Evangelical Review of Theology
GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER
Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith
Published by
WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE
Theological Commission
for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission Volume 37 No. 4 October 2013
Copyright © 2013 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission
Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany
Dr David Parker, Australia
Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany, Executive Chair Dr James O. Nkansah, Kenya, Vice-Chair Dr Rosalee V. Ewell, Brasil, Executive Director
The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.
should be addressed to the Editor Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Friedrichstrasse 38, 53111 Bonn, Germany.
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Typeset by Toucan Design, 25 Southernhay East, Exeter EX1 1NS and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals by AlphaGraphics, 6 Angel Row, Nottingham NG1 6HL ERT (2013) 36:4, 291 Editorial LAST SUMMER I HAD the privilege of at- IM practices? Harley thinks it does tending the second Bridging the Divide because of the social and cultural im- Conference (BtD), an event dedicated plications of the event, but Jeff sees it to discussing the issues surround- as a theological decision only. In the ing ‘Insider Movements’ (IM). BtD is next article Kevin Higgins and Sasan made up of a committed group of missi- Tavasolli consider the often discussed ologists, theologians and church lead- question as to whether some IM uses ers from those who promote Insider of the Qur’an might be unethical. Is it Movements and also from those who really legitimate, asks Sasan, to get are critical of them. Discussions with Christian doctrine from Muslim Scrip- WEA TC Chairman, Dr Thomas Schir- tures? Kevin argues that at least in rmacher, suggested it would be a good some cases it is legitimate. idea to present some of the thoughts Then we come to two articles that and dynamics of this group for a wider discuss some of the challenges in audience, and so was born the plan translating the Scriptures for Muslim for this edition. I turned to Don Little audiences. George King argues for the of Houghton College for his expertise importance of Muslim Idiom Transla- both as a missiologist and BtD organ- tions that pay special attention to both izer, and together we present you with cultural and religious issues. Tom Mc- these articles. Cormick responds with important ques- In the first article D. L. Waterman tions about how this type of project af- (pen name) introduces the main ar- fects the transfer of biblical meaning. eas of discussion and disagreement Then two Egyptian theologians, Drs concerning IMs. The current situa- Lamie and Mikhail, discuss the mer- tion arises from an increased inter- its and dangers of accommodating to est in contextualizing the gospel for Muslim perspectives when translating Muslims, where response to the Good the Scriptures into the language of the News has increased significantly in re- Qur’an-Arabic. cent decades. The core questions wres- In our final article, Tim Green brings tle with how much of Muslim religion expertise from the social sciences to and culture can be retained in scripture suggest a more nuanced understand- translation, evangelism, discipleship ing of identity and conversion in Mus- and church planting. lim contexts. Then we move, appropriately, into We invite you to join these conver- dialogues between BtD participants; sations and to pray along with us for these are representative but do not continued understanding and wisdom come directly from the conference it- in this very important area of today’s self. Jeff Morton and Harley Talman global mission. (pen name) talk about the relevance Rob Haskell, Guest Editor, with Don of the ‘Jerusalem council’ in Acts 15: Little does the decision narrated in this pas- Thomas Schirrmacher, General Editor sage provide a biblical precursor for David Parker, Executive Editor ERT (2013) 37:4, 292-307 Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion
KEYWORDS: Muslims, numbered ‘probably less than a dozen contextualization, culture, syncretism, during his nearly forty years of ser- translation, orthodox vice’2 and William Miller, whose Ten Muslims Meet Christ3 told the stories of ten Iranian converts (at a time when Persia was the Presbyterians’ most For many years there has been frustra- fruitful field with Muslims). Over 150 tion at the meagre number of Muslims years into the era of modern missions, coming to faith in Christ. Even the the statistics on Muslims coming to ministries of some of the most godly faith in Christ globally still numbered and diligent proclaimers of the gospel merely in double digits. Many of those among Muslims saw relatively little paying attention to the state of the fruit. As Phil Parshall described Bang- gospel in the Muslim world longed for ladesh in the 1960s, ‘We were living in more. a country of tens of millions of Mus- In 1938, as the Near East Christian lims—but only 100 had come to Christ Council (NECC) wrestled with the pau- over the past 50 years. Most of these city of fruit in the Muslim world, Henry believers were extracted from their Riggs presented a report entitled: community and financially dependent ‘Shall We Try Unbeaten Paths in Work- on the small national church, heavily ing for Moslems?’4 in which he encour- 1 subsidized by foreigners’. aged ‘the development of groups of The heroes of Muslim ministry in the early twentieth century were men like Samuel Zwemer whose converts 2 Ruth Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004), 241. 1 Phil Parshall, ‘How Much Muslim Context 3 William Miller, Ten Muslims Meet Christ Is Too Much for the Gospel?’, Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969, 1987). Today, (16 Jan 2013). Available online: www. 4 Henry Riggs, ‘Shall We Try Unbeaten Paths christianitytoday.com/ct/2013/january-feb- in Working for Moslems?’
L. D. Waterman (MDiv, TEDS) (pen name) is a leader of church planting teams with Pioneers, where he has worked among Muslims in Southeast Asia since 1993, and is involved in church planting, Bible teaching and training national church planters. Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion followers of Jesus who are active in among their “kith and kin”’.6 McGavran making Him known to others while re- laid the foundations of church growth maining loyally a part of the social and theory and groundwork for what is now political groups to which they belong the School of Intercultural Studies at in Islam’. A few sentences later, Riggs Fuller Theological Seminary. Both the clarified that he was describing secret theory and the school have contributed believers (not the current model of In- significantly to the development and sider Movements [IM]): ‘we lovingly nurture of concepts underlying Insider encourage secret believers to go for- Movements. ward in the Christian life without pub- b) A second factor was a consultation licly professing themselves as Chris- attended by roughly 150 Christian tians in the sense of separation from missionary leaders in 1978, result- the fellowship of their own people’. ing in the compendium, The Gospel Yet many of Riggs’ suggestions have and Islam,7 which contained research resonated with modern proponents of papers detailing relevant strategies IM, such as, ‘The aspiration here ex- for reaching Muslims with the gospel. pressed is that the church of Christ This compendium represented a major might take root within the social-polit- step ahead in shared understanding of ical body called Islam, and not as an alien body encroaching from without’. creative approaches with potential to present the gospel in ways more rel- evant to Muslims.8 In 1989, J. Dudley Woodberry published a similar work9 In the 1970s and 1980s, at least five and a pivotal article10 showing the sim- significant factors gave fresh hope that experimentation with more culturally contextualised presentations of the 6 George Kurian, James Smith III, (eds.), ‘Donald Anderson McGavran’, The Encyclope- gospel might bring greater response dia of Christian Literature (Lanham: Scarecrow than had been seen previously. Press, 2010), 458. a) First, Donald McGavran’s seminal 7 Don McCurry (ed.), The Gospel and Islam: observation (first enunciated in his A 1978 Compendium (Monrovia: Missions Ad- earlier book, ) that vanced Research and Communication Center, The Bridges of God 1979). ‘Folks join these cells by conversion 8 Among pivotal articles in this compendium 5 without social dislocation’ came to were: Harvie Conn, ‘The Muslim Convert and greater light with the 1970 publica- His Culture’, 97-113 and Charles Kraft: ‘Dy- tion of his book, Understanding Church namic Equivalence Churches in Muslim Soci- Growth. ‘McGavran believed that the ety’, 114-22. biblical and ethical means of global 9 J. Dudley Woodberry, (ed.), Muslims And Christians On The Emmaus Road: Crucial Issues evangelization was to occur not by in Witness Among Muslims (Monrovia: MARC, extracting people from their social 1989). contexts but rather by discipling them 10 J. Dudley Woodberry, ‘Contextualization among Muslims: Reusing Common Pillars’, in Dean S. Gilliland (ed.), The Word Among 5 Donald McGavran, The Bridges of God (New Us: Contextualizing Theology for Mission To- York: Friendship Press, 1955), 111. day (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1989), 282- 312. L. D. Waterman ilarities of many Jewish, Christian, or the concept of more culturally sensi- biblical precedents with Muslim beliefs tive gospel approaches to Muslims. For and practices, including the five pillars. example, in a section entitled ‘Muslims This article also contained the first for Jesus’ Strategy Explored’, Winter published (albeit discretely described) reported, mention of what would later be called Some evangelical evangelists to Is- an ‘Insider Movement’. lam are saying that Muslims might c) A third influence was the publication truly become believers in Jesus of New Paths in Muslim Evangelism,11 Christ as Savior and Lord without describing a fresh approach to contex- calling themselves Christian, even tualization that Phil Parshall and his as the ‘Messianic Jews’ did. What is team were using in Bangladesh—seek- needed is the encouragement of new ing to free the gospel message from Christian congregations with a Mus- the added trappings of western Chris- lim cultural orientation, churches tendom. centered on Jesus Christ but with Islamic cultural forms.14 d) A fourth factor was the influence of Ralph Winter and the USCWM Later editions of the Perspectives (founded in 1976) with its related in- reader included more reports and de- stitutions, including William Carey scriptions of ‘C5’ and ‘Insider Move- Library, founded in 1969, and Mission ments’, as Winter himself became a Frontiers magazine, which began pub- more vocal advocate of Insider Move- lication in 1979. Mission Frontiers has ments. His later encouragement is re- served since then as a popular-level flected in two sample editorials from presentation of Winter’s ideas on a Mission Frontiers: variety of subjects, including Insider Followers of Christ in the New Movements. The International Journal Testament did not call themselves of Frontier Missiology (IJFM) has been Christians; some in the Semitic an important resource for articles pre- sphere, I am guessing, may have senting a positive perspective on ‘C5’ called themselves ‘muslims’ (sur- 15 (see below), Insider Movements and rendered to God). related topics, devoting an entire issue Dear Reader, This time you must to the topic in 2000.12 learn a new phrase: Insider Move- The first edition of Winter’s Perspec- ments. This idea as a mission strat- tives on the World Christian Movement: egy was so shockingly new in Paul’s A Reader13 included articles proposing day that almost no one (either then or now) gets the point. That’s why we are devoting this entire issue to 11 Phil Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evan- ‘Insider Movements’. That’s why gelism (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 1980). 12 IJFM, 17 (1) (2000). 14 Ralph Winter and David Fraser, ‘World 13 Ralph Winter and Steven Hawthorne Mission Survey’, in Winter, Perspectives, (eds), Perspectives on the World Christian Move- 333,334. ment: A Reader (Pasadena, William Carey Li- 15 Ralph Winter, Mission Frontiers, (01 Jan. brary, 1981). 2005). Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion
the 2005 annual meeting of the problem…. Our advice to national International Society for Frontier leaders (and to missionaries), then, Missiology is devoted to the same is to stop fearing syncretism. 16 subject. Up to the present, there is a vast e) A fifth source of influence was the divide between those who agree with proposal by Charles Kraft of Fuller Kraft on this point and those who con- Theological Seminary to apply the con- sider syncretism as an avoidable evil cept of dynamic equivalence17 to plant- to be fought against. Kraft’s perspec- ing of the gospel among the unreached. tive opened the door to a variety of ex- Kraft wrote: periments with maintaining worldview a ‘dynamic equivalence’ church…. assumptions and reinterpreting the would look in its culture as a good meanings of various doctrines. Kraft Bible translation looks in its lan- continued, guage. It could preserve the essen- For religion is a facet of culture. tial meanings and functions which And, just as the non-religious forms the New Testament predicated of of a culture are available for the ex- the church, but would seek to ex- pression of Christian faith, so the press these in forms equivalent to religious forms of that culture can the originals but appropriate to the also be used—on condition that the 18 local culture. satanic power in them is broken and Decades later, in his book, Appropri- the meanings are Christian. Almost ate Christianity,19 Kraft sought to help any cultural forms can be captured his readers feel more comfortable with for Christ. the ‘inevitability’ of syncretism: Thus was launched a wave of ex- But what about the concept of syn- ploration in using the religious forms cretism? Is this something that can of various Islamic cultures—seeking be avoided or is it a factor of human to capture them for Christ. As one limitations and sinfulness? I vote example, Kraft encouraged searching for the latter and suggest that there for alternatives to water baptism as a is no way to avoid it….That syncre- marker of conversion, pointing to cul- tism exists in all churches is not the tural factors without mentioning the command of Jesus:20 16 Ralph Winter, Mission Frontiers, (01 Sept. The Early Church, in adopting bap- 2005). tism, chose a culturally appropriate 17 First introduced by Eugene Nida in his form, currently in use in several book, Toward a Science of Translating (Leiden: religious contexts to signify the E.J. Brill, 1964), 159-60. change in allegiance we call con- 18 Charles Kraft, ‘Christianity in Culture : version. It would seem appropriate a Study in Dynamic Biblical Theologizing in Cross Cultural Perspective’ in Robert Coote that a truly contextualized church in and John Stott (eds.) Down to Earth: Studies in one culture would develop different Christianity and Culture (Grand Rapids: Eerd- initiation rituals from one in another mans, 1980), 330. 19 Charles Kraft (ed.), Appropriate Christianity (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2005), 77. 20 Mt. 28:19. L. D. Waterman
culture….When the Church decided to which a gathering of believers main- to use it to signify initiation into the tained connection with and similarity to Church, they were largely following local Islamic culture. It was criticized John’s lead, since the early Chris- by some as being one-dimensional and/ tians assumed that Christianity was or as presenting Islam as the primary to remain within Judaism.21 focus in issues of contextualization. Yet it found wide usage as a point of reference both in field conversations and articles on contextualization in the These five factors were among the in- Muslim world (and to a lesser degree, fluences stirring many missionaries the Hindu and Buddhist worlds). The C to consider afresh the subject of ‘con- spectrum was presented as a descrip- textualizing’ the presentation of the tive tool, not a prescriptive one. But gospel to Muslims. Some of these ap- it found wide currency as a shorthand proaches intentionally explored beyond standard for the kind of contextual the boundaries of what had previously ministry being done by western mis- been considered appropriate missiol- sionaries in the Muslim world (and ogy. Phil Parshall recently commented, among national co-workers connected By the early 1980s, other commit- with those western missionaries). ted evangelicals felt they should Even prior to publication of the C push further into a new evangelism Spectrum article, some missionaries effort: the insider movements. Actu- in the city where the model originated were describing their ministry strategy ally, we have always considered our as ‘C4 birthing C5’. This meant that approach as insider, but we have they (and even more so, their national strived to remain within biblical co-workers) were adopting a ‘C4’ life- boundaries. I have significant con- style, but the goal of their ministry was cerns about these newer attempts to reach Muslims who would remain in contextualization.22 within Islam as followers of Jesus. In the same 1998 issue of Evangeli- A variety of other sloppy uses of the cal Missions Quarterly in which Parshall spectrum became common, so that on published his concerns, John Travis some fields it was not uncommon to published ‘The C1 to C6 Spectrum: A hear descriptions such as ‘We’re do- Practical Tool for Defining Six Types ing C5’. Questions such as ‘Where are of “Christ-centered Communities” (“C”) you on the C Scale?’ became a conveni- Found in the Muslim Context’.23 ent way to reduce complex issues to a The C Spectrum found wide use as simple method of pigeonholing others a simple tool for describing the extent and determining: ‘Are you with me or against me?’ The handy tool had taken on a life of its own, beyond the original 21 Kraft, Appropriate Christianity, 112, 371. description put forth by Travis. 22 Parshall, ‘How Much Muslim Context?’. For the next few years, and to some 23 John Travis, ‘The C1 to C6 Spectrum: A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of Christ- extent up to the present, ‘C5’ became centered Communities (“C”) Found in the Mus- the focal point of debate about the lim Context’, EMQ 34 (4) (1998), 407-408. appropriate limits and dynamics of Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion contextualization among Muslims. Be- so I will try to define how I use the cause of the diversity of teachings and term….Insider Movement: A growing field practices, ‘C5’ became something number of families, individuals, clans, of a catch-all phrase for a wide range and/or friendship-webs becoming faith- of beliefs and practices having some ful dis ciples of Jesus within the culture connection with biblical concepts and of their people group, including their some connection with or similarity to religious culture. This faithful disci- Islam. pleship will express itself in culturally The danger of suspicious and appropri ate communities of believers alarmed Christians exposing the new who will also continue to live within contextual work, or Muslims being of- as much of their culture, including the fended or attacking, tended to encour- religious life of the culture, as is bibli- age practitioners to shroud the new cally faithful. The Holy Spirit, through approaches in secrecy. Questions from the Word and through His people will those outside a circle of trust tended to also begin to transform His people and be given vague answers which in turn their culture, religious life, and world- tended to increase suspicion. This ten- view.24 sion is still a major factor in the dis- Higgins underlined the importance cussion of these issues: the desire to of the missiological concept with these protect new believers and contextual words: workers vs. the desire to evaluate the- ology and accuracy of reporting, and to I believe that the debate about include a wider group of Christians in Insider Movements actually is a discussion of these issues. debate about the gospel, one as In the early 2000s, some proponents potentially earth-shaking as the of C5 began to use (and prefer) the Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and term, ‘Insider Movement’. For a few Anabaptist reform movements of the years, there was some confusion about 16th century. Those movements…. whether the term was intended to con- forced church leaders to re-evaluate note: a) Muslims who followed Jesus church practice and doctrine. and still remained culturally ‘inside’ Similarly, I see Insider Movements their ethnic group (including C3 or as fueling (and being fueled by) a C4—assuming a Christian or non-spe- rediscovery of the Incarnation, of cific religious identity) or b) Muslims a thoroughly biblical approach to who followed Jesus and still remained culture and religion, of the role of culturally and religiously ‘inside’ their the Holy Spirit in leading God’s peo- ethnic group (C5). Within a few years, ple to ‘work out’ the gospel in new articles by Kevin Higgins and Rebecca ways, and of an understanding of Lewis presented clear definitions of how God works in the world within what they meant by the term. and beyond His covenant people. In 2004, Higgins presented the first And we may be forced to re-evaluate published definition of Insider Move- ments known to this author. 24 Kevin Higgins, ‘The Key to Insider Move- I know of no generally accepted def- ments: The “Devoted’s” of Acts’, IJFM 24 (1) inition for an ‘Insider Movement,’ (2004): 156. L. D. Waterman
some widely held ideas and prac- interchangeably with C5. This has tices of our own.25 been due to the perception that to Three years later, Rebecca Lewis of- really be seen as ‘one of us’ in cul- fered a similar definition: tures that are close to 100% Mus- lim, one would need to be a Muslim. An ‘insider movement’ is any move- For the past two years, however, I ment to faith in Christ where a) the gospel flows through pre-existing have begun to see people use the communities and social networks, term ‘insider’ in a broader sense. In and where b) believing families, as this broader sense, one may change valid expressions of the Body of religions, but through a concerted Christ, remain inside their socio- effort to remain culturally and so- religious communities, retaining cially a part of the predominant Is- their identities as members of that lamic culture, one can still remain community while living under the a part of the community from which Lordship of Jesus Christ and the au- one heralds. By definition, C3 and thority of the Bible.26 C4 Christ-centred communities are attempts to stay and witness Notably, neither Higgins nor Lewis within one’s community of birth: in claimed their presentation to be merely other words, to remain an ‘insider’. descriptive. Both wrote in favour of a Therefore, perhaps we need to find role they hoped missionaries would a better term like ‘cultural insider’ take in promoting Insider Movements. ‘Promoting’ was the first word of Lew- (for C3 and C4) and ‘religious’ or ‘socio-religious’ insider to describe is’ title, and Higgins wrote of ‘two basic 29 issues that must be addressed in the C5. discussion of whether catalysing “In- Travis’ clarification appeared to sider Movements” is an appropri ate aim fall on deaf ears, and the term ‘Insider of mission effort in the first place’.27 Movement’ continued to be understood In a sidebar of Lewis’ article, she by most to refer exclusively to socio- also presented ‘A Note about the C- religious insiders (C5). In the minds scale’,28 a useful clarification that not of many, ‘Insider Movement’ became all C5 ministry is or should claim to be another catch-all term for the fuzzy an Insider Movement. But are all In- catch-all category that had previously sider Movements C5? John Travis had attached itself to ‘C5’. written a few months earlier: Perhaps partly because of this ac- For several years, as far as I know, cretion of baggage, both Higgins and this term [‘insider’] has been used Lewis have made a shift and now prefer other descriptions of the move- ments with which they are familiar. 25 Higgins, ‘The Key’, 155. Yet the term, ‘Insider Movement’, lives 26 Rebecca Lewis, ‘Promoting Movements to Christ within Natural Communities’, IJFM, 24 (2) (2007), 75. 29 John Travis, ‘Letters to the Editor’, 01 27 Higgins, ‘The Key’, 156. Sept 2006, Mission Frontiers,
30 http://biblicalmissiology.org 31 Georges Houssney, ‘Position Paper on the Insider Movement’,
can rightly participate, both insiders and outsiders.’39 Meanwhile, David Watson40 aims to bypass much of this issue by disallow- ing contextualization as a function for Field workers on all sides of the issues outsiders: tend to see the ways that those with The role of the cross-cultural work- whom they disagree are influencing er is to deculturalize the Gospel—pre- Muslims who come to faith in Christ— senting the Gospel without commen- in the direction of views on culture and tary, but with the question, ‘How will contextualization similar to their own. we obey what God has said?’ If it’s not Even the choice of Scripture texts used in the Bible, we don’t introduce it to the to disciple someone reflects the views culture. The role of the cultural worker of the chooser. In many cultures, new is to contextualize the Gospel—present- believers are astute at sensing and fol- ing the Gospel and asking, ‘What must lowing the preferences of western ‘pa- we change in our lives and culture in trons’, despite any attempts of those order to be obedient to all the com- mands of Christ?’41 westerners to avoid imposing their own preferences on new believers. And many missionaries hold such strong convictions on contextual issues that they consider it simply biblical obedi- ence to help guide new believers in ‘the At one end of the spectrum are those best path’. who argue that any true follower of On a closely related subject, Brad- Christ should be willing to embrace the ford Greer asks, ‘What authority do name (identity) found in the Bible (1 outsiders actually have as they assess Pet. 4:6). Toward the other end of the spectrum, many paint a scenario like and evaluate what insider believing this: communities do? Where do outsider theological concerns cross the line and actually exemplify a form of theologi- 39 Doug Coleman, ‘Doug Coleman Responds cal imperialism—a theolonialism?’38 to Bradford Greer’s Critique’, IJFM, 29 (1) Doug Coleman responds: ‘Insofar as (2012), 50. 40 Joined by others following the Disciple- Scripture speaks to issues of authority Making Movement approach to church plant- for faith and practice, I suggest this is ing, as described by Jerry Trousdale, Miracu- a conversation in which all believers lous Movements: How Hundreds of Thousands of Muslims Are Falling in Love with Jesus (Nash- ville: Thomas Nelson, 2012). 38 Bradford Greer, Book Review of Doug 41 David Watson, ‘Church Planting Essen- Coleman, A Theological Analysis of the Insider tials—Exploring Contextualization and De- Movement Paradigm from Four Perspectives: culturalization’
Many Muslims today are attracted fresh and vital insights into the nature to Jesus but turned off by Christian- of identity. We believe the article in this ity, which for them conjures up neg- issue by Tim Green moves us even fur- ative images of the Crusades, colo- ther toward a helpful understanding of nialism, a foreign religion, and the the dynamics at work in the multifac- ‘Christian’ West where we eat pork, eted identity struggle of most Muslims drink alcohol, and watch R-rated who begin and continue to follow Jesus movies. No wonder they don’t want as Saviour and Lord. to be identified as ‘Christians’, but they certainly want to follow Jesus and make Him Lord of their lives.42 Both sides agree that salvation is not found in a religious system (Chris- tianity) but in a personal relationship with Jesus. Yet Travis carries the argu- The phrase, ‘Muslim Idiom Transla- ment further: ‘We affirmed that people tion’ (MIT),45 was used for a time are saved by faith in Christ, not by within Wycliffe and SIL to describe religious affiliation. Muslim follow- translations done with an Islamic read- ers of Christ (i.e. “C5 believers”) are ership in mind. In such translations, a our brothers and sisters in the Lord, special effort is made to choose terms even though they do not “change that will communicate the biblical mes- religions”.’43 sage without causing unnecessary of- For about a decade, most of this dis- fence or putting needless stumbling pute focused on the choices of ‘Chris- blocks in the path of Muslim readers. tian’ (C1-3) vs. ‘Muslim’ (C5) vs. avoid- Critics object that some MITs do not ing the labels as much as possible (C4). adequately present God as Father and Discussion and understanding of this Son. The term MIT is no longer used topic has moved forward considerably by Wycliffe or SIL, but to this writer’s in just the past few years, with publi- knowledge no comparably descrip- cation of papers and books44 opening
Regnum Books International, 2012) and David 42 Warrick Farah, ‘No sacred forms, only Greenlee (ed.) Longing for Community: Church, sacred meanings’
52 Kraft, Appropriate Christianity, 96. 54 Rick Brown, ‘Biblical Muslims’, IJFM, 24 53 Arab World Ministries (AWM), ‘Contextu- (2) (2007), 73. alization of Ministry among Muslims: A State- 55 Joshua Massey, ‘Misunderstanding C5: ment on the Appropriate Limits’, St Francis His Ways Are Not Our Orthodoxy’, EMQ, 40 Magazine (1) (3) (18 May 2007), 1-2. (3) (2004). Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion the word ‘prophet’, specifically ‘God’s Massey asserted that the wording of prophet’ or ‘God’s messenger’? orthodoxy found in the fourth century councils and creeds differed from bibli- cal teaching. Understanding theos (God) as triune was surely common among Gentile The question here is: How much were Christians in the fourth century, but the ecumenical church councils and the only after, in Walls’ terms, the gos- historical norms of orthodox Christian pel had penetrated and permeated theology shaped by a Greek (western) a rather arrogant Greek system of worldview? How much are ‘just the bi- thought which applied its traditions ble and the holy spirit’ enough to guide of codification and organization a group into mature understanding of to theology, culminating in the de- biblical truth? velopment of Chalcedonian ortho- At one end of the spectrum stand doxy….the New Testament provides those who believe that every mature believer and church should subscribe little evidence to suggest this under- to orthodox Christian theology as standing of theos was widespread or enunciated by the Ecumenical Councils common in earliest Christianity …. of the early church. They use words Is it possible that thousands of Jew- such as ‘heresy’ and ‘syncretism’ of ish followers of Jesus in earliest groups or individuals who prefer not to Christianity might not have defined use the language of ‘Trinity’ or to de- the one God of Israel as three co- scribe Jesus as ‘the eternal Son of God’ eternal Persons: Father, Son and or ‘God the Son’. Holy Spirit? Given that no verse of At the other end of the spectrum are the New Testament comes close to those who argue that Muslim followers explicitly describing God in this way, of Jesus should be allowed to wrestle it is not only possible but probable. with the Bible for themselves and de- Rebecca Lewis stated: velop contextually appropriate ways to It is more accurate to recognize that enunciate their understanding of the in the first century there were in ex- Bible’s teaching about the nature of the istence at least two radically differ- godhead (as well as other subjects). ent religions based on Jesus Christ. They view it as theological western There was the Jewish version… imperialism to demand that those from and there was the Greco-Roman a Muslim background (eastern world- version, turning philosophy-loving view) simply accept the historic pre- hearts, that explored the nuances formulations of the western church. 56 of the Trinity and the incarnation…. In ‘Misunderstanding C5’, Joshua the crux of Paul’s argument is actu- ally that no one should consider one 56 Massey, ‘Misunderstanding’. Massey adds religious form of faith in Christ to be this disclaimer: ‘This brief Christological sur- superior to another.57 vey in no way intends to suggest that Christ is not divine or that Trinitarian doctrine should be disregarded’. 57 Rebecca Lewis, ‘The Integrity of the Gos- L. D. Waterman
David Garner responded to this from being a statement of imperial claim: power wedded to Greek philosophy, The IM paradigm … unavoidably it really depicted the triumph of the 59 attenuates the gospel’s authority. church as martyr-witness. By proffering the gospel according to cultural constraints, cultural he- gemony relativizes the magisterial quality of the gospel….To Lewis, re- taining Muslim, Buddhist, or Hindu When we look at the appropriate bib- religious practice is not only okay; lical relationships between contextual it is the only way in which the in- fellowships of disciples from a Mus- tegrity of the gospel is maintained. lim background and those from the …Lewis’s expression of ‘two radi- wider non-Muslim-background body of cally different religions based on Christ, we can see that for many years, Jesus Christ’, while utterly confus- any Muslim who came to faith in Christ ing in terms of how to speak of a was expected to attend an existing united body of Christ in such terms church and learn to follow the patterns (cf. Eph. 4:1–6), betrays a failure of worship and lifestyle found there. to receive the full implications of This often resulted in a sense of al- Jesus’s life, death, and resurrection ienation, as if following Christ required for a people of God who by the Holy forsaking their own culture to join a Spirit are fully united to Christ and foreign (usually westernized) culture. thereby to one another.58 The jarring dislocation of this experi- ence was often a factor for those who Basil Grafas championed ‘the Grand returned to Islam. Tradition’ (including the early ecumen- Thus, among the newer approaches ical councils) with these words: was a proposal that those coming to Contemporary evangelism or mis- faith from an Islamic background learn sions calling people to Christ, but to worship and grow in faith within a not to the church of the Grand (usually small) fellowship of others Tradition would have been seen as from a similar social and religious outright heresy by any prior age…. background, as suggested by Mc- Nothing better captures the bibli- Gavran’s homogeneous unit principle.60 cal understanding of the essence of This sometimes meant minimal or no the church than the Nicene Creed. contact with existing churches. Though it did not emerge until the This social/cultural distance of- doctrinal struggles of the fourth ten enabled new believers to grow in century, it faithfully captured the Christ with less sense of cultural al- mind of the apostolic witness…. Far
59 Basil Grafas, ‘Rediscovering the Rev- pel and Insider Movements’, IJFM, 27 (1) elational Church’, Biblical Missiology (23 Aug. (2010), 45-46. 2011). 58 David Garner, ‘High Stakes: Insider Move- 60 Originally enunciated in Donald Mc- ment Hermeneutics and the Gospel’, Themelios Gavran, Understanding Church Growth (Grand 37 (2) (2012). Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1980). Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion ienation and allowed unbelievers to view the gospel as more relevant to Even as discussion of these and other their life and culture. There have also related issues continues, we see in our been numerous cases where influence day many more encouraging reports of from an existing church has destroyed gospel fruit in the Muslim world than the witness and/or the viability of a were seen just fifty years ago. For ex- contextual fellowship. However, this ample, 2012’s Miraculous Movements: approach sometimes raised concerns How Hundreds of Thousands of Muslims that without contact with more mature Are Falling in Love with Jesus is a far cry Christians in the wider body of Christ, from 1969’s Ten Muslims Meet Christ. new believers or fellowships could eas- And ‘Fruitful Practices’ research,62 ily be subject to aberrant doctrine or examining both Insider Movements fail to grow to full maturity. This con- and other church planting and gospel cern was sometimes paired with accu- sowing approaches (while withholding sations that western missionaries were judgment about the legitimacy of any ‘fencing off’ the fruit of their ministry particular approach), is giving fresh in- from other Christians, in order to keep sight into ways Muslims are coming to them following the brand of highly con- know Christ in these days. textual religious life that the mission- Much remains to be done to see the aries were trying to encourage. fulfilment of Jesus’ promise, ‘And this J. S. William observes: gospel of the kingdom will be preached Most likely, this debate has more in the whole world as a testimony to all - to do with the question of ‘when’ nations [ethne], and then the end will not ‘if’. A number of writers, crit- come’.63 Yet we can be encouraged that ics included, show a certain level behind the IM debates are thousands of comfort with an insider approach of God’s children with a variety of ap- as a transitional model. As insider proaches, each passionate about see- groups gain momentum, they will ing the glory of Christ made known in likely discern for themselves a need the Muslim world. to connect with the global body of believers. For now the main ques- the Center of the Muslim Contextualization tion is whether or not this is a nec- Debates’, St Francis Magazine, 7 (3) (2011), essary sign of their legitimacy and 84. maturity.61 62 As exemplified, for example, by Eric Ad- ams, Don Allan and Bob Fish, ‘Seven Themes of Fruitfulness’, IJFM 26 (2) (2009), 75-81. 61 J. S. William, ‘Inside/Outside: Getting to 63 Mt. 24:14. ERT (2013) 37:4, 308-320 Does the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15 Support Insider Movement Practices?
KEYWORDS: Acts 15, Insider tics approach Scripture differently. Movements, Islam, Mission to IM is a set of observations in search Muslims, Bridging the Divide, of a biblical foundation, and since they discipleship, religions, culture, approach the Scriptures with observa- justification tions about what God is doing—or al- legedly doing—the IM proponent’s a posteriori conclusion inevitably finds support in the Bible. The burden of the case rests on IM proponents, since IM offers a new understanding and application of cer- This article is a conversation between tain passages. It is my contention that a proponent of insider movements (IM) there is no scriptural support for the and myself, a sceptic. The two of us IM understandings of what God is do- disagree about most of the issues that ing among Muslims.1 I believe it can be comprise the IM (Insider Movement) shown that IM does not have any bibli- position, which should make for an in- cal legs to stand on, let alone to run. teresting article. With this all too brief, biased, and The essential element in our disa- inadequate introduction let me begin to greement is whether or not Scripture take a careful first step toward explain- supports IM’s principles. Both Talman and I are biblical Christians and un- 1 For a discussion of these passages in rela- derstand the Bible to be the inerrant tion to IM, see my Insider Movements: Biblically and inspired word of God. However, Incredible or Incredibly Brilliant? (Eugene, Or- it seems IM proponents and its scep- egon: Wipf & Stock, 2012).
Jeffery Morton (DMiss, Biola), a pastor in North Dakota, previously worked in Liberia and Guinea and has taught in Thailand, Brazil and Pakistan as well as at Biola. He is the author of Insider Movements: Incred- ibly Brilliant or Biblically Incredible? (Wipf and Stock, 2012) and Two Messiahs (IVP, 2011) and co-editor of Chrislam: How Missionaries are Promoting an Islamized Gospel (i2 Ministries). Harley Talman (pen name) (ThM, Dallas) has served among Muslims for three decades, mostly in the Arab world in church planting and theological education, and recently training workers for ministry among Muslims. He holds a PhD in Islamic studies and has served on the faculty of numerous undergraduate and graduate institutions. With publications under this and other names, Talman is co-editing a book on insider movements. Does the Jerusalem Council Support Insider Movement Practices? ing why I believe it can be shown that and resolution, and literary devices. IM has no biblical support, and why its These structures must guide our her- advocates should stop considering it a meneutic, and for this essay it means biblical movement. observing the wider biblical context, and subsequently asking narrative- 3 based questions of the text. The result should be an interpretation that The book of Acts is historical narra- a) appreciates the historical unique- tive rather than gospel or apocalyptic. ness of the event(s); This shapes how Luke’s stories are to b) and cautiously elicits principles be understood. Every historical event from the text for application in a is unique and non-reproducible; the manner that maintains the storyline story from Acts 15 is sui generis. While as the lesson to be learned. the reader may develop principles from such a recorded event, it is vital not to make the text mean more than it does. I believe the proponents of IM who The events of our text provide the crys- have written about this text have done tallization of a longstanding divine pur- exactly that—they have taken the text pose: creating a people who call upon to mean more than it does. The inter- the name of the Lord. The group called preter must allow the story to be the the people of the Lord began with Seth, lesson. Whatever the story means, though arguably with Abel (Gen. 4:25– that meaning is not dependent upon 26), was then developed by God among the reader’s context. The nature of the Jews, finally coming to fruition with historical narrative demands caution: believing Jews and Gentiles. care when creating analogies from To appreciate the plot of Acts 15, a the story to the present, and prudence quick survey is in order. Beginning in when developing principles. Ben With- the Gospel of Luke, Jesus’ first sermon erington says it well: ‘Luke does not included two Gentiles (Lk. 4:25–27). encourage us simply to play first-cen- Later Luke mentioned the faith of a tury “bible land” and assume that all centurion (7:9), Jesus’ experiences the early church did and said should with the Samaritans (9:51–56; 10:25– be replicated today. This means that 37; 17:11–19), and the reminder of Jo- the text must be sifted and narratives nah’s mission to the Gentile Ninevites must be weighed before they are used (11:29–32). or applied.’2 Luke continued the thread in Acts Not only is the text historical, it by addressing his work to Theophi- is narrative. Therefore, we expect to lus (Acts 1:1), arguably a Gentile. At encounter a setting, characters, plot his ascension, Jesus told the disci-
2 Ben Witherington, The Book of Acts: a Socio- 3 Cf. J. P. Fokkelman, Reading Biblical Narra- Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids, Michi- tive (Knoxville, Tennessee: Westminster John gan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1998), 102. Cf. David Knox Press, 1999), 206–210. Space does not Garner, ‘Messianic Muslims and Muslim Evan- allow me to include an analysis of the charac- gelicals’, Themelios 37 (2), 259. ters and rhetorical devices of the story. Jeffery Morton and Harley Talman ples they would be his witnesses in Gentile regions (1:8). Philip preached to the Samaritans and the Ethiopian The plot of Acts 15 was resolved be- eunuch (8:4-40). Cornelius heard the cause the protagonist accepted the good news of Jesus’ resurrection from Gentiles in the same manner as the Peter (10:24–48), and Luke followed Jews. Faith in Jesus saved the Jews just this with the adventures of Barnabas as it did the Gentiles. Jew and Gentile and Paul among the Gentiles of Gala- were purified by faith—circumcision tia (chs. 13–14). Not all were happy and uncircumcision played no part in with the inclusion of Gentiles into the salvation—and this by the means of church. A party of believing Pharisees the grace of Jesus (vv. 6—11). The tent taught, ‘Unless you are circumcised … of David was restored (v.16). you cannot be saved’ (15:1b).4 The plot thickens. What analogies can be made between insider movements and Acts 15? Neither the apostles, the missionaries, nor James were the heroes; it was God. Acts 15 presents a theological ques- He was credited with working through tion, not one about cultural identity. the missionaries (vv. 4, 7), and it was Some proponents of IM make the ques- the Lord who accepted the Gentiles tion of identity a major issue in Acts (v.8). Peter argued that God no longer 15, but the story is not oriented to the distinguished between Jew and Gentile question of whether Gentiles can re- (v.9), concluding, ‘It is through the tain their identity?5 This question is grace of our Lord Jesus that we are peripheral at best. saved, just as they are’ (v.11). Muslims are coming to know Jesus, just as the Gentiles were, but the text is silent on the matter of Gentiles/ Muslims changing their identity. The God rose to the challenge, creating a story deals with the matter of salva- people (laos) for himself (v.14c) that tion by Jesus alone, not the importance included the Gentiles—transform- of remaining a Gentile/Muslim. To see ing them from ethnos, the LXX term for Gentiles—to laos, the term for the Jews. He sent Peter to witness to the 5 Cf. Kevin Higgins, ‘Identity, Integrity and Gentiles (v. 7b) resulting in the Gen- Insider Movements’, International Journal of tiles being filled with his Spirit (v. 8b), Frontier Missiology 23 (3) (2006), 117–123; Rebecca Lewis, ‘Insider Movements: Honor- erasing the dividing line between be- ing God-Given Identity and Community’, IJFM lieving Jew and believing Gentile. 26 (1) (2009), 16-19; John Travis, ‘Messianic Followers of Isa: a Closer Look at C5 Believ- ers and Congregations’, IJFM 17 (1) (2000), 4 All Scripture citations are from the NIV. 53–59. Does the Jerusalem Council Support Insider Movement Practices? the question of identity in the story immediately becomes part of the ekkle- is anachronistic eisegesis. The terms sia (1 Cor. 12:13; Eph. 2:19–22; 4:4–6; Gentile and Muslim are categorically 5:29–30). different. Gentile is an ethnic, linguistic Suggesting Acts 15 focuses on not identity6 whereas Muslim is a socio- changing one’s religion misses the religious identity.7 The IM inference reality that Gentiles who followed Je- of identity from Acts 15 distorts the sus by faith did give up their former uniquely historic storyline. religions—whatever idol-based or ani- mistic religion that was. If there is a principle from Acts 15 for application to Muslims-who-follow-Jesus-as-Mus- Some proponents of IM suggest the lims, the principle is just that: trust- text teaches that a change of religion is ing Jesus for forgiveness of sin entails not necessary for salvation.8 The paral- turning from one’s former religion, a lel is easily made to the situation to- religion that did not trust Jesus. day: do not expect Muslims-following- Jesus-as-Muslims (my term) to take on the forms of Christianity. Most critics of IM do not expect Muslims-following-Jesus-as-Muslims The Holy Spirit is doing the unexpect- to resemble the Christians around ed: multiplying disciples of Jesus with- them, but do advocate biblical disciple- in non-Christian religious traditions, in ship and the necessary inclusion into movements often designated ‘insider local congregations where possible or movements’ (IMs). Are there solid bib- at least Muslim convert congregations. lical and theological foundations that The Body of Christ is essential to every support IMs? Some who are critical or believer. The person who is born again sceptical of IMs, deny that there is any scripture that can be cited to validate these movements. An upcoming book 6 Hans M. Weestra, ‘Mission to the Nations: that I am co-editing provides signifi- a Biblical Word Study of Ethnos’, IJFM 9 (3) (1992), 101. cant scriptural perspectives and theo- 7 Whether or not the term Muslim is primar- logical foundations on this question. ily a socio-religious identity is not relevant However, I have been asked in this here. Many proponents of IM believe that it is article to focus solely on the contribu- socio-religious, thus making the Acts 15 text tion of Acts chapter 15 to this issue.9 a story that focuses on issues of identity. Cf. I will argue that the author of Acts 15 Rick Brown, ‘Biblical Muslims’, IJFM 24 (2) provides God’s people with a model of a (2007), 65–74; Lewis, ‘Insider Movements’; Kevin Higgins, ‘Inside What? Church, Culture, theological process and principles that Religion and Insider Movements in Biblical can guide us in addressing missiologi- Perspective’, St Francis Magazine 5 (4) (2009), cal controversies, such as IMs. 74–91. 8 Cf. John J. Travis, ‘Jesus Saves, Religion Doesn’t’, Christianity Today (January/Febru- 9 Harley Talman and John Jay Travis are ed- ary 2013), 30; Lewis, ‘Insider Movements’, iting a textbook on insider movements, to be especially p. 18 in her discussion of Kingdom published by William Carey Library, Pasadena, Circles. CA, in late 2013. Jeffery Morton and Harley Talman
The Council’s proceedings are rele- vant to IMs, because the key concerns A highly-regarded study by NT scholar in both are the same: Is justification Dean Flemming maintains that Luke solely through faith in Christ and puri- wrote Acts not just to promote mission fication by the Spirit, or is proselytism to the Gentiles, but to provide para- required? Can communities of believers digms for how Spirit-guided believers multiply and grow to maturity as dis- are to deal with cultural diversity: ciples of Christ Jesus within a Gentile Palestinian Jews, Hellenist Jews, Sa- (or Muslim) society, or do they need to maritans, Gentiles, and a eunuch. The abandon their native society to become crescendo builds through the book as proselytes in a traditionally Jewish (or God demolishes these sociological and Christian) church and subculture? religious barriers and climaxes in Acts Jews recognized two types of pros- 15. The rest of Acts fleshes out the im- elytes: (1) ‘proselytes of the gate’ (ger plications of the Jerusalem Council’s toshav) were resident aliens who fol- decision.10 lowed some of the Jewish customs, Brian Rosner avers: ‘The book of but not circumcision and Torah obser- Acts without chapter 15 would be like vance; (2) ‘proselytes of righteousness’ a wedding ceremony without the cru- (ger tzedek) were full-fledged Jews, who cial pronouncement.’11 Flemming re- adhered to all Jewish doctrines and gards Acts 15 as ‘a decisive moment in religious requirements, including cir- the encounter between faith in Christ cumcision and ritual immersion.13 The and culture within the life of the early latter was demanded by the Pharisee church, which helps to give the task party. of incarnating the gospel a historical The Pharisees based their theo- and theological basis’. The crisis pre- logical position both on Scripture (e.g., cipitating the Council concerned en- Gen. 17:9-14) and on ancient tradition. trance requirements to the messianic For them, Flemming explains, ‘cir- community: Must Gentiles who believe cumcision was not simply an optional in Jesus conform to the social identity cultural form; it was a matter of reli- and religious traditions of the Jewish gious life and death—the indispensa- believers, following the example of Je- ble symbol of the covenant relation- 12 sus and his disciples? ship. If Jewish…law observance and the Jewish way of life, were divinely 10 Dean Flemming, Contextualization in the sanctioned, how could they possibly be 14 New Testament: Patterns for Theology and Mis- negotiable?’ Had they prevailed, the sion (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, progress of mission to non-Jewish peo- 2005), 43. 11 Brian Rosner, ‘The Progress of the Word’, in I. Howard Marshall and D. Peterson, Wit- 13 Josephus describes the latter as one who ness to the Gospel: The Theology of Acts (Grand adopts the Jewish customs, adheres to Jewish Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1998), 227. Cit- laws and ways of worship of God, i.e., one who ed by Flemming, Contextualization, 43. has become a Jew. See Wikipedia ‘Proselyte’ 12 Flemming, Contextualization, 43-44. While
lims or traditional Christians.’26 Council allows for theological di- versity regarding the way of life and ‘constitute a new people of God and approach to missionary outreach not simply a large addition to the of the two cultural groups. By the existing people known as Israel. same token, not even the original, The critical question is therefore divinely-sanctioned culture of God’s how these two peoples relate to elect nation has the right to univer- each other.’27 They retained their salize its particular expression [of distinct identities, but adjustments faith in Christ].29 were required to facilitate fellow- Because of Acts 15, Jewish Christ- ship as a demonstration that Christ followers accept western Christians had demolished the barrier between whose manner of discipleship has Jew and Gentile (1 Cor. 12:12–27), departed from the divinely mandated as Woodberry affirms: practices of the OT (followed by Jesus So with the insider movements, and his disciples) so they could remain there is much freedom for them to insiders to the western cultural tradi- retain their identity but over time tion, in spite of its pagan roots.30 Mark some adjustments will need to be Kinzer has called for a bilateral ecclesi- made for the sake of fellowship in ology between Jews and Gentiles in the the broader Church….In like man- one Body of Messiah.31 ner traditional Christian and Mus- But this is still too limiting, because lim Christ-centered communities the Gentiles are nations. As Gavriel Ge- should have the same freedom to re- fen argues, ‘There is no one monolithic tain their own identity, but must ex- Gentile ecclesia. As Jews, it is easy for press the unity of the Body of Christ us to see everyone else as lumped into by their love one for another.28 the one category of Gentile…the one Thus, we see the relevance of the Je- body we speak of is meant to consist rusalem Council’s deliberations and de- of a multilateral ecclesia.’32 He be- cision with regard to how we reflect on lieves that it was largely Hellenized insider movements. The essence of its significance is expressed by Flemming: 29 Flemming, Contextualization, 52. Bock Acts 15 describes a church on a concurs. ‘As long as the gospel is not com- journey to a deeper understanding promised, then diversity of expression can be of its identity as the one people of tolerated.’ In Darrell L. Bock, Acts, Baker Ex- God comprised of two distinct cul- egetical Commentary on the New Testament tural groups who believe in Jesus. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007, Neither group must surrender its 508). 30 See Frank Viola and George Barna, Pagan cultural identity, and Jews may Christianity? Exploring the Roots of our Church continue to observe their ancestral Practices (Barna Books, 2008), 9-104. traditions…. The resolution of the 31 Mark Kinzer, Postmissionary Messianic Judaism: Redefining Christian Engagement with the Jewish People (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos 26 Woodberry, ‘To the Muslim’, 25-27. Press, 2005). 27 Marshall and Peterson, Witness, 432. 32 Gavriel Gefen, personal correspondence, 28 Woodberry, ‘To the Muslim’, 28. April 17, 2013. Jeffery Morton and Harley Talman
Jews in Antioch who worked with Paul it is not the case that Flemming sup- to develop the first ‘Greco-Roman ex- ports anything resembling the insider pression beyond Judaism’, but rightly movements (IM). Most advocates of IM asserts that ‘to consider their locally do not generally speak of IM in terms appropriate adaptations of following of contextualization—and Flemming Jesus as being “the” expression of does not even hint at IM—yet the es- new covenant faith for every kind of say leaves the reader with the impres- Gentile, at all times and in all places, sion that Flemming provides a founda- would serve to distort the Gospel for so tion for IM.37 many peoples’.33 It seems to me that the principles of Acts 15 required that Jewish believ- IM are assumed to be present in Acts ers recognize the freedom of Gentile 15. My first essay mentioned that IM believers ‘to live a life that is deter- advocates use an a posteriori approach mined by Christ and his Spirit’.34 Chris- to the Bible; Talman’s essay illustrated tians must give that same liberty to this at several points. believers from non-Christian religious ‘The Council’s proceedings are rel- traditions. evant to IMs, because the key concerns in I pray that all followers of Christ both are the same: Is justification solely will adopt this perspective—but if not, through faith in Christ or purification by that they will agree to disagree amica- the Spirit, or is proselytism required?’ bly. As Woodberry observes, ‘Acts 15 Acts 15 is a story focused on the ends with Paul and Barnabas separat- theological question of what is neces- ing in their missionary work because sary for salvation. Acts 15:1 and 5 re- they could not agree on whether to veal one flavour of Jewish-Christian un- take John Mark (vss. 36–41). Here we derstanding that salvation was Jesus see that when we cannot agree, we plus circumcision. There is no mention can nevertheless carry on God’s work in the story that the Jewish-Christians in separate spheres until we can reach required Gentiles to become culturally agreement.’35 Jewish—that converts should take on existing church culture—only that they should become religiously and ceremonially Jewish for the sake of salvation. The Judaizers did not insist Talman frequently cited from Flem- the Gentiles move to Judea, speak Ara- ming’s Contextualization in the New maic, change their Greek names to Ar- Testament. It is true that one of Flem- amaic names, or wear Jewish clothing. ming’s goals is ‘to provide a stronger Talman’s essay makes no differentia- biblical foundation for the church’s ef- tion between the religious requirement 36 forts to contextualize the gospel’, but of Judaism and the cultural aspects of
33 Gefen, personal correspondence, April 18, 37 Flemming characterizes contextualization 2013. as ‘the gospel’s interaction with all kinds of 34 Marshall and Peterson, Witness, 433. contexts, including social, political, economic, 35 Woodberry, ‘To the Muslims’, 27. religious and ecclesial settings’, Contextualiza- 36 Flemming, Contextualization, 16. tion, 18. Does the Jerusalem Council Support Insider Movement Practices? being a Jew. The Jewish-Christian com- look at Scripture to see if the observed plaint was not primarily cultural, but phenomenon harmonizes with it’. I un- theological. derstand the necessity of the reports While Talman’s essay makes an ef- from workers, but it is the second cri- fort to parallel the Gentiles with Mus- terion that makes me nervous. lims, it neglects the contrast between A fresh look at Scripture is a good them—a contrast that is fatal to his thing, but not if it takes us away from argument. Muslim, unlike its alleged the text itself. The story leading up counterpart, Gentile, is an identity de- to the Jerusalem council concerned rived predominantly from religious the Gentiles repenting and entering values and practices. Pakistan and the Kingdom of God as preached by Malaysia, while two very different so- Barnabas and Paul. Acts 14:15 has cieties, are both Islamic and can be Paul pleading for the Lystrans ‘to turn said to have Islamic cultures. But they from vain things to the living God’ are Islamic cultures because of the re- (apo toutôn tôn mataiôn epistrepsein epi ligion of Islam, not because of the lo- theon zônta). This ‘turning to’ was also cal, indigenous cultures. We hear many a ‘turning from’. What were the vain voices saying Islam is both religion and things from which the Gentiles should culture; Islam is a way of life.38 turn? These would necessarily include The Muslim way of life is influenced some cultural practices, values, and by the religious practices of Islam, religious activities. Certainly Paul and Barnabas never encouraged Gentiles but there is no such flavour to Gentile. to turn from being Gentiles—’Your Gentile is the Jewish name for the non- Greekness has got to stop!’—but the covenantal peoples. While Gentiles are Gentiles did turn from their evil prac- identified by means of religion—that tices (see 1 Cor. 6:9–11 for a partial is, they are not of Judaism—Gentiles list of those practices). They turned share no identifiably common trait to Jesus; they turned to the living God. known as Gentilism derived from their It is not unbiblical to expect believers religious practices or worldviews. It is, to turn to God while also turning from therefore, inappropriate to substitute evil practices, including Islam, a reli- Gentiles with Muslims in Acts 15 as if gion that is the antithesis of biblical they were equivalent terms. Christianity. Talman’s next parallel between Acts Neither of our two essays dealt with 15 and IM is Flemming’s criteria, ‘the a definition of Muslim or Islam, but how testimony of field workers’ and ‘a fresh one understands these terms is pivotal. Some advocates of IM speak of Chris- 38 Cf. Imad ad-Din Ahmad, ‘Islamic Religion tian converts from Islam as members and American Culture’,
to turn from polytheism to the God the Jerusalem council proclaimed was of Abraham; he commended … the that Gentiles ought to attend temple Holy Books of the Jew and Chris- sacrifice, confess their submission to tians, and he warned of an impend- Diana, and remain Pagans-following- ing day of God’s judgment … For Jesus-as-Pagans. Had the missionaries these reasons, he is honored… . preached such a message, this would some Jesus-followers explained that have been equivalent to a first century they do not repeat the second part insider movement; however, the text of the Islamic confession, choosing nowhere hints at such a message. It instead to substitute something that is the advocate of IM who brings such is both biblically and qur’anically insider ideas to the text. correct such as ‘Jesus is the Word 39 of God’. Reciting the shahada is a not a cul- tural value, but a religious activity. Despite this religious practice, ac- Jeff, I appreciate your summary of Acts cording to Travis and Woodberry, a 15. The clear statement of your con- Muslim-following-Jesus-as-Muslim cerns gives us opportunity to clear up is a cultural Muslim, though he re- major misconceptions. Your assertions (in italics) are followed by my response mains identified as a religious, albeit under four categories: church, scrip- somewhat confused, Muslim. In other ture, identity and religion & disciple- words, the authors describe Muslims ship. who are following Jesus but remain es- sentially Muslim. Reciting the shahada is a not a cultural value, but a religious activity. ‘Most proponents of IM believe a follower of Jesus may remain in his socio-cultural- Talman’s final parallel is to under- religious context…with little to no con- stand that ‘Acts 15 required that Jew- nection with the church that is not of the ish believers recognize the freedom of believer’s context.’ Gentile believers “to live life that is Since we are talking about IMs as determined by Christ and his Spirit”’. movements of the gospel inside social I agree Gentiles must live their structures and networks, these believ- lives in the freedom Christ gives, but ers’ primary connection is naturally what neither Barnabas and Paul nor with other believers inside their own social network. However, your com- 39 John J. Travis and Dudley Woodberry, ment begs the question, ‘How much ‘When God’s Kingdom Grows Like Yeast’, contact does the average American Mission Frontiers (July-August 2010): 29. The evangelical church have with “the characterization of Jesus as the ‘Word of God’ church that is not of its context”’? Do being qur’anically correct is misguided at Baptist churches have close connec- best. Jesus as kalimatullah means that Jesus tions with Pentecostal churches in the is a message from Allah. He is a word from Allah, not the word of Allah (cf. Qur’an 3:45). same city? This is hardly the meaning of logos in the New Building of relationships with the Testament. broader body of Christ often occurs Does the Jerusalem Council Support Insider Movement Practices? when a church engages in mission and ognize this.40 These two issues are in- is forced to think beyond its local con- separable. The story emphasizes that text. One of the most encouraging as- salvation is by faith in Jesus alone, and pects of the growing IM movements is therefore it allows a Gentile to remain the way that they move across ethnic a Gentile who follows Jesus, without and national boundaries into new con- becoming a Jew marked by circumci- texts. Connections between believers sion. from other cultural, linguistic, ethnic ‘Gentile is an ethnic, linguistic identity and religious backgrounds more com- whereas Muslim is socio-religious iden- tity.’ monly occur at the leadership level. This distinction is unconvincing. Leaders of these movements also in- Circumcision was a religious, social, teract with the western Christians and ethnic marker. Therefore, it encom- Christ-followers from other religious passed socio-religious identity. Circum- traditions. If they were not interacting cision of a Gentile would often cut off in these ways, we would know very lit- his social relationships, his religious tle about what is happening. relationships, and could even result in death. Consequently, circumcision was at the heart of each group’s identity. ‘The text is silent on the matter of Gen- My chief objection is your assertion tiles/Muslims changing their identity.’ that IM proponents impose preor- This may not be explicit, but it was dained conclusions on Scripture. Un- certainly involved in the decision not to fortunately, your article seems to com- make it difficult for the Gentiles who pletely miss the way Acts 15 is used by were turning to Jesus, and for the sake most proponents of IMs. We maintain of unity asking them to do these mini- that Luke is concerned not just with mum things that were deeply offensive the Council’s theological conclusions, to Jews. The text respects each group’s but its theological process, as I noted identity, recognizes the differences, above, and that field reports are to be and seeks to promote their unity in included in that process. Christ.
‘Acts 15 presents a theological question, Some proponents of IM suggest the text not one about cultural identity.’ teaches that a change of religion is not Is the theological question, ‘Is sal- necessary for salvation. vation available to both Jew and Gen- tile apart from circumcision?’ If so, 40 Bock, Acts, 502 observes, ‘Even a commit- then the theological question is about ted Jewish believer such as James can see and identity, for cultural identity is a part affirm that Gentiles can be included among of who a Gentile and a Jew were (cir- believers directly without having to become Jews. This is an innovation of the new era that cumcised = Jew; uncircumcised = Jesus and the distribution of the Spirit on Gen- Gentile). Bock and other scholars rec- tiles have brought.’ Jeffery Morton and Harley Talman
Is changing religion necessary for religion called ‘Christianity’ or change salvation? If we use an essentialist41 their legal, political or socio-religious definition, which assumes a single set status to become like those who are of religious beliefs and practices, then born into a socio-religious community a change of religion is needed. Howev- of ‘Christians’, then we disagree. er, the essentialist concept of religions Gentiles who followed Jesus by faith has been widely discredited by the did give up their former religions—what- academy—there is simply no monolith- ever idol-based or animistic religion that ic set of beliefs and practices held by was. all who hold any ‘religious’ identity.42 We agree. New Muslim Christ-fol- If Islam is defined in a non-essen- lowers do turn away from folk Islamic, tialist manner, where it is seen primar- idol-based and animistic practices in ily as a cultural or sociological phe- order to serve the one true God. They nomenon, then there is no need for a trust Christ for forgiveness of sins ‘change of religion’ because what we and are delivered from their fears and are talking about is not a religion, but a bondage to fortune tellers, shamans, socio-religious community. and healers. Gentiles were expected to Most critics of IM…advocate biblical turn from idolatry and from idolatrous discipleship and the necessary inclusion practices, but they were not expected into local congregations where possible to turn from being Gentiles to Judaism. or at least Muslim convert congregations. Believers of all cultures are free to The Body of Christ is essential to every retain any and all elements, values, believer. beliefs and practices of their culture Absolutely! Every IM proponent (which includes their religious culture that I know of believes in the impor- and traditions) that are compatible tance of every believer being part of a with the Bible. Those which are not congregation of Spirit-led, Bible-obey- must either be rejected or else rein- ing, Christ-followers. If however, you terpreted (just as we have done with mean that Muslims must reject their Christmas trees and Easter eggs). community and become proselytes of a ‘Trusting Jesus for forgiveness of sin entails turning from one’s former religion, a religion that did not trust Jesus’. 41 See the section of ‘The essentialist view It is ironic that you accuse IM pro- and the cultural view of world religions’ in the article in Wikipedia, ‘Insider Movements’ ponents of eisegesis and yet anachro-
Keywords: Muslims, contextualization, come to a saving faith in Christ and yet ethics, Qur’an, evangelism, apologetics we also have profound disagreements about the legitimacy and validity of certain aspects of IM, especially what is known as the C5 aspect of this move- ment. I acknowledge that there are a va- riety of views within IM. Even within Dear Kevin, the C5 position there is a spectrum in I consider it a great honour and privi- terms of the identity of converts and lege to have been asked by the Evan- how they ought to view the Qur’an and gelical Review of Theology to dialogue the prophet of Islam. In our exchang- with you about Insider Movements (IM), es I am mostly concerned with those an important controversy that is facing followers of Christ who not only call the evangelical church. This is a topic themselves Muslims (as people who that generates a great deal of emotion have truly submitted to God) but also and heat, especially for those who are view Muhammad as a genuine prophet passionate about seeing the gospel of from God and the Qur’an as God’s rev- 1 Christ lifted up among Muslims. I trust elation. that our exchanges will contribute to My red lines in this controversy shedding more light on this contro- have always been two things: Can a versy than heat! I not only consider Christian acknowledge the prophet- you a dear brother in Christ, but also a hood of Muhammad? And can a Chris- friend and a co-labourer in the spread of the gospel in the Muslim world. I 1 See Kevin Higgins, ‘Identity, Integrity and know that you and I are both passion- Insider Movements’, IJFM 23 (3) (Fall 2006), ate and committed to seeing Muslims 32-38.
Kevin Higgins (PhD, Fuller) has lived in several Muslim countries and is currently involved in Bible transla- tion, training people from a variety of countries for cross-cultural communication. Sasan Tavassoli (ThM, Columbia; PhD, Birmingham) is a former Shi’ite Muslim from Iran now living in USA where he broadcasts to Europe and the Middle East. He is the author of a number of books and articles on Islam, including Christian Encounters with Iran: Engaging Muslim Thinkers after the Revolution (2011). Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins tian acknowledge the Qur’an as God’s should not take things out of context revelation? I believe that a biblical re- in the Qur’an or any other text for that sponse to the above two questions is a matter in order to build a bridge for our resounding ‘No’. evangelistic outreach. In our dialogue together I want to When C5 advocates promote the focus my critique of C5 on one particu- practice of shahada, which acknowledg- lar concern and that has to do with es that Muhammad is God’s prophet, it the honesty and integrity of how such seems to me that they are redefining C5 advocates approach the text of the the role and function of Muhammad as Qur’an and Islamic faith and practice. a ‘prophet’ in a way which goes against Now let me point out that having grown how Islam has understood Muham- up as an Iranian Shi’ite Muslim in a mad’s prophethood.2 Sufi home, I fully believe that Islam is Christians do not have a shahada like not one giant monolithic faith. I do ac- Islam per se, but I think if we wanted knowledge that throughout its history to choose a candidate for a good bibli- and to this day, ‘Islam’ has not been cal passage it would be 1 John 5:10-12, understood, interpreted and practised in the same way by all its adherents. Anyone who believes in the Son of There is a tremendous variety in the God has this testimony in his heart. faith and practice of Muslims around Anyone who does not believe in God the world. has made him out to be a liar, be- Nevertheless, in all this multi- cause he has not believed the testi- faceted variety, Muslims have never mony God has given about his Son. understood that the Qur’an teaches or And this is the testimony: God has supports such foundational Christian given us eternal life, and this life is doctrines as the divine Lordship of in his Son. He who has the Son has Christ, the doctrine of the Trinity, and life; he who does not have the Son of Jesus’ death on the cross as the atone- God does not have life. (NIV)3 ment for human sin. In fact, Muslims On the other hand we encounter have been almost unanimous that the in the Qur’an the following verdict on Qur’an and Islamic theology have quite Christian convictions about Jesus. Sura categorically refuted the above Chris- 9:30 states, tian affirmations as false and a cor- …and the Christians call Christ ruption of the teachings of the prophet the Son of God. That is a saying Jesus. from their mouth; (In this) they but When C5 advocates use of the Qur’an to affirm the deity of Christ (thus attempting to demonstrate the 2 According to C5 advocates, Muhammad basic harmony and compatibility be- can be viewed as a ‘prophet’ who ultimately tween the Qur’an and the Bible), it pointed people to Jesus. In the Islamic view seems to me that they are twisting cer- based on the Qur’an, it is actually Jesus that points to Muhammad as the ultimate and final tain passages out of the total Qur’anic prophet. context. Just as we don’t like it when 3 The terms shahada and ‘testimony’ (or ‘wit- members of various cults or other reli- ness’) function very similarly in Arabic and gions take the Bible out of context, we Greek. The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation
imitate what the unbelievers of old tian acknowledge the Qur’an as God’s used to say. God’s curse be on them: revelation? You rightly link the two how they are deluded away from the issues as two sides of the same coin. Truth! I will respond in a similar way rather Acknowledging Jesus as the Son of than taking each one separately. God is either the key to having eternal Sasan, I know your answer to this life (the Bible) or puts us under the is ‘no’, and I would say that my view curse of God (the Qur’an). Both cannot probably agrees with yours, at least be true. as you have framed the question. But So ultimately, I believe that the then, what is all the heat about? As you Qur’an contradicts and opposes the point out, I and others have suggested Bible on some of the most important that there may be ways of speaking of issues that have to do with our convic- Muhammad having a prophetic role, tions about God, Christ and salvation. and the Qur’an containing truths that One cannot claim to follow the Jesus of find their ultimate source in God, and the Bible and at the same time accept hence our conversation. the Qur’an as God’s revelation or ac- In clarifying the concerns expressed cept the prophet of Islam as someone in your paper it seems to me that one commissioned and sent by God for the particularly critical issue is at play: is guidance of humanity. it appropriate to hold a view of Muham- mad and the Qur’an that would be at odds with the vast majority of Muslims in the past and today (while claiming to still be Muslim, or claiming that such a different viewpoint could fit within Dear Sasan, Islam.) Some insiders prefer not to Thank you for your gracious words in speak of Muhammad as a prophet at your opening comments. I share the all, while others see him much more same sense of respect and have en- positively. None thinks of him the same joyed and appreciated the face to face way as the majority of Muslims around discussions we were able to have in them do. June 2012. I also appreciate your sen- Before I respond to the questions sitivity to the variety of expressions themselves, I want to clarify some- and opinions within what have come to thing. The questions are both framed in be called ‘insider movements’, and the terms of what a Christian might believe advocates of such movements (includ- or hold, and also seem to be particular- ing myself). I think it bears mentioning ly concerned about what IM advocates that I know the same is true of those believe regarding these questions. If I who hold strong reservations about am correct two comments follow. such movements: not everyone would First, I agree with you that non-Mus- agree on each point nor express their lim voices trying to articulate positions views in quite the same way. relative to the Qur’an and Muhammad You raise two crucial questions: Can would be offensive to Muslims. But a Christian acknowledge the prophet- you raise a second side of this question hood of Muhammad? And can a Chris- which is critical: can ‘insiders’ hold Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins views of Muhammad at odds with oth- is what Paul uses with the poets and er Muslims and do so with integrity? philosophers in his speech in Athens Perhaps our discussions would best (Acts 17). He cites a hymn dedicated be served if we focus on that question. to Zeus, for example, and yet redirects Thus, I want to highlight the fact that it in a way that I am sure would be at by definition people in IMs are, by their odds with how the text was originally own self-identification, Muslims who intended, and with how most non-be- believe in Jesus as Lord and Saviour. lieving contemporaries of Paul would As such they seek to be a voice in the naturally have understood the text. In Muslim community, participating in re- so doing Paul does not endorse every- flection on these issues. It is a Muslim thing those poets and philosophers he discussion about the Bible and the rel- cites may have written. But he does ac- ative place for the Qur’an or Muham- knowledge the truth in what he cites. mad. The question emerges from that The Acts 17 text is descriptive, and reflection in the light of the Bible and not necessarily prescriptive. One may the new (for a Muslim believer) revela- read it and conclude that Paul was tion of the Person and Work of Jesus as wrong to do what he did, or that it is Lord and Saviour. not an example that we should follow. Of course, the vast majority of I know some IM critics do see it that Muslims may well reject such a self- way. I take it as a Spirit-inspired ex- identification on the part of Muslim ample, though not one that must be fol- Followers of Christ, as well as the re- lowed in every circumstance, and also interpretations such believers suggest I do not see it as the only approach for relative to Muhammad and the Qur’an. work in Muslim contexts. The point is that such a discussion is So, your concern about using a text a Muslim discussion. In my experience in a way that our Muslim friends would Muslim ‘insiders’ who have come to not recognize as valid is an important believe in Jesus as Lord, in the Bible point and concern. However, there as God’s inspired Word, and who gath- is biblical precedent for such an ap- er regularly in fellowship with others proach. My own take on this is that I who believe the same for ongoing study believe that other interpretations of the of the scriptures, will in fact find that Qur’an which differ from the norm are their beliefs are at odds with Muslim possible and in some cases even prob- orthodoxy. The response of the major- able, and I would add that there are ity community to this has varied in dif- Muslims who are holding these diver- ferent contexts. gent views. However, we are wise to be Now I will comment on your point sensitive to how these are presented. about using the Qur’an in a way that Perhaps a future exchange between us is at odds with what Muslims under- could outline some parameters? stand, while at the same time failing Finally, I want to close by emphasiz- to address the fact that parts of the ing some of what the insiders I know Qur’an are in direct contradiction to do believe: Jesus as Lord and Saviour, the biblical message (or, in some pas- salvation by grace through faith via the sages, seem to be). It seems obvious merit of his death and resurrection, the to me that exactly such an approach Bible as the final Word and authority. The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation
practising Islam. My fundamental ob- jection is this: Throughout its history Islamic theology, the teachings and traditions of Muhammad and the text Dear Kevin, of the Qur’an have been understood by Thank you, as always, for your thought- Muslims and non-Muslims to explicitly ful responses. In my interactions with repudiate the core of the Christian faith you over these past few months and in regard to such truths as the Triune even in our current conversation, I identity of God, the deity of Christ and have learned a great deal about vari- his atoning death on the cross. From ous issues surrounding this topic. But I Rumi to Ayatollah Khomeini, from Ibn am still struggling profoundly with the Taymiyya to Abdol Karim Soroush, re- same concerns about certain C5 posi- gardless of whether one is a medieval tions and practices that I raised with mystic or an ultra-orthodox theolo- you in my first letter. gian, or whether one is a radical anti- Kevin, before interacting directly western cleric or a very westernized with a number of points that you liberal philosopher, these Muslims are raised, let me first tell you how I was in complete agreement in their rejec- drawn into this controversy. My first tion of the above Christian doctrines encounter with an IM advocate was and their acceptance that the Qur’an in in the summer of 2006. I was teach- its totality is God’s final revelation and ing a course on Islam to a dozen Ira- Muhammad is the seal of the prophets. nian Christian converts from Islam. An Therefore, it is very natural to be- evangelical missionary came to lecture come suspicious when all of a sudden, these Iranian students for one morn- after 1400 years in the encounters be- ing. He told us that in their work in a tween Islam and Christianity, we are particular Asian country believers in hearing from various individuals (both Christ profess the shahada, do all the ‘Insiders’ and ‘Along-siders’), that the daily rituals in the mosque, celebrate Qur’an can actually be re-interpreted all the Islamic feasts (and no Christian as a text that points its readers to faith events on the calendar like Christmas, in Christ as Lord and Saviour and Mu- Easter, Pentecost), read the Qur’an on hammad could be viewed as some kind a regular basis, etc. He also claimed of a prophet with a similar mission of that 99% of the Qur’an was just fine pointing people to the gospel. From and compatible with the Christian faith the medieval theologian, Ibn Taymiyya and he could actually demonstrate the to the contemporary apologist, Jamal deity of Christ from the Qur’an (for ex- Badawi, Muslims have also ‘re-inter- ample, only God can create, Jesus cre- preted’ the Gospels from an Islamic ated a bird, thus Jesus must be divine). perspective in order to demonstrate He also recommended that as Iranians that Christians have misunderstood we should be open to this approach or distorted the teachings of Jesus and and experiment with it among our own to make the Gospels compatible with people. the orthodox Islamic understanding I believe the above approach is not of Jesus. I am afraid that much of our an honest way of reading the Qur’an or Christian or Insider ‘re-interpretation’ Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins of the Qur’an treats that text the same and today. This is a great question. As way that these Muslims have treated Christians we might not be in a posi- the Gospels. tion to judge the internal debates of You write: ‘there may be ways of orthodoxy in Islam. We don’t involve speaking of Muhammad having a pro- ourselves in the debates that Sunnis phetic role, and the Qur’an containing have with the Shi’ites or Alawites, or truths that find their ultimate source Ahmadiyyas or the Ismaeilis or the in God’. For me this is the crux of the Baha’is, etc. But when the question matter in our debate. I don’t know how touches on whether it is possible to a follower of Christ can make room for accept Jesus as Lord and Saviour and understanding Muhammad as having at the same time Muhammad as God’s a ‘prophetic role’ and more than that, apostle (or submit to the Bible and the define that role in a way that has been Qur’an at the same time), then this accepted by any Muslim in the past is no longer just ‘a Muslim discus- 1400 years of Islamic history. For ex- sion about the Bible, and the relative ample, Miroslav Volf urges his readers place for the Qur’an or Muhammad’. to consider that one can be 100 percent As Christians we have every right and Christian and 100 percent Muslim, as duty to be involved in this debate if in the case of Ann Redding, the Epis- we care about not getting the gospel copal priest, who also professed faith caught up in religious syncretism. in Islam. He also thinks that a Chris- Finally, let me say that I don’t be- tian can ‘believe that Muhammad was lieve that what Paul is doing in Acts a prophet (not the “Seal of Prophets”, 17 relates to my concerns in these but a prophet the way in which we discussions. At most what we can jus- might designate Martin Luther King Jr. tify, based on Paul’s example, is the a “prophet”).’4 practice of citing a few passages in The problem is that no Muslim has the Qur’an in our evangelism as bridges ever claimed that Muhammad was a and pointers to Christ. This is a far cry prophet in the same way that some from the regular and religious use of the consider Martin Luther King was a Qur’an and acknowledging it as having prophet! Or to say that the Qur’an can come from God. contain certain truths that find their ul- Thank you, Kevin for taking time to timate source in God, in addition to be- engage with me on these issues. I am ing very vague and ambiguous to begin looking forward to our continued con- with, is still a far cry from how Mus- versation on these important topics. lims have viewed the issue of Qur’anic inspiration throughout their history. You ask whether it is appropriate to hold a view of Muhammad and the Qur’an that would be at odds with the Dear Sasan, vast majority of Muslims in the past I thank you again as well. I understand why your ‘profound struggle’ contin- 4 Miroslav Volf, Allah: A Christian Response ues, and appreciate how you are engag- (NY: HarperOne, 2011), 199. ing the issues. My response will work The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation through your last contribution as I go. such an approach, whether it comes One of your first queries arose from from a Muslim believer in Jesus (‘insid- your 2006 encounter with a mission- er’) or not, is dishonest and flies in the ary. One of the points that seems most face of how Muslims have historically pertinent for our discussion is the view interpreted the Qur’an. Both groups of of the Qur’an that the missionary was insiders I have just referred to would endorsing: agree with you that this flies in the face …that 99% of the Qur’an was of historic Islam. The second group just fine and compatible with the would take exception to the claim that Christian faith…he could…demon- they are not being honest. It is quite strate the deity of Christ from the appropriate to look at their views and Qur’an…’ and, as you cite later, ‘… state where you would agree and disa- the Qur’an as a book can actually be gree. In fact, I do not completely agree re-interpreted as a text that points with either set of leaders on these is- its readers to faith in Christ as Lord sues. What I do defend is their integ- rity in thinking through the position and Saviour and Muhammad could they have come to, and their right as be viewed as some kind of a prophet believers to seek the Lord’s wisdom as with a similar mission of pointing they search the Bible on these matters. people to the gospel. Later in your communication with Perhaps a foundational question we me you cite my statement that ‘there should surface would be whether this may be ways of speaking of Muhammad view reflects the view of others who having a prophetic role, and the Qur’an espouse IM approaches and whether containing truths that find their ulti- there is general agreement on this mate source in God’. You rightly point matter. I will speak for the two insider out that this statement is ‘still a far cry movements I am most familiar with. from how Muslims have viewed the is- The leaders of one such movement sue of Qur’anic inspiration throughout would not agree at all with what you their history’. heard from the missionary: they see I agree with you. However, I am not the Qur’an as a false book overall and trying to describe what Muslims think they do not consider Muhammad as a nor what I think they would agree prophet. They see their role as insid- with, but rather what I think, as well ers to be a pragmatic one, remaining in as trying to represent what some of the the community as yeast in the dough to views of insiders whom I know might bring change and transformation. be on these issues. The leaders of another movement I am fully aware that both Muslims take an almost opposite view. They and Christians will disagree with some, do in fact claim that Islamic tradition even many, of my views and the views has not rightly understood the Qur’an of my insider friends. I have been la- because the majority of Muslims paid belled a heretic from both sides. And in only lip service to the previous Books at least one occasion that I am aware and thus missed the key to a right of this put my life in immediate danger reading of the Qur’an. (just to be clear, the danger was not Your concern, as I read it, is that from Christians!). Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins
Since I have touched upon my own ultimately from God, those true things thinking, let me move to another place find their ultimate source in him. But where you quote me. I asked whether that is not the same as accepting sub- it is appropriate to hold a view of Mu- mission to both books. However, to hammad and the Qur’an that would reiterate, these are my views, not the be at odds with the vast majority of views of Muslim insiders. Muslims in the past and today,5 and Finally, you mentioned that you I replied that this is in many ways a don’t believe that what Paul is doing Muslim discussion. To that you replied, in Acts 17 relates to your concerns …when the question touches on and that at most what we see in Paul’s whether it is possible to accept Je- example is the practice of citing a few sus as Lord and Saviour and at the passages from the Qur’an in evange- same time Muhammad as God’s lism. I believe Paul’s theology in Acts Apostle (or submit to the Bible and 17 is more far reaching than just the the Qur’an at the same time), then citation of those hymns and philoso- this is no longer just a Muslim dis- phers. His way of incorporating the al- cussion about the Bible…as Chris- tar, the citations of pagan writers, and tians we have every right and duty his portrayal of how God has sover- to be involved in this debate… eignly chosen the places and times for I actually agree with you. But the the habitations of all peoples precisely way you have framed the debate here so that they may seek him, feel after is not what I actually said. What I have him, and, indeed, find him all adds up said in various ways is that I can see to a way of seeing how God is at work a way of understanding Muhammad as in this world. having some sort of prophetic role, and Thus, Acts 17 leads me to expect that there are true things in the Qur’an. two things. First, the ‘finding him’ By extension, since I believe truth is culminates in a call to faith in Jesus. Paul is exclusivist here, and so am I. Second, the ‘finding him’ may involve 5 In fact there are a variety of views among discovering clues that God himself has Muslims regarding Muhammad as prophet. left for men and women to discover, In South Asia at least three very different views include the Barelvi’s (Muhammad is including such clues as may be found God’s noor/light, he is present and available, in other religious traditions and world- not only as an intercessor but personally); views. I believe some of those clues Deobandis (deny much of Barelvi beliefs but are in the Qur’an. I don’t think they accept access to Allah through Muhammad’s got there accidently or without God’s intercession on the last day); the Wahhabis (deny all of the above and see Barelvi’s as involvement in some way. But in so polytheists). Some Muslims in South Asia saying I am not claiming that the en- have said that in theory there can be prophets tire book is full of such clues, nor that after Muhammad, though not of his stature. there are not passages that may indeed There is vigorous and even violent debate on lead away. Nor am I saying this is akin these differences. I agree that what ‘insiders’ say about Muhammad is unlikely to find wide to biblical inspiration. acceptance among other Muslims. But in this I continue to pray for ongoing clar- they are not alone. ity. The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation
contradictions are due to misun- derstandings of the Quran (and in some cases there has been misun- derstanding of the Bible as well by Dear Kevin, Christians).6 Greetings again my dear brother! And When I claim that I do not find this thank you for your patience with me position ‘honest’, I do not mean that in these discussions as I am trying to folks with this perspective are involved understand where some of our Insider in fraud or deception. What I mean is friends are coming from. I think your that this is not a legitimate or genu- responses have provided some clarity ine understanding of what the Qur’an for me and I believe there are also is- claims for itself, what the Qur’an says sues that we should recognize as cur- about Jesus or the claims that Muslims rently at an impasse in our discussions. have made in regard to the person and From the very beginning, the focus message and mission of their prophet. of my critique has been on the Insid- The above position is very different ers who believe a follower of Christ from your claim that ‘there are true can also genuinely, albeit in a qualified things in the Qur’an’ or that God has way, acknowledge the Qur’an as God’s left certain ‘clues’ about himself in the word and Muhammad as a prophet. Qu’ran, but not that ‘the entire book is These are the followers of Christ that full of such clues, nor that there are not as you put it claim: passages that may indeed lead away’. I for one do not deny that there I can say I am a Muslim because the are ‘true things in the Qur’an’ (in the word Islam means submission and same way that there are true things a Muslim is one who submits. So, in many books on history, poetry, phi- I have submitted to God ultimately losophy, science and maths) or the in His Word, Isa, and the Word of fact that some Muslims have come to God in the Taurat, Zabur, and Injil faith in Christ as a result of reading the which the Quran confirms. In addi- Qur’anic descriptions concerning the tion I can accept and affirm all of uniqueness of Jesus. But I don’t see the teach ing of Muhammad as I find how one can then conclude from such it in the Quran, and can say honestly observations that Muhammad was a that he had a prophetic role in call- prophet or that the Qur’an agrees with ing Arab, Christian, and Jewish peo- the Bible in what it teaches. ple of his time to repent. I can call Let me give a couple of hypotheti- him a prophet. I can say the shaha- cal illustrations to clarify my concerns. dah with integrity because I believe Suppose a group of people who believe Muhammad was called by God to that Genesis teaches young earth crea- a prophetic role. I read the Quran tionism began to interpret Darwin’s through the inter pretive key of the Origin of Species as actually teaching Gospel and the previous books. or supporting young earth creationism. When I read the Quran through that lense and filter I find that it agrees with the Bible and that perceived 6 Higgins, ‘Identity’, 36. Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins
This group then starts using Darwin of Christ.7 If we disapprove of the re- as a witnessing tool to tell others that interpretive activities in my above two one of the great scientific minds of the examples, as Christians we should also 19th century actually gives scientific disapprove of the Insiders’ reinterpre- credence to the accuracy of the Gen- tation of the Qur’an and shahada. esis account and thus that is one more proof that the Bible is the inspired word of God. And let’s assume this group convinces others in their evangelistic approach and people come to faith in Christ. Although as a Christian I would rejoice that people are coming to faith in Christ through this evangelistic ap- Dear Sasan, proach, I would still insist that this is I thank you also for your patience with not an honest reading of Darwin. We me in these discussions as I am trying cannot read Darwin ‘through the in- to understand where some of our Insid- terpretive key of the Gospel’ and come er friends are coming from. This last up with an interpretation of Darwin at response and input from you is help- odds with how Darwin has been un- ing sharpen our focus, and will hope- derstood by his friends and foes alike fully clarify where we understand each within the scientific community for the other better, as well as (in your words) past 150 years. where the real impasses might remain. Or suppose that an American Chris- When we originally began this dis- tian who attends church regularly, cussion, it was framed as a question of converts to Shi’ite Islam but decides integrity: is such a position ‘honest’? I to stay in the church. He decides to took that to mean we were discussing reinterpret the Bible ‘through the in- the integrity, the honesty, of Muslims terpretive key of the Qur’an’. He also who follow Jesus when they say that decides to partake of the Lord’s Supper Muhammad is a prophet, but express but interprets that as a commemora- it with different ideas than most Mus- tion of Hussein’s martyrdom at Karbala lims would accept. This is why I used instead of Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross. the fact that Muslims in general have Once again, I would say that this in- many divergent views regarding Mu- dividual has every right to convert to hammad, and that they disagree vehe- Islam but his ‘reinterpretation’ of the mently in some cases. Bible or his ‘reinterpretation’ of the But you have made clear in this Lord’s Supper is not an honest or legiti- exchange, that you ‘do not mean that mate way of understanding the Bible or folks with this perspective are involved Christian sacraments. in fraud or deception but that this is not You might not accept my analogies but as far as I am concerned that is how I view what the above Insiders are do- 7 I see my analogies as a lot closer to what these Insiders are doing than your reference ing when they reinterpret the Qur’an to to Christians reinterpreting pagan festivals, make its message compatible with the practices, trees, objects or the terms for God Gospel or profess shahada as followers throughout the history of the church. The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation a legitimate or genuine understanding and decides to reinterpret the Bible of what the Qur’an claims for itself’. through the interpretive key of the So in my mind we are not discussing Qur’an. My question would be what integrity after all, but whether such a has he found in the Bible that suggests view is correct or not. Perhaps we are using the Qur’an as a key for inter- at an impasse as to our views on that pretation? Muslims who follow Jesus, question, but could we agree that this whether you agree with them or not, is not a question of whether Muslim have argued that the Qur’an suggests followers of Jesus are being honest in that the Bible in fact is seen as the key their views? to a right understanding of the Qur’an. As to the question, then, of accuracy, This is a good place to re-emphasize there are several points to make. Your something, and I will use a quote from Darwin example is a starting point. you, taking a quote from me, to do so. You ask whether Darwin could be re- You cite my summarization, the sort of interpreted to promote creationism. Of thing I have heard some Muslim fol- course one question I would ask your lowers of Jesus say about how they see hypothetical evangelists would be to the Bible and the Qur’an: show where in Darwin they find evi- …I read the Quran through the dence of creationist views? There will inter pretive key of the Gospel and be none, as we both know. So surely the previous books. When I read the this is a question of apples (what some believers are saying about the Qur’an) Quran through that lens and filter I and oranges (the Darwin case). find that it agrees with the Bible… In the case of the Qur’an, the verses This statement is fundamentally dif- which point to confirming previous ferent from your two examples. I would books (2:89 and 91), the fact Muham- actually agree with your conclusion, mad is told to resolve questions by regarding the two examples you cited: turning to those who know the books those two could represent positions (10:94), and the various ways Jesus is that, although they might be honestly talked about that do seem far beyond held, are impossible to sustain from normal Muslim beliefs8 could all sug- the texts in question. The way that gest the sort of reading that some of some Muslims who follow Jesus view our Muslim friends are suggesting. In the Qur’an and use it to sustain their the Darwin case, there is nothing in his views is very different. As such, while books to suggest any sort of alterna- you, as well as other Muslims, may dis- tive reading whatsoever. agree with their interpretation, I would You also cite the example of an argue it is a position that can be held American Christian who attends with integrity and conviction. church regularly, converts to Shi’ite Whether this is a statement that Islam but decides to stay in the church can be sustained, or not, is an impor- tant discussion. You and I will probably never see it eye to eye. But our discus- 8 Verses which seem pregnant with deeper hints of Jesus’ nature when read by ‘insider sion seems at least to have allowed believers’ in the light of the New Testament us to agree that it is not a question of could include 3:45, 5:110 as many others. integrity. This still leaves, certainly, a Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins question of whether such a view is cor- that IM interpretive methods promote rect or not. This leads me to conclude a misunderstanding of these texts and by restating my previous point that thus should not be held by followers of whether Muslim followers of Jesus are Jesus. correct in their views of Muhammad I truly appreciate your clear re- and the Qur’an or not is a matter for sponse to my hypothetical analogies. It Muslims to determine. put my mind at ease that our IM broth- ers had not given up on all distinctions between ‘exegesis’ and ‘eisegesis’! You agree that it is not legitimate to get an interpretation in support of Dear Kevin, young earth creationism out of Dar- win’s . But you go on Greetings my dear friend. As we are Origin of Species wrapping up our conversation, let me to say, ‘In the case of the Qur’an, the end with some clarifications and re- verses which point to confirming previ- statements of the convictions that I ous books (2:89 and 91), the fact Mu- have tried to communicate. hammad is told to resolve questions by I don’t think our fundamental disa- turning to those who know the books greements come down to our different (10:94), and the various ways Jesus is understandings of the word ‘honest’. talked about that do seem far beyond According to my Merriam-Webster normal Muslim beliefs could all sug- electronic dictionary, the first defini- gest the sort of reading that some of tion of the adjective ‘honest’ is, ‘free our Muslim friends are suggesting’. from fraud or deception: legitimate, I maintain that such IM interpre- truthful’. I have never intended to tations are based on highly selective judge the hearts and motives of all IM readings of the Qur’an that take cer- advocates or declare them deceitful tain passages of the Qur’an out of the people. But I still believe the IM ap- entire Qur’anic context and thus dis- proach to the Qur’an and the acknowl- tort the totality of the Qur’anic mes- edgement of shahada is not a legitimate sage as it has been understood by Mus- or truthful interpretation of those texts lims throughout their history. as those texts have been understood by It also seems that you are fine with Muslims for 1400 years. followers of Jesus reading the Qur’an As Kevin Vanhoozer points out, through the interpretive key of the gos- there are ethical dimensions involved pel but do not see any legitimacy in a in interpreting texts (what he calls Muslim reading the Bible through the ‘the morality of literary knowledge’) interpretive key of the Qur’an. You ask, and there are times when we can ‘What has he [my hypothetical convert be guilty of ‘interpretive violence’. to Islam] found in the Bible that sug- Vanhoozer asks, ‘Is it possible that gests using the Qur’an as a key for in- some interpretive methods legitimate terpretation?’ I would say that just as misunderstanding?’9 So I maintain
Text? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing 9 Kevin Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This House, 1998), 161. The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation 333 you used Acts 17 in earlier parts of our discussion to justify your approach to the Qur’an, a Muslim can find plenty of resources within the Qur’an to justify Dear Sasan, looking at the Bible from the interpre- Thank you again for this series of dis- tive key of the Qur’an. For example, cussions. While I think we might get the Qur’an indicates that the Torah and further doing this over coffee, at least Jesus predicted the coming of Muham- in this format others have been able to mad. listen in. So from the earliest times, Muslims I appreciate your clarification about referring to IM opinions as dishonest. have ‘found’ many prophecies in the Though you are not questioning ‘the OT and the NT concerning the com- hearts and motives of all IM advocates’ ing of Muhammad. I believe that in the and you do not intend to ‘declare them same way that you and I believe those as deceitful people’, you do not see Muslim interpretations of such biblical their views as honest: you do not be- ‘prophecies’ are not legitimate exege- lieve their interpretations of the Qur’an sis of our Scriptures, Muslims also be- are ‘a legitimate and truthful interpre- lieve that the IM approach to interpret tation of those texts as those texts the Qur’an through the Gospels is an have been understood by Muslims for illegitimate approach to their text. 1400 years’. It seems fair to say that So a book that has been consistently you believe they are dishonest, but not understood and interpreted by almost deceitful. every Muslim and non-Muslim alike You are then using the word ‘dishon- (up until our modern IM controversy) est’ in the way I would use the word as a text that explicitly repudiates the ‘incorrect’. I think this is a rare use core of the Christian faith in regard to of the word. Most readers seeing ‘dis- such foundational truths as the Triune honest’ will assume you mean, well, identity of God, the deity of Christ and deceitful. his atoning death on the cross, cannot Now, whether IM positions are cor- be all of a sudden interpreted as a text rect or not is a perfectly acceptable that supports the Christian views of and important conversation. But to be frank, when you critique my friends as Jesus, God and salvation. Because of being dishonest it takes the conversa- such foundational contradictions with tion to a very different place. I felt it the Bible, we as Christians should not was important to clear that point be- view this as a work inspired by God fore proceeding. But having done so, and the man who brought this mes- and assuming we agree my friends are sage claiming to have received it di- sincere, let us proceed to talk about rectly from God could not be viewed by whether or not their position is correct. Christians as in any way having been You state that, ‘IM interpretations commissioned by God. This is not just are based on highly selective readings a question for Muslims to decide on. of the Qur’an that take certain pas- This is an issue that should engage all sages of the Qur’an out of the entire who care about the truth. Qur’anic context’. We are still faced Sasan Tavasolli and Kevin HIggins with space limits, but let me say a few I agree with you of course that the things. Muslim reading of the Bible you men- First, there is much more than a tion is at fault. However, is it at fault few isolated verses to the argument because it differs from Christian inter- that the Qur’an took expression as a pretation, or is it at fault because when confirmation and interpretation of the one goes to the supposed prophetic ref- previous books, and is best read and in- erences in the Bible that Muslims take terpreted in their light. Further, when to refer to Muhammad, and when one read with a prior assumption that the studies those in their original context, Bible interprets the Qur’an, many of etc., one finds that the exegesis does the verses in the Qur’an that seem to not hold up? That exegesis is not right disagree with the biblical message are simply because Christians say it is. It seen in a different light. Third, I am not is right because it is right, exegetically. suggesting that every verse or idea in That is what I would suggest should the Qur’an does match the Bible, even be the test of IM interpretations of the when it is read in the Bible’s light. Qur’an. Their reading of the Qur’an is However, my own opinion is that right or wrong, in the end, not based there is more truth in the Qur’an than upon whether it agrees with standard many of its critics think. My IM friends Muslim opinion, but with thoughtful would give you very different answers, exegesis of the passages in question. from each other, if they could enter the Such exegesis may well prove that discussion here. Some of them would standard understanding of some texts agree with you that there are things has been wrong. That is at least a pos- wrong in the Qur’an. Others would ar- sibility. And likewise, it may prove that gue that those things that seem wrong in at least some cases my IM friends are not wrong once they are interpret- are wrong. That is also possible. ed in the light of the Bible. In conclusion, to return to where we That brings me to your impor- began this last set of exchanges, being tant question about reading the Bible wrong is not the same as being dishon- through the eyes of the Qur’an, and est. And, I would argue, the exegetical your point that Muslims have long discussions about what the verses in found ‘many prophecies in the OT and question in the Qur’an really mean are the NT concerning the coming of Mu- in fact discussions for the Muslim com- hammad’. You point out that this is a munity to wrestle with, including those faulty reading of our Bible, and draw a Muslims who have come to believe in parallel to IM readings of the Qur’an. Jesus as Lord and Saviour. ERT (2013) 37:4, 335-348 Muslim Idiom Translations in Bangladesh
KEYWORDS: Translation, vocabulary, to translate ‘Son of God’ as ‘God’s context, revelation, communication, Messiah’. Since then, other language Gospel, familial terms, prophet, translations using similar non-literal Scripture, dictionary renderings of familial terms have come to light.1 One outcome of all the negative pub- licity surrounding this discovery is that the general Christian populace is now more aware of Muslim Idiom Trans- lations than ever before. However, for many people, all they know about MITs may be the errors that have been pointed out in a handful of Bible trans- lations. Any Bible that bears the name Injil Sharif may now be viewed with There has been a storm raging in re- suspicion. cent times over Muslim Idiom Transla- Those who don’t read and write Ben- tions (MIT), that is, translations of the gali may wrongly assume that there is Bible for Muslim readers. In the begin- only one Bengali Injil Sharif, when in ning, it centred on the 2005 edition of fact there are at least five different the New Testament in Bengali entitled Injil Sharif. Controversy arose when it became known that this particular 1 See Adam Simonwitz, ‘Translation Chart translation exchanged the terms, Fa- for Muslim Idiom Translations of the Bible’
George King, formerly of Canada and currently leading a church in a multi-ethnic context in Bir- mingham UK, has served amongst Muslim peoples since 1984 including 12 years in Bangladesh, and headed the translation team that produced the 2000 Kitabul Mokaddos published by Bangla- desh Bible Society. He also started the Al-Kitab Scripture Research Institute (http://al-kitab.org). Tom McCormick, MA (Westminster Seminary) PhD (Texas), PhD (ICS, Toronto) worked with Wycliffe among the Quechua in Peru and has also served with SIL/Wycliffe in other parts of the world, focusing on various hermeneutical theories, with special attention to continental philosophy as well as psychological (experi- mental and educational) theories of reading. George King and Tom McCormick published versions. The title, Injil Sha- b) In the 1970s the ‘William Carey rif, simply means Glorious Gospel and is Bible’ was adapted by Christian an alternative title for the New Testa- workers for use among Muslims. ment. Injil Sharif is well-recognized by It was done without the blessing Bengali Muslims as the name of the of the Bangladesh Bible Society divine revelation brought to mankind (publisher of the Carey Bible). The through Jesus Christ. It is the same New Testament portion was entitled book which we know in the English- Injil Sharif. The Bengali in this ad- speaking world as the New Testament. aptation was at university-level and Just as in English there are various therefore difficult for many readers. versions of the New Testament (KJV, It was partly a stop-gap measure to ESV, NIV, etc.), so in Bengali there are fill a need while Christian workers several editions of the Injil Sharif. anticipated the forthcoming release As a person with experience in Ben- of (c) below. gali language and culture, I am person- c) In 1980 the Bangladesh Bible Soci- ally aware of the following Injil Sharif ety released the Injil Sharif. It quick- versions. ly became the all-time best-seller in a) In 1920-22 Australian Baptist Wil- the history of the Bengali language. liam Goldsack translated the four d) In 2000 the Bangladesh Bible Soci- gospels into Bengali for Muslim ety published the Kitabul Mokaddos readers, making it a very early Mus- (Holy Bible), containing a signifi- lim Idiom Translation. Printed as cant revision of the above 1980 Injil four booklets, this was published in Sharif. The New Testament portion Calcutta by the British and Foreign is also printed separately and called Bible Society. Goldsack’s work has simply, the Injil Sharif. been out of print for a long time, and e) In 2005 Global Partners published a it has been years since I have seen new Injil Sharif, which is the trans- a copy with my own eyes. It may or lation that caused all the uproar in may not have been entitled Injil Sha- recent days. Of all the Bengali New rif in Bengali. According to one on- Testaments that bear the name Injil line source, even Goldsack’s work Sharif, it is the only one to remove was not actually the first Muslim ‘Father’ and ‘Son’ and replace them Idiom Translation in Bengali. Be- with substitute titles having differ- ginning with a translation of Luke’s ent meanings. Gospel in 1854, there were a whole Since Injil Sharif is a generic ti- string of Bible portions translated tle for the New Testament, all of the into Muslim Bengali by British Bap- above translations rightly use the tist missionaries. These missionar- name. However, the waves of contro- ies followed William Carey, ‘the fa- versy that began with one version of ther of modern missions’, who had the Injil Sharif may threaten to wash translated the Bible into the Bengali over all Bibles bearing that name, and for Hindus in 1832.2
helps.com/iccm/bengali/benghist.htm> (2012, 2 Bengali Bible History, Two others on the list are Hud and ment and the five books of Moses Salih, who are mentioned in the Qur’an may be completed before this reach- but otherwise almost unknown. The es you. It is a pleasant work and a remaining 22 on the list are all Bible rich reward, and I trust, whenever characters! It is the joy of the MIT Bi- it is published, it will soon prevail, ble translator to identify these people and put down all the Shastras of the (and others) in the pages of the Bible Hindus.6 so that Muslims may come to know Yet when Carey translated the Bible and understand the truth about them. into Bengali, he chose shastra to de- scribe the biblical scriptures in verses such as the following… The English-speaking world enjoys the All Scripture (shastra) is God- benefit of a largely non-sectarian reli- breathed and is useful for teaching, gious vocabulary. Words like scripture, rebuking, correcting and training in prayer, faith, repentance, and worship are righteousness (2 Tim. 3:16). not exclusively Christian terms. Reli- Above all, you must understand that gious words like these are part of the no prophecy of Scripture (shastra) vernacular, even for English-speaking came about by the prophet’s own in- Muslims. People from almost any re- terpretation of things (2 Pet. 1:20). ligious background can and do use Based on the above verses, one such words with a clear conscience to describe their own religious ideas and could be forgiven for concluding that practices. the ‘Carey Bible’ teaches that the Hin- However, when you look at reli- du Shastras are as inspired as the Bi- gious vocabulary in other languages, ble! That is, if not for other statements it can sometimes be tied to a particu- like the following: lar religious tradition with no suitable And beginning with Moses and all non-sectarian equivalent. One example the Prophets, he [Jesus] explained is the Sanskrit-based Bengali word, to them what was said in all the shastra. In English it literally means Scriptures (shastra) concerning him- scripture, but that doesn’t tell the whole self (Luke 24:27). story. Shastra is also a technical term The above verse makes clear that referring particularly to Hindu scrip- the shastra, or scripture, being referred ture.5 William Carey once made refer- to is not the Hindu scriptures but the ence to this fact when he wrote to his Old Testament. Hindus reading Carey’s sisters about his Bengali Bible transla- Bible would be comfortable with the tion work that was then in process: terminology, but also learn the truth of The work of translation is going on, the gospel. and I hope the whole New Testa- By way of contrast, shastra is prob- 5 Mohammad Ali, Mohammad Moniruzzaman 6 W. Pakenham Walsh, William Carey: India, and Jahangir Tareque, Bangla Academy Benga- 1793-1834, Ibrahim? Should an MIT follow the lin- not unusual. For instance, male versus guistic or cultural idiomatic pattern? female styles of speech, even in Eng- Second, what about the other vo- lish, are recognizably different. And cabulary? Such vocabulary is religious yet, such differences have not recom- and non-religious. George’s religious mended different translations for men examples are cases of using the com- and women. Further, how ‘foreign’ mon and preferred ‘pre-Christian’ lo- sounding might a legitimate transla- cal language term (the ‘Hindu’ shastra tion of a foreign document be? And who and the Muslim kitab) for the closest decides? And on what basis? equivalent to the biblical term, and ‘re- Regarding (ii): Other materials charging’ the word with biblical mean- might complement a non-MIT Bible. ing from the biblical contexts. Thus we And regardless, such a man as de- agree that biblical contexts are (poten- scribed by George would probably need tially) very influential. Where, then, is Christian friends to talk with, both for the line between the work of contexts normal, nuanced personal communica- (linguistic and non-linguistic) and the tions, and also because such folk often work of words? Might this line be a are not literate. Second, is the Bible distinguishing mark between MITs and meant to be a ‘stand-alone’ document? non-MITs? Regarding the non-religious Many say, no, not primarily. On what examples, I ask again: Are these sim- basis do we decide? Third, who, pri- ply (religiously-charged) multi-dialect marily, is the intended audience and situations? readership for the Bible? Is it designed Finally, the intriguing, yet not primarily as an evangelistic means, or unusual, story of a trip to the village. is it for believers? Are these questions George claims, ‘A man like that would not prior to any MIT discussion? Ap- have been lost trying to read a non-MIT parently different understandings of a Bengali Bible’, and he may be right, ‘vernacular translation’ depend on the depending of course on the artfulness answer. and style of that Bible. The situation, I have raised a lot of questions…the though, is illustrative of three fur- easy part. May our on-going discus- ther points. First, I don’t think that sions help bring peace amongst God’s George’s solution necessarily follows. family, and advance His glorious pur- He says, ‘They need a Bible in their poses and good pleasure. own mother tongue—they need a Bi- Tom McCormick ble in Muslim language.’ I would agree that they need language which they un- derstand, but that may, yet need not be (i) ‘in Muslim language’ per se, nor (ii) I want to express my appreciation to only a Bible per se. Dr. McCormick for a respectful and Regarding (i): I don’t doubt that the thoughtful response to my opening way one might converse with Muslims piece. His reply reveals an inquiring is different from conversing with non- mind, as demonstrated by the more Muslims, nor that these ways of speak- than 40 questions posed therein. I will ing include many ordinary, everyday- plan to focus on just a couple of matters language differences. In itself, this is that seem paramount in our discussion. Muslim Idiom Translations in Bangladesh thinking that all MIT translation work should be abandoned. But imagine for a moment that a general movement is raised up to lobby against all English Why revisit this basic matter of defi- Bibles, simply because one, the New nitions? The recent controversy sur- World Translation, mistranslates John rounding MITs has been emotive and 1:1 (the Word became a god) to suit the polarizing for many. The MIT definition theological predilections of the Jeho- given in the opening piece was broad in vah’s Witnesses. All of us would view scope so as to try to embrace all Bible such a movement as uninformed and translations intended for a Muslim au- reactionary. It would be heading to- dience, not just those that have made wards a fulfilment of the proverb, ‘to the headlines. throw the baby out with the bath wa- Unfortunately, some readers of this ter’. It is my fear that certain elements article may think that all MITs are of the Christian community want to do somehow connected to Wycliffe Bible just that in regard to Muslim Idiom . Let us remind ourselves Translators Translations. that MITs have been around a lot Returning to definition of MIT as a longer than the recent storm regarding translation of the Bible into the vernacu- Wycliffe would indicate. It was previ- lar of the Muslims within a given culture, ously noted that as early as 1854, Brit- is there any sense in which the offend- ish Baptists in Indian Bengal published ing MITs have failed to adhere to this a Muslim Idiom Translation of the Gos- definition? Absolutely. In Mark 14:36, pel of Luke. Wycliffe on the other hand, Jesus prays to God as ‘Abba, Father’. was not founded until 1942, nearly 90 Rather than translate those words years later. into Bengali, the 2005 Global Partners Similarly, some readers may believe edition of the Injil Sharif completely that a MIT should be defined as a Bible avoids having Jesus refer to God as Fa- translation for Muslims that tampers ther and renders those words instead with divine familial terms (DFTs) by re- as ‘Rabbul Alamin’.7 Rabbul Alamin is moving the words Father and Son when a divine title commonly uttered by Ben- used in reference to God and Jesus. gali Muslims in prayer. It comes origi- Even in Tom’s remarks, his concerns nally from Arabic and means Lord of the about MIT excesses surface repeat- worlds,8 but has no hint of the meaning edly, as if to say that failure to prop- of Father. The 2005 Injil Sharif does not erly translate the divine familial terms even bother to translate the Greek NT is somehow intrinsic to the definition of a Muslim Idiom Translation. Tom himself makes the following cogent 7 See footnote 1. observation: ‘So inflammatory has this 8 One could consider using Rabbul Alamin perceived excess been that the DFT issue as a functional equivalent to Yahweh Sabaoth has been taken by many to epitomize the (LORD of Hosts in the KJV, LORD Almighty in NIV) in the Old Testament, immediately MIT paradigm per se.’ understood and embraced by Muslim readers The controversy over DFTs may as referring to the God who is Lord over all well have poisoned many people into creation. George King and Tom McCormick phrase Abba ho pater, choosing to re- place it with something more accepta- ble to Muslims. But a Bible translation is first and foremost, a translation. Rab- I personally struggled with the Divine bul Alamin is not a translation of Abba, Father at all, but a deliberate choice to Familial Terms issue, looking for suit- not translate. able non-offensive options that would By way of contrast, the 2000 Bang- communicate the biblical truth of the ladesh Bible Society Injil Sharif, says Fatherhood of God and the Sonship of in Mark 14:36, ‘Abba, Pita’, literally, Jesus. In retrospect, I would give more ‘Abba, Father’.9 Despite that clean consideration to an alternate rendering literal translation of a Divine Famil- of ‘Our Father in heaven’ that our trans- ial Term, I do appreciate the dilemma lation team discussed. In Matthew 6:9 MIT translators face regarding Divine our 2000 translation currently reads Familial Term. The defining belief of amader behesti pita, literally, our heaven- Muslims is Tawhid, the Oneness of God, ly father. The team talked briefly about as stated in Surah 112: modifying that to amader asmani abba, Say: He is Allah, the One and which also means our heavenly father, Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; but I hesitated because it seemed a bit He begets not, nor is He begotten; radical to address God the Father, us- And there is none like unto Him.10 ing anything other than Pita (a formal and traditional word for father). Intrinsic to belief in is the Tawhid Later, I heard some Muslim-back- notion that Allah ‘begets not, nor is He ground believers pray to God as asmani begotten’. If Tawhid is the most impor- abba, and it struck me as beautiful and tant belief for Muslims, then to deny natural. Bengali Muslims already use Tawhid would logically be the great- the couplet asmani kitab as a well- est sin one could commit—and that is known technical term to describe the the case. Shirk is the sin of ascribing partners to God, including the belief four ‘heavenly books’ they believe Al- that God has a son. This is the worst lah has revealed to mankind–the Tau- blasphemy and a Muslim is in danger rat (Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), the In- of hellfire for just reading about it and jil (Gospel), and the Qur’an. It is not a considering the possibility that God big stretch for a Muslim to utter asmani could have a son. It is no wonder that abba, since he is accustomed to saying MIT translators have searched for al- asmani kitab. ternatives to a literal translation of the In all this, I am theorizing that a Divine Familial Terms. well-turned phrase may help to mitigate a theological offence. It is bad enough if a theological concept is repugnant 9 Abba is also a Muslim-Bengali word similar to your listener, but it is even worse if in meaning to daddy, implying both intimacy the unwelcome concept is also stated and respect. Pita on the other hand, is a more in a crass, disrespectful way. Unfor- formal term used on official documents re- questing the name of one’s ‘father.’ tunately, the Divine Familial Terms in 10 The Holy Quran, trans. Abdullah Yusuf Ali particular can easily sound vulgar to (New Delhi: Goodword, 2005). a Muslim ear because of the perceived Muslim Idiom Translations in Bangladesh sexual connections. In a roundabout evidently, stands: ‘a Muslim Idiom way, it is like the challenge translators Translation will be defined as a trans- of the English Bible have in translating lation of the Bible into the vernacular the Greek of Mt. 1:25 (ouk eginosken of the Muslims within a given culture’. auten; ‘knew her not’) clearly without But then so too do my earlier ques- being sexually explicit. tions: how might such a definition dis- In my opinion, a ‘well-turned tinguish an idiomatic translation from phrase’ may lessen the initial offence, an ‘essentially literal’ translation? and hopefully, help Muslims to move Are not all such translations ‘into the on to embracing God as heavenly Fa- vernacular of … a given culture’? I do ther and confessing that Jesus indeed, think there is a baby in this bath water. is the Son of God. How, though, might we rescue our lit- tle friend? George King George’s example of Matthew 6:9 in the 2000 Bangladesh Bible Society’s Injil Sharif does shed further light. The point I infer is that the prayer life of Bengali former Muslim Christians I do appreciate George’s concern to (MBBs) offered a better solution than clarify what is meant by ‘Muslim Idi- what was previously taken as a sensi- om Translation’ (MIT). We have made tive and accurate MIT rendering. some progress, at least with regard to This example perhaps answers what an MIT need not be. According to some of my previous inquiries, though George, an MIT need not tamper with I admit these are my own inferences: ‘Divine Familial Term (DFTs) by re- (i) an MIT Bible can be (is always?) moving the words Father and Son when primarily for believers, with special used in reference to God and Jesus’. To attention due to Muslim Background decouple MITs from Divine Familial Belivers, (ii) from whose maturing Terms as two separate, though some- lives together in the Christian commu- times overlapping, issues is important nity can emerge ‘translation solutions’. to note. In George’s assessment, to Further, (iii) the ‘vernacular of the render the Greek NT phrase Abba ho Muslims within a given culture’ is not pater with words having ‘no hint of simply an inherited and fixed standard the meaning of Father’ is simply ‘not a but may be creatively modified by ‘a translation … at all, but a deliberate well-turned phrase’ which had not pre- choice to not translate’. This does help viously existed. us sort out what is an MIT issue per I am not surprised by this ‘solution’, se and what might be optional. And for as we are after all dealing with divine that, we can be grateful. I am also ap- revelation and the on-going transfor- preciative of the governing role of bibli- mation of cultures. And yet, this also cal meaning noted. modifies, or at least clarifies, George’s I am not sure, though, how this understanding of the vernacular in helps define or clarify more positively his definition of MITs. In particular, what an MIT per se might be. The ear- an MIT that included the new phrase lier definition proposed by George still, asmani abba (patterned on asmani George King and Tom McCormick kitab) is introducing a ‘new idiom’ (an Muslim Idiom Translation means oxymoron, I know), which is not ‘reli- Muslim Dialect Translation. Some MITs gious terminology they commonly use.’ are ‘essentially literal’, similar to the Indeed, the suggested adjustment is ESV. Other MITs are idiomatic transla- not just terminological, but has much tions not unlike the NIV. The Bengali to do with culture and values as well. Injil Sharif I worked on is an example And if this is true for Divine Familial of the latter, while the one adapted Terms as in this example, what about from the ‘William Carey’ Bible is the other lexical items like names, as well former. Both are Muslim Idiom Trans- as other linguistic and sociolinguistic lations because they are translations features like prayer languages? into Muslim vernacular. As I suspect we all know and be- Asmani abba is a ‘new idiom’ be- lieve, the coming of the king leaves its own footprint, and from this example cause it represents a ‘new theology’. we see a glimpse of how a Christian Islam has no heavenly father. The in- community and a Bible translation can dividual words themselves are part of ‘manifest itself in the everyday speech Muslim idiom, and that is crucial. It is of [Muslim Background Believers, and easier to introduce new or unwelcome thus perhaps also] ordinary Muslims.’ concepts if you ‘speak the language’. Maranatha. The issue of names is foundational to a true MIT. When an MIT identifies Moses as Musa, it is not because Ara- bic is better than Hebrew, but because Many thanks to Tom for his insightful Muslims know Musa as the prophet comments and questions, which leads who led the people out of Egypt and me to highlight the following: gave them the Torah. Why insist on ad- id·i·om noun \'i-de--əm\ 1 a: the lan- herence to Hebrew forms, only to have guage peculiar to a people or to a dis- a reader ask, ‘Who is this Moses? Is it trict, community, or class : dialect.11 possible that he is Prophet Musa?’ Both Moses and Musa reference the same prophet, so use the name Muslims ac- 11 Merriam-Webster Dictionary, KEYWORDS: Crusades, missions, culture, context, linguistics, The True Meaning of the Gospel evangelism, liturgy, Christological controversies, Byzantines, Chalcedon of Christ In this article, I will address four as- pects of the True Meaning of the Gospel of Christ translation project: first, the As part of our discussion of the theme of historical background; secondly, the this issue, we present a discussion of a philosophy; thirdly, the principles of translation of part of the Bible (Matthew the project; and finally, the technical to Acts) into Arabic The True Meaning details of the project. of the Gospel of the Messiah (2008), which has become controversial. Here we present a discussion by two Arabic native The early apostles of Christ had the speakers from Egypt. They are professors flexibility to adapt to the cultures of of theology who have previously worked the peoples they evangelized, and the in the same theological seminary and flexibility to set aside customs and have known each other for decades. One traditions of their own Jewish culture. of them, Professor Lamie, serves on the After Roman legions destroyed Jeru- committee that oversaw the creation of salem in 70 AD, some of the Jewish the True Meaning translation. Christians followed the Mediterranean littoral from Judea until they reached Rev. Emad A. Mikhail (D.Min.,Trinity School for Ministry) an Egyptian who is ordained in the Presbyterian Church in America, serves with the Anglican Diocese of Egypt as parish priest and Principal of the Alexandria School of Theology. He has taught in various seminaries and schools around the Mediterranean world. His 2012 doctoral dissertation was Muslims and Christians in Egypt: Listening to Each Other and to the Gospel of God’s Victory. He is writing a book about the phenomenon of agnosticism and atheism in the Middle East. Rev Dr Ekram Lamie Hennawie, (D. Min San Francisco Theological Seminary), has served in various roles in the Presbyterian Church of Egypt; he was President of the Evangelical Theological Seminary of Cairo and professor of comparative religions. He also writes for daily newspapers and has been elected the Moderator of the Presbyterian Synod of the Nile. He has written more than fifteen books. Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail Alexandria, where they adopted the ries), and they translated hymns and Greek and Coptic languages and al- sermons into language understandable lowed for the reinterpretation of native to the Egyptian man on the street. If it Egyptian symbols and customs. For ex- were not for having the Bible and other ample, the Pharaonic ‘key of life’ was Christian materials in Arabic, Christi- transformed at their hands into a form anity in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Lebanon of the cross of Christ. A similar phe- would have disappeared, as happened nomenon happened in the Phoenician, in North Africa, where the local lan- Babylonian and Persian cultures. This guage was not adopted. flexibility was combined with theologi- Even though those first missionar- cal depth, in large part due to the influ- ies encouraged the use of the Arabic ence of the scholars of the Alexandrian language in worship and Bible study, it school of Christianity. is unfortunate that they did not go fur- Unfortunately, with time, the church ther in their adoption of Arab culture. struggled with divisions and became Most of the key terms used in transla- too weak to present its message in a tions of the Bible were borrowed from way that made sense to the Arab Mus- Greek and Syriac or were Arabic words lims arriving in North Africa and the that looked like Syriac terms but had Middle East. Therefore the first impres- different meanings. For example, kahen sion the Arabs had of the rituals and means priest in Syriac, so it was trans- incense and worship that took place lated into Arabic as kahin, but this inside churches was that they were means soothsayer or sorcerer. Even just like paganism, with the images the sentence constructions and style and statues being no more than idols. were foreign. Their impression was confirmed by the All this resulted in an ecclesiastical theological terms employed, such as form of Arabic that was not the mother ‘Mother of God’, ‘Son of God’, ‘Holy tongue of Muslim Arabs and was not Triad’, and so on. The church failed to understood by them in the ways intend- correct this impression throughout the ed. Although hymns and sermons were following decades and centuries, and now in the Arabic language, they were also failed to use a version of Arabic expressed in the theological terms and that was understandable to Muslims. expressions of foreign theologians and In the 19th century missionaries commentators. No effort was made to came to the Arab world trying to re- encourage Arabs to develop theologi- form the Arab church from within. cal expressions and styles of worship However, these missionaries failed to that fit the Arab language and cultures, rectify the image of the church among as opposed to Greek, Coptic, or west- non-Christians. In some respects, ern cultures. they did try to do something for Arab This gave the impression that Chris- Muslims. For example, they were the tianity was unsuitable for the language first in the modern era to translate the and culture of the Arabs. Therefore, entire Holy Bible into Arabic in one neither the modern Protestant church- volume (though separate translations es nor the ancient historical churches of the Old Testament and New Testa- have interacted effectively with Arab ment had existed for several centu- Islamic culture. So they continue to be The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic Translation alienated from the surrounding society the Gospels that not only engages the and have little impact on it. Arabic language in its native form but In this religious and cultural con- also the whole heritage of Arab civili- text, some Arabs today welcome the zation, history and culture. opportunity to express their Arab iden- Such a translation would appeal to tity in the fields of worship, theology Arab readers as a text springing from and Bible translation. The True Meaning their land and would not be seen as of the Gospel of Christ is one such op- something imported from outside or portunity. So let us now turn to the phi- something that comes from ancient losophy behind this translation project. pagan practices. Such a translation would belong to the Arab community, respecting Arab thought, language, history and culture, allowing readers Many of us have been asking ourselves to feel at ease and engaged with the some important questions related to text, rather than feeling detached, be- our Arab identity and our identity as wildered, and out of place. Christians, just a few of which include: ground before the Islamic tide? Is the problem in the gospel or in the When Christian scholars in the 9th proclamation of the gospel? century began to translate the New Testament into the Arabic language, a whole community (umma), or just they used the expressions that were to individuals? in use at the time by both Muslims - and Christians, writing with complete lary, customs and traditions of one naturalness at the beginning of the community in order to introduce New Testament ‘In the name of God, the church’s message to another the Merciful and Compassionate’ and community, or can the message be then ‘The Noble Injeel according to the expressed within the language and evangelist Matthew’. Both Muslims culture of other communities? and Christians at this time used the - same vocabulary. pression of Christianity appropriate As time went on, and because of for all the different national church- many political, economic and social es all over the world? Or can every circumstances, among them the Cru- community have its own expres- sades, the linguistic and cultural gulf sions of the kingdom of God? widened between Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians. So it hap- on real responsibility towards their pened that each side had a variety of community without sacrificing ei- language that differed from the other. ther their mission or principles? For example, the word ‘noble’ was As we sought to answer these ques- characteristic of Islam, since this title tions, a vision started to emerge, and was given to any Christian person con- finally the mission was clear to us. verting to Islam, and so this term was What was needed was a translation of rejected by Christian society. In the Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail same way the greeting of Islam, ‘peace reader to positively grapple with the be upon you’, which was originally a challenge of the gospel message. greeting of the Lord Christ, ended up We avoid using terms and phrases being used exclusively by Muslims, that are unknown or that communi- while Christians developed a different cate the wrong meaning. greeting, ‘good day’. And so, little by little, Christians spoke in a jargon that was not understood except by those brought up in the church. Our core team includes theologians, Due to this complex linguistic histo- scholars and those involved in sharing ry, the translators of the True Meaning the biblical message. Some are from an of the Gospel of Christ felt it was impor- Arab Christian background and some tant to try to help readers understand are from an Arab Muslim background. the gospel message even if they do not There is also a non-Arab linguist who know ecclesiastical jargon. Some of helps with technical issues. The leader the principles that make this volume of the team is an Arab writer, editor and distinct include: novelist from a Muslim background who is an expert in communicating the biblical message to Muslims. In addi- and consultants and refer to evan- tion, there are experts from various gelical commentaries to ensure that Arab countries who help out from time the translation is accurate to the to time in their particular fields of ex- original message. pertise. - cal ideas themselves, thought for The team meets once a year to read thought, in good Arabic style, rather out loud and review the latest drafts than trying to represent the Greek together, to discuss the translation text word for word. We try to give of key terminology, to decide on the the translation the power and the content of articles and other reader spirit of the original inspired Greek aids, and to make other stylistic and text rather than imprisoning them logistical decisions. These meetings in the forms of the Greek language, are valuable, but much of the work so that the reader can see beyond we do takes place in between, when the words and grasp the ideas that each team member works on assigned apply to his daily life and thought. tasks, such as writing articles or revis- - ing footnotes. duce the reader to the cultural and These are the steps we went conceptual background of the gos- through as a team as we worked on pel. We provide introductions and this translation: footnotes for every book in the New Testament, and various articles ad- 1000 Arabic speakers in North dressing topics relevant to modern Africa and the Middle East. The readers of the Bible. respondents (Muslims with no ex- posure to the Bible) were given to understand, in familiar language Scripture portions to read from five and eloquent style that helps the major existing translations. They The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic Translation were then questioned about the pas- God, the reliability of the Scriptures, sages, to measure their understand- the meaning of the term ‘Son of God’, ing of the meaning, their assess- the incarnation, and so on. ment of the literary style, and their By working with Muslims through- attitudes concerning what they had out the process of translation, the read. translation team hopes to ensure the gospel is presented in a way that over- survey results were analysed at a comes the barriers of language, culture workshop of native Arabic speak- and prejudice. Initial reader feedback ers, both Muslim background be- has been enthusiastic and positive. lievers and Christians. Participants identified words and concepts that were not understood and proposed tentative solutions. - pels and the Book of Acts was draft- ed by a Muslim with a background First of all I would like to express my in translation and Islamic theology, appreciation for the stated purpose of working with input from a Christian this translation project. As Christians linguist-exegetical expert. The au- we are called upon to communicate our thority is the Greek text as under- faith as clearly as we can. I agree with stood by major biblical scholars. Professor Lamie that the church in Full use is made of existing transla- the Arab world has generally not been tions and scholarly commentaries. concerned to explain the gospel to Muslims. When it does speak to them The first draft is reviewed by Mus- on matters of faith it often does so in lim native Arabic speakers to test el- ecclesiastical jargon that is not under- egance of style and clarity of meaning. stood. Moreover, the overall image it The draft is reviewed and revised by projects is of an antiquated or isolated Arab Christian theologians and Muslim body that intrigues Arab Muslims but background believers to assure adher- in many cases repels them. Rightfully ence to the meaning of the original bib- or wrongfully, the impression is given lical text. The new text is tested with that it is foreign to the Arab world. a smaller group of Muslims with no The reasons behind this gap are exposure to the Bible from a cross seg- both complex and old. While a full ex- ment of society, using the same survey planation is beyond the scope of this tool as in step one. Final changes are article, it is important for those not made and approved by the core team. familiar with the history of the Middle Members of the project team knew East to understand something of this from previous work on commentaries complexity. When Christianity spread on Scripture that explanatory articles in the area now known as the Arab are very important. These articles ex- world, it encountered a variety of lo- plain biblical concepts that have been cal cultures such as Coptic, Syriac and shown to be troublesome for non-Chris- Berber as well as a widespread use tian readers, such as the Kingdom of of Greek in the east and Latin further Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail west. As Professor Lamie points out, weakness. John of Nikiu, a Coptic bish- the new faith was fairly successful in op writing a few decades after the Arab ‘translating’ and transporting itself conquest of the Middle East, ascribes across these and other cultural barri- the fall of Egypt to the sins of the Chal- ers. cedonians (Chronicle of John, Bishop of However, the progress of Christian- Nikiu 117.1). In fact, he believes that ity began to suffer major obstacles be- Chalcedon caused the ‘undoing of all ginning in the fourth century. With the Christians in the world’ (120.56). Re- end of Roman persecution, the institu- gardless of one’s view of Chalcedon, tionalization of the church and its in- Cragg believes that the Christological corporation into the Byzantine Empire debates contributed to the inception as weakened its missionary thrust. Its en- well as spread of Islam.1 tanglement with the politics of the Em- So the situation in the 7th century pire intensified rivalry between various was already quite complex. Christians ecclesiastical ‘sees’; it also introduced found themselves in a politicized and corruption and needless theological divided church, caught in the struggle controversies. These dynamics led to a between the centuries old Roman Em- serious rift in the fifth century, osten- pire and the new Arab rulers. Though sibly over the debates concerning the the earliest years of the new regime nature(s) of Christ. Instead of settling seemed positive for local Christians, the matter, the Council of Chalcedon over time discrimination took its toll on (451 AD) created intense animosity both the Christian population and its between those churches that adopted very psyche. Arabization and Islamiza- its formulation and those that did not. tion proceeded during subsequent cen- The rift and politicization of the turies without abatement. As Profes- church greatly weakened both it and sor Lamie points out, Christian icons the Empire in the decades and centu- and documents from the early Arab ries following Chalcedon. The Empire centuries in Egypt reveal the church’s attempted to secure the compliance of slow attempt to ‘translate’ itself—at non-Chalcedonian churches in Egypt least partially—from its Greek/Cop- and Syria, using both peaceful and tic heritage into Arabic. By the ninth violent means. By the seventh cen- century the Bible had been translated tury church and Empire seemed too into Arabic. But while some Christian exhausted and divided to notice de- scholars made attempts to communi- velopments in the Arabian Peninsula. cate with Muslims on matters of faith, Coptic Christians felt persecuted in no evidence exists that they or others their country by the imperial Byzantine made a major impact. Church! In fact, the Coptic patriarch The crusades of the 11th-13th cen- went into hiding before the Arab inva- turies further marred the Middle East. sion of Egypt only to emerge after the defeat of Roman armies. Unsurprisingly, observers both then 1 Kenneth Cragg, The Arab Christian: and in the centuries following have A History in the Middle East (Louisville: remarked that the Arab invasion was Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991), a result of the church’s division and 15. The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic Translation Catholic armies from Europe sought to inertia and fear. Moreover, we need to regain the ‘holy land’ from the ‘Sara- view our Muslim neighbours not as en- cens’ by force of arms. In a region with emies but as those sharing a common a long collective memory fed by school humanity as well as a shared homeland curricula and the media, the ‘wars of and history. the Cross’ (literal translation of ‘cru- So many of the failures Professor sade’ in Arabic) still impact the Arab Lamie cites in his article are failures world hundreds of years later. Suspi- in Christian praxis, not translation. cion of the ‘Christian’ West was inten- I have already cited our tendency to sified as a result of the colonial period emigrate, isolate ourselves and avoid as well as by the establishment of the our God-given privilege to communi- State of Israel in 1948. Though Arab cate the message of Christ. Professor Christians were themselves negatively Lamie writes that so much of Christian impacted by these western incursions worship in the Middle East appears to into their region, there is a lingering Muslims to be pagan because of the feeling among many Muslims that they presence of icons, statues and saints. were (or are!) allied with the West. Unfortunately he is correct. But none Hearing a mass in Coptic or Syriac of these issues will be solved by a new does not dispel the suspicion. Bible translation. Professor Lamie does exagger- ate the facts at more than one point. He gives the impression that without the efforts of missionaries in the 19th In my humble view it appears overly century, Christianity would have disap- simplistic to think that Muslims’ mis- peared in the Middle East as it did in understanding of the Christian mes- North Africa. The fact of the matter sage will be significantly impacted is that Christianity disappeared from by a new translation of the Bible into North Africa centuries before the mod- Arabic. To be sure, translations are ern missionary era. At another point important and good translations are Professor Lamie implies that Chris- very valuable. But, as we have seen, tians are the ones that changed the the issues are far broader. First of all, Muslim greeting into a particularly we Arab Christians need to resist the Christian one (‘good day’) not under- temptation to emigrate to the West or stood by Muslims. In fact, both Mus- isolate ourselves within our own reli- lims and Christians understand ‘good gious communities in the East. day’ and both used it in Egypt until the More importantly, we Arab Chris- last few decades which have witnessed tians need to view ourselves and our a resurgence of Islamism and an aban- Muslim neighbours differently. We donment of prior customs. need to recover the missionary love and fervour of the earliest Christians in our region. Instead of thinking pri- marily of survival we need to take our Let us now focus on the approach tak- Lord’s ‘Great Commission’ to heart. en by the team that produced this par- We need to overcome long centuries of tial translation of the New Testament Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail in 2008. One thousand Muslims with To which subgroup would the trans- no prior exposure to the Bible were given lation be directed? In my view it is portions of Scripture to read. Next, as important in the Arab world to keep explained by Professor Lamie, ‘they translations fairly broad and constant were … questioned about the passag- to avoid the charge that we are ‘cor- es, to measure their understanding of rupting’ our text. Explanatory material the meaning, their assessment of the and evangelistic tools can be designed literary style, and their attitudes con- to meet the needs of various reader cerning what they had read’. subgroups. Several remarks need to be made Much has been written in the last about this approach. Non-Christians few years about translating the ‘famil- throughout history would not be ex- ial’ language of the Bible, particularly pected to understand the Bible with- as it relates to the Father and the Son out some kind of explanation. While in the Christian trinity. Theologians some portions (e.g. the Sermon on the have long recognized the rich and com- Mount) are relatively easy to under- plex connotations of the word ‘Father’ stand, many biblical passages need and ‘Son’. No other words can possibly to be understood in light of their his- convey the layers of meaning behind torical, cultural and theological back- them. Jesus’ sonship has at least a ground. Even those with some biblical messianic as well as an eternal dimen- background would find much of Scrip- sion. It also relates to the sonship of ture difficult to understand, regardless those who believe in him. The word of translation. We are here reminded of ‘son’ indicates oneness of nature, in- the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8. When timacy and authority. No other single Philip asked him, ‘Do you understand word could possibly replace it. what you are reading?’ the eunuch re- Additionally, the word ibn (‘son’) sponded, ‘How can I, unless someone in Arabic does not necessarily have a guides me?’ (30-31). procreative meaning. In fact it is used The project’s methodology is a very extensively in Arab culture to signify appropriate one if the intention was the a non-procreative relationship as in production of an evangelistic tool or the phrase, ‘son of the town’, mean- commentary. Assessing a target audi- ing someone who belongs to the town. ence’s level of spiritual understanding ‘Son of the Nile’ means an Egyptian. is very important for those wishing to ‘ibn el halal’(son of uprightness) means explain the gospel. But it is doubtful someone who walks uprightly. Moreo- as a translation methodology. For one ver, men and women regularly use the thing, Arab Muslims represent a very word ibn to refer to those who are not large target audience, representing a their biological children. The phrase, variety of countries, educational levels ‘my son’ (ibni), has connotations of en- and religious habits. Highly educated dearment, respect and trust. urbanites in Beirut and Cairo will un- Significantly, Qur’anic verses which derstand the Bible differently from the deny that God can be born or give birth barely educated rural Muslims. Liber- (e.g. 112.3) use a different word (wal- als and Salafists will also have very ad) that does have strong procreative different reactions. connotations. Actually Greek, unlike The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic Translation English, also has two words that are Mikhail considers to be exaggerations translated son/child: hios and teknon. on my part. He writes that I give the It is the former which is used of Je- impression that missionaries kept sus’ sonship precisely because it is Christianity from disappearing in the the broader of the two. Existing Ara- Middle East, while ‘Christianity disap- bic translations of the New Testament peared from North Africa centuries be- have appropriately translated hios, us- fore the modern missionary era’. Dear ing ibn, thus using the broader Arabic Emad, I was addressing the question term and avoiding the procreative con- ‘why’ and not ‘when’. My point was notation of walad. that in places where the Scriptures Speakers of Arabic instinctively were available in the mother tongue, understand the difference between ibn Christianity held on. One key reason and walad. When Christians explain Christianity failed to survive in most of to Muslims that Jesus Christ is God’s North Africa was the lack of Scripture son (ibn) in a non-procreative sense, in the mother tongue of the people. Muslims generally find that under- Dr. Emad also felt I was exaggerat- standable and reassuring. There is no ing with regard to how greetings have need—as well as no justification—to changed, for he understood me to be change well-established principles of saying that Muslims don’t understand Bible translation. Explanatory notes the greeting ‘good day’. My point was are sufficient to explain the theological simply to give an example of how significance of ‘son’ and ‘father’. Christians and Muslims at first spoke the same Arabic that included what we now call Islamic terminologies. In fur- ther support of this idea, there are a number of manuscripts of Arabic trans- I first met Dr. Mikhail 20 years ago lations of the Gospel from the eleventh when he started to teach at the Evan- century which opened with the words: gelical Theological Seminary of Cairo ‘In the name of God the Merciful and during my tenure as president of the Compassionate. The Noble Gospel ac- seminary from 1991 to 2000. I appreci- cording to Mark’. However, because of ate his response, and of course I agree political, social and economic changes, with his historical overview, among Christians stopped using the ordinary other things looking at the Crusades language (what we Christian Arabs and the emergence of the State of Is- now think of as ‘Muslim’ usage) and rael. The challenges he outlines are started to develop their own variety of very real, and one of our biggest prob- the language, with its own terminology. lems nowadays is Christian Zionism, Before I explain my point of view, I which dominates the thinking of many just want to remind us of the principle Christians in the West. I have written that there is no easy answer to a dif- many books on these issues such as ficult question. To the question, ‘Is a The Other Face of the Church, Is Jesus new Bible translation a solution?’, my Going To Be the King of the World? and answer is, ‘Yes, to some extent’. Dr. The Zionist Penetration of Christianity. Emad is correct that a new translation Let me briefly touch on what Dr. of the Bible is not the only solution to Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail the problems we have identified. As I with notes to explain the unfamiliar mentioned earlier, there is also a need words. for expressions of worship and theol- Regarding Philip and the Ethiopian: ogy in the Arabic of the mainstream of Philip brought new meaning to the society. words that the Ethiopian is reading. In addition, Emad is right that there This is not a translation matter at all. is a need to deal with the issues of emi- Philip was providing information about gration and of lack of passion in shar- the resurrected Christ that was not ing the gospel. Perhaps a translation known when Isaiah wrote and had not that allows Christians to express their yet been written down in the Gospels. faith in a way that truly engages the However, I agree with Dr. Emad that Arabic language can play a role in deal- sometimes a guide is necessary, and ing with these issues. But the first step that is the reason that the True Mean- in finding the solution is to determine ing contains footnotes, articles, glossa- which language you are going to use. ries and other aids for the reader. This We must move the linguistic obstacles volume is also a tool for Christians as out of the way and express ourselves they act as guides for their neighbours. very clearly in order to be understood. The translation team chose to use In our situation, the main obstacle is the title, ‘The True Meaning’, rather Christian ecclesiastical language. than simply ‘the Gospel’ to make it When Dr. Emad says, ‘Non-Chris- very clear that this was not a word- tians throughout history would not be for-word translation but a translation expected to understand the Bible with- of the sentence meaning, expressed in out some kind of explanation’. I ask, normal Arabic language, and that our why is this? I see this as a failure of intended readers are those who live in the church, not as an indication that our neighborhoods. this is the way things should always Regarding the charge of corruption be. In addition, as academics we need of the Holy Bible: as we all know, there to be careful of making broad gener- is a verse in the Qur’an that mentions alizations because there are examples this matter. At the same time, Mus- throughout history of the Scriptures lims do not consider a translation of being translated in order to help non- the Qur’an to be the sacred text of the Christians understand the message of Qur’an itself, so they call it a trans- Christ. lation of the meaning of the Qur’an. The Bible itself says that the Scrip- Their translations of the meaning of tures are for people from any back- the Qur’an are often quite free, and ground and that people can be saved they differ widely among themselves in when they believe the message of the details, but Muslims do not see these gospel. But when readers are told they translations as corrupt as long as they need someone to tell them what the follow one of the interpretations found translation is supposed to mean, as in the standard commentaries. opposed to what it actually says, then As for us, we know that the Holy they tend to distrust the translation Bible was originally written in the He- as well as the interpreters. Their only brew, Aramaic and Greek languages, hope is to read it in English or French, and that this is the truly authoritative The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic Translation text. All translations of the Bible are plex connotations of the word “Father” translations of either the word mean- and “Son”. No other words can possi- ings or the sentence meanings of the bly convey the layers of meaning be- original-language text. We find dif- hind them.’ This sounds more like an ferences between them because com- Islamic understanding of Scriptures mentators take different positions on than a Christian one. Christians do the meaning of the original text, and not believe that the forms of the words because translators focus on either the have special power in themselves. So word meanings or the sentence mean- perhaps what Dr. Emad means above ings, but not because the original texts is that the concept or idea of father and of the Holy Bible were corrupted. son is rich and complex—not that the I wish to address what Dr. Emad words themselves are so rich and com- says regarding divine familial terms. plex that no other word in any other He says that ‘Speakers of Arabic in- language can be used. If that is what stinctively understand the difference he meant, then we are in agreement. between ibn and walad’. This depends Many biblical concepts are so rich and on what we mean by ‘speakers of Ara- complex that they require descriptive bic’. Those who have grown up in the phrases to capture the ideas and foot- church have learned to understand the notes or articles to more fully explain concept behind the term , and they ibn them. That is what we seek to do with have become accustomed to using the the True Meaning translation. term to refer to Christ. However, our In May of this year I was at a confer- audience surveys revealed that Mus- ence bringing together different Chris- lims consistently understood the term tian denominations in Beirut under the ibn allah to be narrowly biological, and title, ‘Christians in the Middle East: did not consider that it was any less Presence and Witness’. While I was biological in meaning than walad. The Qur’an also does not differen- leading a Bible study for the attend- tiate between the term walad (an-Nisa ees, the Catholic Archbishop of Bagh- 4:171) and ibn (At-Tawba 9:30) as ap- dad said: ‘We live in Islamic culture plied to Jesus. Both are understood in and speak the Arabic language, but a narrow biological sense. We can see we think in Greek.’ When I asked him this narrow understanding of the term what he meant by thinking in Greek, going as far back in Arab history as the he said, ‘The background of New Tes- debate between the Caliph Mahdi and tament theology and its terminology the Patriarch or Catholicos of the East are Greek. We are badly in need of de- Syrian Church Timothy I in 781 AD. veloping a Christian Arabic theology The Caliph said, ‘O Catholicos, a man expressing itself in Islamic culture.’ like you who possesses all this knowl- One of the attendees asked him, ‘How edge and utters such sublime words can we do this?’ He replied: ‘I do not concerning God, is not justified in say- know, but I know that the church has ing about God that he married a woman been frozen since the fifth century.’ Our from whom he begat a son’. hope is that the True Meaning will be Dr. Emad also says, ‘Theologians part of the process of change that this have long recognized the rich and com- Archbishop spoke about. Ekram Lamie and Emad Azmi Mikhail rancy in Professor Lamie’s response. If I appreciate Professor Lamie’s re- the Holy Spirit chose to use the words sponse. We agree on a number of is- ‘Father’ and ‘Son’ dozens of times in sues, yet significant disagreement re- the NT to describe a vital Trinitarian mains. Professor Lamie exaggerates relationship, then we must look for the the differences between what he calls most natural translation of the those ‘normal’ (ie Islamic) Arabic and ‘Chris- terms, as the Arabic Bible has done for tian jargon’. History clearly shows over a millennium. that Arabism predates Islam and has My concern about Professor Lamie’s been shaped in part by non-Muslim view of inspiration is not allayed by his cultures and ideologies, including all final paragraph. Firstly, it is not really the cultures it has absorbed over the accurate to say that the background of centuries. It is doubtful whether we NT theology is Greek. While its termi- can prove that Christians changed the nology is Greek, most scholars have Islamic greeting to ‘good day’ as Pro- long recognized that its intellectual fessor Lamie claims. Both Christians background is largely in the OT and and Muslims used ‘good day’ through- in second temple Judaism. That means out the 20th century, and many Mus- that the entire Bible has a Semitic ori- lims continue to use it. It is the recent entation which greatly eases its com- revival of Islamic ideology that has led munication to Arabs. Muslims to use more Islamic greetings. More problematic is the implication Ideological issues also complicate that NT theology needs to be redefined Muslim understanding of the cru- to fit Arab Muslim culture. Christians cial title, ‘Son of God’. Muslims eas- have always held the Bible and its the- ily differentiate between ‘son’ (ibn) ological propositions to be normative. and ‘child’ (walad) linguistically. The I fear that the philosophy behind True fact that many still view ‘Son of God’ Meaning does not properly respect the biologically is a reflection of their theo- authority of Scripture and its words. logical worldview. When Muslims learn While we need translations that that Christ’s sonship is not biological, Arab readers can understand, it is vi- most respond positively. The obstacle tal that such translations respect the to understanding is not language but way Scripture has been understood Islamic interpretation. throughout history. Of course we also That is the reason I cited Philip’s need to develop interpretative materi- ministry with the Ethiopian eunuch. als that explain the Scripture to par- The problem confronting the eunuch ticular groups of Muslims. Most im- was not a linguistic one. He under- portantly we must make sure that our stood the words of Isaiah 53 but did lives and churches are welcoming to not know to whom they referred. Philip Muslims. did not, as Professor Lamie asserts, Editor’s note: Dr. Lamie feels that his inject new meaning into it. He simply position does not imply, as Dr. Mikhail pointed to the fulfillment of the proph- sees it, a redefinition of theology for ecy in Jesus Christ. the Arab context. Unfortunately we did I am also concerned about the impli- not have the space to extend the con- cations for biblical authority and iner- versation any further. ERT (2013) 37:4, 361-380 Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models KEY WORDS: Conversion, identity, els based on field realities.2 Perhaps ethnicity, believers from Muslim such models would help us better to background (BMB), Insider understand the intertwined issues at Movement, Islam stake, and thereby move the debate forward from its present position en- FOR THE LAST FIFTEEN years the ‘C Spec- trenched around C4 versus C5. This 1 trum’ has framed discussion about be- paper offers a modest contribution to lievers from Muslim background. More this search for new models, in the hope recently ‘Insider Movements’ terminol- that others may build on its ideas and ogy has also entered the fray alongside improve them further. the C Spectrum, but without replacing it since ‘insiders’ are taken as equiva- lent to the ‘C5’ position in an otherwise unaltered model. This framework for discussion has proved helpful in some respects and The ‘C Spectrum’, originally offered as limiting in others. Growing numbers a descriptive analysis, instead became of missiologists, including John Travis an instrument of prescriptive policy for himself who authored the spectrum, those favouring or opposing a C5/Insid- note its limitations and would encour- er approach. It is important to remem- age the development of additional mod- ber that, according to Travis’ original definitions, the key difference between C4 and C5 is not contextualization but 1 John Travis, ‘The C1 to C6 Spectrum: A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of ‘Christ Centered Communities’ (‘C’) Found in the 2 I requested Travis to critique this present Muslim Context’, Evangelical Missions Quar- paper and I appreciate his careful and gra- terly, 34,4 (October 1998), 407–408. cious responses. Rev. Tim Green is an Interserve mission worker who has been involved in theological education by extension (TEE) for 25 years, mostly in Pakistan and Jordan He has written training materials including the Friend- ship First DVD (2011) and Come Follow Me (2013) specifically for believers for Muslim background. his doctoral research focuses on issues of identity faced by these people. This article is adapted from his chapters in David Greenlee, (ed.) Longing for Community: Church, ‘Ummah or Somewhere in Between? (2013) and his article ‘Identity Issues for ex-Muslim Christians, with particular reference to Marriage’, in St. Francis Magazine, Vol 8 No 4, August 2012, 435-481, with permission in both cases. Tim Green identity. Both categories are highly tity. He draws on broader theories of contextualized, but the key difference identity and culture, showing that the is that C4 groups are ‘not seen as Mus- situation of Christ’s followers from lim by the Muslim community’ while Muslim background is not unique in C5 groups remain ‘legally and socially our modern world of multiple and shift- within the community of Islam’. Often, ing identities. however, public discussion of the spec- However, it is important to distin- trum has conflated issues of identity guish between the identity of individu- with issues of contextualization, lead- als, which Barnett describes in his ing to a lack of clarity in the debate. writing and in the two dimensional Moreover, many believe that the models4 he proposes as alternatives spectrum itself is too limited in its to the C Spectrum, from the identity of scope to cope with all the weight communities. Travis is clear that the C placed upon it. They ask how a static, Spectrum was originally intended only one-dimensional diagram can depict to describe communities and communi- the fluid, multi-dimensional issues of ty labels, not the identity dilemmas of theology, culture, identity and com- individual believers.5 A nuanced explo- munity. The model depicts neither the ration of ‘identity’ in its individual and subtle variations between one context communal aspects would enable us to and another, nor contexts which evolve move beyond the limitations of the C over a period of time. Spectrum and to compare it with other A further limitation of the C Spec- possible models. This paper seeks to trum, argues Jens Barnett, is that it lay an initial foundation for this work. portrays ‘Muslim and Christian religio- Its theoretical roots are drawn from cultural identities as monolithic and the social sciences, without apology mutually exclusive’. Therefore: since they have much to offer by way of analysis, but recognizing that a theo- On this continuum, there is no logical perspective is complementary space for a believer… who express- and indeed normative. The overarching es belonging to both Christian and identity of all Christ’s followers, what- Muslim cultural traditions simul- ever their background, is individually taneously, or even for one who has as children of God and corporately as a piecemeal approach of fully be- members of Christ’s body, his one longing in some aspects that do not global community with its wonderfully conflict with his or her faith, while diverse local expressions. To be ‘in’ totally rejecting others.3 Christ does not obliterate cultural dif- Barnett’s critique stimulates reflec- ferences but it does relativize them. It tion on what it means to be ‘Christian’ or ‘Muslim’ at different levels of iden- 4 See Barnett’s articles and outlines in http:// muslimministry.blogspot.co.uk/. He welcomes 3 Jens Barnett, ‘Refusing to Choose: Multiple correspondence on these matters at jensbar- Belonging among Arab Followers of Christ’, in [email protected]. I appreciate his stimulating David Greenlee (editor), Longing for Commu- help to my thinking. nity: Church, ‘Ummah or Somewhere in Between? 5 Personal correspondence with Travis, May (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 2013), 20. 2013. Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models is at times necessary to distinguish be- tion of identity. More pressing than tween different groups of Jesus-follow- whether to use a guitar or sitar in wor- ers according to their background, but ship are such dilemmas as: it should always be remembered that How can I grow strong in Christ where we come ‘from’ matters less while still relating to my Muslim than where we are heading ‘to’. family? What label shall I use to describe myself to Muslims? Just as it takes decades for physical mi- How will I find a believing spouse? grants to adjust to their new identity, What will be written on the ‘reli- so it is with spiritual migrants. Many gion’ section of my children’s Muslims have found that, after finding birth certificate? Christ, their identity quest is resolved With which community will they in one sense but intensified in other re- identify as they grow up? spects. They begin a long search to ne- Will I be buried in a Muslim or gotiate a place for themselves between Christian graveyard? the Muslim community which is theirs by birth and the Christian community The field of ‘identity studies’ is to which they now belong. ‘Who are we highly relevant to believers from Mus- in Christ?’ was how a group of Afghans lim background, and to this we now put it to me. Mazhar Mallouhi, after turn. The concepts sketched below are converting to Christianity as a young in a condensed form, and for more de- 8 man, entered ‘a deep internal strug- tail please see my other publications gle’ and ‘a profound crisis of identity’ and my forthcoming PhD dissertation as he sought to integrate his faith in on issues of identity facing first gen- Jesus with his Muslim cultural herit- eration believers in Pakistan. age.6 This longing for identity has been noted in doctoral research on believers from Muslim backgrounds.7 For these believers the question of contextualization, while of some im- portance, is less urgent than the ques- Making sense of ‘identity’ can be dif- ficult. This is partly because different academic disciplines define identity in 6 Paul-Gordon Chandler, Pilgrims of Christ on the Muslim Road (Lanham, Md.: Cowley Publi- different ways. Psychologists focus on cations, 2007), 105. the private self-awareness of individu- 7 E.g. Seppo Syrjänen, In Search of Meaning als, while anthropologists and some and Identity: Conversion to Christianity in Paki- stani Muslim Culture (Vammala: Annals of the Finnish Society for Missiology and Ecumen- 8 i.e. my two chapters on identity and conver- ics, 45, 1984); Kathryn Kraft, ‘Community and sion in ed. Greenlee, Longing for Community, Identity among Arabs of a Muslim Background 2013, and my article, ‘Identity issues for ex- who Choose to Follow a Christian Faith’, PhD Muslim Christians, with particular reference dissertation (Bristol: University of Bristol, to Marriage’, in St. Francis Magazine, Vol 8 No 2008). 4, (August 2012), 435-481. Tim Green sociologists view identity as a collec- also a goldmine. To the persevering, it tive label marking out different groups. yields treasures of insight on identity Social psychologists describe ‘identity issues facing Christ’s followers from negotiation’ between individuals and Muslim background. groups.9 So there is no universally agreed definition, even before taking theological perspectives into account. Moreover, under the impact of glo- To grapple with this slippery concept balization, ‘waves of transformation of ‘identity’, we must clarify some crash across virtually the whole of the concepts and discern overall patterns. earth’s surface’,10 breaking up the old This provides us with a basic conceptu- certainties. Travel and the internet al framework. Inevitably such a frame- expose people to new worldviews. Mi- work will be over-simplified, but clarity gration and intermarriage create new must precede nuance, which can be hybrid identities, especially in the sec- reintroduced afterwards. ond generation. Pluralizing societies The model I propose takes its start- challenge fused notions of religion, ing-point from the work of Benjamin ethnicity and nationality. ‘The days of Beit-Hallahmi, who conceptualized closed, homogeneous, unchanging so- ‘identity’ as functioning at three lev- cieties are rapidly going and they will els. I have adapted12 Beit-Hallahmi’s not come back’, comments Jean-Marie scheme into a simple diagram, with his Gaudeul.11 Yet, alongside this globaliz- three layers of identity stacked above ing juggernaut and often in opposition each other (see next page). to it, collectivist understandings of The following points about this identity (‘we are, therefore I am’) are model are worth highlighting: still important especially in non-west- Firstly, ‘collective identity’ concerns ern societies. the way a whole group is labelled and For all these reasons, the field of distinguished from other groups by its ‘identity studies’ resembles a mine- identity markers. Collective identity field. Nevertheless, we need to make a refers to ‘our’ identity as a whole tribe start somewhere, for this minefield is or class or nation, not to the identity of individuals. Secondly and by contrast, ‘my core 9 Sample writers in these fields would include Peter Berger, Pierre Bordieu, Erik Erikson, identity’ and ‘my social identity’ are James Fowler, Anthony Giddens, Stuart Hall, both held by the individual. Therefore William James, George Herbert Mead, Tariq these two levels are shown as a pair in Modood, Galen Strawson, Henri Tafjel and the diagram, separated from the collec- Victor Turner, but the list is almost endless. 10 Anthony Giddens 1990, cited in Stuart Hall, ‘The Question of Cultural Identity’, Mo- 12 See Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Prolegomena dernity and its Future, Hall et al, eds. (Cam- to the Psychological Study of Religion (London: bridge: Polity, 1992), 275-316. Associated University Press, 1989), 96-97. 11 Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Called from Islam to My scheme differs slightly from his in that I Christ: Why Muslims become Christians (trans- developed the diagram, slightly changed the lated from the French), (Crowborough: Mon- definitions and substituted ‘core identity’ for arch Books, 1999), 225-6. his term ‘ego-identity’. Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models 'Our group identity in the GROUP LABEL Collective Identity eyes of other groups' 'Who I am in relation to my INDIVIDUAL Social Identity group(s)' INDIVIDUAL Core Identity 'Who I am in my inner self' tive identity. A person’s social identity ual becomes what he is addressed as concerns his or her actual social rela- by his significant others’.13 Normally by tionships, while the collective identity adulthood this identity is well consoli- is a label for the whole group. This is dated, which explains why for an adult, an important but often forgotten dis- ‘it takes severe biographical shocks to tinction. disintegrate the massive reality inter- Thirdly, a person’s core identity and nalized in early childhood’:14 shocks social identity develop throughout life such as religious conversion. through a close and constant dialectic between these two levels, which we can see in this way: This interplay between the internal and external aspects of a person’s iden- In outlining this three-layer model I tity means that we should not think of again stress that it is only a very sim- the private ‘self’ as immune from what- ple starting point. Each layer is merely ever happens at the social level. The the setting for a great deal of further inner is affected by the outer through sub-division, movement and complex- internalization, and in turn contributes ity. We might choose to elaborate the to the outer through externalization. model by depicting the ‘core identity’ Peter Berger and Thomas Luck- mann explain how this interaction begins in early childhood through ‘pri- 13 Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the mary socialization’, whereby ‘the child Sociology of Knowledge (New York: Doubleday, takes on the significant others’ roles 1966), 121. and attitudes, that is, internalizes them 14 Berger & Luckmann, Social Construction, and makes them his own… the individ- 131. Social Identity Internalization Externalization Core Identity Tim Green level as a stage on which different certain cases (nationality, for exam- worldviews raise their voices like ac- ple) and not in others (ethnicity). But tors, each clamouring to be heard and should a change of religious collective obeyed. At the ‘social identity’ level we identity be allowed? On that question, might draw a series of circles, some traditional Islamic law collides head- overlapping and some rigidly discrete, on with the United Nations’ definition to illustrate an individual’s multiple be- of human rights. longings. We could sub-divide the ‘col- In traditional societies, collective lective identity’ level into a composite identities of religion, ethnicity and set of layers labelled ‘ethnic’, ‘nation- nationality are often fused. To change al’, ‘religious’ and so on, but bonded religion is perceived as betraying one’s together like plywood. ethnic or national identity, which helps Elaborating further still, we might to explain why it is so hard for a Malay re-draw our three layer diagram as or Turk or Saudi to become a ‘Chris- a three-floor department store, with tian’. In some pluralistic cultures too, each floor having inter-connecting and such as India, the religious collective re-arrangeable departments, and with identity label remains a powerful loy- escalators to move ideas continually alty test. Even in the secular West, a up and down between the ‘core’ and British-born Pakistani friend of mine ‘social’ floors. was told by her relative, ‘Don’t you re- No model can adequately depict alize that by becoming a Christian you identity in all its complexity of identity. have abandoned your roots, your herit- But so long as we recognize its limita- age and your family name?’ tions, our tripartite conceptualization of identity can carry us quite a long way in understanding, at each level, Religious social identity is initially what it is to be ‘Muslim’ and therefore internalized, like other social identi- what it means to convert. ties, within the boundaries of the fam- ily. Most people are simply born into a religion, rather than choosing one. Islam as a social identity is more often assumed than chosen, at least in tradi- Let us consider each identity layer in tional Muslim societies, for it is woven turn, as it relates to Muslim people and into the fabric of daily life and provides societies. a secure framework from cradle to grave. The Muslim creed is whispered into one’s ears at birth and recited over one’s corpse in death. Nationality, ethnicity, and often reli- As Kenneth Cragg points out,15 an gion are entered on people’s birth cer- endless interpenetration of religion tificates before they have any chance to and society confirms the young in their decide for themselves. These collective labels are ascribed by others, at least initially. To shift later from one collec- 15 Kenneth Cragg, The Dome and the Rock tive identity to another is possible in (London: SPCK, 1964), 148. Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models Islam, and as they grow into adult- hood they pass through no ceremony to mark their full, personal, convinced allegiance to the faith. To be Muslim is Our understanding of Muslims turn- automatic unless deliberate apostasy ing to Christ is assisted by conversion is chosen. Arguably it is this ‘glue’ of studies, which incorporate insights Muslim social identity which marks from psychology, sociology, anthropol- one of the biggest barriers to conver- ogy, history, missiology and of course sion out of Islam, and the sharpest cost theology. The influential scholar, Lewis for those who leave. Rambo, and many others view reli- gious conversion as a profound and radical transformation of identity. Let us consider how this applies at each Muslims who live in a non-Islamic identity level. context, where their cultural assump- tions are not taken for granted by the majority, are more likely to distinguish between social and core identities. For them it is no longer so easy just to ‘go One formerly Muslim friend from Ugan- with the flow’ of a Muslim social iden- da described to me the excitement he tity; fasting in Ramadan takes more ef- felt at his baptism: fort when society makes no concession for it. This prompts migrants (or their I felt ‘I have died to my old sinful children) critically to examine their as- way, I have given myself to God sumptions and to make choices at the and am now a new person. I am not core identity level. Some decide to fol- the Firaz my friends knew, not the low Islam in a committed, conscious one whom Satan knew, but a new way, some turn from Islam to another Firaz—forgiven, born again, con- faith or atheism, and some continue to trolled by the Spirit. The old Firaz is live with the unresolved cognitive dis- dead, the new one is alive in Christ’. sonance of clashing world-views. I came out of the water feeling I am We have seen that collective iden- a new person! tity, social identity and core identity However, this exhilarating sense of all have a religious element. Since newness does not instantly obliterate Islam lays claim to all these areas in the previous values and way of think- a holistic way, believers from Muslim background (BMBs)16 face a daunting ing. It takes a prolonged internal strug- task of renegotiating their identity at gle for a person’s worldview to change: each level. to value humility above honour for ex- ample, or forgiveness above revenge. The claims of old and new worldviews 16 The term ‘believer from Muslim back- compete to be heard and obeyed at the ground’ is generally preferred these days to ‘core identity’ level. As Rudolf Heredia ‘Muslim background believer’ because it em- phasises the present identity in Christ over the wrote of converts in India, ‘their old background identity in Islam. identity is not erased; rather, the new Tim Green one is overwritten on it.’17 Viewed the- pressed on a website her longing to ologically, this is the lifelong struggle retain her Saudi ‘label’ while being a between old and new natures. follower of Christ: Deep level discipleship includes de- Truly, we love our homeland, and we liberately choosing the new worldview are not traitors to win out over the old one each time We take pride that we are Saudi citi- they conflict. Eleven years after choos- zens ing Christ, Firaz still struggles at times How could we betray our homeland, with this. But this transformation can our dear people? and will happen, so long as he keeps How could we, when for death—for feeding his new core identity day by Saudi Arabia—we stand ready? day and year by year. The homeland of my grandfathers, their glories, and odes—for it I am writing And we say, ‘We are proud, proud, proud to be Saudis’ The social sciences insist, as does bib- … lical theology, that the community of We chose our way, the way of the fellow-believers is vital. This new so- rightly guided cial identity offers believers a new fam- And every man is free to choose any ily (especially if rejected by their blood religion relatives), affirmation of their new Be content to leave us to ourselves worldview, a new role model of what it to be believers in Jesus… means to be Christ’s follower, and a Her plea was made in vain. In Au- new pattern of Christian discipleship. gust 2008, her father and brother dis- This much is uncontroversial. What, covered her allegiance to Christ and however, is to become of their old so- killed her. In response to news of her cial identity, the community in which martyrdom a Saudi woman wrote. they were born and raised? Must all ‘thousand, thousand congratulations links with that community be cut off? for her death. . .and a special thanks In other words, is it necessary to have to her brother who carried out God’s only one social identity, or can two be law… curse upon the apostate Fatima, combined at the same time? This is a curse upon the apostate Fatima.’18 burning question for the Insider Move- Fourteen centuries of Islamic his- ments debate, and is considered fur- tory and jurisprudence have equated ther below. apostasy with betrayal, as Saudis or 18 Mariam al Hakeem, ‘Saudi Man Kills Daughter for Converting to Christian- Fatima al-Mutairi of Saudi Arabia ex- ity’, Gulf News, Malays find to their cost. However, of sects). Likewise, in Muslim socie- this attitude is not held with equal ties, new followers of Christ would vehemence in all Muslim societies. In often like to maintain links with their cultures which retain even a distant old communities while simultane- memory of not being Muslim (Iran ously joining their new community of for example, or the Berbers of North fellow-believers. This requires dual Africa), apostasy may be seen as less belonging, and they seek strategies to of a betrayal. Moreover, some Muslim combine both social identities. Equal scholars in the West are re-examining loyalty to both groups may not be re- traditional laws of apostasy.19 At- alistic, especially when either group titudes are also affected a great deal opposes it. But to be a member of one by the reputation of any pre-existing community and simultaneously an af- Christian communities within a coun- filiate of the other is often possible to a try, as well as by the international poli- greater or lesser extent. cies and military campaigns of nations perceived to be ‘Christian’. My own doctoral research is on believ- ers from Muslim background (BMBs) in Pakistan, where the Punjabi Chris- tian community is rather distinct from Punjabi Muslims and even more dis- tinct from other Muslim ethnic groups. The ‘Christian’ community has its own In modern life, nearly everyone learns identity markers and opposes inter- to juggle several social identities. We marriage with Muslims. Defection of adopt one role in the workplace and Christians to Islam is deplored while another at home. We learn to move in Muslims seeking to enter the Christian different social circles, adjusting our circle are often (not always) treated vocabulary and dress to blend in with with suspicion. each. Twenty-first century people in In such a context of two distinct pluralist societies are actually quite communities it is appropriate to de- successful at coping with multiple so- pict them as two closed circles. In my cial identities. 2009 interviews of believers from Mus- In western societies, people who lim background in Pakistan, I showed turn to Christ are not expected to cut them this simple diagram and asked, off all links with their families and ‘in which position do you find yourself: friends (except in the most separatist A, B, C or what?’ They readily identi- fied with the diagram. Of my interviewees, some lived in 19 For a partial survey of reformist discus- the Muslim circle (A) and came out sion on apostasy, see for example my chapter to the Christian one for fellowship. in Steve Bell and Colin Chapman (eds.), Be- tween Naivety and Hostility: Uncovering the Best Others had moved or married into the Christian Responses to Islam in Britain (UK: Au- Christian circle (B) but kept some con- thentic, 2011). tact with their Muslim families. Others Tim Green “Muslim Circle” “Christian Circle” Muslim Community Christian Community Muslim Festivals C Christian Festivals Muslim terminology Christian terminology A B oscillated between the two circles (C), believer belongs in an integrated way switching behaviour and terminology to both groups and is accepted as such in order to fit with one group or the by both. other. I have not personally researched At the social identity level, is it pos- this option as it rarely arises in Pa- sible to maintain this ‘switching’ strat- kistan. Nor have I researched first egy long term? It may or may not be, hand the options for ‘insider’ believers depending on including the closeness whose social belonging to their fellow of one’s relationships with each group believers is a subset of their wider be- and the extent to which both groups longing to the Muslim community from tolerate dual belonging (especially af- which they all derive. Presumably this ter marriage). It also depends, crucial- would be represented by a circle within ly, on the extent to which dual social a circle. As John Travis points out,20 for identity induces schizophrenic stress such believers the question of ‘switch- at the core identity level, as discussed ing’ does not arise. Nevertheless, in my below. opinion such believers do still have a dual belonging, since they belong both to their wider Muslim community and also to the inner community of Jesus- In some regions such as western Af- followers. When it comes to marriage rica, the boundary lines between Mus- arrangements, for them or their chil- lims and Christians have traditionally dren, they will face a clear choice be- been rather permeable and include in- tween marrying inside or outside the termarriage (though inter-religious group of fellow-believers. tensions are now on the rise). In such a setting the two social circles could be drawn with dotted boundaries and perhaps touching each other, so that at the point where they meet, Christ’s fol- We recall that a person’s identity is lower from Muslim background could formed through mutual interaction simultaneously belong to both com- munities. This could in principle create an option (D) on the diagram where a 20 Personal correspondence, May 2013. Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models between his or her ‘core’ and ‘social’ his family setting’. The actual outcome identity layers, and that this process will depend both on the circumstances continues throughout life. What there- and on the choices made. fore is the impact on the core identity of a believer from Muslim background of the different social identity options In settings where a believer has no outlined above? need to ‘switch’ between communities, the schizophrenic stress is reduced. Advocates of Insider Movements be- lieve that this is a benefit of their mod- Based on his experience in the Arab el where Jesus-followers are all drawn world where Christians and Muslims from within the Muslim community. form distinct communities (as in Paki- This is doubtless true, yet in these stan), Roland Muller writes: contexts a different kind of inner stress When a person accepts the Lord, can still arise. Insiders who tell their he is immediately put in a place of ten- Muslim friends, ‘I am a Muslim and I sion. On one side is his new Christian believe Muhammad is God’s prophet’, faith, and on the other side are his old do so by maintaining a private counter- religion, family and community. Who definition of ‘Muslim’ and ‘prophet’ should the convert relate to? The ob- which is not shared by their hearers. vious quick solution is to develop two Similarly, their participation in mosque faces. With one face they welcome prayers may be interpreted differently Christianity, meeting with other Chris- by themselves than by their Muslim 22 tians… With the other face, they live communities. and relate to their family and commu- Personally I suspect that such dis- nity… So the tension builds.21 sonance between ‘the person I appear Muller believes that in such a situ- to be on the outside’ and ‘the person I ation ‘one of five things will happen’. know I am on the inside’ may be hard The believer may ‘abandon his new to sustain in the long term. Moreo- faith and go back to what is familiar ver, one’s core identity is not totally to him… because he feels he cannot immune from being affected by one’s exist in a two-faced situation’; or may social identity, because of the internali- ‘completely identify with the Christian zation process described earlier. This face and reject his old one’, or may may affect BMBs’ children if not them- become a secret believer ‘filled with selves. However, these personal com- fear’ of being discovered, or may be ‘so ments are not based on field research distraught with the two faces that they and need to be empirically tested. eventually become mentally unstable’; or may ‘learn to unite the two faces… 22 Lack of space prevents me from expound- living freely as a follower of Jesus in ing this viewpoint in more detail, and those of my friends who advocate Insider Movements will dispute it vigorously. These questions 21 Roland Muller, The Messenger, The Mes- have been exhaustively discussed in the Inter- sage, The Community (Canada: Canbooks), national Journal of Frontier Missiology and St. 108-109. Francis Magazine. Tim Green large scale religious conversion. It was What factors and circumstances assist by this route that in the first century integration at the core identity level? AD an initially insignificant group of When can twin loyalties be held side believers, functioning at first as an by side and when do they tear a heart insider movement within Judaism and apart? What local contextual varia- known as ‘followers of the Way’, out- tions bear on this, and what theological grew its parent community. Following insights help to chart a way through? a creative new trajectory, this group These questions are of urgent rele- challenged old taboos, grafted in Gen- vance to many thousands of believers tile believers and adopted new identity from Muslim background today. Out of markers. Eventually it could no longer pastoral compassion as well as missio- be contained within Judaism and was logical strategy, it would be helpful for ejected by it. It emerged as a new col- supporters and opponents of ‘Insider lective category reshaping the religious Movements’ to pool their resources landscape. It acquired the new label of and research these questions in depth. ‘Christian’, a label at first ascribed by others and then adopted by themselves, as has happened quite often in the his- tory of emergent collective groups. Similarly within Islam, sects and reform movements have emerged from time to time. Some, like the Sufi orders, sanctioned by the centuries and secure in their large numbers, are unquestion- For groups as for individuals, identities ably counted as ‘Muslim’. Others, like change over time. New combinations the Ismailis, are viewed as deviant but emerge and create an impetus for new tolerated. Other groups over time have collective identities to be recognized. been reabsorbed back into Islam. Still This impetus has to push against in- others, such as the Ahmadiya or the ertia in the host society, which prefers Baha’i, have been forcibly ejected or to keep the identity labels static, ste- even persecuted by mainline Muslim reotyped and simple. Many an incipient communities. new movement has been pushed back This raises two important ques- into standardized boxes of social preju- tions. Firstly, what explains these dif- dice. ferent long term outcomes when these Eventually, however, once a critical groups all began life as insider move- mass is achieved in terms of numbers ments within Islam? To investigate or visibility, society grudgingly makes this is of more than merely historic in- room for the new reality and creates a terest because it bears crucially on the new label. This can happen when mass second question, namely, what will be- migration alters the ethnic landscape, come of the exciting but tentative ‘in- or when intermarriage creates new hy- sider movements’ presently reported of brid ethnicities. Both these trends are Muslims following Jesus? Will they be very evident in our pluralizing world. tolerated, ejected or reabsorbed within A third, less common way is through Islam? The past may offer guidelines Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models 373 for the present which in turn will affect sizeable movements to Christ are un- future outcomes. That’s why it matters. derway, as described to me by Abu Taher Chowdhury. The diagram above is my way of depicting the different col- lective groups he described, while their New options are created at the ‘border characteristics are given in more detail zone’ where cultures meet. Migrant elsewhere.23 communities borrow elements from Two different types of communi- two worlds, but recombine them to 24 form a third and distinctively differ- ties are depicted in this diagram. The ent identity. ‘Third culture kids’ do the long-established ‘Muslim’ and ‘Chris- same. This is also why hybrid languag- tian’ communities are represented by es (e.g. Urdu or Swahili) develop a life circles with tightly defined boundaries, and literature of their own, and why Is- for in Paul Hiebert’s terms they are 25 lamic cultures have been at their most ‘bounded sets’. They have their own innovative when rubbing shoulders identity markers and intermarriage is with other worlds (e.g. Abbasid Iraq or not approved. But the emerging com- Moorish Spain). munities of Muslim background believ- We may expect to see something ers have more permeable boundaries. of the same cultural creativity emerg- Therefore in this diagram they are ing from the emerging communities of shown as ‘fuzzy’ groups, able to merge Isa-followers, once they become large and overlap with each other and, to enough for in-group marriage and se- varying extents, with the traditional cure enough for their children to be con- communities. fident in their identity. Hybridization is not to be identified with syncretism; it may lead to it but does not have to. 23 See my chapter, ‘Identity Choices at the Borderzone’ in Greenlee, Longing for Identity. 24 I appreciate Jens Barnett’s help in concep- tualizing and preparing this diagram. 25 Paul G. Hiebert, ‘The Category “Christian” in the Mission Task’, International Review of New groups acquire new names and Mission 72 (July 1983), 421-27. Hiebert help- new collective identity markers. This fully draws distinctions between ‘bounded’, is now being seen in Bangladesh where ‘centred’, and ‘fuzzy’ sets. Tim Green This diagram is not claimed to be I believe that the multifaceted con- comprehensive, for there will be other cept of ‘identity’ could open up new BMB groupings in Bangladesh of which space for discussion, by helping both I am unaware. Moreover, it is not appli- sides in the Insider Movements debate cable in all countries, since community to step out of the old binary categories boundaries vary from one place to an- and labels. I do not claim that this will other and labels vary in their meaning magically solve all the issues but it (in Pakistan ‘Isai’ has a different sense could at least allow for fresh and more from in Bangladesh); so the diagram nuanced discussion. But this would should be re-drawn for each context. happen only if both sides allow an Even for Bangladesh it would need to identity perspective to probe their own be changed over time, since some of assumptions instead of co-opting it to the emerging ‘fuzzy’ groups will, in the support already-entrenched positions. next generation, become more tightly In fact, I believe that considerations defined with their own boundaries. Oth- of identity challenge proponents and ers will be absorbed over time into the opponents of Insider Movements in dif- traditional Christian bounded set, and ferent ways. still others will probably be re-absorbed back into the Muslim community. The following questions are not per- fectly worded, and are by no means ex- haustive, but may be of help in stimu- lating reflection. My own perspective is framed by personal acquaintance with dozens of individual believers from Muslim background, in several coun- More than fifty years ago, Kenneth tries and for more than thirty years, Cragg asked what can be done ‘to en- but I have not had first hand experi- courage in Islam the truth that becom- ence of an insider movement as such. ing a Christian is not ceasing to belong with Muslim need, Muslim thought and 26 Muslim kin’. His question is being re- phrased today in these terms: To what extent can people individu- At the core identity level, do you take ally and as a group be faithful in fol- into account the long-term psychologi- lowing Jesus Christ while maintaining cal stress which can result from having social, cultural, and even legal identity to maintain a public profile as ‘Muslim’ as adherents of the religion into which even while privately knowing oneself they were born?27 to be a ‘follower of Jesus’? Is a private counter-cultural definition of ‘Muslim’ sufficient to resolve this stress? Espe- 26 Kenneth Cragg, The Call of the Minaret (Dublin: Collins, 2001), 318. (First published in 1956.) Journeys: Thinking Again about Conversion (At- 27 David Greenlee, One Cross, One Way, Many lanta: Authentic, 2007), 68. Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models cially, will it help the children of insider rootedness? Are there acceptable ways believers to have a secure core identity to reduce such stress even if it cannot when they think in concrete not ab- be avoided altogether? Is persecution stract terms, and when they want to always necessary and useful? Does it ‘fit in’ at the social level? have a purely bracing effect at a core At the social identity level, please identity level or can it also sometimes consider the dynamics of ‘dual belong- crush spiritual development and psy- ing’. Do you see insider believers as chological wellbeing, especially if too ‘people of the mosque’ in a primary severe and too soon? And what can be sense, or only in a liminal way along- done, at a core identity level, to help side their main loyalty to the communi- new believers ‘own and transform’ ty of Jesus-followers? In what circum- their past, including their religious stances is it straightforward to belong vocabulary, instead of simply walking simultaneously to a Muslim natural away from it? family and a Christ-centred spiritual At the social identity level, since family, and in what circumstances most people in the world succeed in be- does this set up tensions? When values longing to more than one group at the clash or when marriage choices have to same time and creating new groups, be made, which group will they favour? could this not also be envisaged for And are their children being success- fully socialized into the community of believers from Muslim background? If believers? Jesus-followers in humanist western At the collective identity level, how cultures can be ‘in the world but not are insider groups in different contexts of the world’ is this not also desirable viewed and labelled by their Muslim for Jesus-followers in Muslim cultures? communities? Do their Muslim neigh- How can such believers be helped to bours view them as deviant, deceitful maintain a distinctive witness in their or acceptable? What factors affect this, non-Christian social circles without be- and how do these vary from one con- ing cut off from them? text to another? What are the group’s At the collective identity level, since identity markers and how permeable new groups constantly emerge in the are its group boundaries? Crucially, world Christian movement, as they what will happen in the second gen- have done for the last two thousand eration of the movement, and beyond? years, will they also be allowed to do Will it be ejected by the Muslim com- so in Muslim countries today? When munity, reabsorbed back into it, or re- your own denominational models and tain a tolerated but ambiguous identity identity markers have arisen through long-term? a process of self-expression, will BMB groups be given the same rights? Do such groups need space to find their own collective identity in order to re- At the core identity level, do you take late as equals to the traditional church- into account the long-term psychologi- es in their nations, rather than being cal stress which can result from having prematurely absorbed into them or dic- to abandon one’s family, heritage and tated to by them? Tim Green necessarily conflict with biblical under- standings. However, to test this assertion there I suggest further work in three areas, needs to be a careful comparison of so- though more could certainly be added. ciological and theological perspectives on identity at each level (core, social, collective), including the facets of mul- tiple identity, hybrid identity and iden- I have proposed the beginnings of a tity implications of Christian conver- model which uses the concepts of core sion. Interdisciplinary efforts should identity, social identity and collective be made in this endeavour. identity to reach beyond the confines of the C Spectrum. There is nothing sac- rosanct about these categories, though they are widely recognized in the social I suggest that context-specific empiri- sciences and this allows comparisons cal studies which listen seriously to to be drawn and insights to inform the Muslim background believers as they debate. Much more work remains to be express their insights and struggles done to test this model for usefulness in the area of identity, will yield more in different contexts and to develop it fruit than further pronouncements further, especially in seeking to under- based on theory alone. Kathryn Kraft’s stand fluid, multiple, and hybrid identi- doctoral research28 provides a good ties in all their complexity. I welcome example of an empathetic approach others’ critique and contributions to which starts from the vantage-point take this endeavour forward. of Arab BMBs themselves, rather than from missiological theory. It is impor- tant to remember that one context does not represent all contexts, nor does The Bible was birthed in a social world, one believer speak for all believers, where collective labels were applied to especially as ‘early adopters’ are not religious groups and where individuals always mainstream representatives of had a range of social belongings. Of their communities. course, the Bible adds further dimen- Several doctoral studies and other sions which are missing in the social contributions are just starting to fill sciences: of humans in relation to their the gap, including some research led Creator, and of a covenant people en- by BMBs themselves. But more work is trusted with a mandate for the world. needed. For instance, BMB communi- Theology and the social sciences in- ties face remarkably similar challenges vestigate different questions by dif- in the second generation whether they ferent methods, so they should not be are C3 communities in Algeria and artificially forced into the same frame- work any more than theology and the 28 Her book based on the research is Search- natural sciences. Nevertheless, their ing for Heaven in the Real World: A Sociological findings need not be incompatible, and Discussion of Conversion in the Arab world (Ox- sociological understandings need not ford: Regnum Books, 2012). Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models 377 Iran, C4 communities in Bangladesh tion and development, especially in or C5 communities in Indonesia. If we contexts where churches have never could transcend the ‘great divide’ that taken deep roots in society. Gradu- views these communities as opposite to ally, the so-called ‘Christ-centered’ each other, we would suddenly discov- communities were treated like ‘de- er a whole new set of questions to ask nominations’ called C1, C2, C3 and so about their similar concerns. forth. And not unlike what happened Researchers could compare across between older and younger fledging these communities their issues of iden- churches in history, there have been tity, good practice in discipling, mar- debates, divisions and ‘religious wars’. riage choices, second generation con- I am saddened! Many churches I know cerns, relationships with the historic in the Muslim world deserve better churches on the one hand and Muslim than accusations and criticism. society on the other, factors affect- As much as I believe that we need ing the degree of persecution… and a to seriously address theological con- whole lot more. We also need to make cerns, I also believe that when church- connections with the secular academic es are emerging in new and difficult world, where conversion from Islam contexts, their brothers and sisters has been researched much less than around the world should be sensitive in conversion to Islam. their nurturing and not create needless Christ’s disciples from Muslim back- conflicts. Entrenched in the debate on ground represent a new and important Insider Movements, Green’s piece can stream in his worldwide body! They help us look at this issue with a new will increasingly enrich the existing pair of glasses. church in many countries. It is impor- Green starts his article by making tant to listen to them and learn from a very good inventory of the issues at them humbly. stake. In his first sections, missiolo- gists have their work cut out for years to come. So many issues are still un- addressed in the Insider Movements’ I am pleased with Tim Green’s attempt Debate. Then, as a good scholar, Green to move us beyond discussions shaped sharpens, challenges and transforms by the C1 to C6 spectrum. That instru- the theories and concepts that have ment, like Richard Niebuhr’s ‘Christ defined the Insider Movements. He and Culture’ typology, was helpful in proposes to refocus the discussion on identifying factors that communities ‘identity’. What a good idea! from a Muslim background need to During my ministry I have met address when they follow Christ. How- scores and scores of Muslim Back- ever, it has its limitations as Green so ground Believers who were struggling eloquently contends. with the issue of split identity men- Travis designed a continuum but in- tioned by Green. Split identities are stead many theorists and practitioners not dual or hybrid identities but rather focused only on typologies of churches identities that are not integrated and (C1, C2, etc.), ignoring the complexity compete against each other in an indi- and lengthy process of church forma- vidual or community. Many of my MBB Tim Green friends let the Christian community tempts at integration, I think that we define part of their identity and the need many more examples of healthy Muslim community the other; most integration. don’t know how to integrate both in a Green draws heavily upon sociol- healthy way: they behave like Chris- ogy. I have myself benefited from the tians when they are in the company of work of sociologists when studying the Christians and like Muslims when they identity of third generation North Afri- are with Muslims. can immigrants in France. Sociologists This reminds me of Paul scolding underlined four ways immigrants inte- Peter in Galatians 2:12: ‘For before grated being French from North Afri- certain men came from James, he used can descent: ‘ I am only French and not to eat with the Gentiles. But when they North African’; ‘I am French and North arrived, he [Peter] began to draw back African’; ‘I am only North African and and separate himself from the Gentiles not French’; ‘I am neither French nor because he was afraid of those who North African’. belonged to the circumcision group.’ These studies were helpful in the What the C1 to C6 discussion has not study of social factors but often ignored achieved yet is to give followers of the religious factor because French so- Christ the tools to integrate their dif- ciety did not require North Africans to ferent identities. change their religious allegiance. Most Green takes us a step further. He studies did not take into account the acknowledges the dual, multiple and religious conversion factor. Green at- hybrid identities and presents the tri- tempts to include the religious layer not partite conceptualization of identity or as a fourth layer of identity but rather the three-floor department store model he sees it as enmeshed, interpenetrat- to deal with the process of integration. ed, interconnected, fused, glued to the Acknowledging the complexity of iden- three layers of identity. But we need tities and the challenges that believers more tools to evaluate whether a Mus- face when embracing multiple identi- lim background believer can state: ‘I ties is a good first step. Most Muslim am a Muslim and a Christian’. believers will recognize themselves in It seems that the sociology of reli- Green’s description and feel a sense gion is not totally sufficient to address of comfort that what they experience the question of integration of split- within themselves is a natural phe- religious identities. These questions nomenon. inevitably call for theological investi- His analysis, however, lacks a thor- gations. For example, theologians will ough investigation of what are the raise the question of how pluralism, mechanisms that can hold these identi- inclusivism and exclusivism influence ties together when someone becomes a different scenarios of religious inte- follower of Christ. Muslim background gration. While Green provided new believers all along the C1 to C6 contin- frameworks to address the debate, he uum would like to know what allows has not yet addressed in much detail them to integrate the various parts the ‘how to’ of integration when twin of what constitutes their identity. Al- religious loyalties cannot be held side though this article alludes to some at- by side. This is where the work of theo- Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models logians is crucially needed. that this article is addressed primar- Finally, I would encourage Green to ily to the proponents and opponents further develop the question of commu- of insider movements. So, they should nal identity. In effect, Travis’ spectrum be the ones who make a response, not dealt with ‘Christ-Centered Communi- someone whose identity, like mine, ties’ more than with individuals. I feel as a Muslim follower of Jesus, is be- that sometimes we talk past each other ing discussed in the article. Neverthe- because we mix up ‘individuals’ and less, I will try to see, objectively, some ‘communities’ in our discussions about points of this article that might help identity. It seems that although it is me to see myself from the perspective important to talk about the individual, of an outsider. it is even more important to talk about First of all, dividing identity into the identities of these communities be- three levels—core, social and collec- cause they in turn will shape the iden- tive—seems to be a helpful approach. tity of future believers. Green’s explanation of three levels of identity is reasonable, easily under- stood and more or less acceptable as valid by a simple person like me. For example, a man can be known by how Identity is a term that touches many he sees himself, how he is viewed by aspects of human life such as law, phi- his community and how his commu- losophy, social sciences and self-per- nity is seen by other communities. I do ception. There are at least two reasons not know if every aspect of someone’s why one asks someone about his or her identity must always be categorized by identity. First, it is to see what simi- these three levels of identity or wheth- larities exist between the one who is er it is possible for these aspects to be asking and the one being asked. These categorized by only two levels. similarities may then be used to build For example, as an Asian, I can ob- a relationship between them. Second, serve my Asian identity in the collective questions about identity can be asked and social identity levels, but I wonder by the authorities of an institution of if I need to regard my race (Asian) as those who are trying to visit or join the part of my core identity. My Asian iden- institution. For example, when I try to tity will probably be observed by or im- enter a country, the authorities of the portant to only my social community or country will ask about my identity: my other communities who want to know birthplace, my occupation or perhaps me. I mention this example in response the authorities will ask about my reli- to my being categorized as a Muslim in gion. All the questions are being asked my core identity. by the authorities to see whether I am On one hand, I do agree that being worthy to enter the country or not. Muslim should be classified as an as- To respond to this article, I will use pect of a person’s core identity because the two typical reasons why people are one can see one’s inner self religiously asked about their identities, mentioned through one's Islamic belief. On the above, as a basis for my response. But, other hand, I do not agree that Muslim before I do so, I would like to note should be categorized as core identity Tim Green because the core identity of a person body, either to the people in his social does not need approval from anyone groups or to people of other collective other than God. identities because he is not entering a Let me give another example. An human authority structure when he en- Indonesian farmer lists Islam as his ters the kingdom of God. Therefore, the religious identity on his identity card, only one who has the right to ask about whereas in actuality, he has more faith his identity in all levels is Allah/God. in the local rice goddess (Dewi Sri) A few months ago, someone said to than in Allah. The farmer does not care me, ‘Rashid, you are not in the king- about the difference between his stated dom of God if you do not confess that religion and his identity card because you are a Christian.’ I was shocked! no one will ever ask him about his core Where I live, the collective identity identity. In other words, one does not of Christian is western, including the need to prove anything about one’s movies! I cannot limit the Kingdom of core identity to anyone. God in such a way. Though a Muslim The issue of conversion, as Green socially and collectively, my core iden- mentions, is an issue that can cause a tity, attested by God, is that of a dis- lot of trouble at the level of collective ciple of Sayyidina Isa (our Lord Jesus) and social identity in particular. How- and my beliefs in the scriptures are ever, I would say it is not a problem at shown in appropriate ways within my the level of core identity, because con- various social identities with the hope version in the core identity level does of making disciples amongst those in not automatically result in or require my collective Muslim identity. conversion in social or collective iden- tity. A big problem frequently arises when conversion in the core identity is immediately followed by conversion I appreciate these fine contributions in social and collective identity. Many from two people who feel from the people appear to think that conver- inside what I can describe only from sion at the level of social and collective the outside. I agree with Farida that identity, which leads to persecution, is theological as well as sociological per- a price that must be paid when a Mus- spectives are needed for helping to in- lim believes in Isa al-Masih as his sav- tegrate conflicting loyalties. This is an iour and lord/king. In fact, there is not urgent task since growing numbers of a single example in the New Testament Muslims turning to Christ worldwide that suggests that conversion in one’s will predictably face this dilemma. core identity should be immediately Rashid rightly raises the question of followed by conversion at the social whether a person’s core identity must and/or collective identity, but rather be defended to others, since to enter there are differing degrees of change in God’s kingdom needs no human au- these identities. thorization. Nevertheless, what binds Secondly, in relation to the authority Christ’s followers together at the so- of an institution, a Muslim who accepts cial level is their personal allegiance to Isa al-Masih as his saviour and king the King, so definitions of core identity does not need to prove his belief to any- cannot be avoided altogether. Evangelical Review of Theology GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER Volume 37 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith Published by WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission Articles CONRADIE, SAS Contagious Generosity—towards creating a culture of giving as a life-style 12 CONRADIE, SAS David Livingstone’s Vision Revisited—Christianity, Commerce and Civilisation in the 21st Century ...... 118 GARCIA-SCHMIDT, NYDIA R. The Urgency to Develop Fundraising Capacity and Generosity within the Latin American Missionary Movement ...... 72 GOROSPE, ATHENA E. Evangelicals and the Environment: Going Beyond Stewardship ...... 256 GREEN, TIM Beyond the C-Spectrum? A Search for New Models...... 361 HAMD, ROBERT Working with the Poor as a Means for Demonstrating the Good News in a Middle East Context...... 241 HEALTHSERVE TEAM Generosity: Befriending at the Margins, Re-centring Human Dignity . . . . . 57 HENNAWIE, EKRAM LAMIE AND MIKHAIL, EMAD AZMI The Philosophy behind the 2008 Arabic translation The True Meaning of the Gospel of the Messiah ...... 349 HILLION, DANIEL Responsible Generosity ...... 34 IGBOIN, BENSON OHIHON Bias and Conversion: An Evaluation of Spiritual Transformation ...... 166 KING, GEORGE AND MCCORMICK, TOM Muslim Idiom Translations in Bangladesh...... 335 KRISTANTO, BILLY The Bible and our Postmodern World ...... 153 LIM, KAR YONG Generosity from a Pauline Perspective ...... 20 MORTON, JEFFERY AND TALMAN, HARLEY Does the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15 Support Insider Movement Practices?...... 308 NULLENS, PATRICK The moral authority of Scripture and the hermeneutics of love...... 227 Index OTT, CRAIG Contextualization, the Bible, and Games ...... 210 PUZYNIN, ANDREY P. Lord Radstock and the St. Petersburg Revival ...... 100 RODIN, R. SCOTT In the Service of One God only: financial integrity in Christian leadership . 46 SELECTED GENEROSITY RESOURCES ...... 84 SAUER, CHRISTOF Theology of Persecution and Martyrdom: an example in globalizing theology 267 SCHIRRMACHER, THOMAS Review Article: The Early History of the Evangelical Alliance and its Advocacy of Religious Freedom ...... 275 SHAW, KAREN L. H. Divine Heartbeats and Human Echoes: A Theology of Affectivity and Implications for Mission ...... 196 SHAW, PERRY W. H. The Missional-Ecclesial Leadership Vision of the Early Church ...... 131 TAVASOLLI, SASAN AND HIGGINS, KEVIN The Ethics of Qur’an Interpretation in Muslim Evangelism and Insider Movements...... 321 VOSS, HANK From ‘Grammatical-historical Exegesis’ to ‘Theological Exegesis’: Five Essential Practices ...... 140 WILLARD, CHRIS AND SHEPPARD, JIM What Is Generosity?...... 5 WATERMAN, L. D. Insider Movements: Current Issues in Discussion...... 292 Index Books Reviewed Chiavone, Michael L., The One God: a critically developed evangelical doctrine of Trinitarian unity...... 288 Davis, John Jefferson,Worship and the Reality of God: an Evangelical Theology of Real Presence ...... 183 Levering, Matthew, Jesus and the Demise of Death: Resurrection, Afterlife, and the Fate of the Christian...... 185 Oden, Thomas C., The African Memory of Mark: Reassessing Early Church Tradition ...... 283 Stott, John, The Radical Disciple: Some Neglected Aspects of our Calling .....285 Tennent, Timothy C., Invitation to World Missions: A Trinitarian Missiology for the Twenty-First Century...... 286 VanDrunen, David, Living in God’s Two Kingdoms: A Biblical Vision for Christianity and Culture...... 186 VanDrunen, David, Natural Law and the Two Kingdoms: A Study in the Development of Reformed Social Thought ...... 186 Carson, Don A., The Intolerance of Tolerance ...... 187 Andrews, Marion, My China Mystery ...... 189 Witherington, Ben III, Making a Meal of It: rethinking the theology of the Lord’s Supper ...... 190 Noll*, Mark A., Jesus Christ and the Life of the Mind ...... 191 Longenecker, Bruce W., Remember the Poor: Paul, Poverty, and the Greco- Roman World ...... 88 Anderson, Jeff, Plastic Donuts ...... 90 Rodin, R. Scott and Hoag, Gary G., The Sower: Redefining the Ministry of Raising Kingdom Resources ...... 91 McDaniel, Chris, Igniting a Life of Generosity ...... 92 Alcorn, Randy, Managing God’s Money: A Biblical Guide ...... 93 De Neui, Paul H. (ed.), Complexities of Money and Missions in Asia...... 94 Higginson, Richard, Faith, Hope and the Global Economy: A power for good . . . 96 * We apologize that the name of this author was misspelt in some places in the review.