I Hereby Guarantee That No Part Of

I hereby guarantee that no part of the research project which I have submitted for publication has been heretofore published an/or copyrighted in the United States of

America,except in the case of passages quoted from other published sources; that I am the sole author and proprietor of said research project; that the research project contains no matter which, if published, will be libelous or otherwise injurious, or infringe in any way the copyright of any other party; and that I will defend, indemnify and hold harmless Springfield College against all suits and proceedings which may be brought and against all claims which may be made against Springfield College by reason of the publication of said research project.

Copyright @ 2004 Jeremy M. Deason SPRINGFIELD COLLEGE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

December 2004

We recommend that the ------thesis prepared under our direction by Jeremy M. Deason entitled RACIAL INTEGRATION AND THE MODERNIZATION OF MEN'S

COLLEGE BASKETBALL

be accepted as fulfilling the research requirement for the degree of Master of Science RACIAL INTEGRATION AND THE

MODERNIZATION OF MEN'S COLLEGE BASKETBALL

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of Springfield College

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Education

by

Jeremy M. Deason

December 2004 ii

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Craig

Poisson, Dr. John Gibson, and Dr. Thomas Carty for their assistance and support throughout the process. Their willingness to move quickly through the process was greatly appreciated. I would also like to thanks James Miller from the library for his help and expertise with the historical format and Chicago Style. Thank you to Coach Charlie Brock for his time and suggestions as the reader. A final thank you as well to Dr. Tracey Fogarty, Dr. Stevie Chepko, and

Tyler Fleming for their insight at the beginning of the journey.

I would also like to thank my family for their support during my experience at Springfield. Most importantly though, I would like to thank my wife, Cassie, for her love and devotion at all times, especially for the last year and a half. I certainly would not have been able to finish this experience without you.

December 2004 J.M.D. iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements...... ii

Abstract...... 2

Introduction...... 3 Statement of the Problem...... 9 Subproblems...... 9 Delimitations...... 10 Limi tations ...... 10 Definition of Terms...... 10 Method and Procedures...... 11

Chapter

1. THE MODERNIZATION OF SPORT...... 15

E qu ali t y ...... 1 7 Rationalization...... 20

2. THE BEGINNINGS OF BASKETBALL AND THE INTEGRATION OF COLLEGE BASKETBALL...... 24

The YMCA ...... 24 The Early years...... 26 The Beginning of True Integration...... 31 Two Significant Games...... 35

3. THE INTEGRATION OF COLLEGE ATHLETICS IN THE SOUTH...... 39

Southern Schools...... 40 The Southeastern Conference...... 42

4. THE EXPERIENCES OF BLACK ATHLETES AT WHITE SCHOOLS ...... 45

Standout Black Athletes...... 45 North Texas State: A Test Case...... 47 iv

5. SPORTS AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT...... 51

The Black Athlete in the 1960s ...... 55 Protests and Revolts...... 56

6. RACIAL PARTICIPATION, INTEGRATION, AND STACKING...... 61

Participation and Integration...... 61 Stacking...... 62 Unequal Opportunity...... 65

7. THE PLAYERS INVOLVED...... 71

Loyola of Chicago...... 71 Texas Western and Kentucky...... 74

8. CONCLUSION...... 87

The Post Modern Game...... 90

APPENDIX A ...... 93

NOTES...... 94

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 100 Racial Integration and 1

Running head: RACIAL INTEGRATION AND BASKETBALL

Racial Integration and the Modernization of Men's College Basketball

Jeremy M. Deason

Springfield College Racial Integration and 2

Abstract

This study was designed to examine the integration of men's collegiate basketball as it relates to the modernization of college basketball. According to Allen

Guttman, modern sports are distinguished by seven characteristics. The seven characteristics are secularism, specialization of roles, bureaucratic organization, quantification, recordkeeping, rationalization, and equality. Equality and rationalization were the two characteristics that college basketball lacked up until the

1960s and 1970s. College basketball coaches realized at that time that in order to have the best teams; they would have to be able to have the best players. In order to have some of the best players, the coaches then realized that they would have to recruit more than just white players. The rosters of some of the teams examined reflect the change In the recruiting of players in the 1960s by the more successful teams. Most of the key players on those teams were from large, urban areas, reflecting the fact that college basketball was moving towards a modern area, and that the game was moving back to the cities. Racial integration led directly to college basketball becoming a modern sport in America. Racial Integration and 3

Racial Integration

and the Modernization of Men's College Basketball

In 1979, Michigan State, led by star Earvin Johnson, took on Indiana State, led by Larry Bird, for the National

Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) men's basketball championship. It was, and still is, the highest rated college basketball game ever to be broadcast on national television. 1 The game was a result of the changes taking place in college basketball: Terre Haute, IN, and Lansing,

MI; Rural and Urban; Larry and Magic; old school and new school; White and Black. By 1991, 19 of the 20 starters on the final four teams in the National Collegiate Athletic

Association (NCAA) men's basketball championship were Black.

Television networks were paying millions of dollars to broadcast the rights to the NCAA tournament. Records were being set and broken each year in college basketball, and the NCAA had become the largest governing body in college athletics. All of that was a long way from the humble beginnings of college basketball in the early 1900s. As the century wore on, college basketball moved from a pre-modern sport towards a modern sport. The final step in securing the arrival of college basketball as a modern sport in America was the recruitment of Black athletes, a step which met the Racial Integration and 4 full rationalization of winning for many colleges and universities across the country. The recruitment of Black male basketball players for colleges and universities throughout the nation was a process that did not begin in earnest until the 1960s, and was not commonplace until the

1970s. Before the recruitment of Black athletes began, college basketball had yet to truly become a modern sport.

According to Allen Guttman, modern sports are distinguished by seven characteristics. The seven characteristics include secularism, specialization of roles, bureaucratic organization, quantification, recordkeeping, rationalization, and equality.2 By the 1960s, college basketball had achieved the first five of those seven characteristics. The last two steps went hand in hand, as the recruitment of Black athletes coincided with rationalizing winning for many coaches. If the coaches could recruit the best players, many Black, those coaches would have the best teams. The process was not as easy as it seemed, however, and many coaches were extremely hesitant to take that final step.

Black players were not recruited until the 1960s because of their skin color. Many coaches felt that the situation that Blacks would experience, especially in the Racial Integration and 5

South, would do them more harm than good. Some coaches did not recruit Blacks because they were worried about the abuse that Black players would receive at other arenas and coliseums throughout the country. A Black player would have to be the absolute best player and student to be considered to play in a top-notch college program. Also, most coaches recruited from their own geographical areas. Coaches at predominately White colleges did not even look to Black high school players until the 1950s. As Elgin Baylor, a National

Basketball Association (NBA) star player and a Basketball

Hall of Fame inductee, remarked, " .. . they didn't know anything about us. I went to the College of Idaho for the first year on a football scholarship."3 Nowhere were the signs of racial inequality more evident than in southern colleges and universities, who kept their fields and courts closed to Blacks until the mid 1960s and in some cases even later.

Authors have long examined the pioneer Black athletes that first participated in intercollegiate basketball. A.S.

"Doc" Young cited prejudice as the main reason that the integration of college basketba1+ occurred over such a lengthy period of time. 4 Oceania Chalk noted some of the early pioneers such as Paul Robeson, Wilbur Wood, and George Racial Integration and 6

Gregory, Jr. Many times, the Black athletes were some of the best on the teams they played on and competed against. The

White press eventually began to give attention to Black athletes, but only to those that played on White teams. s

Many times, the outcome of one specific game had a lasting effect on the integrity of college sports. Two important games that helped change that landscape of college basketball forever were in 1963 and 1966. Writer Bill Finger examined a game in the 1963 NCAA tournament that had the

Loyola of Chicago team, starting 3 Black players, facing an all-White Mississippi State team. Loyola went on to win, but because of racist emotions and legal pressures, the game almost never happened. 6 In 1966, perhaps the most important game in NCAA history to that point took place in Maryland for the National Championship. Texas Western started and played only Black players against the University of

Kentucky, who played only White players, and Texas Western won the game. The game would later be looked at as the

"Brown vs. Board of Education game of college basketball."7

This was in reference to the landmark Supreme Court decision in 1954 outlawing segregation in the public school system in

America. Racial Integration and 7

In the South, integration was much slower than in the

North. Historian Charles Martin noted that many of the southern schools were able to successfully avoid competing against integrated teams until the 1960s. The problem for many of those segregated schools came in the postseason tournaments. Some schools went as far as to agree to hold out Black players for certain games. The barriers of racial segregation did not begin to fall until the late 1950s and early 1960s. The schools that were recruiting the Black athletes were now competing at a higher level because those schools had a larger pool from which to pick. 8

Researchers Douglas Noverr and Lawrence Ziewacz noted that Black athletes were excluded even at the expense of winning at many schools, especially in the South. The Black athlete had to be the perfect student to succeed, and that often put too much pressure on anyone student. 9 Chet

Walker, a standout player in the NBA who was one of the first Black players at Bradley University in the early

1960s, discussed his own experiences as a player. He noted that the issue of race never came up, mainly because his teammates did not talk about the subject. Walker began to develop an inferiority complex about his work in the Racial Integration and 8 classroom. He was praised as an athlete, but he did not do well in school.lo

Many researchers have found that sports are often a catalyst for change in society. Adolph Grundman discussed the role of Black athletes in protest and politics. The more

Blacks were recruited, the more the mainstream media looked carefully for a White superstar, an athlete who America could learn to love. Bill Bradley was one such athlete. ll

Some authors examined the protests that took place at large universities across the country. Researcher Donald Spivey investigated protests against the treatment of Black athletes at NYU and Harvard that led to students being suspended. Unfortunately for the athletes involved, their protests were a bit premature for the Civil Rights Movement and were not backed by the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) or other political groups at the time. 12 Historian David Wiggins considered similar situations on the campuses of the University of

California in 1968 and Buffalo State University in 1970. The revolt at California was a result of the players feeling that their coaches did not relate to them as people. The students wanted the university to hire more Black coaches and to adjust their curriculum as well. 13 Racial Integration and 9

All of these issues relate to the process of the integration of college basketball in the United States. Many different aspects of the integration of college basketball have been studied, but more research is needed to truly understand the timing and reasoning behind the integration of college basketball. As sports became more modern, college basketball struggled to keep up. The integration of college basketball was a direct result of the modernization of sports in America. Integration, along with the rationalization of winning, was the final step in college basketball becoming a modern sport in America.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study is to analyze the theory of modernization in relation to the integration of NCAA Men's

College Basketball.

Subproblems

The following questions were investigated as they relate to the integration of college basketball.

1. Which colleges were the first to integrate and where did the players come from?

2. What role did geography play in the integration of college basketball? Racial Integration and 10

3. To what extent did America becoming a modern,

industrial society affect college basketball?

Delimitations

The study was confined to the area of Men's NCAA

Division I intercollegiate basketball.

Limitations

Inherent limitations exist in the historical method of

investigation. The availability of the source material, the

inability of the researcher to directly observe the events,

the fallibility of human recall, and the reconstruction of

events from data that have survived the passage of time are

all universally accepted limitations. 14

Definition of Terms

For the purpose of the study, the following definitions

were utilized:

1. Integration - As defined by Berghorn, Yetman, and

Thomas, integration "refers to the extent to which racial

interaction is marked by relative equality.u15

2. Media - Media will be defined operationally as print media.

3. College Basketball - College Basketball will be

defined operationally as NCAA Division I Men's Basketball

unless otherwise noted. Racial Integration and 11

Methods and Procedures

The purpose of this study was to examine the integration of men's college basketball from 1954-1974. The procedures

for historical study recommended by Van Dalen (1973) were applied in this study. The procedures are: (a) selection of the problem, (b) collection of data, (c) eval ua tion of data,

(d) interpretation of data, and (e) report of the

findings. 16

Selection of Problem

The ascension of college basketball to a modern sport due

to integration is an important and relevant topic.

Collection of Data

The sources collected were divided into primary and

secondary.

Primary sources were defined as " . the testimony of able eye and ear witnesses to past events and actual objects used in the past that can be examined directly.u17

Primary sources were acquired mainly through newspapers and literature, such as secondary sources .

Secondary sources were defined as ". . information provided by a person who did not directly observe an event, object, or condition. u1s Many secondary sources were available. Racial Integration and 12

Evaluation of Data

All materials were subject to close scrutiny to establish the date, place, and authorship of the document.

Establishing authenticity of each and every source was important.

Interpretation of Data

All data was examined closely for relevance to the study.

Data is important if the information refers to the three main research questions and leads to new findings on each question.

Report of the Findings

The final procedure was to report on the findings. The first chapter provides the reader with an overview of the theory of modernization.

The second chapter discusses the history of basketball and the integration of basketball since 1891. Specific examples are given of those first to integrate the sport in the early years and the pioneers in the later years after the sport became truly integrated. Two specific games that helped turn the tide were also examined. The first was a game between Loyola of Chicago and Mississippi State in

1963, and the second was the National Championship game of

1966, between The University of Kentucky and Texas Western Racial Integration and 13

College. Both games involved a segregated team facing an

all-White team.

In the third chapter, the integration of college

athletics in the South is examined. Specific examples of the

integration of college athletics, including basketball, are

given.

The experiences of Black athletes at White colleges and

universities are the topic of the fourth chapter. Stories of

the hardships of Black athletes in college athletics are the

focus, as Black athletes' experiences are shown as examples

of the harsh reality in the integration of college

athletics.

The fifth chapter shows how the integration of college

athletics mirrored the Civil Rights Movement. Many protests

by Black athletes took place at predominantly White

institutions across the country during the 1950s and 1960s.

The results and implications are discussed.

The sixth chapter explores the differences between

racial participation and integration, including the

stacking, or assigning to one position, of Black athletes in basketball. Black athletes were often pegged into the same positions and not given equal opportunity over time, and as Racial Integration and 14 a result, discrimination was common in recruiting practices by college coaches.

The seventh chapter examines the players and their geographic origins to show the game of basketball moving back towards the urban areas.

The final chapter contains summary, discussion, conclusions, and suggestions for future investigation. Racial Integration and 15

CHAPTER 1

THE MODERNIZATION OF SPORT

A young boy grabs a basketball and shoots some hoops in

his driveway. Across town, another boy pulls on his uniform

to play for his junior high basketball team. Both boys are

playing basketball, but one is doing so at a much higher

level than the other. The game is a contest, an event that

has consequences, a win or a loss. Such is the nature of

sports in society. Allen Guttman looked closely at the

theory of modernization and how it related to sports. He

remarked that, "structured games mirror structured

society.ui Guttman argued that the more highly structured

the event was, the more it was set aside from ordinary time

or space. 2 He examined modern sports by discussing the seven

characteristics which distinguish a sport as modern. The

seven characteristics were, in order, secularism, equality,

the specialization of roles, rationalization, bureaucratic

organization, quantification, and the quest for records. 3

In ancient times, sport was clearly linked to religion.

From the ancient Greece to ancient Rome, battles and games

often included, and were sometimes considered to be pre­ ordained by, the gods. 4 As sports became more modern, the

connection to religion began to erode, and now it is nearly Racial Integration and 16

non-existent, especially in America. College basketball

today is purely secular in nature.

Guttman refers to specialization as another

characteristic of modern sports. In Guttman's mind, however,

specialization could very well mean professionalism in

today's society. In ancient times, athletes played many

sports and rarely focused on one in particular. In modern

times, sports became specialized to the point where a person

can now playa sport professionally, therefore making it his

or her job. 5 College basketball, while not professional in

the monetary sense, can be considered a job in the fact that

the participants spend many hours of many days preparing and playing the sport, and their roles are often specialized within the sport as well.

The bureaucratic nature of the modern sport is another

characteristic put forth by Guttman. The modern sport clearly has established governing bodies to regulate the

rules and other guidelines. College basketball is not immune

to the bureaucracy. The NCAA is one of the largest organizations in sport today, and college basketball falls under its oversight.

The last two characteristics of modern sport, according

to Guttman, can be examined together. They are Racial Integration and 17 quantification and record keeping. Capitalist and industrial societies began to place a high value in quantification, and sport was not immune. Lengths were measured, times recorded, scores tallied, all so that a winner could be determined.

Sports were beginning to be played for the result rather than the experience. 6 College basketball is no different today; scores are kept and records are set and then broken.

How would we know that John Wooden won more NCAA men's basketball championships than anyone else, or that Glen Rice in 1989 scored more points than anyone else in a single NCAA basketball tournament?

When it comes to researching the topic of college basketball, all of the seven categories certainly apply to the sport. When research is done specifically about the integration of college basketball and modernization, the researcher must look more closely at two of the seven categories in particular, equality and rationalization.

Equality

Guttman argued that theoretically, everyone should have the opportunity to compete. Furthermore, the conditions should be the same for everyone.? When looking at pre-modern sports, opportunities were less about having the chance to participate than being chosen. Dating all the way back to Racial Integration and 18 ancient Greece, the teams were thought to be 'made' by the gods, such as virgins being chosen to run to the circles of the sun and moon. 8 Later in the pre-modern era of sports, athletes were given the opportunity by ascription rather than achievement, and land, or groups of people separated the teams. 9

Different groups of people have long been segregated from sports, even before the modern era of sport. In ancient

Greece, women were originally barred from the Olympics, and other Greek sports were closed to slaves and barbarians. In

Rome, the gladiators were almost always slaves, showing that the slaves were thought of as mere entertainment for the masses. IO In England, lawn tennis was forbidden to servants and laborers; class was the ruling factor more than gender.

In England in 1895, the split of the Rugby Football Union caused a stir because of clashes between the classes. The upper class feared that their game was falling into the hands of the lower class. 11 Guttman recounts an observation from an American observer:

Why should their [sic] be such constant strife to bring together in sport the two divergent elements of society that never by any chance meet elsewhere on even terms is quite incomprehensible, and it is altogether the sole cause of our athletic woe The laboring class are all right in their way; Racial Integration and 19

let them go their way in peace, and have their athletics in whatsoever manner best sui ts their inclinations Let us have our own sport among the more refined elements, and allow no discordant spirits to enter into it. 12

Such was the prevailing opinion in America for many years.

Different people should play by different rules. As an example, in America, Black athletes were forced out of such profitable positions as jockeys in the Kentucky Derby, where

14 of the 15 jockeys in the first Derby in 1875 were Black.

Gunther Luschen remarked on the idea of equality in sport and society:

While everywhere else in the modern world . . there is at least an ideological tendency towards the elimination of social rank, sport contains an element of hierarchical social differentiation whose precise and objective gradations are scarcely to be found in any other ranking system. 13

When sports became modern, that is everyone having the chance to participate on an equal level; Blacks began to do well as far as results were concerned. However, because

Blacks achieved, and because sports were seen as a microcosm of society, it was assumed that Blacks should do well in other areas of society. This was not the case, because the opportunities were not the same in the rest of society. Racial Integration and 20

Rationalization

Guttman describes modern sports as having "a logical relationship between means and ends."14 In other words, to accomplish something, for instance winning, a person (or team, organization, or college) must go to different ends to realize that goal. As time goes by, sports need to be changed. In the case of winning, one can rationalize that if a school gets the best players, then that school should win the most games, and ultimately the championship.

Max Weber approached the idea of rationalization by remarking on its relation to the bureaucratic society we live in. He remarked that rationalization is a result of the modern bureaucratic society, and that the education certificate, or the degree, is a symbol of a test to enter into the modern society. If one can gain the certificate, that person will be able to enjoy the fruits of the modern society. 15 This same theory can apply to college basketball in the sense that if it passes Guttman's test, the game can be considered modern.

Guttman takes a different angle by looking at the sport itself, specifically the rules and regulations. He specifically looked at basketball. In his mind, basketball was a sport to be changed, to be "tinkered" with, by Racial Integration and 21 changing the rules. In order to keep up, rule changes had to occur. As the players become more athletic, the game needed to adapt and to adjust. For instance, in James Naismith's original rules of the game, dribbling was not allowed. As players learned the skill, the regulations changed. The twenty-four second shot clock is another example of the game changing, as is the three point shot.

In essence, everything in sports came to be rationalized: training, education, the science of sport, among other aspects. As a result, equality had to happen, because if it did not occur, than sports could not be rationalized. In order to market a sport as a legitimate event, teams needed to have the best participants, or talent, for if the best players are not allowed to compete, then the best competition can not exist. The problem, however, came when sports, including college basketball, were integrated.

Administrators, coaches, and presidents pushed for integration, but often times for the wrong reason, winning.

As sports continue to be rationalized, they become more complex. 16 We now have high school players jumping straight to the NBA and seven-foot players ready to make the leap overseas as well. The sport has reached a level in which basketball in the rest of the world has caught up with the Racial Integration and 22 sport in America. What was once strictly an American game has expanded with players in the NBA from China, Lithuania,

Serbia & Montenegro, Spain, Argentina, France, and other countries throughout the world. All of these events come as sports, especially basketball, are going through changes that have not been seen before. As a modern society, we accept the changes and move on. This was the case with the integration of college basketball, as will be discussed later.

By the early 1960s, college basketball had showed itself to be a modern sport in nature, according to five of

Guttman's seven characteristics. The rationalization and equality pieces had yet to be established in order to push the sport of college basketball fully into being a truly modern sport.

Even after the integration of college athletics, racism continued to rear its ugly head. Harry Edwards referred to sports as a "false item of racial harmony."17 The victory by

Texas Western over Kentucky in 1966 may have marked a change, but part of that change was a change in style that many people in America were not ready for. The change was, according to Jon Entine, from the "methodical White style to the athletic elegance of the Blacks."18 So as sports began Racial Integration and 23

to evolve to include the Black athlete, racism followed.

Towards the late 1960s and early 1970s, people began to

examine the science of race and sports, and studies cropped

up with titles such as, ~Do Blacks Have a Physical

Advantage?u19 Others argued that what made the difference was not physical, but rather training, motivation, and

social goals, all of which Black athletes had or were working towards. Either way, the Black athlete was being pegged into a certain role; while the integration of public

schools gave Blacks opportunity, it also gave them pressure

to perform as an athlete alongside and in front of Whites. 20

Blacks had already had to endure so much, especially

starting with so little, and athletics became another

obstacle. Racial Integration and 24

CHAPTER 2

THE BEGINNINGS OF BASKETBALL AND

THE INTEGRATION OF COLLEGE BASKETBALL

In December of 1891, Dr. James Naismith organized the first game of Basketball at the International Young Men's

Christian Training School (now Springfield College).l

Naismith had been put in charge of a class that had become bored with the normal indoor gymnastics routine. Naismith took an earlier idea he had to combine parts from other sports into one, and created the new game. Basketball was a continuation of other sports, as humans have long thrown balls through hoops in games. 2

The YMCA

In 1891, America was changing from a pre-modern agricultural society to a modern urban society. Along with this change came the availability of more leisure-time recreation. Education became more compulsory for children, replacing their work in the fields and other places. As a result, the young students had more free time after school.

Educators began to focus on the idea of sound mind and sound body, a concept which had already caught on in Europe and was developed even more by groups in America such as the

Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA).3 The YMCA, Racial Integration and 25 including one of its most prominent members, Luther H.

Gulick, Jr., sought to establish control and to give direction to physical activities. As a result of the increasing demand for physical activity, basketball, and later volleyball, were conceived and popularized.

The YMCA was already established in many urban areas throughout New England, and the original players took the game back to their hometown YMCAs. In January of 1892, the original 13 rules of the game of basketball were published in the school's newspaper. Naismith then traveled with his own basketball team to other cities around New England. It was a direct result of the institutional nature of the YMCA that the game caught on so quickly.4

The rise of Springfield, MA as an urban community, the

YMCA movement, the blossoming middle class in America, and the modernization of sports all contributed to the rise in popularity of basketball in the United States. 5

As the game grew in the United States, it especially caught on in the inner cities and suburbs. In the early part of the 1900s, businesses in America were centered in the downtown areas, as were the opportunities for recreation.

Even those few who lived in the suburbs at the time traveled to the heart of the city to find recreational outlets. 6 Racial Integration and 26

After World War II, many jobs, and along with them wealthier

families, were relocated to the suburbs. As a result, the

recreational opportunities became scarce in the more urban

areas. The young men in the inner-cities resorted to playing

pick-up basketball games, and the sport began to be looked

at as a way out of the "ghetto".7 Basketball was becoming

the sport of the urban areas, and it was only a matter of

time before the coaches and presidents of the colleges and

universities in America would integrate their teams.

The Early Years of Integration

The racial integration of college athletics was a long process that began in the early 1900s, and lasted until the mid 1970s. The struggle of African-Americans to break down

the barriers of race in colleges, college athletics, and more specifically college basketball, was one of perseverance and patience. By the mid 1970s, most, if not

all, college basketball teams were integrated. 8 The

integration of college athletics closely followed the plight

of the Civil Rights Movement at times, and lagged behind at

other times. 9 Most importantly, college athletics gave

Blacks in America a chance to participate in a part of

American culture, and playing basketball gave them a chance

to playa sport home grown in America. 10 As the country Racial Integration and 27 around them began to modernize under the effects of industrialization and inwigration, sports began to do the same. American society became more organized and bureaucratic, and sports were not far behind.

In the twenty years following the Civil War and

Reconstruction, Black athletes began to find success in sports. That success usually came in the major American sports such as football and baseball, but basketball was different. Naismith invented the game of Basketball in 1891, but significant time elapsed before the Black athlete integrated basketball. Edward Henderson was believed to be the first Black intercollegiate basketball player, playing at Harvard University in 1904, but early Black players were few and far between. The trend of Black college basketball players having a chance to play was consistently evident in colleges and universities such as Harvard: and other northern, urban schools.

Southern coaches were able to change the scheduling of many of the major athletic contests to avoid playing integrated games because of their prejudices towards Blacks.

A select few pioneers were able to integrate the college game, including Fenwich Williams at Vermont in 1908, John

Johnson at Columbia in 1910, Charles Drew at Amherst in Racial Integration and 28

1923, and Paul Robeson at Rutgers in 1917. These athletes were a representation of the fact that Black athletes were able to succeed mainly at northern schools, where integration was easier than in the South. Generally, the northern schools were more receptive to admitting Black students, but the students still faced challenges. As the decades wore on, the number of Blacks playing on predominantly White teams increased, but at such a slow rate. Significant difference was not noted until after World

War 11.11 The change most likely came as a result of schools looking elsewhere for players at the collegiate level, while so many of their potential students were overseas.

While the first known Black athlete to break the racial barriers in college basketball did so in 1904, a Black student athlete was believed to have played in the New

England League before that time. The New England League was formed in 1901, and consisted of Dartmouth College, College of the Holy Cross, Williams College, Amherst College, and

Trinity College. The League was formed six years after the first intercollegiate basketball game was played between

Haverford and Temple on March 25, 1895. The chance for a

Black player to participate most often came at such progressive schools as those that formed the New England Racial Integration and 29 league. Along with some of the earlier mentioned athletes,

Samuel Ransom was a pioneer Black basketball player at

Beloit College in Wisconsin. Noting also that Wilbur Wood played for Nebraska; Ocania Chalk found that he was one of the better players on the roster. In 1909, Wood was selected to the second team All-Conference team. 12

Paul Robeson continued the tradition of the pioneers in the sport of college basketball surpassing expectations.

Robeson was an outstanding player at Rutgers for his final two seasons, and, along with many of the other pioneers, gained notoriety in the newspapers. Another superb Black athlete making news at the time was John Johnson of

Columbia, who was known to play every position on the floor.

Johnson gained recognition in the New York Times, which on

February 2, 1919 recorded his successes. Columbia was progressive in the development of Black players during the early 1900s, and that trend continued with George Gregory,

Jr., who played his best season in 1929. Gregory was the leading scorer that year, and in 1931 earned All-American honors, the first Black to accomplish such a feat. 13

The trend of a few Blacks being some of the best athletes continued into the 1930s with the story of William "Dolly"

King in 1939. King had an excellent high school career in Racial Integration and 30 football and basketball and took his talents to Long Island

University in hopes of doing the same. King was able to accomplish a rather unusual feat, one that was not lost on the media. King, a pre-modern version of Bo Jackson or Deion

Sanders, played in both an intercollegiate football and a basketball game on Thanksgiving Day in 1939. Subsequently,

King went on to have a successful professional debut in the sport of basketball. 14

As the years wore on, the northern White press began to pick up on the success of the Black collegiate basketball player. In Esquire magazine in 1941, Curt Riess noted about the Black athlete that, " .. he rarely has a chance to play except in colored colleges. The courts of the Big Ten are closed to him, in spite of the fact that there have been such great colored basketball stars as Sidat-Singh, George

Gregory, and William King. u15 The successes of the Black athlete could not be ignored. In the sport of Basketball, an urban sport up until this time, the only Blacks worth mentioning for the White press though were the ones that played on White teams.

The timeline of Blacks integrating teams throughout the country continued with Dick Culberson, who was the first

Black to play in the Big Ten Conference, for Iowa in 1943. Racial Integration and 31

Black athletes played on White teams as far back as the

early 1900s, but it is worth noting that their legacy

remains in their success at the historically Black colleges

and universities in America.

All of these examples showed cases where a single Black

athlete integrated a sport, but true integration did not

begin to occur until the 1960s and 1970s, when the sport of

college basketball began to take on a whole new meaning.

The Beginning of True Integration

As college basketball began to grow in popularity, fans began to have higher expectations. Winning became a major

focus, especially now that college basketball had one true

championship, the NCAA, rather than the NIT and the NCAA.

The NCAA Championship began to take hold on American sport

in the 1960s and grew in the 1970s with the advent of

television. Sports were becoming more and more of a focus in

America, and moving away from their pre-modern state.

The integration of college basketball could be discussed by examining the legacy of Blacks at the City College of New

York (CCNY). In 1949, Nat "Mr. BB" Holman recruited Ed

Warner and Floyd Layne, two Blacks to play for CCNY. Most

White schools showcased just one Black scorer on their team, and CCNY was no different. While Warner did most of the Racial Integration and 32

scoring, Layne was relegated to being a defensive

specialist, a tag commonly given to the second Black player

on the team. CCNY made history by winning both the National

Invitational Tournament (NIT) and the National College

Athletic Association (NCAA) tournaments in 1950, doing so with an integrated team. Along the way, they collected

several impressive victories, perhaps none more so than an

89-50 victory over Adolph Rupp's University of Kentucky

Wildcats. The glory was short lived though, as it was

revealed the next season that many of the games were fixed,

and that Warner was involved in point shaving. The scandal

surprised many in America and left a cloud over the

supposedly successful integration of CCNy. 16 The idea that winning would come at all costs showed that college basketball was arriving as a modern sport in America.

Not to be outdone, other New York City schools followec

suit in recruiting Black players. By the mid-fifties, the

recruitment of Blacks in college basketball began to pick up

steam, especially with the chances of landing such

heavyweights as Oscar Robertson and Wilt Chamberlain, who

ended up at Cincinnati and Kansas respectively. Finally

coaches were ignoring the unwritten rules of college basketball. One such "rule" was that coaches should play, Racial Integration and 33

"Two Blacks at home, three on the road, and four when behind. u17 Whereas just ten short years ago, playing more than one Black player was unheard of, true integration was quickly approaching. Winning continued to become a major factor in college basketball.

While Don Barksdale was unusual as a Black All-American basketball player in 1947, he was just the start of what was to come. Jackie Robinson, well known for integrating Major

League Baseball, was also a pioneer in the college basketball ranks. Robinson was an exceptional all-around athlete, and he played basketball for UCLA. In 1940,

Robinson led the Pacific Coast Conference (now the PAC-10) in scoring.

Although Robinson and others were successful in their careers as college basketball players, the professional leagues were looking towards the historically Black colleges and universities for their prospects up until the mid-

1950s. 18 Many of the players drafted by the professional leagues before 1950 did not play at White schools. As a result of the White schools integrating, the historically

Black schools lost many recruiting battles to White schools because they were not able to compete at the national level while the White schools were. 19 Racial Integration and 34

Milton S. Katz examined the evolution of historically

Black colleges and universities and their integration into the ranks of the National Collegiate Championships in

America. John B. McLendon, a coach at Tennessee State, was primarily responsible for the change in attitudes towards historically Black colleges and universities and their eventual entry into the big college championships. Many of those involved in the NCAA tournament worried that fans might not understand or be accepting of the way Blacks played the game. 20 The Black players played a more up-tempo style, while the traditional game, without a shot clock, was to slow the play down. 21

The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics

(NAIA) was much more receptive to the idea of Black teams playing in their tournament. In 1953, Tennessee State

University became the first historically Black school to enter the NAIA national basketball tournament. Subsequently, in 1957, Tennessee State, then coached by McLendon, won the

NAIA tournament. The NAIA tournament, smaller than the NCAA tournament, was more receptive to teams with Black players.

Shortly after, Black schools were able to participate in the more prestigious NCAA tournament. John B. McLendon might not have worked directly towards the integration of collegiate Racial Integration and 35

teams allover the country, but by bringing attention to players that otherwise went unnoticed, he helped begin the process. 22

Two Significant Games

While many would argue that a single game could not make that much of a difference, in 1963 and 1966 it did, and

its impact on the integration of college basketball was

lasting.

Mississippi State was the last basketball team to be

integrated in the Southeastern Conference (SEC). In 1963,

an all-White Mississippi State was crowned conference

champions. Along with the title came an open invitation to play in the 1963 NCAA tournament. The players and fans at

Mississippi State were ecstatic about being given the

chance to compete for the championship.23 The team that

Mississippi State was supposed to play in the first round was third ranked Loyola of Chicago, a team that started

four Blacks. Ross Barnett, then governor of Mississippi,

fought along with other legislators and filed for a court

injunction to stop the team from making the trip to East

Lansing, Michigan to play the game. A local editorial echoed these same sentiments: Racial Integration and 36

If Miss. State U. plays against a Negro outside the state, what would be greatly different in bringing the integrated teams into the state? And why not recruit a Negro of special basketball ability to play on the Miss. State team? This is the road we seem to be traveling. 24

The sheriff however, a Bulldog basketball fan, conveniently forgot to serve the injunction and the team made the trip.25

The coach of Loyola of Chicago was George Ireland. Vic

Rouse and Leslie Hunter were the stars as Loyola went on to win the national championship game in 1963, and it was Rouse who made the final basket as time expired to give the

Ramblers of Loyola their first and only NCAA Basketball

Championship. Nelson George remarked that the Ramblers "were probably one of the first integrated teams in NCAA Division

I actually to start its best five players, regardless of race. u26 Ireland actually used moments in the season to speak out against racial prejudice, such as when his team was denied room service in New Orleans and Houston. 27

Equality as a component of modernization had come full circle in Ireland starting his five best players regardless of race.

In 1966, all the previous unspoken rules of playing

Blacks were disregarded as Texas Western College (now

University of Texas El Paso or UTEP) faced off against the Racial Integration and 37

University of Kentucky. For the first time in the history of college basketball, five Black players would start against five Whites. Texas Western coach Don Haskins was a young coach, and did not look to break down any barriers by starting five Blacks; he just wanted to put his best team on the floor. 28 In the championship game on March 19, 1966, played at Cole Field House in Maryland, Haskins faced off against long time Kentucky coach Adolph Rupp, who many considered to be a racist. 29 Rupp was certainly a great coach, but he was not a great person, as demonstrated by such remarks as, "TWC (Texas Western College)? What's that stand for, Two White Coaches?" and his references to Black players as "coons.,,30 Texas Western played hard from the start of the game, and ultimately their defense and rebounding took over to win the national championship. The game in 1966 opened many doors in the recruiting of Black athletes, especially in the South and the southern conferences, and coaches and administrators were ready to take the next step.31

Located in El Paso, Texas, Texas Western University was a predominantly White school in the 1960s, as were most schools in the Southwest. It was odd then that most of the members of the basketball team were Black. Of the twelve Racial Integration and 38 players on Don Haskins' 1966 championship team, seven were

Black. Those seven were the only players to enter into the championship game against Kentucky on that historical day.

The 1966 team consisted mostly of players that were not actually from the Texas area, but rather were transfers and recruits that had come from big cities allover America.

The team that made history and brought home the

University's first and only NCAA basketball championship was diverse in many aspects, but was a team that came together for a COIT@on goal.

In Chapter 8, a closer look will be taken at the teams involved in the 1966 game, and also at the 1963 Loyola team. The players and coaches will be examined to discuss the changes of college basketball as it approached becoming a truly modern sport. Racial Integration and 39

CHAPTER 3

THE INTEGRATION OF COLLEGE ATHLETICS IN THE SOUTH

After historically Black colleges broke down barriers

in the 1950s by participating in previously all-White

tournaments, predominantly White schools in the South began

the slow process of following their counterparts in the

North by recruiting Black athletes. The southern schools

could not afford to ignore the talent that existed in their

own back yard. At the end of World War II, basketball was a

predominantly White sport, however by 1960 professional baseball and the National Basketball Association (NBA) had

integrated their ranks. The changes that took place between

those times could be considered a result of a move in the

South towards a modern society as well as the outcome of a

landmark Supreme Court case. As the South began to regain economic, industrial, and agricultural prominence, it only made sense that other areas would follow. One of those areas was education, and as a result of the historic Brown v.

Board of Education of Topeka Supreme Court case in 1954, public schools in the South were forced to integrate. While some would argue that Brown did not take effect until much later, it did start the ball rolling in the South on integration, and athletics was no small part of the plan. Racial Integration and 40

Southern Schools

The Southeastern (SEC) and Southwest (SWC) Conferences were the strongholds of segregation on the athletic fields and playing courts. These conferences followed the laws upheld by their states (Georgia, Florida, Arkansas,

Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Kentucky,

South Carolina, Kansas, and Nebraska) that forbade them to participate in inter-racial athletic contests. Eventually, the southern schools were faced with a decision: continue to playa segregated schedule and risk losing major opponents in the North or Midwest, or change their ways to be able to continue with their current schedule. Most schools were able to successfully avoid playing integrated regular season games, but none could avoid the possibility in the postseason tournaments. 1

Several examples of institutions going to great lengths to avoid playing an inter-racial contest exist. In one example, Georgia Tech and the University of Michigan each agreed to hold one player out of an intercollegiate football game in 1934 to sidestep the fact that Michigan's end,

Willis Ward, was Black. Some coaches, however, viewed playing inter-racial contests as "the price of success."2 Racial Integration and 41

The obstacles against the integration of college basketball eventually began to fall in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In 1958, the All-American team, chosen by coaches, featured as many as five Blacks for the first time.

Still, the southern states continued their resistance, especially those schools in the SEC, such as Georgia,

Alabama, and Auburn. In some cases, such as Mississippi, state governments introduced legislation that would cut off state funding to institutions which agreed to play an integrated game. 3 The results of the two major inter-racial games played in the 1960s in the NCAA tournament,

Mississippi State v. Loyola and Texas Western v. Kentucky, ended the question of whether or not to play an integrated game, but created another obstacle in the process. The question about whether or not to recruit Blacks was now raised. Ultimately, not recruiting Black athletes resulted in two major losses: revenue and games. The schools who had made the choice to recruit Black athletes were now gaining victories over perennial powerhouses, and the powerhouses were losing money by not participating in some major contests and tournaments. Finally, the major southern schools realized the positive impacts of recruiting Black athletes. 4 Racial Integration and 42

According to Charles Martin, five major reasons existed for the changes by southern schools in recruiting Black athletes. Changing student and faculty attitudes on campus, complaints from the growing numbers of Black students on campus, pressure from non-southern colleges, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and especially the desire to win more games all helped turn the tide. The schools that led the movement were of three different types. The first to make the change were often small schools with no conference affiliation. Another group that fostered the integration of college basketball in the South was schools with a religious affiliation. Texas Western was an example of the final group; border schools that could attract students based on diversity. Whatever the school, the first athletes to break the barrier were often subjected to the highest standards of any students in the university.5 The integration represented a slow move towards college basketball becoming a truly modern sport.

The Southeastern Conference

Joan Paul, Richard McGhee, and Helen Fant focused their study on the integration of various sports in the SEC, including basketball. Once integration had begun, basketball was the most quickly integrated sport in the SEC. 6 The first Racial Integration and 43

Black basketball player in the SEC was Perry Wallace, who played in 1967. The integration of the conference was complete by 1972, with Mississippi State being the final school to integrate their basketball team. From 1967, the number of Black basketball players in the SEC grew steadily, increasing each year until the final year of the study in

1980. By the 1980s, more Blacks than Whites played on each team in the SEC. 7

Once Black athletes were able to break the initial racial barrier in the SEC, the number grew dramatically in all sports. Additionally, Berghorn, Yetman, and Thomas found that, once it began, the rate at which college basketball integrated was the fastest in the South, where for a long time Black students were not even able to attend the schools, let alone play sports. By 1980, the researchers noted that nearly half of all college basketball players were Black, a number that was only 4.5% in 1954. 8

The influx of Black players in college basketball had a profound impact on the culture of the sport. Upon entering college, many Black athletes were put into difficult situations. Many times the problems that Blacks encountered at college were ignored, as long as their team was winning.

Winning cured many of the issues that arose with Black Racial Integration and 44 athletes and the situation surrounding their integration. 9

However, the needs of the Black athlete were put aside and ignored by the rationalization that if their teams were winning, and money was coming in, those needs did not matter. The next chapter will discuss the experiences of

Black athletes at predominantly White schools. Racial Integration and 45

CHAPTER 4

THE EXPERIENCES OF BLACK ATHLETES AT PREDOMINANTLY

WHITE SCHOOLS

Each Black athlete that became the pioneer Black athlete at a school faced hardships beyond imagination. The same was also true of those that followed in the pioneers' footsteps. Many of these student athletes had come from urban environments and the big cities, and knew little about college. The experiences of those athletes are important in understanding how and why the integration of college basketball occurred. Those experiences are representative of many Black students throughout the country who, as a result of integration, were gaining opportunities not available before to Blacks.

Standout Black Athletes

Chet Walker discussed his own experiences as a college basketball recruit in the 1950s in his work, A Long Time

Coming. At all of the schools he visited, only the other

Black athletes showed him around, and race never came up in the conversations. The Black athletes did not discuss what went on in regards to their experiences as a Black athlete.

As his recruitment continued, various handlers who thought they had his best interests at heart pushed Walker in many Racial Integration and 46 directions. Finally, Walker made the decision to attend the

University of Nebraska. At the last second, however, Walker was pulled towards Bradley University, and money exchanged hands to convince him to change schools. 1

Bradley University, like many other institutions, was just beginning to take steps toward full integration in

1958. No Black organizations, fraternities, or sororities existed on campus at the time. All of the Black athletes lived in one dorm on campus, and no social interaction existed between the races. Walker was afraid to open his mouth in class, for fear of being labeled unintelligent.

That fear led to a growing inferiority complex in Walker's mind; he was the big basketball star, but was not a star In the classroom. One positive experience that Walker noted was that other minority groups extended invitations to him.

The Jewish fraternity on campus invited him to lunch, and he made a lifelong friend from that opportunity. Other experiences of Blacks on campuses at the same time provided examples of the difficulties Black athletes faced upon entering college.

Jo Jo White was a basketball standout at the

University of Kansas in the mid 1960s. White was just one example of a Black athlete that arrived on campus facing Racial Integration and 47 what seemed like insurmountable challenges in the

classroom. White rarely read on his own time, and he looked at reading as a "burden. u2 The cultural differences that the

Black athlete faced as he entered college were numerous as well. Blacks were often assumed to be unintelligent and

lazy. Many times Black athletes tended not to speak of

their humble backgrounds for fear of looking bad. The Black athlete was at a disadvantage as soon as he stepped on campus. Because of inferior high school education in Black

regions, a Black athlete had to learn more in his four

years than the White athlete. The Black athletes came from

schools that existed under the separate but equal policy, but their schools were rarely considered equal. In the

1950s and 1960s, Black athletes were at a supreme disadvantage academically as well as culturally.3 The

situation was similar at other institutions, but each athlete experienced positives and negatives.

North Texas State: A Test Case

Ronald E. Marcello examined the integration of intercollegiate athletics at North Texas State (NTS) as a

test case. The Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of

Education of Topeka in 1954 had an impact on the integration of athletics at the college level. After the Racial Integration and 48

Brown decision, many southern legislatures, such as

Mississippi and Alabama, passed laws banning integrated athletic contests. 4 In 1956 at NTS, two Black football players arrived on campus to begin the integration process.

The desegregation of the student body at NTS helped make the integration of the athletic teams easier. Another factor that made the desegregation of athletics at NTS easier was the fact that the student body had gone through the process, "without any acts of violence or defiance. u5

Integral to the process of integration was the role of the coaches of the various sports at NTS. Although the coaches were an important part of the process in that they had to be accepting of Black athletes, they could not be given all of the credit. It was clear, and the coaches at

NTS had figured it out, that Black athletes could turn their teams into winners quickly.6 The coaches also realized that if they could act quickly on recruiting and integrating the Black athletes, their college would have an advantage for years to come, especially in the sport of football in the state of Texas. Coach Herb Ferrill remarked, "We felt that . . if this thing works out we'd have the axe on them [other colleges] next year when recruiting starts. We'd have the pick of the crop."7 The Racial Integration and 49

coaches also had certain strategies to bring the topic to

their White players before the fact. The coaches agreed not

to ask the White players if they would play with the

Blacks, but rather to assume they would, without an explanation. Another key to the success at NTS was the willingness of some key White players to accept the Black

players. Vernon Cole was a well-respected member of the NTS

football team, and when he chose to welcome his new

teammates, the other players followed his lead. s

Not everything went so well with the case at NTS however. Marcello remarked that many White teammates did not feel it necessary to have relationships with the Black players off the field, as the Black athletes remained,

"second class citizens" off of the field. 9 The troubles continued when the team traveled to other institutions for games. On one particular day, as NTS was beating Navarro

Junior College badly, assistant coach Ken Bahnsen ordered the bus to be ready to go at the end of the game. Bahnsen was worried about the safety of the team as they left the

field, particularly because Abner Hayes, one of the Black players, was having an exceptional game, thus inciting the crowd even more. Racial Integration and 50

Several reasons for the success of NTS in the integration of their athletic program existed. The college town did not have any racial problems, the president was determined to hold to the law handed down by the Brown decision, and the coaches and team leaders wanted integration to go smoothly. The most important part of the process, however, was the athletic ability, determination, and discipline in the face of adversity of the Black athletes involved. 10 Marcello stated that of note was the fact that sports only served as a model of integration after the institution itself had integrated. Sports followed in the footsteps of history, as they often had before. The experiences at these schools served as a reminder that the country was changing, mostly for the better, and that America was slowly moving out of the Jim

Crow Era and into a new chapter, the Civil Rights Movement. Racial Integration and 51

CHAPTER 5

SPORTS AND THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

By 1966 the Civil Rights Movement in America had taken

America by storm, and many of the events which characterized the movement were seen in daily papers and

television news shows throughout the country. Things in

America were gradually changing from the times of Jim Crow.

World War II had enabled blacks to fight alongside whites and many began to rationalize if blacks were good enough to

fight for our country, than they should have other rights as well. This was a big step in the history of blacks in

America. As the baby boomer generation came of age, they

listened to their parents and their values, but discrimination simply did not make sense to them. 1 They events leading up to the point of the Civil Rights Movement in 1966 are numerous yet important. In 1960, four black students staged a sit-in at the Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, because they were refused service at the counter because of the color of their skin.

This began a string of similar protests across the South.

As a result of these sit-ins, the Student Non-Violent

Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded at Shaw

University in April of that same year. SNCC provided an Racial Integration and 52 organizational base for the protest movement. In 1961 the

Freedom Riders began their campaign to desegregate the bus terminals throughout the South. Surviving attacks by the Ku

Klux Klan and whites during their journey, the Riders fulfilled their mission. The Interstate Commerce Commission declared segregation illegal. In the same year of the

Mississippi State Basketball incident, Governor George

Wallace of Alabama attempted to literally block the desegregation of the University of Alabama by standing at the entrance of the college. Eventually the first black student was admitted to Alabama. 2

The 1960s were also marred by assassinations throughout the country. The first of these was the assassination of

President John F. Kennedy, a proponent of Civil Rights in

America. He was killed on November 22, 1963, just a few months after the historic March on Washington where Dr.

Martin Luther King gave his famed "I Have a Dream" speech.

1964 proved to be an important year for the Civil Rights

Movement. The first Civil Rights Act in over eighty years was passed by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

No memorial oratation or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. We have talked long enough in this Racial Integration and 53

country about equal rights. We have talked for one hundred years or more. It is time now to write the next chapter-and to write it in the books of law. 3

Johnson was re-elected President in 1964, and in that same year, King won the Nobel Peace Prize.

1965 was marked with another assassination, this one to black power activist and leader Malcolm X. As the struggle continued, one of the most influential events in the entire movement happened on March 7 of that same year. The Selma to Montgomery March began, and although interrupted by what came to be known as Bloody Sunday, continued on successfully to Montgomery. Johnson, in the second year of his reelection, continued to add support to the movement by signing in the Voting Rights Bill in August. In Watts,

California, rioting occurred as a result of the arrest of a black youth.4 1966 was sure to see just as many, if not more, integral events in the history of the Civil Rights

Movement in America.

James Meredith was the first black student to successfully enter the University of Mississippi in

University, Mississippi in 1966. Having integrated Ole Miss,

Meredith set out on a personal "march against fear" as he referred to it. s The march was to weave its way through Racial Integration and 54

Mississippi, but on the second day, Meredith was met by the persistent racism he and others were attempting to overcome.

On that day, he was badly injured by a sniper. With Meredith recovering in the hospital, other civil rights leaders continued his march. One of these leaders was Stokely

Carmichael, who brought about the concept of black power.

Carmichael was challenging the old guard of the movement, the non-violent supporters. The black youth seemed to respond to his words, as the Black Power movement stressed racial pride and unity. In October of 1966, Huey Newton founded the Black Panther Party.

The Civil Rights struggle was changing in America; the non-violence struggle had given life to the rise of Black

Power.6 America was also changing rapidly, and signs of that were evident in many parts of society. For Black athletes, the situation was no different, and as protest as a vehicle for change became more and more common, it was only a matter of time before Black athletes took advantage of the situation. The need for equality was essential to the Civil

Rights Movement, and athletics, including college basketball, was an area that needed change as much as anywhere else. Racial Integration and 55

The Black Athlete in the 1960s

The Civil Rights Movement took place during the 1960s, and the role of the Black collegiate athlete was representative of the success and failure of the movement in

America. In 1968, some of the strongest and brightest collegiate athletes in America boycotted the Olympics to protest the treatment of Blacks in America. 7 In his research, Grundman noted that Blacks were seen solely as athletes, and little else. s Colleges outside the South that were able to recruit Black athletes were not only building their athletic programs, but were also recognized by the media as advancing society. The Black athletes were seen by some as symbols of racial progress. The athletes that were selected to be the first were done so with careful scrutiny.

Grundman referred to them as 'Super-Blacks,9, meaning they had to be the best at everything.

As the role of the Black athlete grew to new heights, their visibility led to a new twist. Media outlets began to look for the next great White player. 10 One White player that became a media darling during the 1960s was Bill

Bradley from Princeton. He exemplified what was pure about the game to those who were searching for a hero. Black athletes were not looked at to be heroes however, and in the Racial Integration and 56

1960s, the connection between the role of the Black athlete and the Civil Rights Movement became significant. College sports were another example of racial barriers that were put in front of Blpcks in America that needed to be broken down.

Protests and Revolts

Donald Spivey examined the role of the Black Athlete in

"Big-Time" intercollegiate sports from 1941-1968. He argued that ignoring the Black athlete during this time would be ignoring the struggle of the Civil Rights Movement. He defined "Big-Time" intercollegiate sport as involving the

Big Ten, Big Eight, Pac Ten, Southeast, Southwest, and Ivy

League conferences. 11 The fact that the Black athlete was cheered on the court or field and separated and hated off of it was a small example of what was occurring in America in the 1950s and 1960s.

One particular occurrence that Spivey examined was a protest that took place at New York University (NYU) in

1941. On March 11, 1941, students participated in a sit-in occupying the administrative building of NYU to protest athletic discrimination at the university. Some of the Black athletes were not allowed to travel with the team to away events, especially those on the track team. The administration decided to expel seven of the student Racial Integration and 57

leaders. The protest continued, supported by the National

Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

and chapters of the Urban League in New York.12 Word of the

protest also spread to other colleges and universities

throughout the country, whose students also sent their

support. At Harvard University, a similar protest took

place, and the administration at Harvard quickly moved to

fix the problem. Harvard would cancel any game where all of

their students could not participate.

Spivey suggested that the NYU protest was a "missed

opportunity"13 and explored the idea that the protest could

have been the catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, rather

than the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The NAACP however, along

with the Civil Rights Movement in general, was unorganized

in 1941. The NAACP, Urban League, and others were not ready

to put the full support of their organizations towards the

cause at that time. 14

With the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941,

America's war effort moved ahead to full force. World War II

left many of the colleges and universities without enough

athletes to participate. As a result, many institutions

looked towards Black athletes to help fill their rosters.

World War II created many opportunities for Black athletes Racial Integration and 58 to break down the color barrier in college and professional sports. Once the war ended, however, things began to move back to the prewar state, and Blacks were once again marginali zed. 15

As America moved toward the 1950s, college athletics took on a win at all costs mentality, and fortunately for

Black athletes, they were included again. The focus on winning brought scandals to the forefront, however, and many of the scandals involved Black athletes. Spivey discussed three factors that contributed to the high proportion of

Black athletes involved in the scandals. First, many of the

Black athletes came from low socio-economic classes and thus needed any money they could get. Secondly, the Black athletes were the best of the best and the most highly sought players. The third factor, according to Spivey, was racism. 16

One specific instance in which racism played a key role in the turmoil on campuses throughout the country took place at Buffalo State University in 1970. Many of the

Black athletes on the basketball team quit the team, citing racial discrimination as the reason. The conflict resulted in riots on the campus, including overturned cars set afire and broken windows. 17 According to Professor Harry Edwards, Racial Integration and 59 an estimated 37 revolts, not all violent, took place on the campuses of predominantly White universities in 1968 alone. 18 Many of the confrontations were between Black athletes and their White coaches. The Black athletes did not want to look like an "Uncle Tom" to their fellow students by conforming to the rules set forth by the White coaches. 19 Black student athletes began to take a more active role in the Civil Rights Movement. When students rebelled and did not follow the rules of their White coaches, they were often dismissed from the team, inciting other Black athletes on the campus.

Another revolt involving the University of California at Berkley basketball team occurred in the 1960s. The revolt arose over the dismissal and reinstatement of a player and coach that divided the Black and White athletes on the team. The Black players, along with several other

Black athletes on campus, demanded that the coach and other athletic department personnel be fired for their

"unwillingness to relate to Black athletes."2o The athletes created their own organization to deal with the issue.

Ultimately, the Chancellor and the school made recommendations to help deal with the issue of racism;

California at Berkley hired more Black coaches, created a Racial Integration and 60 recruitment program designed to bring more Black athletes to campus, and added courses in Black history and philosophy to the curriculum. 21

The lessons learned from the revolts that took place during the Civil Rights Movement at institutions across

America were important to note. Black student athletes learned to use outside groups, such as the NAACP, to their advantage when meeting with the administration. The student athletes often risked their education, and quite possibly their professional careers, to become a part of the movement and to join the struggle for human rights. 22 The struggles of Black athletes during the Civil Rights

Movement were representative of their attempt to integrate into the world of athletics that Whites had known and experienced for so long. Racial Integration and 61

CHAPTER 6

RACIAL PARTICIPATION, INTEGRATION, AND STACKING

While Black athletes were beginning to integrate the

ranks of college basketball, it would take a long time

before the athletes ever truly felt integrated into the

culture of the teams, thus prolonging the completion of the modernization of college basketball. Whether through

certain actions of the White members of the teams, or the

fact that Black players were often pegged into certain

positions or roles on the court, real integration was a

distant reality from what the athletes experienced. While

integrating college basketball gave some sort of equality

to Black athletes, once they were allowed on the teams, it

was clear that it would be a long time before true equality

occurred.

Participation and Integration

In their research on the subject, Berghorn et al.

attempted to distinguish between racial participation and

racial integration. 1 In the study, racial participation was measured quantitatively. Racial integration was seen as a more qualitative aspect of race and college basketball. The

researchers distinguished that participation did not equal

integration. At the outset of racial participation, Black Racial Integration and 62 athletes were generally thrust into the role of being a star player, or a focus of the offense. The star player was expected to lead the team in scoring. At the same time,

Blacks were not expected to be reserve players. The research also examined the idea that Black players were recruited and

pegged as certain position players, generally the forward

position rather than the point guard. As a result, the Black

players were forced into certain roles that limited their

integration into college athletics, which was referred to as

'stacking.,2 Stacking was a clear example of how college

basketball was struggling to legitimize itself-to the Black

athlete; Black athletes were given opportunities to play,

but only in extremely directed roles.

Stacking

D. Stanley Eitzen and Irl Tessendorf examined the

concept of stacking in more detail. The researchers sought

to determine if the concept, which had already been shown to

exist in football and baseball, extended to basketball as well. 3 Previous research by Worthy and Markle suggested that

Black athletes performed better in activities that were

based on reactive response, and White athletes succeeded in

those tasks that were based on self control and initiation. 4

Eitzen and Tessendorf, however, looked at three main Racial Integration and 63 concepts to help determine if stacking applied to basketball.

The first concept established by Eitzen and Tessendorf was centrality. Centrality is the idea that the athlete that is the most centrally located on the playing field or court will see the most action. The concept of centrality gave more responsibility to that athlete in that position. A second idea was that the responsibility of the position, rather than the location of the position, dictated the amount of leadership responsibilities and outcome control.

For instance, a point guard would have more responsibility, even though the position was not fixed on the court. The third and final concept was that Black athletes themselves might initiate the position segregation. This was explained by the fact that Blacks may realize they would not have a future at a certain position. An example given was that of a quarterback on a football team. Few professional teams at the time had Black quarterbacks, and it would be counterproductive for Black athletes to try and break that trend. s

Eitzen and Tessendorf found that previous researchers did not look at basketball specifically because no positional centrality existed in the sport. The players move Racial Integration and 64 around and do not have one certain area that they remain in

for the entire contest. The researchers then argued the opposite idea that the positions in basketball do "vary in

responsibility, in leadership, in the mental qualities of good judgment, decision-making, and recognition of the opponents' tactics, and outcome control."6 The focus then

turned to the positions in basketball: guard, forward, and center.

The research used representative statements by coaches to establish the qualities of the three positions. The guard was generally seen as the leader and decision-maker, and had many responsibilities on the floor. The center was the focal point of the offense; this position had a significant amount of outcome control. Finally, the forward was a good rebounder and athletic, mainly requiring physical capabilities. The hypothesis of the authors was that Blacks would be found in large numbers at the forward position. The researchers found that their data clearly supported their hypothesis. The researchers also discussed the idea that physical size was much more important in the sport of basketball than in other sports. A small player would generally not be put at the center position. Blacks therefore were not always pegged into the forward or "Black" Racial Integration and 65 position. As a result, Eitzen and Tessendorf found that

stacking, which did clearly exist in basketball, was not as pronounced as it was in other sports such as baseball and

football. Basketball was also not as position specific as other sports. The athletes on the court move around and perform many of the same tasks during the contest. Still,

the researchers found that Blacks were generally put in

those positions that require athletic ability rather than

those that require decision-making. 7

Unequal Opportunity

Schneider and Eitzen took a different route, examining

the concept of stacking as it referred to racial discrimination. 8 The researchers also looked at another form of sports discrimination, the concept of unequal opportunity. Some of the explanations given for stacking were role model specification, stereotypes, and social class. The difference in the research of Schneider and

Eitzen as compared to Eitzen and Tessendorf was that the two

researchers wanted to find out if the concept of stacking were fading away. The idea of the researchers was that if stacking were becoming obsolete, then it would begin to do so at the college level first on a more wide spread base, and then spread to the professionals. Racial Integration and 66

While stacking was still found to be prevalent by

Schneider and Eitzen, the researchers also noted that

"unequal opportunity for equal ability" was happening as well. 9 The information of the researchers showed that the proportion of Blacks was higher for starters at each position than the proportion was for non-starters. As a result of these findings, Schneider and Eitzen concluded that it was much more difficult for Blacks to gain entry onto teams than it was for Whites. The bottom line was that

Blacks must be better than Whites to succeed in sports. 10

Schneider and Eitzen did raise an interesting aspect of segregation by displaying the unequal opportunity for equal ability concept. As a result, the researchers noted that sports were an area that were not free from racial discrimination, and that sports had similar problems as society as a whole. They concluded that only the "truly outstanding Black athletes play but their participation is limited to those positions that require exceptional players rather than mental traits."ll

Yetman and Eitzen also looked at the concept of unequal opportunity for equal ability. The researchers argued that college sports provided a vehicle for Blacks that was not available before. When it came to fighting for positions, Racial Integration and 67

Blacks were often fighting other Blacks for those specialized, or stacked, positions. A key point in the argument of Yetman and Eitzen was that many times Blacks did not even tryout for a particular position because they knew they would not be given the chance in the future. 12

Yetman and Eitzen examined players on 246 integrated

NCAA teams in 1970 and found that two-thirds of the starters were Black players. The researchers found that this information did not change in regards to size of school, location, or type of school. The results found in 1970 were a stark contrast to those from 1948, when less than ten percent of collegiate teams were integrated. The total number of schools recruiting Blacks increased, and along with it the total number of Blacks being recruited grew as well, with the largest increase occurring from 1966-1970.

Yetman and Eitzen found that with each year, the number of

Blacks that did not see significant playing time, or did not score much at all, decreased. As a result, Blacks were disproportionally represented in the role of leading scorer, and even more so in the top five positions on the college team. 13

Yetman and Eitzen also noted several possibilities as to why the unequal opportunity concept existed for Black Racial Integration and 68 athletes. The first idea, which was refuted, was a suggestion by some that Blacks were athletically superior by nature. The researchers quickly denounced this idea. The second explanation was the discrimination of coaches in their recruiting practices. Edwards remarked:

A Black athlete generally fares well in athletic competition relative to other incoming athletes at a White-dominated college. The cards are somewhat stacked for him, however, because few Black high school athletes get what are typically classified as second and third string athletic grants-in­ aid. One simply does not find Black athletes on 'full rides' at predominantly White schools riding the bench or playing second or third team positions. Second and third team athletic grants-in-aid are generally reserved for White athletes. 14

A final explanation put forth by Yetman and Eitzen was that society had a negative impact on Black athletes.

Academic requirements did not favor Black athletes, as they often had negative academic experiences in high school. The researchers also noted that many of the institutions reflected the White middle class, and therefore provided an uncomfortable condition for the Black athlete that did not have that same experience before college. 15

John Loy and Joseph Elvogue added their input on the myth that Black players lacked judgment, and therefore were excluded from those specialized positions. 16 The researchers Racial Integration and 69 noted that Black athletes were given more dependent tasks, rather than those that required greater judgment. Loy and

Elvogue suggested that a cyclical effect existed that had no end. Blacks, because they were discriminated against, were placed in peripheral positions. As a result, the Black athletes did not have a chance to interact as much with their White teammates, which lead to more negative feelings towards Black athletes. 17

In 1963, Robert H. Boyle summed up these ideas in the following words:

Sport has often served minority groups as the first rung on the social ladder. As such, it has helped further their assimilation into American life. It would not be too far­ fetched to say that it has done more in this regard than any other agency, including church and school.IS

Berghorn et al. concluded that as time wore on, the role of the Black player as exclusively the star player declined in college basketball. The reason for this finding was that as the number of Black players increased, the need for reserves stayed the same, and as a result, Black players were found in the role of a reserve player on many teams. I9

Racial participation, integration, and stacking are all key concepts that can help explain the integration of college basketball. They represent the obstacles that Black Racial Integration and 70 athletes faced when they made the team. The question as to whether college basketball could be considered truly

"modern" if racism still existed still lingers. Clearly, if

Black athletes did not have an equal opportunity, the equality requirement of the modernization theory would not be met. Investigation into which Black players were successful at colleges and universities is needed to fully explore the concept of modernization as it relates to college basketball. Chapter Eight will focus on the players from both the 1963 and 1966 NCAA championship participants to determine how completely Black athletes participated in college basketball programs. Racial Integration and 71

CHAPTER 7

THE PLAYERS INVOLVED

In the 1960s, Black athletes began to appear for the first time on the rosters of college basketball teams throughout the country. The players were from all parts of the country, but one common thread existed for the Black players on the 1963 NCAA Champions, Loyola of Chicago, and the 1966 victors, Texas Western College. Most of those Black players were from large, urban areas, such as New York City,

Houston, or Detroit. This was in stark contrast from the rural players on the rosters of their key opponents,

Mississippi State University and the University of Kentucky.

The games represented a shift not just in the way the game was played, but even ~ore so in who played the game at the college level. What began as a city game played in YMCA's across the country had made its way through rural white farmlands and back to the city with the recruitment of Black players.

Loyola University of Chicago

The Mississippi State game was just one of many that season for Loyola of Chicago and the Blacks on the team were used to the abuse by then. However, because of the fact that the all-White SEC champions from Mississippi were Racial Integration and 72 playing against a mostly Black team from Chicago, and because of the fact that the Bulldogs had come to East

Lansing against the legal orders of their Governor, special attention was paid to the game, especially by the press. As

Les Hunter, one of the Black starters on the Loyola team remembers: , Mississippi almost brings a startling concept to one's mind because of what had happened. I think half of it started because of the word, Mississippi. But a sportswriter from Nashville, John Bibb, came all the way to Chicago to interview us. He didn't ask about my basketball ability. He just asked, "What do you think about playing a team from Mississippi?" He let us know that it was a bigger issue than I ever imagined, a lot bigger than an NCAA game. So going into the game, I'm thinking, "This is like history." At the time, I told Bibb, "Well, it's just another ballgame." But I really expected to be cursed, spat at and all of this. I expected the worst, and I was a little hesitant to do anything out of the way. I didn't want to cause an incident. I think that really affected us somewhat. 1

Hunter was one of the four Blacks to start that season for the Ramblers, along with Vic Rouse, Jerry Harkness, and Ron

Miller. The only White starter on the team was John Egan.

Miller and Harkness were both recruited out of the Bronx by head coach George Ireland. While Miller was a tough defender, Harkness was the teams' most valuable player. He scored over 1,700 points in his Loyola career, and was the Racial Integration and 73 captain on the 1963 team. Harkness, along with Rouse, formed a duo that would give teams trouble all year long in 1963. 2

Vic Rouse was recruited out of Pearl High School in

Nashville, TN. Rouse was a high school teammate of Les

Hunter, and the two were so close that they decided to attend Loyola together as well. While at Pearl, Rouse and

Hunter led their school to 54 wins in a row and also the

Negro National Prep Title. 3

Beginning in 1961, Loyola Head Coach George Ireland began playing as many as four Black starters at home and on the road in what some saw as a violation of the unwritten rule of never playing more than three Black players at a time. In 1962-63, Ireland played four Black starters in every game. Ireland even went so far as to play five Blacks at once. In a game at Oklahoma City against Wyoming, Ireland replaced fouled-out starter John Egan with Pablo Robertson, marking the first time a major Division I college team fielded five Black players. 4 Loyola began a trend that would soon resonate through college athletics. Ireland wanted to win games, and to do so he played his best five players at once. Years later, Les Hunter offered his thoughts on

Ireland, which symbolized the rationalization of recruiting and playing Black players: to win basketball games. Racial Integration and 74

The thing that I can say is that he was a guy that chose to play and recruit Blacks when others wouldn't. That's got to be a plus any ways you look at it. I think he did it more for selfish reasons that for any type of humanitarian efforts ... He just wanted you to do a job for him, not that he was going to do anything for you. He was selfish, but he knew the game, he was a good basketball coach ... But we were able to coexist because we were working on something that was really good. 5

Three years later, history would again be made in Cole Field

House on the campus of the University of Maryland.

Texas Western and Kentucky

In many ways, the 1966 NCAA Championship that pitted

Texas Western College against the University of Kentucky

represented the modern team against the pre-modern team.

Texas Western had a young, eager coach who recruited from

anywhere and everywhere across the country, and who

understood that the game was changing and changing for good.

Kentucky, meanwhile, represented the old guard: a team coached by a legend who recruited exclusively from his own backyard. A quick look at the rosters of the two teams shows

the changes occurring in college basketball at the time (see

Appendix A). The roster for University of Kentucky was made up of players from mostly rural areas in the Midwest. The

Texas Western Miners, however, had seven players from large,

urban areas. Racial Integration and 75

The story of the players on the 1966 team began in

Detroit, Michigan, which was the home of the Miners' point guard and floor general, Bobby Joe Hill. Hill was instrumental in the teams' success throughout the year, earning a spot on the all-tournament team for the final two games in Maryland. In his senior year in high school, Hill was named first team All State. Hill was also an exceptional baseball player in high school. The truth was that when it came time to choose a college, Hill just wanted to stay at• home. It was his mother who finally convinced, or ordered, him to go to school. He ended up at

Burlington Junior College, and eventually found his way to

Texas Western. 6 In his first season after sitting out a year because of a transfer rule, Hill averaged only 6.5 points per game. But in the year of the championship, Hill was the team leader and scored 15 points a contest. Yet Hill was best known for his defense, which was evident as he effortlessly picked opponents pockets all year long.

Another player who was crucial to the Miners success in

1966 was David Lattin. Lattin was six foot seven, and could run, jump, and rebound with the best big men in the country. Texas Western was not a big team by any stretch of the imagination, and Lattin spent most of his time guarding Racial Integration and 76 the seven footers that lined up opposite him all year long.

Lattin is probably best known by his nickname, "Big Daddy

D." Lattin was rare in the Miners' program as a local recruit who grew up in Houston, Texas, and he was someone that Haskins and his staff wanted badly to come to Texas

Western. As Haskins said, "I don't know how many trips I made to Houston and I called him on the telephone so often that I still remembered his number 20 years later."7 But

Lattin was not so easily convinced, and he told Haskins that he would come to Texas Western only if Haskins would put his four friends from high school on the team. Haskins declined that offer, and Lattin enrolled at Tennessee A&I.

It was not long before Lattin realized his mistake and made his way back to Texas and to the Miners. s In 1966 Lattin averaged 14 points and 8.6 rebounds per game.

The remaining three players to start the final game for

Texas Western were Harry Flournoy, Jr., Orsten Artis, and

"Wee" Willie Worsley. Flournoy, a six foot five forward, hailed from another northern city, Gary, Indiana. Haskins had made it a point to go to Gary to personally recruit

Flournoy himself. Flournoy was another great leaper and rebounder, pulling down an average of 10.7 points a game during his senior year in 1966. Although Flournoy was not Racial Integration and 77 at full strength for the final game against Kentucky, he played an integral part in the team's success during the season. The two other starters, Worsley and Artis, were both guards who were chosen to start because of their quickness. 9 Artis, from Chicago, was arguably the team's best shooter and one of its top defenders as well. Worsley was the team's smallest player and came to Texas Western

from New York City. The other two players to play in the final game were Nevil "The Shadow" Shed, and Willie Cager, both from New York. Cager was a swing man in the Miners' offense and Shed, the tallest player on the team at six

foot eight, played mainly underneath the basket, grabbing

7.9 rebounds and scoring 10.6 points per contest.

Contrary to the impression often given, not all of the players on the '66 team were Black. One of the White players, Jerry Armstrong from Eagleville, Missouri, proved to be effective in the semifinal game against Utah's star guard Jerry Chambers, the eventual Most Valuable Player of the final four. Coach Don Haskins inserted Armstrong to stop Chambers defensively, and it worked. Haskins often claimed that if it were not for Armstrong, the Miners would never have the chance to oust Kentucky.IO Racial Integration and 78

The Kentucky team that faced Texas Western in 1966 was certainly not the best of the teams under legendary Coach

Adolph Rupp, although they were supposedly his favorite. In fact, "Rupp's Runts", as they were called, were not even picked to win the SEC conference title that year. They had

finished just 15-10 the year before and lacked height in the front court. With no player over six foot five, they were a bit on the short side, but that did not keep them

from compiling a 23-1 record for the 1965-66 season.

What the Wildcats did not lack were superstars, in

fact they had three of them. Pat Riley, a junior all­

American, was the team's leading scorer and played forward.

Riley, former coach of the Los Angeles Lakers and current general manager for the Miami Heat was also a northerner

from Schenectady, New York. As Harry Lancaster, a longtime

Kentucky assistant, remarked to Cawood Ledford, "Riley had great quickness and was very aggressive. nll Larry Conley, a senior forward from Ashland, KY, came alive during March to become Kentucky's leading scorer during the tournament.

Conley played during the final two games against Duke and

Texas Western even though he was sick. Conley's style was that of a playmaker, he was a great passer and had great vision on both offense and defense. The third of the Racial Integration and 79 superstars was all-American guard Louie Dampier, from

Indianapolis, IN, who is tenth on the all-time scoring list for the Wildcats. Dampier was not only a great shooter and scorer, but he was an unheralded defender.

Sophomore Thad Jaracz, from Lexington, was the starting center, and the other starter on the team was

Tommy Kron from Tell City, IN. Kron, the Wildcats' shooting guard, was a senior who set up the Wildcats' offense and spearheaded the famous one-three-one defense utilized by

Kentucky all year. Cliff Berger, a sophomore from

Centralia, IN, was the only other Wildcat to see significant time in the final game. The Wildcats were not expected to do so well in 1966; they were coming off Rupp's worst season ever. That did not faze the group of stars, as they rose to the top of the ran kings and a near undefeated season. They became media darlings and heroes not only in

Kentucky but across the nation. Time magazine came to

Kentucky and photographed them walking across campus in their letter jackets, prompting Pat Riley to remark, "It was the best time of my life. u12

Even the coaches represented the changing of the guard in college basketball. Don Haskins was born in Enid,

Oklahoma in 1930. As a child, he grew up playing Racial Integration and 80 basketball, and by his collegiate years, he was good enough to play at nearby Oklahoma A&M. It was at Oklahoma A&M that he developed his knowledge of the game, doing so under the watchful eye of one of the most legendary coaches in college basketball history, Henry "Hank" Iba. Iba developed

Haskins' his love for defense, a trademark of all his teams. Another mark that Haskins left at UTEP was his habit of being extremely tough on his players. It was this characteristic, along with his rough look, that earned him the nickname, "the Bear."13

For all the attention Haskins received as a disciplinarian, none of it can compare to what he went through in 1966. Haskins, perhaps unknowingly, created history when he penciled in the five names of Hill, Lattin,

Artis, Flournoy, and Worsley on March 19, 1966. In hindsight, it has been said that Haskins was responsible for the jump in the recruiting of Black athletes in college basketball. According to Nolan Richardson, former player of

Haskins and former head coach at University of Arkansas,

"He was a pioneer, [the 1966 NCAA championship game] was the turning point of Black kids having an opportunity to play on the major college level. He had more to do with it than anyone else."14 But Haskins did not think of himself as Racial Integration and 81 a pioneer at the time of the game. He never even tried to recruit only Blacks. "I'm color blind when it comes to recruiting. I look for players, period. HIS The situation at

Texas Western was such that the university was in a town,

El Paso, which was already accustomed to diversity. When

Haskins took the job in 1961, many Blacks already played for the Miners basketball team. 16 When asked about starting five Black players for the first time in NCAA history,

Haskins remarked, "I started the five players I thought would have the best chance of beating Kentucky. That they were all Black and that it was the first time five Black players had started in an NCAA finals was strictly incidental to me."17

A more contrasting figure could not have been pitted against Haskins in the finals than Adolph RUpp. Rupp had traveled a long and winding road through Kentucky before facing off against Haskins in 1966. Born and raised in

Kansas, Rupp played under the legendary Kansas coach,

Forrest (Phog) Allen, one of the winningest coaches in college basketball history. In fact, when Rupp played for

Allen, the assistant for the team was none other than the inventor of the game himself, Dr. James Naismith. After leaving the university, Rupp went on to coach high school Racial Integration and 82 basketball in Illinois, and after a successful stint there, was awarded the head coaching job at the University of

Kentucky in Lexington.

From the start, Adolph Rupp was a disciplinarian first and a coach second. His practices were run in complete silence. His workouts were marked by witty references, most of them in the form of insults to his players. Rupp once told Tommy Kron, a member of the 1966 team, "Son, I'm writing a book on how not to play basketball, and I'm going to devote the first two hundred pages to you. nIB Rupp set the tone for basketball in Lexington, and in the whole state of Kentucky. His style made his teams great. They were disciplined, ordered, well oiled machines, just the way Rupp liked them.

Perhaps it was because of his straightforward demeanor that Rupp earned respect from his players, or maybe it was the fact that he won and then just kept on winning. With

Rupp at the reigns, the Wildcats ascended to four NCAA titles in 1948, 1949, 1951, and 1958. In his forty two years coaching in Lexington, Rupp also won 876 games, placing him second on the all-time list of NCAA coaches.

But Rupp did not give Kentucky just the wins and championships, he gave the people of Kentucky something to Racial Integration and 83 live and die by year in and year out. Rupp made basketball at Kentucky a national pastime, and in doing so he and his players became an invincible group of super heroes, destined to bring hope and happiness to every man, woman, and child in the bluegrass state, a state with no professional teams. He made basketball so important that people in Kentucky now devote their lives to the sport. As

Rupp's son, Adolph Rupp Jr., maintains,

What he accomplished was something that through the years the people of Kentucky could be proud of. They could stick their chest out and say that we're better than you; basketball is the one thing that we do better than you. That has to be the result of what my father did. He was the one who put Kentucky on the map, who took them to New York and Chicago to play the teams people around the nation had heard of. And here's a team out of a southern state going into the big cities and beating those teams, and they have Kentucky on their uniforms. It's something the people can stick their chests out and say, 'That's US.,19

Adolph Rupp was one of the best coaches ever in college basketball. The discrepancies arise in the debate on whether or not he was a great man. On numerous occasions,

Rupp has been chastised for racist remarks. In his book entitled "Adolph Rupp as I Knew Him", Rupp's longtime assistant Harry Lancaster remembers Rupp saying to him,

"Harry, that s.o.b. (university president John Oswald) is Racial Integration and 84 ordering me to get some niggers in here. What am I going to do? He's the boss."zo Sports Illustrated reported that at halftime of the Texas Western game, Rupp was overheard referring to the Texas Western players as "coons".Zl

Kentucky did not have a Black basketball player until 1971, when Torn Payne, a seven footer, stepped on the floor for the Wildcats. Rupp did not make efforts to recruit Black players during the 1960s, but not many other coaches in the

South did. Rupp certainly had his chances to recruit some excellent young players, as many who happened to be Black were coming out of high school in Kentucky at the time.

Clem Haskins, Butch Beard, and Wes Unseld were just a few.

Rupp did try to recruit Unseld to a point. However, according to Unseld, Rupp made only one visit to his house, and it was clear to Unseld's parents that Rupp did not want to be there. 22

Rupp did receive pressure from Oswald to integrate his program, as the university president felt the same pressure from the outside world. As Rupp continued to ignore that proposition, he eventually was forced into retirement in

1972. He was seventy years old when he quit coaching on his terms, or as he would like to believe. Rupp was indeed a man of his time, and as his time changed, he was forced to Racial Integration and 85 either change with it or get out, and he chose the latter.

He died five years later, December 10, 1977. Rupp lived and died a legend in Kentucky. At Rupp arena, where the

Wildcats play their home games, his spirit lives on each day. Not only was Rupp a good coach, but a smart one as well. One day in practice during the 1965-66 season, Rupp, who often told his players never to read the newspapers, told them to look in the sports section that day. He said that Duke, Kentucky, and Vanderbilt were the top three teams in the nation. He told his players that the top three teams were all White teams, and that it would never ever happen again.23

Both the 1963 Loyola team and the 1966 Texas Western team helped solidify the reality of integration in the minds of colleges and universities across the country. While some schools acted more quickly than others, changes were occurring. The players were now being recruited from inner cities, and the game itself was changing from a slow down style of play to an up-tempo fast break style. Ironically enough, the fast break was a staple of Adolph Rupp for many years and one of the main reasons he was so successful. The

1966 Texas Western team was an example of the growing trend in college basketball. The schools that were willing to Racial Integration and 86

recruit Black athletes had to travel far, to the large and progressive cities in America, and generally to the North,

in order to court the athletes. The South had yet to advance

to anywhere near the North in the area of integration, especially in sports, but that was about to change, and college basketball was about to enter its modern stage. Racial Integration and 87

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

The tone of the 1966 game was set a couple of minutes into the contest when Bobby Joe Hill threaded a perfect pass through the Kentucky defense to a wide open David

Lattin for an emphatic dunk. The Miners played hard all night, controlling the flow of the game and showing

Kentucky that they had come to play. Lattin and Shed had two more powerful dunks before the game was over. The

Miners played great team man to man defense however and established early on that they would not give up any easy baskets. The Miners defense forced Kentucky out of their offense for much of the game, making the Wildcats rely on

Dampier and Riley's outside shooting to keep them close.

For the Miners, Lattin seemed to control the inside with his dominating and arrogant presence. He would literally walk casually around while Kentucky played their zone, waiting for a chance to either dunk the baIlor work for an offensive rebound. As the game wore on, Orsten Artis and

Willie Worsley kept the Miners ahead with their shooting from the outside while Riley continued his assault on the basket. At the half, the Miners led 34-31. Racial Integration and 88

In the second half, the Miners attacked the one three

one zone of Kentucky, and in doing so took control of the

game. Time after time Hill drove the lane, slicing through

the defense and making some absolutely incredible shots.

All-American Louie Dampier continued to keep the Wildcats

within striking distance by consistently making his jump

shots. He seemed like the only one who was not fazed by the

Miners' defense. But within seconds, Hill got a steal and

hit a jump shot and Lattin followed a missed Miner shot

with a tip dunk. The crowd behind the Miner bench began to

rise to their feet. After a timeout, Kentucky carne out and

made careless fouls and forced bad shots. With about ten minutes to go, Bobby Joe Hill stole the ball twice from

Dampier and made two easy shots, silencing all doubts about

Texas Western and sending college basketball into the modern era. As the buzzer sounded, the Miners had defeated

Kentucky 72-65 for their first ever National Championship.

Of the five major sports in America (baseball,

basketball, football, hockey, and soccer) basketball is one

that has risen from the cities and hearts of America,

without direct outside influence from other parts of the world. As a result, the history of the sport has followed

the history of America closely. As America became a modern Racial Integration and 89 society due to industrialization, basketball followed its path, albeit more slowly.

Over the course of the 1900s, the plight of college basketball took many twists and turns, but never had it moved so far forward in one year than in 1966. The modernization of college basketball became complete on that

March day in Maryland when Hill's two steals sealed the victory. With equality beginning to be achieved and rationalization clearly at the forefront of many coaches' minds, college basketball had arrived as a truly modern sport in America.

When basketball began as a way for young men to pass the time during the winter months, James Naismith probably never imagined that the game would progress the way it has. The history of college basketball is long and storied, and while

Black athletes played a large part, it was mainly not until the late 1950s that they took on a prominent role. The South was clearly behind when it came to integration and schools like Kentucky symbolized that. Black athletes fought for legitimacy throughout their collegiate career, and too often found the road to integration blocked by a coach, athletic director, college president, or an alumni booster club. When these players finally achieved participation, it took many Racial Integration and 90 years for true integration to be accomplished. The players from the Loyola and Texas Western teams represented the changing guard in college basketball not just from a racial standpoint, but from the standpoint of basketball achieving its modern status.

The Post Modern Game

Over the course of the next thirty-five years (1966-

2001), basketball changed gradually for the better, whether through the complete racial integration or the introduction of international players into the game. At the college and professional level in America, it is clear that Black athletes have achieved a higher status in society. Companies that make shoes, video games, soft drinks, and other products are readily available for the top stars in the NBA to endorse their products, and college athletes are adorned with the gear of whatever shoe company their coach has agreed to sign a contract with. The higher social status is not just enjoyed by Black athletes anymore, however. Just as

Black athletes made inroads in basketball in the 1960s and

1970s, international players are making those same gains now, led by such professional stars as Yao Ming from China,

Pao Gasol from Spain, and Dirk Nowiztki from G~rmany. Racial Integration and 91

Globalization has arrived not only in the NBA, but also in college, and even high school basketball as well.

Today, players are entertainers, being paid for putting on a show for the fans, who pay money to watch the festivities. While the professional leagues in baseball, football, hockey, and basketball have remained just that, professional, various offspring have cropped up recently.

Leagues such as the Arena Football League (AFL) and more recently the now defunct XFL, headed by wrestling mogul

Vince McMahon, are evidence of sports changing and leaning more towards the spectator experience. Even baseball is not immune, as the minor leagues often view themselves as fan friendly. Basketball has given us the new sport, Slam Ball, which has competitors playing a crude form of the game in which the players jump off trampolines to score, sometimes being sent to the penalty box for a particularly harsh foul.

It could be argued that these new leagues show a disregard for the histories of the games, and represent where the sports are heading.

The game of basketball is constantly changing, whether through rule changes such as the three point shot and the twenty-four second shot clock or through the influx of new players each year. The game has moved through the pre-modern Racial Integration and 92 era, into the modern era, and towards the post-modern era.

College basketball has become less of a precursor for the game as a whole, as we now see high school players jumping straight to the NBA. The integration of college basketball can not be overlooked, however, as a catalyst for the game to become a truly modern sport in America. Racial Integration and 93

APPENDIX A

ROSTERS AND BOX SCORE

FOR THE 1966 NCAA CHAMPIONSHIP GAME

TEXAS WESTERN MINERS Name Home FG FT RB PF PTS *Willie Cager New York, NY 1-3 6-7 6 3 8 *Bobby Joe Hill Detroit, MI 7-17 6-9 3 3 20 David Placio El Paso, TX DNP Jerry Armstrong Eagleville, MO DNP Louis Baudoin Albequerque, NM DNP *Orsten Artis Gary, IN 5-13 5-5 8 1 15 *Willie Worsley New York, NY 2-4 4-6 4 o 8 Togo Railey El Paso, TX DNP Dick Myers Peabody, KS DNP *Nevil Shed New York, NY 1-1 1-1 3 1 3 *David Lattin Houston, TX 5-10 6-6 9 4 16 *Harry Flournoy Gary, IN 1-1 0-0 2 0 2

TOTALS 22-49 6-9 35 12 72

* DENOTES BLACK ATHLETE

KENTUCKY WILDCATS Name Home FG FT RB PF PTS Louie Dampier Indianapolis, IN 7-18 5-5 9 4 19 Jim LeMaster Paris, KY 0-1 0-0 010 Gene Stewart Brookville, IN DNP Bob Tallent Langley, KY 0-3 0-0 0 1 0 Tommy Porter Graley, KY DNP Tommy Kron Tell City, IN 3-6 0-0 7 2 6 Steve Clevenger Anderson, IN DNP Larry Conley Ashland, KY 4-9 2-2 8 5 10 Pat Riley Schnectady, NY 8-22 3-4 4 4 19 Brad Bounds Bluffton, IN DNP Cliff Berger Centralia, IN 2-3 0-0 0 o 4 Gary Gamble Earlington, KY 0-0 0-0 0 1 0 Larry Lentz Lakeview, OH DNP Thad Jaracz Lexington, KY 3-8 1-2 5 5 7

TOTALS 27-70 11-13 33 23 65 Racial Integration and 94

NOTES INTRODUCTION 1 Nelson George, Elevating the Game: The History & Aesthetics of Black Men in Basketball (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 55. 2 Allen Guttman, From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 10. 3 Arthur Ashe, A hard road to glory (New York: Amistad, 1988),52. 4 A.S. "Doc" Young, Negro firsts in sports (Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., 1963). 5 Ocania Chalk, Black College Sport (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1976). 6 Bill Finger, "Just Another Ballgame," Southern Exposure 7(1979):76. 7 Frank Fitzpatrick, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: Kentucky, Texas Western, and the Game that Changed American Sports (New York: Simon ad Schuster, 1999), 130. 8 Charles H. Martin, "Jim Crow in the Gymnasium: The Integration of College Basketball in the American South," The International Journal of the History of Sports 10(1986) 65-86. 9 Douglas A. Noverr and Lawrence E. Ziewacz, The Games They Played: Sports in American History, 1865-1980 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1983). 10 Chet Walker, with Chris Messenger, A Long T,ime Coming: A Black Athlete's Coming of Age in America (New York: Grove Press, 1985). 11 Adolph Grundman, "The Image of Intercollegiate Sports and the Civil Rights Movement: A Historian's View," Arena Review 5 (1980): 77-85. 12 Donald Spivey, "The Black Athlete in Bog-Time Intercollegiate Sports, 1941-1968," Phylon 44 (1983): 116- 125. 13 David Wiggins, "The Future of College Athletics is at Stake: Black Athletes and Racial Turmoil on Three Predominantly White University Campuses, 1968-1972," Journal of Sport History 15 (1988): 304-333. 14 Deobold B. Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Research (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973). 15 Forrest Berghorn, Norman Yetman, and Floyd Thomas, "Racial Participation and Integration in Intercollegiate Basketball, 1958-1980," Journal of Sports Behavior 5 (1988) 49-50. Racial Integration and 95

16 Van Dalen. 17 Ibid, 162-163. 18 Ibid, 163.

CHAPTER 1 1 Guttman, From Ritual to Record, 10. Ibid, 14. 3 Ibid, 16. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid, 39. 6 Ibid, 51. 7 Ibid, 26. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid, 27. [0 Ibid, 28-29. 11 Ibid, 31. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid, 36. 14 Ibid, 40. 15 Max Weber, Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 241. Translated and Edited by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. 16 Guttman, 44. 17 Jon Entine, Taboo: Why Black Athletes Dominate Sports and Why We're Afraid to talk About It (New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 225. 18 Ibid, 224. 19 Ibid, 230. 20 John Hoberman, Darwin's Athletes: How Sport has Damaged Black America and Preserved the Myth of Race (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997), 28.

CHAPTER 2 1 Elmer Johnson, The History of YMCA Physical Education (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1979), 87. 2 John F. Kotolowski, Basketball, Origins of in Sports Encyclopedia North America, Edited by John D. Windhausen, (Florida: Academic International Press, 1993), 169. 3 Ibid, 168. 4 Johnson, 88. 5 Kutolowski, 172. 6 Benj amin G. Rader, From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Televised Sports 5th Edition (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2004), 242. Racial Integration and 96

7 Ibid, 243. 8 Joan Paul, Richard V. McGhee, and Helen Fant, "The Arrival and Ascendance of Black Athletes in the Southeastern Conference, 1966-1980," Phylon 45 (1984): 284-297. 9 Grundman, "The Image of Intercollegiate Sports," 79. 10 Young, Negro Firsts, 45. 11 Ibid. 12 Chalk, Black College, 63. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid, 75. 15 Ibid, 121. 16 George, Elevating the Game, 88. 17 Ibid, 134. 18 Neil D. Isaacs, All the Moves: A History of College Basketball (Philadelphia & New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1975), 103. 19 Ibid, 115. 20 Milton S. Katz, "Coach John B. McLendon Jr. and the Integration of Intercollegiate and Professional Athletics in Post World War II America," Journal of American Culture 13 (1990): 35. 21 Ibid, 36. 22 Ibid, 40.

23 Finger, "Just Another Ballgame", 75 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid, 76. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid.

28 Fitzpatrick, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down, 175. 29 Ibid, 85. 30 Ibid, 189. 31 Ibid, 203.

CHAPTER 4 1 Martin, "Jim Crow in·the Gymnasium", 68. 2 Ibid, 72. 3 Ibid, 75. 4 Ibid, 79. 5 Paul, McGhee, and Fant, "The Arrival and Ascendance", 291. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid, 292. 8 Berghorn, Yetman, and Thomas, "Racial Participation", 53. 9 Noverr and Ziewacz, The Games They Played, 145. Racial Integration and 97

CHAPTER 5 1 Walker, A Long Time Coming, 9S. 2 Jack Olsen, The Black Athlete: A Shameful Story (New York: Time-Life Books, 1963), 77. 3 Ibid. 4 Ronald E. Marcello, "The Integration of Intercollegiate Athletics in Texas: North Texas State as a Test Case, 1956," Journal of Sport History 10 (1993): 69. 5 Ibid, 290. 6 Ibid, 299. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid, 305. 9 Ibid, 311. 10 Ibid, 315.

CHAPTER 6 1 Rhoda Lois Blumberg, Civil Rights: The 1960s Freedom Struggle (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1984), 102. 2 Ibid, 110. 3 Ibid, 106. 4 Ibid, 115. 5 Ibid, 117. 6 Ibid, 118. 7 Harry Edwards, The Revolt of the Black Athlete (New York: The Free Press, 1969). 8 Grundman, "The Image of Intercollegiate Sports," 82. 9 Ibid, SO. 10 Ibid, 81. 11 Spivey, "The Black Athlete in Big-Time," 118. 12 Ibid, 120. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid, 123. 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid, 125. 17 Wiggins, "The Future of College Athletics," 310. 18 Edwards, "The Revolt of the Black Athlete." 19 Wiggins, 305. 20 Ibid, 307. 21 Ibid, 315. 22 Ibid, 330. Racial Integration and 98

CHAPTER 7 1 Berghorn, Yetman, and Thomas, "Racial Participation," 44- 56. 2 Ibid. 3 D. Stanley Eitzen and Irl Tessendorf, "Racial Segregation by Position in Sports: The Special Case of Basketball," Review of Sport and Leisure 3 (1978): 109-128. 4 Morgan Worthy and Allan Markle, "Racial Differences in Reactive Versus Self-Paced Sports Activities," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16 (November 1970): 439- 443. 5 Eitzen and Tessendorf, "Racial Segregation," 113-115. 6 Ibid, 117. 7 Ibid, 124-125. 8 John Schneider and D. Stanley Eitzen, "Racial Discrimination in American Sport: Continuity or Change?" Journal of Sport Behavior 2 (August 1979): 136-142. 9 Ibid, 139. 10 Ibid, 142. 11 Ibid, 141. 12 Norman R. Yetman and D. Stanley Eitzen, "Black Americans in Sports: Unequal Opportunity for Equal Ability," Civil Rights Digest 5 (August 1972): 20-34. 13 Ibid, 25-27. 14 Edwards, The Revol t / 72. 15 Yetman and Eitzen, "Black Americans," 32-34. 16 John W. Loy and Joseph F. Elvogue, "Racial Segregation in American Sport," International Review of Sport Sociology 5 (1970): 5-24. i7 Ibid, 22. 18 Robert H. Boyle, Sport - Mirror of American Life (Boston: Little, Brown Co.), 22. 19 Berghorn et al., "Racial Participation and Integration," 43.

CHAPTER 8 1 Ibid, 77. 2 John C. Thomas, "Forty Years Ago Today," www.ramblermania.com. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 Kuharsky, "Loyola Pioneered Integrated Basketball," The Cincinnati Enquirer, 3. Racial Integration and 99

6 Rey Sanchez, Basketball's Biggest Upset (El Paso: Mangan Books, 1991), 10. 7 Ibid, 15. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid, 40. 10 Ibid, 37. 11 Cawood Ledford, Adolph Rupp as I knew Him (Lexington: Lexington Productions, 1979), 79. 12 Ibid, 70. 13 Sanchez, 35. 14 Chris Baker, "UTEP Has Opened Eyes and So Has Haskins," Los Angeles Times (1992), 7. 15 Don Haskins with Rey Sanchez, Haskins: The Bear Facts (El Paso: Mangan Books, 1987), 73-74. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid, 15. 18 William F. Reed, "One of a Kind: Legendary Coach Adolph Rupp - Loved by Some, Loathed by Others - Turned Kentucky Basketball into a Dynasty," Sports Illustrated (1996), 4. 19 Lonnie Wheeler, Blue Yonder: Kentucky: The United State of Basketball (Wilmington: Orange Frazer Press, 1998), 77. 20 Reed, 4. 21 Curry Kirkpatrick, "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down," Sports Illustrated (1991), 70. 22 Ibid. 23 Reed, 5. Racial Integration and 100

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