisms a joint consultation involving the school, parents, and for ensuring that education is truly inclusive. student (UN, 2016a). Furthermore, many successful national inclusive Adapting and Modifying National Curriculum education policies provide even more explicit guidance to stakeholders and implementers, such as National disability inclusion policies should described below. explicitly state that all students should have access to the national curriculum. Too often, students with Contextualized Definition of Disability and disabilities are taught only life skills (such as a basic Inclusion understanding of how to do household chores and basic hygiene) and are not allowed access to the To be most useful for implementers, national general curriculum, which includes vital literacy and disability inclusion policies and legislation should math skills. Although life skills are important, they include clear definitions of disability and inclusive are not sufficient. Recognizing that not all students education and state the specific objectives a country with disabilities can equally access the national curriculum, the curriculum should be modified 5 Students with disabilities may require different transition plans or adapted to promote individualized instruction. throughout their academic career. Most notable is the development of a transition plan that supports students with disabilities as they move Curriculum adaptation does not mean developing from school to the workforce. Other transition plans may include a separate or alternative curriculum based on a transitioning from an early childhood program to kindergarten and transitioning from primary to secondary school. student’s diagnosis, because doing so can limit a

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 10 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper

the United Kingdom, it is not done consistently for Reasonable accommodations can all students. Curriculum adaptation can be an even include… greater challenge in LMI countries, where education • providing or facilitating tape recordings of a session or supports are often limited. However, a shift toward asking other students to help take notes; national curriculum adaptation is emerging in even • rearranging furniture or allowing special seating in the the most resource-constrained countries, and as more classroom; countries begin to expand their national legislation on • providing braille materials or texts in large print to inclusive education, access to the curriculum should students who might need them; be included as a key component of new laws. • removing barriers and providing physical access to the school; Deinstitutionalization • providing teaching assistants or tutors within the The practice of institutionalizing children with classroom; and disabilities remains a reality in many parts of the • providing space within a classroom in which students can world. Institutionalization is especially relevant for work without undue distractions. children who have intellectual or severe disabilities, as Reasonable accommodations are not… parents may feel they have no other option. Therefore, • excusing all students, regardless of their type or governments should establish plans to eliminate severity of disability, from completing their homework institutions, social homes, or residential care facilities assignments or taking tests; for children with disabilities and develop programs • providing housing options for students and their families; to reunite and strengthen family and community • providing wheelchairs, eyeglasses, or mobility aids (this living. To be effective, deinstitutionalization is typically done through referrals or by the Ministry of policies must acknowledge and address reasons for Health or comparable ministry); institutionalization, such as “social attitudes that • giving students with disabilities the answers to the test in advance; and shame the family that has a child with disabilities; lack of skills to provide appropriate nursing care; • providing tutors to students with disabilities in their homes or outside of the classroom. financial difficulties; and the belief there is very little chance a child with disabilities can be integrated into society” (UNICEF, 2004). The CRPD clearly student’s potential growth, even if unintentionally. states that children and adults with disabilities Rather, adaptation requires reviewing the national should have the right to live in the communities curriculum standards and determining how best in which their families live, and the Committee on to expose the student to each standard and related the CRPD states that “the introduction of inclusive performance goal using accommodations. Uniquely education must take place alongside a strategic adapting a curriculum for each student with commitment to the ending of long-term institutions disabilities can challenge educators; even in high- for persons with disabilities” (UN, 2016a). As national income countries, such as the United States and governments review their current practices related to

Inclusion Strategy An Example of Deinstitutionalization Although the national curriculum can be modified In 2013, the Croatian government began a or adapted as needed, students with disabilities should follow 5-year deinstitutionalization initiative along with the same curriculum as their nondisabled peers. For some Open Society Foundations, the Association for Promoting students, this could mean that teachers preview new concepts Inclusion, and the Center for Adult Education Valdius. or vocabulary with them before the class or teach them how During this 5-year period, more than 400 people will be to use graphic organizers, chunking (combining related pieces moved from institutions into community settings, such as of information into units), and questioning techniques so that homes with their own families or foster homes. More than they can keep pace with their nondisabled peers during the 300 former institution staff members will also be retrained class (Lee et al., 2006). to provide community-based services (Klein, 2014).

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 11 institutionalization and residential care and develop a clear plan to eliminate these structures and systems in Examples of physical accessibility the future, they can draw upon principles provided in include the CRPD. • building ramps to enter the building and within the building using a 1:12 gradient slope; Accessibility Standards • constructing accessible bathrooms or latrines; and Establishing physical and communication • ensuring that doorways and pathways are wide enough accessibility in schools is essential for inclusive for a person using a wheelchair to easily use and moving education. Many countries, such as Honduras, Costa items that may obstruct someone’s path. Rica, and Brazil, are enacting laws that require all Examples of accessible communication new schools to be accessible—able to be accessed and include used by all students, regardless of mobility or other • creating accessible websites; limitations—and all existing schools to be retrofitted • developing materials in alternative formats, such as over time. In addition, national standards on audio, large print, or braille; accessibility should require that schools implement • avoiding placing text over pictures; a range of accessibility features to accommodate • describing pictures using text; students with diverse disabilities. Each country has • not using visual language in descriptive text (e.g., the opportunity to develop its own accessibility referring to “the text in yellow highlight”); and standards, and when doing so, it is important to • making sure that multicolumn text, tables, or boxes are in review international best practices. The International the correct reading order for a text reader. Standards Organization (2017) provides general guidance to policymakers as they work to establish domestic accessibility standards. and then, based on this information, develop a strategy for increasing access to assistive technologies in the classroom. In low-income countries where Inclusion Strategy budgets for assistive devices are limited, funding Develop standards for accessible schools—schools that accommodate mobility, sensory, and other needs of assistance from donor agencies supporting the students with disabilities—based on international best education sector may be an avenue for obtaining this practices and accepted international accessibility standards. equipment.

Access to Assistive Technology The USAID Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed Technical Assistance (READ-TA) Assistive technology devices can help students program includes a specific focus on researching to access information and be successful in the and providing effective assistive technology supports to classroom. Currently, however, only 5‒15 percent of children with disabilities. Through regional consultative children with disabilities in low-income countries workshops, the READ-TA team helped Ministry of have access to assistive technologies or assistive Education (MOE) staff to assess needs and design, devices (Saebones et al., 2015). Furthermore, implement, and evaluate technology-supported initiatives that promote early reading and writing. These working many countries may be using severely outdated groups identified low vision and hearing loss as primary technology—for example, teaching students to write areas of educational need. In response, the READ-TA team braille using slates and stylus tablets rather than identified and is piloting tablet-based vision and hearing braillers. A mandate to make assistive technology screening tools that will help to identify students with devices available to students is clearly stated within hearing and/or vision loss and is incorporating supports the CRPD, and countries that are developing specific into tablet-based versions of teacher guides to help teachers provide the targeted instruction for students with domestic laws should consider including a specific these disabilities. reference to assistive technology. To this end, it is important first to assess what, if any, assistive technologies are currently being used in classrooms

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countries. For example, the United States, Australia, There is no universal sign language. The adoption of a local, indigenous sign language is Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom all encouraged over the use of an imported, foreign have legislation that requires the development and sign language. Some countries, such as Uganda and South use of IEPs for students with disabilities (National Africa, have officially recognized their local sign language Council for Special Education, 2006). The use of IEPs as a minority language in the country; this is considered is also increasingly prevalent in other countries, such global best practice. as Costa Rica, Malawi, Turkey, South Africa, and Uganda. In Uganda, for example, at the request of the Ministry of Education and Sports, RTI developed an Access to Instruction in Sign Language IEP teacher’s guide, on which teachers in the USAID/ Globally, children who are deaf are often not taught Uganda School Health and Reading Program have sign language and have limited access to instruction been trained, with positive feedback emerging from given in sign language, which affects their ability to trainers and teachers. In Ireland, where IEP usage learn and reach their full potential. Partly because of is voluntary rather than compulsory, 85 percent of the lack of teachers trained to teach in sign language, teachers reported IEPs to be useful in delivering an estimated 90 percent of children who are deaf inclusive education services (Nugent, 2002). Given worldwide are illiterate (Rau Barriga, 2010). As with IEPs’ proven success in facilitating the education of the right to assistive technology, the CPRD clearly students with disabilities, they should be considered obligates the right to receive education in local as a possible component of countries’ special sign language. Inclusive education policies must education legislation. underscore the right to receive education in local sign language for individuals who are deaf or have very Complaint and Redress Mechanism limited hearing. The CRPD Committee specifies in its General Comments on Article 24 that individuals with Individualized Education Plans disabilities and the families of children with Individualized education plans (IEPs) were disabilities “must be provided with a safe and established in the United States in the 1970s and have accessible mechanism for complaints and redress since become an integral part of special education through which to challenge violations of their right to strategies in many countries worldwide (Mariga education” (UN, 2016a). Countries that have signed et al., 2014). IEPs are ideally developed through the CRPD Optional Protocol should develop and a multidisciplinary process involving parents, implement specific processes for addressing rights teachers, administrators, the student, and other violations. Furthermore, it is critical that national relevant support staff and service providers. Through human rights institutes fully engage in issues related this process, the individual needs, learning goals, to the right to inclusive education for all children. placement, and related services of students with When developing domestic laws, viable structures disabilities and the appropriate teaching strategies and channels for filing complaints must be established and required classroom accommodations can be and clearly stated so that people with disabilities or identified. IEPs are an important tool for helping their family members are fully aware of the steps they learners with disabilities to succeed and progress need to take to submit a complaint when full access in school, and because of their role in facilitating to education has been denied. The role of a child or special education, IEPs are legally mandated in many disability ombudsperson to receive complaints and investigate when rights are violated should be made Inclusion Strategy clear and strengthened, and individuals should be • Promote the systematic use of IEPs for all children with disabilities. allowed to seek direct litigation if consistent with national laws and culture. For example, in the United • Consider the use of IEPs as part of the national domestic legislation. States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act provides escalating steps to address complaints

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 13 that begin with mediation between the parents and Developing a national plan for implementing the school, allowing for state or federal complaints if inclusive education and policies has proved to be issues are not resolved through mediation (Turnbull, very useful for many countries, regardless of income, Stowe, & Huerta, 2007). by encouraging the development of goals, targets, and budgetary requirements to support the process Additionally, safeguards must be in place to ensure of inclusive education. National plans or strategies that families cannot be retaliated against after filing are also an effective way to incorporate the input a complaint. As for all students, students with of teachers, administrators, parents, and disability disabilities have the right to be heard within the leaders. WHO’s World Report on Disability (2011, school system, including through their participation pp. 217‒218) suggests that all national plans related to in school councils and other governing bodies, such inclusive education should as local and national governments. Mechanisms through which individual students or student groups • reflect international commitments to the right of can appeal decisions concerning their education disabled children to be educated; should also be identified and upheld by law. Parents • identify the number of disabled children and assess must be made fully aware of their rights so that they their needs; will know if their rights are being violated. Therefore, • stress the importance of parent partnerships and all policy systems should be coupled with parent community partnerships; education and awareness raising related to children’s educational rights. • plan for the main aspects of provision, such as making school buildings accessible, and developing the curriculum, teaching methods, and materials to Refining National Education Plans meet diverse needs; Strong national policies and legislation are a critical • increase capacity by expanding the provision of first step toward providing children with disabilities training programs; an education within an inclusive setting. However, • make sufficient funds available; and legislation is not an end in itself, and policy and legal frameworks must be translated into practice at the • conduct monitoring and evaluation and improve school level. Having strong national plans related qualitative and quantitative data on students. to inclusive education will help reduce this gap and When national policy and planning are not yet ensure that a transition plan—from a segregated implemented in a country, initiatives started at to an inclusive education system—and programs subnational levels have been shown to lead national to support this plan are established. Of course, the inclusive education reforms. Kwa-Zulu Natal extent to which education plans are implemented Province in South Africa is a case in point. The depends on multiple factors, including funding levels, Kwa-Zulu Natal Provincial Department of Education commitment and motivation of education leadership, was instrumental in demonstrating how the the availability of trained staff, the availability of and national policy on inclusive education (South Africa guidance for adapting curricular materials, access Department of Education White Paper 6) could be to assistive devices, and importantly, the level of translated into practice at the local level, providing monitoring of and support given to service providers. a model program for other South African Provincial These context-specific challenges should be addressed Departments of Education (South Africa Department in the transition plan. of Education, 2001). The following text box briefly describes the South African Department of Education strategic plan on inclusive education. Additional lthough time frames vary per country and strategic plan, A countries, including Malta and Rwanda, have most initial strategic plans address a 10- to 20-year period. developed inclusive education strategies, while others, such as Jordan, are in the process of developing them. In addition to having a dedicated plan for

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 14 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper inclusive education, it is also beneficial to include 1. Inclusion is a process. inclusive education in the country’s general disability 2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and plans. For example, countries such as Afghanistan, removal of barriers. Kazakhstan, Macedonia, and the Republic of Georgia 3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation, and have developed National Disability Plans that address achievement of all students. inclusive education as part of a larger strategy. 4. Inclusion involves an emphasis on those groups of learners who may be at risk of marginalization, South African Strategic Plan on Inclusive exclusion, or underachievement. Education In 2001, South Africa developed a strategic plan on This section pulls together international best inclusive education entitled “Education White Paper 6, practices related to the development of educational Special Needs Education: Building an Inclusive Education systems that allow the inclusion of learners with and Training System.” This document outlines the steps that the government must take to develop an inclusive disabilities. Although each country may approach education system within 20 years that incorporates both the recommendations differently to incorporate its training needs and how to address and accommodate unique cultural context, much of the general guidance a diverse range of learning needs. The strategy calls for will still apply. training for administration, other school staff, and teachers on inclusive education and special education strategies; Engaging Stakeholders identifying and reducing barriers to inclusion; mobilizing out-of-school youths to return to school; converting Many different stakeholders need to be meaningfully 500 primary schools to full-service schools; developing engaged to ensure and promote effective educational district-based support teams; and converting specialized practices for students with disabilities. The attitudes segregated schools into resource centers to support of these stakeholders can have a tremendous impact districts. The strategy articulates short-, medium-, and on the success or failure of an inclusive education long-term goals and a funding strategy for how the various goals will be accomplished. Although the implementation system. These stakeholders include the following. of the strategy is challenging, several successes have been achieved. For example, inclusive education is now part Ministries of Education of the qualification framework for all general education Lead policymakers in the education sector, such as teachers. the national and subnational Ministries of Education (MOEs) or the equivalent entities within a country Understanding the Systems Approach to Inclusive that lead educational planning, play a pivotal Education role in shaping education policy and reforming curriculum and delivery systems. To advocate for Developing an inclusive system implies a shift from inclusive education for all children, including the seeing the child with a disability as the problem most vulnerable and children with disabilities, these to seeing the education system as something that policy bodies must include experts in the field of must be strengthened to better serve the child. It special education who are knowledgeable about the requires strong commitments from local government, advantages of inclusive education (Skrtic, 1991). ministries, administrators, teachers, parents, and citizens. A systems approach, by definition, The MOE should be responsible for the education involves the coordination and shared responsibility of all children, including those with disabilities. and commitment of a broad base of stakeholders, In many low-income countries, the responsibility including national and subnational government for the education of children with disabilities is officials, education managers and service providers, divided across separate entities: the MOE and other parents and other community members, and the ministries, such as the Ministry of Social Affairs, students themselves. UNESCO (2009), which takes a the Ministry of Health, or the Ministry of Social broad view of the concept of inclusion, has identified Protection (WHO, 2011). When the responsibility four key tenets of an inclusive education system: is divided among ministries, the MOE is typically

Inclusion Strategy (UN, 2016a). Precisely how this relationship is The Ministry of Education should be responsible for negotiated and managed will be unique to each all school-aged children, regardless of disability diagnosis or country’s context but will likely require participation severity. Dividing the responsibilities for supporting children from all sectors and can be guided by CRPD with disabilities among ministries “further segregates children guidelines. with disabilities, and shifts the focus from education and achieving social and economic inclusion to treatment and Administrators and School Leadership social isolation” (WHO, 2011). Administrators, principals, and other leaders are typically responsible for ensuring that national responsible for the education of children deemed able and local laws are being adhered to, that students of being educated in an inclusive setting, whereas with disabilities receive needed supports, that such the alternative ministry is responsible for children supports are appropriately used by teachers, and with more severe disabilities, such as those who that teacher training related to inclusive education is are too often institutionalized. Both international ongoing. The leadership of these individuals is pivotal disability advocates and international organizations for the improvement of educational opportunities have criticized this approach because it implies that for all students, especially those with disabilities or children with severe disabilities cannot learn or that unique learning needs (DiPaola & Walther-Thomas, they need welfare rather than education. Likewise, 2003). Many studies have found that administrators any policies developed outside of the MOE are often are as much, and sometimes more, of a barrier to not seen as education policies and frequently do including children with disabilities in the classroom not have the same influence or impact (Sightsavers, as teachers. Some studies, including ones conducted 2011). The World Report on Disability states that in the United State, Egypt, and Finland, have revealed dividing this responsibility among ministries “further that administrators and principals may not have segregates children with disabilities, and shifts the a good understanding of inclusive education and focus from education and achieving social and may have received limited training or preparation economic inclusion to treatment and social isolation” on how to run an inclusive school (Daane, Beirne- (WHO, 2011). As a result, having one Ministry be Smith, & Latham, 2000; Moberg, 2000; Sadek & responsible for the education of all children—with Sadek, 2000). Thus, training education officials and without disabilities—is recommended. In many and school managers on issues related to inclusive countries, an office or subdivision within the MOE is education is important. Knowledge building dedicated to ensuring the education of students with on the ethics, delivery, and impact of inclusive disabilities. Regardless of the internal structure, the education services is not sufficient. The attitudes of individuals who direct and manage this component administrators and support staff toward educating of the educational system need the appropriate students with disabilities, in general, and toward training and experiential background to appropriately inclusive education, in particular, must be addressed. guide policy related to education for children with Approaches that involve personal and group disabilities and provide the oversight required to reflection and dialogue are often successful in shifting ensure the provision of inclusive education for children with disabilities. A systems approach requires cross-disciplinary Catholic Relief Services’ Program in Laos cooperation and commitment from leaders in the As part of their inclusive education program, Catholic Relief Services in Laos (2014) developed health, social welfare, and finance sectors. This an Inclusive Education Training Manual for administrators. cooperation must occur at national and subnational This document provides training modules on topics such levels of governance. For example, referral networks as seeking out schoolchildren; the roles and responsibilities for ensuring that children receive needed services, of families, teachers, and the community; understanding such as access to health care and child protection, punishment and creative education; gender awareness; should be established within the school community and disability awareness.

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 16 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper educators’ attitudes from resistance to inclusive education to advocacy for students with disabilities. Inclusion Strategy • Make pre- and in-service trainings on disability and inclusive development mandatory for all teachers, Teachers and Support Staff staff, administrators, and related support staff. In many LMI countries, support staff and therapists— • Allow teachers to engage and work with students with including teachers’ assistants, social workers, disabilities as part of their preservice training. psychologists, speech therapists, occupational • Hire teachers with disabilities so that their unique insight can therapists, and physical therapists—may not be be used in the classroom and they can serve as role models. available in the classroom, and even when they are, • Engage community-based health workers to work with parents may have to pay for their services. These teachers in identifying student learning needs. support staff can play an important role in the education of students with disabilities, however, and should ideally be made freely available and For example, a study in Egypt revealed that teachers should work together with the general education and who had social relationships with individuals with special education teachers to help identify students disabilities were more supportive of inclusive who have specific learning needs, deliver national education (El-Ashry, 2009). Teachers’ sense of their curriculum-led instruction, identify supports and/ ability to teach students with disabilities should also or assistive devices that could benefit the student, be addressed. As teachers become more confident in and engage parents in students’ learning. Because their teaching skills, they become more comfortable special educators may have technical knowledge and accepting children with disabilities in their classroom expertise, they should serve as resources and supports and adapting their teaching methods to include a for the general education teacher, who is ultimately variety of learning styles (Vaz et al., 2015). Thus, responsible for educating all students within their pre-service education programs should be required to classroom. Classrooms in low-resource areas can provide opportunities for student teachers to engage provide these types of critical supports in several directly and teach students with disabilities, and ways. training on the principles and benefits of inclusive education should be included throughout preservice Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion and disability can programs. Another positive way to promote inclusive have a substantial impact on the success of including education is to actively recruit and hire individuals students with disabilities into the general education with disabilities as school staff. To make this feasible, classroom (Cochran, 1998). For example, teachers are teacher training colleges should not discriminate often more open to including students with physical against students with disabilities and should, if or sensory disabilities than those with intellectual, possible, actively recruit students with disabilities so learning, and behavioral disabilities (Avramidis they can become effective teachers and mentors. This & Norwich, 2002). This is typically because of the strategy allows students with disabilities to engage misconception that children with moderate to severe with role models and provides all teaching staff an learning, cognitive, or intellectual disabilities are not opportunity to learn from their unique insight related able to learn while children with physical or sensory to teaching students with disabilities and their skills disabilities are. These attitudes should be addressed in the classroom (UN, 2016a). directly through reflection and dialogue. Research has also shown that the more opportunities teachers have Parents to engage with individuals with disabilities, the more likely they are to support the concept of inclusive Engaging parents with and without children education (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). with disabilities is another key component in the establishment of successful inclusive schools. It is not uncommon for parents of children with disabilities to resist school reforms that promote inclusive education because they fear that their children might

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 17 not receive needed services in an inclusive setting include opportunities for personal reflection and (Daniel & King, 1997). These parents may also dialogue. harbor concerns regarding their children’s safety; the attitudes of other students, staff and program quality; Community and transportation (Hanline & Halvorsen, 1989). In addition to school and parent partnership, However, parent engagement and partnership can community engagement is especially important lead to increased acceptance of disability, improved during times of transition or education reform. For learning, and better classroom behaviors (Edutopia, example, research conducted within the United States 2000), and research has shown that, as inclusive found that parent-community ties constituted one of education systems become more established, parents the five essential supports needed for schools to be adopt a decisively positive view of inclusive education effective (Sebring & Montgomery, 2014). This support (Miller & Phillips, 1992). Additionally, evidence develops when school staff reach out to parents and suggests that increased parent engagement and the community and encourage them to participate in partnership in the special education process leads strengthening student learning (Epstein, 2001). As to improved learning outcomes for students with WHO (2011) states, “Approaches involving the whole disabilities (Stoner et al., 2005). community reflect the fact that the child is an integral member of the community and make it more likely Inclusion Strategy that sustainable, inclusive education for the child can • Sensitize all parents on the benefits of inclusive be obtained.” education, create opportunities for parents to raise concerns, and address those concerns proactively. To support community participation, USAID (2011) • Encourage teachers to include parents of students with has developed five steps to engage communities in disabilities in the different aspects of the students’ school education programs; these also apply to engaging the experience. community in inclusive education programs: Step 1. Conduct a participatory assessment of the Teachers should engage parents in their child’s current situation, attitudes, concerns, opportunities, learning as much as possible and find ways to and aspirations related to education. share classroom achievements and challenges with Step 2. Strengthen or form formalized structures for parents. Teachers should also partner with parents engagement. to determine how to best support a student with Step 3. Assist school management committees, parent a disability outside of the classroom and how to teacher associations, or other coordinating bodies in advocate jointly for support to address the student’s setting goals and developing plans. needs. Including parents of children with disabilities in community programs is important to ensure that Step 4. Build capacity to strengthen community-level their children benefit from community support. human resources. Additionally, the attitudes of parents of children Step 5. Conduct continuous monitoring and follow- without disabilities toward inclusive education have up. been clearly demonstrated to become more positive Communities also benefit from having inclusive over time (Boer, Pijl, & Minnaert, 2010), and teachers schools. For example, an inclusive education project should help to build sensitivity among the parents of in Vietnam showed that communities with inclusive children without disabilities. For effective inclusive education programs “become more open minded, education to become a reality, inclusive education creating a more favorable environment for people reform must raise community awareness of benefits with disabilities in the future” (Catholic Relief and basic concepts of inclusive education. Such Services/Vietnam, 2008). awareness-building activities should not be limited to information sharing or sensitization but should

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DPOs and Parent Associations change. No standardized approach for how to shift In most countries, DPOs and associations for parents from a segregated system to an inclusive one is of children with disabilities serve as helpful resources available. Issues such as a country’s current education to build awareness and acceptance of children with system, cultural views on disability, political will, and disabilities and to promote inclusive education. socioeconomic stability can impact how a country These groups are also well positioned to educate may choose to approach its inclusive educational parents on their children’s rights and advocate reform. However, several models have been for improved education policies and legislation. helpful for different countries as they work toward Engaging these groups is critical in establishing developing an inclusive education system. inclusive education systems, because they use their national network of members to support educational Developing Resource Centers reforms and improved policies and also have unique Many countries—including Armenia, Hong Kong, and important insight gained through their lived the United Kingdom, the United States, and South experience. One study conducted in both high- Africa—have worked to transition segregated schools and low-income countries showed that disability to national or regional resource centers. For example, advocates and DPOs participating in and advocating in this model, teachers who used to teach students for improved education services have led to distinct who are blind now serve as on-site supports, trainers, improvements in special education (Eleweke, 2001). and mentors for general education teachers who may Examples of international DPOs working in the field have students who are blind in their classroom. This of education and rights of children with disabilities model, in which previously designated specialized, include the following: segregated schools and inclusive schools collaborate • International Disability Alliance: http://www. and work together, has resulted in positive gains, internationaldisabilityalliance.org/ especially relating to student outcomes (Paulsen, 2008). Examples of collaboration include co-teaching, • Disabled Persons International: http://www.dpi.org/ support to modify curriculum, and provision of • Inclusion International: http://inclusion- behavioral supports (Forlin & Rose, 2010). This international.org/ model typically facilitates a smoother transition toward inclusion and allows special educators to What Is a DPO? continue to use and share their practical hands- A DPO is an organization in which people with disabilities on experience and knowledge to provide positive constitute a majority (more than 51 percent) of the staff, support for students. board, and volunteers and are well represented within the organization. This definition includes parent organizations Inclusion Strategy (i.e., organizations representing children or individuals with Transition segregated schools or institutions to intellectual disabilities) whose primary aim is empowering resource centers that can provide technical support and and growing self-advocacy among persons with disability guidance based upon their area of expertise and past (Disability Rights Fund, 2016). experience.

Using Itinerant Teachers/Specialist Teachers Models of Moving From a Segregated System to an Inclusive One In many countries where the number of trained special education teachers is limited, itinerant Many countries are moving away from segregated or visiting teachers or, in some cases, health systems and toward a more inclusive model that professionals can provide support to general allows for students with disabilities to be taught education teachers. Under this model, special alongside their nondisabled peers. The incentives educators or experts who are trained in a specific type for this shift vary by country, although compliance of disability travel to different inclusive schools to with the CRPD has played a significant role in this offer advice and mentorship and to provide technical

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 19 assistance to general education teachers and schools. student’s educational needs. Instead, countries should In this way, even schools with limited funding (i.e., allow all children to access school, regardless of where special educators cannot be present in each disability, and implement a screening and classroom school) can benefit from special education expertise evaluation process to determine eligibility for special and knowledge. Countries that have implemented the education services and assess what type of supports itinerant teacher model include Kenya, Malawi, and or services might be beneficial for each student. An Uganda (Lynch & McCall, 2007). evaluation process can also inform IEPs that can serve as additional support for both teachers and countries Engaging Teacher Assistants as they move toward a more individualized approach. Using teacher assistants, sometimes also referred Inclusion Strategy to as “paraprofessionals,” to support teachers in Requirements that children must be diagnosed or inclusive classrooms is an effective approach in many receive a certification prior to being allowed into school should countries. Although teacher assistants’ roles within be removed from laws and practice. the classroom may vary significantly by context, research has demonstrated that teaching assistants are most successful when assigned to support a Many countries, such as Costa Rica, have eliminated classroom rather than assigned to an individual diagnosis-based educational services and have transitioned student, because the latter may inadvertently increase to providing individualized supports to students (Stough, the stigma associated with disability, isolate the 2003). student with a disability, and increase the student’s dependency and/or reduce her/his interactions with the teacher or peers (Giangreco et al., 2001). In some Identification of Children With Disabilities exceptions, assigning a teaching assistant to a student Children with disabilities can be identified as needing who, for example, needs support to communicate or special education in various ways. Typically, initial who is medically fragile may be needed. Even in such suspicions that a child has special learning needs cases, however, it is important that teacher assistants come through school referrals, concerns raised supplement and support teachers but not replace by the child’s parents, or the health care system them as the primary source of instruction (Giangreco (i.e., identification by a pediatrician or health care & Doyle, 2007). professional). However, reliably identifying a child Inclusion Strategy as having a disability can be extremely challenging Have teacher assistants support the entire classroom in countries that struggle with community rather than only one or two students with disabilities; this misperceptions of disabilities, limited resources for reduces unintended stigma and avoids limiting students’ conducting screenings and evaluation, and the limited interaction with their peers. availability of skilled professionals who are trained to conduct a comprehensive diagnostic evaluation. Moving From a Diagnosis-Based Approach to an Even within high-income countries, too often Individualized One only children with relatively severe disabilities are In some countries—such as Gabon, India, identified prior to reaching school age, and children Macedonia, and Morocco—before children can enter with less-noticeable disabilities (e.g., low vision, school, even an inclusive school, they must receive a hard of hearing, learning disabilities, and mild-to- certificate from a doctor diagnosing their disability. moderate autism spectrum disorders) are generally This approach can limit educational opportunities identified after they enter preprimary or primary for low-income families who may not be able to school (Wirz, Edwards, Flower, & Yousafzai, 2005). afford medical appointments to receive the required In fact, even in the United States, fewer than one in certificate. Furthermore, as discussed previously, a five children are properly screened and identified as diagnosis does not inform a teacher about a specific having possible special needs before school (Data

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Resource Center for Child & Adolescent Health, should follow international best practices, which 2009). Identifying a disability as early as possible is include having a trained multidisciplinary team important, because interventions introduced early conduct the evaluation, using multiple tools that have are much more likely to lead to long-term gains than been translated into the local language and adapted those that are implemented later in life (Fernald, to the cultural context, actively engaging parents, and Kariger, Engle, & Raikes, 2009). Furthermore, summarizing findings in a comprehensive report that early intervention is linked to several positive life outlines additional supports or services that might outcomes, such as higher academic performance, benefit the student. increased likelihood of graduating secondary school, and decreased likelihood of committing crimes In many countries, including the United States, a (Heckman & Masterov, 2005). diagnosis is not needed for a child to enroll and access education, including inclusive education. Instead an evaluation is used to determine access Making Early Grade Reading Tools to special education services and inform the types Accessible of supports or accommodations a student may In Malawi, RTI and Perkins International conducted a need that are ultimately selected using a very pilot program to assess the reading skills of students individualized approach. Because of the wide range who are blind. In the program, the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) was adapted for braille readers. of abilities that exist within a diagnosis, giving a The EGRA tool was given to 44 students in grades 1–3 child a specific diagnosis, such as Down syndrome or who were receiving braille instruction. The objective of autism spectrum disorder, does not provide accurate this study was to understand the degree of instrument information on that child’s ability to function and and protocol adaptation required to conduct an EGRA succeed within the classroom. Instead, each child with braille readers. The results of the pilot suggest that will have her strengths and weaknesses that should standard EGRA protocols, training methodologies, and assessment tools can be easily adapted for use by braille be fostered and supported, respectively. Access readers. A larger-scale pilot would allow for more rigorous and functional needs should be identified for each assessment of the validity and reliability of the adapted student on a case-by-case/individual basis through an measures. interactive process involving the student, family, and others knowledgeable about the student.

Most early and primary education programs in Challenges of Labeling LMI countries do not have systems in place to systematically identify students with disabilities. In many countries with developed special education As a result, many students, especially those with systems, labeling students with disabilities is linked less severe disabilities, are never identified and, to additional funding or classroom supports and thus, never receive special education services or is, therefore, needed in some way (Lauchlan & other aids. Furthermore, these countries rarely Boyle, 2007). Identifying students who require administer vision and hearing screenings, and if additional educational supports and collecting they do, these tests typically do not take place at data on disability are essential to ensuring that school. Simple screenings should be administered students receive appropriate services. However, in within the classroom to assess learning, vision, other contexts, this process of identification can and hearing challenges. Countries should establish lead to increased stigmatization, peer rejection, referral systems to ensure that these students, once lower self-esteem, lower expectations, and limited identified, can receive services or aids, such as glasses. opportunities (Florian et al., 2006). Moreover, once a In addition, Response to Intervention strategies can student is categorized as requiring special education, be used to assess whether a student will benefit from he or she can be stigmatized by teachers who may additional academic support and can also inform have lower expectations for the student (Henley, teachers if a more comprehensive evaluation should Ramsey, & Algozzine, 2010). To mitigate potential be conducted. Evaluations within the school setting prejudicial labeling, all identification systems should be coupled with disability awareness programs to help

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 21 administrators, teachers, students, and parents better understand and fully accept diversity and disability. UDL is a “set of principles for curriculum that give all For example, in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi, RTI individuals equal opportunities to learn” (National Center is piloting teacher training and guidance intended, on Universal Design for Learning, 2016). For more than 30 in part, to sensitize teachers about the dangers of years, CAST (http://www.cast.org/) has driven the use of disability stigma and to provide specific instructional UDL to expand learning opportunities for all individuals. techniques to support the learning of students with disabilities. Additional low-cost resources and training for teachers must be made available in LMI are set up, and how teachers are trained can go far in countries if teachers are to be able to effectively meet meeting UDL goals. the needs of their students with disabilities. Strategies on how teachers can use UDL include the following (Rose & Meyer, 2002): Inclusion Strategy

Focus on the student’s functional and access needs • Use multiple strategies to present the content. and strengths rather than his specific diagnosis. Ensure that all Use a variety of techniques, including case studies, identification systems are coupled with disability awareness music, role play, cooperative learning, hands-on programs for administrators, teachers, and parents. activities, and field trips, and a variety of learning contexts, including individual, pair, and group work; peer learning; and field work. Adaptable Learning Environments and UDL • Use a variety of materials. To present, illustrate, and reinforce new content, use different materials, Promoting adaptable learning environments, and such as online resources, manipulatives, and building awareness of the importance of differentiated existing textbooks and supplemental reading books. learning, are important in establishing an inclusive education system. One relatively successful way • Provide cogitative supports. Present background of promoting an adaptable learning environment information for new concepts using pictures, is using UDL. This approach recognizes that all objects, and other materials that are not lecture students, with and without disabilities, learn in based. Scaffold student learning by providing a different ways. When the curriculum is designed course syllabus, outlines, summaries, and study to meet the needs of “average” students, it fails to guides. address the natural diversity and backgrounds that • Teach to a variety of learning styles. Build exist in all classrooms. Although the goal of UDL is movement into learning and give both oral and to meet the diverse learning needs of students with written instructions for students who learn auditory disabilities, it can also enhance the education of all or visually. students in the classroom. Research has revealed that • Provide flexible opportunities for assessment. teachers find UDL to be an effective instructional Enable students to demonstrate their learning approach and that it enables teachers to better engage in multiple ways, including visual and oral diverse groups of students (Kurtts, 2006). UDL may presentations, as well as written assignments. also be an effective technique in countries that may not yet have a disabilities identification system in place, by helping teachers to support diverse learning Inclusive Teaching and Learning Materials needs even without knowing which students may Addressing inclusive education and portraying people have disabilities. Of course, particularly in resource- with disabilities in positive and empowering ways constrained contexts, the demands on teachers are can facilitate reducing stigma and discrimination. great, and achieving adaptable learning environments Unfortunately, students with disabilities are rarely can be only aspirational at first. Even in these included in teaching and learning materials, contexts, however, simple shifts in how teaching and and when they are included, they are often learning materials are developed, how classrooms underrepresented or presented in demeaning ways.

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For example, a recent study reviewed the visibility • Represent people with disabilities from different of persons with disabilities in illustrations of seven racial and cultural backgrounds, religions, Iranian English as a foreign language textbooks used and age groups, as well as rural versus urban in US secondary schools. The study demonstrated representations. that people with disabilities were underrepresented • Depict valued occupations for persons with and that images of students with disabilities were disabilities and show them in diverse and active typically shown in disadvantageous positions that roles. perpetuated the invisibility of the students and • Depict people with disabilities in integrated promoted negative stereotypes (Cheng & Beigi, settings and activities—in school, at work, or in 2011). Teaching and learning materials should the community among peers with and without address inclusive education and include positive disabilities. and empowering images and stories of students with disabilities. To promote this, USAID has • Illustrate characters and adaptive equipment developed A Guide to Promote Gender Equality and accurately. (Anti-Defamation League, 2005) Inclusiveness in Teaching and Learning Materials (USAID, 2015), which recommends that images and Teacher Training stories in teaching and learning materials reflect the diversity of social characteristics within a country. Teachers represent the most powerful resource As children with disabilities represent approximately in all educational systems, and the importance of 15 percent of the population, USAID recommends continuously building their knowledge and skills that 15 percent of images and stories should include cannot be overstated. Teachers in LMI countries may students with disabilities. In addition, it is important not have a formal training on explicit instructional that these images show girls and boys with all types techniques, and national standards for teacher of disabilities as productive members of society. training can vary significantly from country to This guide also provides a checklist for what to look country. In some countries, a 1-month training for when developing new teaching and learning course can qualify as training, whereas other materials. In summary, teaching and learning countries require a 3-year education degree (Global materials should: Campaign for Education, 2012). Where training does exist, the curriculum often does not include training • Use language that stresses the person first and related to the nature of disabilities and approaches the disability second (people with disabilities, not for working with students who have disabilities. As disabled people). a result, there is a severe shortage of teachers and • Promote empathy and an overall feeling of teacher assistants capable of effectively supporting the understanding for people with disabilities, as well as provide accurate information about a specific disability. CASE STUDY • Demonstrate respect for and acceptance of people RTI Malawi Early Grade Reading Activity with disabilities, and depict them as more similar As part of the USAID Malawi Early Grade than different from other people (“one of us” rather Reading Activity project, RTI reached out to special education teachers, including teachers than “one of them”). at schools for the deaf and for the blind, to • Emphasize the successes of people with disabilities attend Early Grade Reading Activity trainings. One teacher and show their strengths and abilities along with reported that the 5-day training on effective early grade their disabilities. reading practices helped her find ways to adapt teaching techniques to address the literacy needs of her students • Promote positive images of persons with disabilities who are deaf. Because of the techniques she obtained and represent them as strong, independent people, through participating in the training, her students are now who others can look up to or admire. reading after one term (i.e., 3 months), a task that used to take a year (USAID, 2017).

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 23 individual needs of students with disabilities (WHO, Promote the Diversification of Skill Sets 2011). Without building these skills and ensuring UNESCO recommends a hierarchy of teacher training the positive attitudes of teachers toward disability, opportunities in an inclusive education system: true inclusive education will be difficult to achieve. All teachers should be trained on inclusive practices Recommendations for successful approaches to as they will undoubtedly have a child with a disability preparing teachers include the following. in their classroom at some point in time. Many teachers (ideally, at least one per school) Embed Disability in All Preservice and In-Service should develop more comprehensive expertise Trainings on disability related to more common learning challenges and disabilities. These individuals can The curriculum for preservice and in-service serve as an on-sight resource and advisor to their trainings designed to provide teachers with the peers. knowledge and skills needed to support students with A few teachers should develop higher levels of disabilities in an inclusive setting should be integrated expertise in the diverse challenges that mainstream and mutually supportive. These curricula should teachers may encounter and serve as a consultant to not address disability as a stand-alone subject, but those schools and teachers as needed. (UNESCO, should embed explicit training in teaching students 2003) with disabilities as an integral part of core teacher competencies. Stand-alone courses on disability have Address Potential Attitudinal Barriers been shown to be ineffective, because this approach Attitudes have a sizeable impact on the performance perpetuates the misunderstanding that disability is a of students with disabilities in inclusive settings. separate training initiative and not a core competency Prejudicial beliefs may result in lower expectations of required of all teachers. Whenever feasible, enormous students with disabilities and lead to these students value added can be achieved when teacher training focusing less on academic achievement. Thus, as related to students with disabilities includes local for any stakeholder dialogue on disability, it is stakeholders, such as disability leaders or parents of important to address attitudes, beliefs, and practices children with disabilities, who can provide a lived in pre-service and in-service trainings on inclusive experience of disability and ground-truth theory into education. In this process, rather than telling teachers reality (International Disability and Development what their attitudes and beliefs should be, training Consortium, 2013). should allow for personal reflection on these attitudes and practices, and opportunities should be provided Include All Teachers, Regardless of Specialization, for open discussion among teachers related to these in Teacher Training attitudes and fears about including students with Too often, in-service trainings for special education disabilities in their classrooms. Training should also teachers and general education teachers take help teachers reflect on how to dispel myths and fears place separate from each other. As a result, special associated with inclusive education among education education teachers do not receive the new skills officials, school managers, parents and other related to literacy, math, and other topics that are community members, and other service providers. offered to general education teachers, whereas general education teachers fail to receive continuing Provide Follow-Up and Hands-On Experience education related to disability. As emphasized It is vital to follow up on the trainings with ongoing previously, teacher training related to students with support and mentoring, to the extent possible within disabilities must be inclusive. That is, all teachers, the country or context. Having ongoing support for regardless of their area of specialization, should have teachers in the classroom can strengthen their skills access to training and international best practices that and their confidence in establishing an inclusive can be adapted or modified as needed to the specific education setting in the classroom. In some countries, reality of their classrooms. designated support supervision staff can be trained in providing this kind of support to teachers. Special

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 24 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper education teachers who have previously worked Three primary approaches for generating disability within segregated settings might also serve as coaches data through censuses or surveys exist: (1) the and resources to general education teachers; such respondent self-identifies as having a disability special education teachers should receive training (e.g., “Do you have a disability and, if so, what and guidance in how to effectively serve in this new disability?”); (2) the respondent selects from a role as a resource, coach, and mentor. Communities list of disability categories (e.g., “From this list of of practice and distance learning may also serve as disabilities, select those that apply”); and (3) the viable options for teachers in many countries. respondent answers questions regarding her level of functionality, or questions related to what she Inclusion Strategy can and cannot do without help (e.g., “Do you need Enable teachers to obtain real-life experience help feeding yourself?”). Due to concerns related working with students with disabilities, especially during to stigmas or prejudice, or perhaps a lack of a preservice trainings. common understanding of disability, typically fewer than 10 percent of people will respond honestly to Data Collection, Prevalence Rates, and Enrollment the first two types of questions, especially in LMI Poor data collection is one of the many reasons why countries; this results in artificially low percentages children with disabilities are left out of education of individuals indicating that they have disabilities. plans, because a lack of data impedes education When functionality questions are used, however, planning and implementation. Poor data are not the number of individuals with disabilities increases surprising given the challenges of identifying students to approximately 10–20 percent of the population with disabilities. Moreover, even when prevalence (Mont, 2007). To support countries in developing data on children with disabilities are collected, data more accurate data, the Washington Group developed on participation restrictions and environmental a simple set of six functionality questions that can be factors are generally lacking (e.g., data regarding used in censuses and household surveys throughout barriers to full participation, whether schools are the world to determine prevalence of disabilities. physically accessible, and whether students with Countries such as Timor-Leste and Bangladesh disabilities can participate equitably in all areas of have begun to use these functionality questions the school, including sports and recreation). This in their respective EMIS systems to track students type of information is needed in developing better with disabilities (UNICEF, 2014c). More recently, program and policy interventions (UNICEF, 2013). the Washington Group on Disability and Statistics For example, Education Management Information and UNICEF (2016) developed an additional set Systems (EMISs), which most countries use to of functionality questions specifically designed for monitor and guide education sectors, even when used children. systematically typically do not include indicators on Although the exact numbers are typically unknown, disability (UNICEF, 2014e). Additionally, even a well- strong evidence suggests that many children with functioning EMIS only captures information on the disabilities in LMI countries have never attended number of students attending school who may have school. A 2004 study in Malawi showed that children a disability; it cannot determine how many children with disabilities were twice as likely to have never with disabilities are eligible to attend school and are attended school compared to their peers without not enrolled. disabilities (UNICEF, 2014c). Additionally, a recent study in Rwanda demonstrated that of those surveyed, 57.4 percent of children with disabilities EMIS and Disability had never attended school and that the rest (42.6 UNICEF has developed a technical booklet percent) dropped out after attending school for just with sample questions about children with a few years (Baptiste, Malachie, & Struthers, 2013). disabilities that can be used within an EMIS (UNICEF, 2014e). There are a wide range of reasons why parents do not enroll their children in school. These reasons include

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 25 inaccessible facilities, a lack of transportation, a lack The challenge of relying solely on nongovernmental of programs that accept children with disabilities, organizations to educate children with disabilities negative attitudes and unkindness toward children is that, in these cases, large discrepancies often arise with disabilities, and the bullying and stigmatization in the quality of the services provided, there is a often experienced by children with even mild tendency to not follow the national curriculum for disabilities (WHO, 2011). A robust situational instruction, and because of tuition costs, only affluent analysis is a critical first step toward reforming school families often receive services. The provision of programs to promote the equality and inclusion of financial support by the government to implement children with disabilities. Such studies should provide an inclusive education system is a critical factor in data that are aggregated at both the national and its success. It is also important to recognize that subnational levels of government and public service. although an initial investment will be needed, The information collected should include household especially during times of reform and transition, surveys to define the population, attitudes related to the inclusive education model will be a more cost- the inclusive education of students with disabilities, effective model in the long term (UNICEF, 2012). and the accessibility of school programs and referral networks, such as special education support and Inclusion Strategy health, psychosocial, and child protection services Reallocate the budget used for segregated schools that can provide important outpatient services toward financing inclusive education systems. Ensure that all for children with disabilities and their parents or budgets are transparent and available to the public. guardians. Through a comprehensive study of the opportunities and barriers to education for children The costs initially allocated to segregated systems with disabilities, curricular and system reforms can should be transitioned to budgets for inclusive be developed to inform forward movement toward education systems. However, in countries with inclusive education for children with disabilities. emerging or limited special education systems, additional funding may be needed. Typically, In 2006, RTI collaborated with USAID and the higher-income countries spend 12‒20 percent Morocco Ministry of National Education and of their education budgets on special education Vocational Training to assess the state of disabilities inclusion in the country. This (Sharma, Forlin, & Furlonger, 2015). Several models assessment engaged a number of DPOs and other for financing inclusive education exist, and the disabilities rights organizations and has informed ongoing predominant models include the following models. dialogue regarding the structure of schools and the education system in Morocco (USAID, 2016). Per Capita or Cost-Based Models In these models, a formula is developed and applied to the number of children with disabilities Budgeting for Inclusion in the country to determine the amount of total Funding for inclusive education, as for all education spending. For example, certain amounts of money initiatives, is a substantial concern for governments. are allocated for students without disabilities, those In fact, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and who are socially disadvantaged, those who speak a Zimbabwe have cited the lack of financial resources minority language, and those who have a disability. as a primary reason for delaying the implementation A student with a disability is frequently estimated of an inclusive education system (Chireshe, 2013; to require 2‒2.5 times more financial support than a Sukhraj, 2008). Other countries, such as Morocco, student who does not have a disability, is not socially Senegal, and Mozambique, have limited budgets disadvantaged, or does not speak a minority language allocated for special education or inclusive education (UNICEF, 2014d). Countries that use this model to and rely heavily on nongovernmental organizations determine their budgets include the United States, and civil society to educate children with disabilities. Canada, and Serbia.

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Inclusion Strategy Monitoring Systems for Improvement Countries with limited experience or with emerging identification services should consider using the resource- or Routine monitoring systems are critical for school-based model for budgeting, as it does not require continuous learning and adaptation of an inclusive accurate identification and data collection. education program. To implement a robust monitoring system, a set of performance indicators must be developed that can be used to gauge the Resource- or School-Based Models quality of programming and the outcomes for all In these models, funding is based upon the services students, including but not limited to students needed within a country versus the number of with disabilities. This may mean that assessment children who require services. For example, using this instruments are modified to measure learning model, a country determines the number of special outcomes among children with disabilities. education specialists and the equipment needed to implement inclusive education and then allows municipalities and schools to decide on how the The European Agency for Development in Special money is specifically spent. Countries that use this Needs Education (2009) developed a set of indicators for model to determine their budget allocations include inclusive education in collaboration with 23 countries in Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, and Norway the region. The project resulted from a survey conducted in 22 European countries that listed indicators on inclusive (UNICEF, 2014d). education as one of the primary needs of the different ministries of education. Indicators were established in Output-Based Models three areas: policy/legislation, participation, and financing. In these models, school funding is tied to student Although additional work is still needed in this area, these joint indicators may provide governments with ideas for achievement scores, and sanctions are imposed on developing their own indicators for inclusive education. low-performing schools. In the context of special education, this form of funding has been highly criticized by the disability community, because it Information related to participation, accessibility, may encourage segregated settings and penalize and the availability of supports for students with schools for circumstances outside of their control disabilities should be collected within an EMIS. This (such as a lack of trained teachers or access to adapted information is helpful in informing the planning, materials). Parts of Australia, the United Kingdom, budgeting, and programming for students with and the United States have used this model to finance disabilities. However, national education statistics inclusive education (UNICEF, 2014d). systems are generally limited in their ability to access certain information needed to inform allocations to Each of these funding models has advantages and schools based on relative need. For example, EMISs disadvantages. For example, the per-capita model can rarely include information from households, and be challenging for countries that do not have reliable thus, access to an emerging inclusive education identifications systems within the school (Sharma et program may be unknown. Furthermore, national al., 2015). Governments should carefully review their education statistics rarely provide information on the options and select the model that is best aligned with quality of teacher instruction or learning outcomes. their country’s context and the current budgeting Building avenues for collecting such information systems used for the general education system. is critical to ensure that inclusive programs are aligned with the government’s national policy and curriculum requirements. Regularly evaluating the access to education, quality of the instruction, needed support structures, and learning outcomes is critical. Having this information allows the education

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 RTI Press: Occasional Paper Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide 27 system to become a learning system and, through and welcomes diversity amongst all learners” learning, to adapt to ensure that all students with (UNESCO, 2009, p. 4). For educational reform to disabilities receive an education in the least-restrictive be successful within a country, political will must be environment possible and that schools are positive combined with support from teachers, administrators, and supportive. parents, and the community. Additionally, the false belief that some children have more value than others Conclusion and, thus, deserve more opportunities to succeed must be eliminated. All children and youths have the Countries are increasingly moving toward adopting right to receive a quality education and reach their inclusive education systems that are supported by full potential. For students with disabilities to receive policy and best-practice legislative frameworks. the best possible education, governments must Although there is an increasing number of success commit to providing education in inclusive settings. stories in this area, substantial challenges related As stated by the CRPD Committee, “only inclusive to implementation persist. For example, even education can provide both quality education and in situations where quality inclusive education social development for persons with disabilities… legislation exists, a large gap between policy and [and] it is the most appropriate modality for States practice often remains. In some cases, this gap results to guarantee universality and non-discrimination from a lack of budget for general education can serve in the right to education” (United Nations, 2016a). as a barrier to implementing inclusive education Although challenges in implementing inclusive policy. Additionally, persistent prejudicial views or education reform exist, they are not insurmountable, questions regarding the value of inclusive education and changes made through such reform will only can impede progress and result in gaps between in strengthen the educational system by addressing the policy and practice. needs of all students. UNESCO states that the “concept and practice of inclusive education have gained importance in Education reform and inclusive education reform recent years. Internationally, the term is increasingly should be a process and not a project. understood more broadly as a reform that supports

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Sebring, P. B., & Montgomery, N. (2014). The five UN. (2016b). Sustainable Development Goal 4. Retrieved essential supports for school improvement: Mobilizing October 6, 2016, from https://sustainabledevelopment. the findings. Pensamiento Educativo. Revista de un.org/sdg4 Investigación Educacional Latinoamericana, 51(1), UN. (2016c). Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved June 22, 63‒85. 2017, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs Sharma, U., Forlin, C., & Furlonger, B. (2015). UN Division for Social Policy and Development: Disability. Contemporary models of funding inclusive education (2006). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities for students with autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved (CRPD). Retrieved September 12, 2016, from https://www. September 12, 2016, from http://www.education.vic. un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the- gov.au/Documents/about/department/psdlitreview_ rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html FundingInclusiveEducationforStudentswithASD.pdf UN Division for Social Policy and Development: Disability. Sightsavers. (2011). Policy paper: Making inclusive (2016). CRPD latest developments. Retrieved September education a reality. Retrieved September 12, 2016, from 12, 2016, from https://www.un.org/development/desa/ http://g3ict.org/download/p/fileId_848/productId_171 disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with- Skrtic, T. (1991). The special education paradox: Equity disabilities/latest-developments.html as the way to excellence. Harvard Educational Review, UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization 61(2), 148‒207. (UNESCO). (1990). The world declaration on education South Africa Department of Education. (2001). Special for all and framework for action to meet basic learning needs education: Building an inclusive education needs. Retrieved September 12, 2016, from http:// and training system. Retrieved June 23, 2017, from unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001275/127583e.pdf http://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/ UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca statement and framework Legislation/White%20paper/Education%20%20 for action on special needs education. Retrieved from White%20Paper%206.pdf September 6, 2016, http://www.unesco.org/education/ Stoner, J. B., Bock, S. J., Thompson, J. R., Angell, M. pdf/SALAMA_E.PDF E., Heyl, B. S., & Crowley, E. P. (2005). Welcome UNESCO. (2003). Open file on inclusive education: Support to our world: Parent perceptions of interactions materials for managers and administrators. Retrieved between parents of young children with ASD and September 6, 2016, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ education professionals. Focus on Autism and Other images/0013/001321/132164e.pdf Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 39‒51. UNESCO. (2009). Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. Stough, L. M. (2003). Special education and severe Retrieved July 7, 2016, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ disabilities in Costa Rica: Developing inclusion in a images/0017/001778/177849e.pdf developing country. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28(1), 7–15. UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF). (2004). Children and disability in transition in CEE/CIS and Baltic States. Sukhraj, P. (2008). The implementation and challenges Retrieved July 7, 2016, from http://www.unicef.org/ to inclusive education policy and practice in South ceecis/Disability-eng.pdf Africa. Retrieved July 20, 2016, from http://icevi.org/ publications/icevi_wc2006/09_inclusive_educational_ UNICEF. (2012). The right of children with disabilities practices/Papers/afr_006_praveena%20sukhraj.pdf to education: A rights-based approach to inclusive education. Retrieved July 15, 2016, from http://www. Turnbull, H.R., Stowe, M., & Huerta, N. (2007). unicef.org/ceecis/Final_Draft_-_Position_Paper2.pdf Appropriate public education: The law and children with disabilities. Denver, Colorado: Love Publishing UNICEF. (2013). Children and young people with disabilities fact Company. sheet. Retrieved July 15, 2016, from http://www.unicef.org/ disabilities/files/Factsheet_A5__Web_NEW.pdf United Nations. (2016a). General comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education. Convention on UNICEF. (2014a). Global initiative on out-of-school children: the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Retrieved South Asia regional study. Retrieved July 15, 2016, from on January 24, 2017, from http://tbinternet.ohchr. https://www.unicef.org/education/files/SouthAsia_ org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download. OOSCI_Study__Executive_Summary_26Jan_14Final.pdf aspx?symbolno=CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=en

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Appendix A. Inclusive Education Systems and Policy Checklist

This checklist is based upon the various articles of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) and the CRPD Committee’s draft General Comments on the right to inclusive education.

Government Education Systems Should: Consult with parents of children with disabilities and individuals with disabilities on proposed laws Include all children with disabilities under the and educational plans. responsibility of the Ministry of Education. Establish an outreach mechanism to build Establish an intersectoral commitment to awareness of parents and the community on issues inclusive education across government ministries, related to disability and inclusive education. including: – Ministry of Finance; Collect data on children with disabilities using – Ministry of Health; the Washington Group functionality questions – Ministry of Planning; and (http://www.washingtongroup-disability.com/ washington-group-question-sets) to inform – Ministry of Social Welfare and Child policies and programs. Protection. Capture disability data within the Education Require inclusive education as a component of Management and Information System (EMIS). preservice teacher training. Develop monitoring frameworks with structural, Require inclusive education as a component of in- process and outcome indicators. service teacher training. Specific Inclusive Education Legal Framework Actively recruit teachers with disabilities. Should: Provide accommodations to teachers with Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of disabilities. disability. Ensure that general education sector plans and/or Provide a clear definition of inclusion and the strategic plans address the needs of children with specific objectives the law is seeking to achieve at disabilities and inclusive education. all educational levels. Develop an Education Sector Plan to support Ensure that all legislation that potentially impacts disability-specific legislation that details the inclusive education within a country clearly states process for implementing an inclusive education inclusion as a goal. system, including the allocation of sufficient, committed financial and human resources for Reinforce that all children with disabilities, both rural and urban areas. regardless of diagnosis or severity, have the right to free primary and access to secondary education Ensure that teaching and learning materials are within their public neighborhood schools. inclusive of individuals with disabilities and present disability in a positive and empowering Guarantee that students with and without manner that reduces stigmatization and supports disabilities have the same access to inclusive inclusive education. learning opportunities.

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Provide reasonable accommodations to all Ensure that all children, including children with children with disabilities. disabilities, have the right to be heard within the school system, including through school Reaffirm that children with disabilities have councils, governing bodies, and local and national the right to live in their communities and to government, and establish mechanisms through not be not placed in long-term institutional which decisions concerning education can be care. If children with disabilities are currently appealed. institutionalized, develop and establish, with a plan for sustainability and monitoring, a strong Require that the national curriculum be available deinstitutionalization plan. to all students and support a system to adapt curricula as needed for students with disabilities. Require all new schools to be designed and built to an acceptable standard of accessibility. Give students the opportunity to access assistive technology, including materials in braille, Provide a time frame for the adaptation of alternative script, augmentative and alternative existing schools to ensure they meet an acceptable modes, means, and formats of communication, standard of accessibility, along with a monitoring and orientation and mobility skills, if needed. plan for ensuring that the work is completed in a timely manner. Give students who are deaf or hard of hearing the opportunity to learn and be taught in the local Develop a consistent framework for the sign language. identification, assessment, and support of individuals with disabilities. Develop an effective, accessible, safe, and enforceable complaints mechanism to challenge any violations of the right to education.

Appendix B. Glossary of Disability Inclusive Education Terminology

Adapted curriculum. A curriculum based on the Disabled persons organization. An organization general education curriculum that is designed to in which people with disabilities constitute a meet the learning needs of a child with a disability majority (over 51 percent) of the staff, board, and (e.g., the use of extended time on tests). These volunteers and are well represented within the changes do not fundamentally alter the goals of organization. the original curriculum. Disability. The United Nations Convention on Assistive technology. The Individuals with the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines Disabilities Education Act defines assistive disability as including “those who have long- technology as “[a]ny item, piece of equipment or term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory product system, whether acquired commercially impairments which in interaction with various off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used barrios may hinder their full and effective to increase, maintain, or improve the functional participation in society on an equal basis with capabilities of children with disabilities.”1 others” (UN Division for Social Policy and Development: Disability, 2006). Augmentative and assistive communication (AAC). A communication method that is used Disability-inclusive development. International to supplement or replace oral speech or written development practices and services that address language for individuals with limited speech issues pertaining to people with disabilities; or language abilities. AAC devices can include including poverty alleviation, education, health communication boards, symbols, or electronic services, and others. Such initiatives ideally should devices. include leaders who have disabilities.

Bilingualism for sign language. The use of a Early identification. The assessment of a child with a country’s (or region’s) local sign language as delay or disability at the earliest age possible. Early well as the country’s (or region’s) written local identification for children with developmental, language. intellectual, hearing, or vision disabilities usually refers to assessment or evaluation of a child to Braille. A tactile writing system used by people receive support services before entering school who are blind; braille consists of six raised dots and preferably before age 3. arranged in two parallel rows that are felt with the fingertips. Braille is not a language but rather a Early intervention. A system of coordinated services code by which languages can be read and written. that promote a child’s growth and development during the critical early years of life. Early Diagnostic evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation intervention services usually refer to providing of an individual child that can provide support before entering school and preferably information about a child’s academic or behavioral before age 3. problems. The results of a diagnostic evaluation can help teachers identify what educational supports are needed for an individual student.

1 Retrieved from http://ectacenter.org/topics/atech/definitions.asp.

RTI Press Publication No. OP-0043-1707. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press. https://doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707 36 Hayes and Bulat, 2017 RTI Press: Occasional Paper

Education Management Information System. Large print. An adaption made to a book or According to UNESCO, an Education document where the font is larger than usual to Management Information System (or EMIS) allow for persons with low vision to better read is “an organized group of information and the text. Large print text is usually 18-point font or documentation services that collects, stores, larger. processes, analyzes and disseminates information Local sign language. A complete and often complex for educational planning and management” language that employs signs used by moving (Villanueva, 2003). the hands combined with facial expression and General education. Formal school-based education postures of the body. Local sign language is that is made available to students in a community, the distinct sign language developed within a generally by a ministry of education. particular community or country.

Inclusive education. The education of children Manipulatives. A physical object (e.g., blocks) that with disabilities in their local schools alongside can teach abstract concepts to children using children without disabilities. Inclusive education both physical and visual cues. Manipulatives are “involves a process embodying changes and particularly useful in teaching mathematics. modifications in content, approaches, structures Occupational therapy. A service that helps people and strategies in education, with a common vision better engage in activities of daily living and better that serves to include all students of the relevant develop, improve, sustain, or restore independence age range” (UN, 2016a). to any person who has an injury, illness, or Individualized education plan (IEP). A plan or disability. program that is developed by a committee usually Physical therapy. A therapy for preserving or made up of a student’s teacher, resource staff, enhancing movement and physical function parent, and the student to ensure that a student that has been impacted by a disability, injury, with a disability receives specialized instruction or disease. Physical therapy often uses physical and related services. An IEP sets out yearly goals exercise, massage, and other forms of training. for the student and monitors the progress of those goals to ensure that the student is progressing in Pull-out model. A model of instruction in which a school. child with a disability is removed from the general education classroom for some part of a school day Integrated education. A system in which children to receive special education or additional supports with disabilities attend a general education school in a separate special education classroom or but receive instruction in specialized or segregated resource room. classrooms. Typically, in these instances, children with disabilities have limited interaction with their Push-in model. A model of instruction in which a peers who do not have disabilities and often lack child with a disability receives special education access to the national curriculum. or additional supports in the general education classroom, from a specialist or other support Itinerant teacher. A qualified teacher who travels person, without being pulled out of the classroom from school to school to provide special education to receive support. support and assistance to multiple schools, often across several communities.

Reasonable accommodation. A change made to a Segregated education. The education of children curriculum, method of instruction, assessment, with disabilities in separate schools or classrooms. homework or other school-based activity or These classrooms typically only contain students requirement that is designed to reduce or with other similar disabilities. eliminate the effects of a disability on a student. Special education. Education that is specifically An example is extending time on tests or designed to meet the individual needs and homework. Reasonable accommodations are strengths of children with disabilities. Such intended to provide equal access and do not education can occur either in an inclusive general fundamentally alter the nature of the material or education classroom or in separate classrooms or instructional environment. resource rooms. Resource center. A center for technical assistance Speech therapy. A service that helps individuals and support for general education schools obtain, maintain, or restore speech as well as to that are teaching children with disabilities. In support individuals who may need assistance some contexts, this can have been, formerly, a in speaking more clearly or in improving segregated school for children with disabilities. articulation. Resource room. A separate room in a general Teacher assistant. An individual who supports the education school where student with disabilities main teacher in instructional and administrative are given direct specialized instruction, therapy responsibilities. A teacher assistant is often services (such as speech or occupational therapy), assigned to support classrooms with children with and/or assistance with homework and related special education needs, providing additional assignments; instruction may be individualized or support and individualized attention if needed. within small or large groups. Universal Design for Learning. A set of principles Response to Intervention. A tiered framework for for curriculum that give all individuals equal identifying children who may need additional opportunities to learn. This approach recognizes educational support, providing appropriate that all students, with and without disabilities, interventions, and measuring ensuing changes in learn information in different ways. academic or behavioral performance (RTI Action Network, n.d.). Children who do not respond to Visual schedules. A visual support that is intended intervention may need to be assessed for potential for children who have difficulties understanding eligibility for special education and related language due to a disability. The schedule consists services. of a series of images showing the steps of a given daily activity and is used to aid communication Screening. The process of using tests and assessments between the child and the adults in their lives. to identify student who may have disabilities. All students attending a school may be screened, and initial testing may identify students who may need individual evaluation.

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