T 14

Structure 14.1 Introduction Objectives 14.2 Vegetables from Roots and other Underground Parts 14.3 Vegetables from Leaves 14.4 Vegetables from and Seeds 14.5 Sunlanary 14.6 Te~minalQuestions 14.7 Answers

-14.1 INTRODUCTION-- Vegetables constitute an important part of a vegetarian diet. The consumption of fresh vegetables and fruits is much more than ever before, and they providc variety, flavour, minerals and much needed vitamins to our diet. Vegetables are defined as one of the many nutritious foods obtained fiom or parts. Thus, roots, stems, leaves, infloresences, seeds and food fruits, are all used as vegetables in different ways. They may be eaten raw as salads or cooked in various ways. Vegetables may constitute the main course of a meal, or they may be consumed as snacks or in soups. Vegetables are an important part of a healthy diet. They are an excellent source of vitamins, especially niacin, riboflavin, thiamin and vitamin E. The preci~rsorof vitamin A is abundant in several vegetables. 11ey also supply minerals such as caicium and iron. The cellulosic cell walls of plant cells are not of direct nutritional value to man. But this material is essential in the human food. It provides the roughage necessary for the proper functioning of the alimentary canal. 'Most vegetables contain large amounts of moisture and a vegetarian diet contains fewer calories. Interestingly, studies have shown that vegetarians are healthier and live longer. This is due to judicious planning of nutritious diet. Most vegetarians therefore, eat foods in defined co~nbinationsthat furnish a balanced diet. For example, rice and beans when taken together provide a more balanced nutrition than when eaten alone. In view of the significance of vegetables in the human diet, it is worthwhile to first know about the -yielding plants. Different plants have been used as vegetables since tlie dawn of civilization. Alongwith cereals, early man started domesticating different vegetable crops also to provide a balanced diet. Some of these plants have gained world-wide importance and are well-known. These have been discussed in great detail by botanists, agriculturists and dieticians. There are also vegetables which are of local importance, and consumed by fewer people. They are also impnl-ta~~tin the economy of these regions. Some of these grow naturally while others are cultivated on a limited scale. However, in recent years (as in the case of fruits - see unit 13) cold storage, air transport,and packaging techniques have led to the availability in large cities ofdifferent kinds of vegetables from various parts of the world. Vegetables may be classified in various ways. Here we follow a classification based on morphology and recognise different vegetables by their botanical (Latin) names and the family in which the plant is classified. it is also convenient to group different plants on the basis of the morphological nature of the part used as vegetables: a) underground plant parts such as roots, rliizomes, tubers and bulbs eg., onion, potato, carrot, etc. b) leaves and young shoots, eg, spinach, cabbage, lettuce. c) inflorescences and flowers, eg. cauliflower Economic Botany d) fruits and seeds, eg. tomato, brinjal, cucumber, chillies. In the following unit, you will study some of the well-known vegetable yielding plants to understand their importance ro mankind.

After studying theanit you will be able to know : e the importance of vegetables in human diet; 8 the classification of vegetables; a the general properties of vegetables; m the botanical rJamesof vegetables and their families,; a about the origin, distribution, ecology, botany and uses of the following vegetables: Potato, Sweet Potato, Cassava, Onion, Garlic, Beetroot, Carrot; Cabbage, Lettuce, Spinach; Cucurbits, Tomato, Brinjal, Chillies and Okra.

VEGETABLES FROM ROOTS AND OTHER UNDERGROUND PARTS ------A large number of plants store their food in underground organs of various kinds. Besides serving as storage organs, these structures are also important for vegetative propagation. These swollen organs may be modified roots, underground stern tubers or bulbs. They remain protected in the soil and contain large amounts of parenchy~natoustissue which stores large amounts of water and food material, particularly carbohydrates which provide energy. Besides carbohydrates, the cells of these organs also co~itainminerals, vitamins, some pigments (eg carotene in carrots, betacyanins in beetroots etc) and protein. These vegetables have a greater calorie value per unit area of land when compared with the cereals. Amongst numerous vegetable plants known to mankind carrot, beetroot, radish, sweet potato, and cassava are short term root crops. In these, the tap root is modified to store large amounts of food material. Potato, onion, garlic, Calocusia, and AmnrphophuNus have modified underground stems which are used as vegetables.

14.2.1. The Potato or the Irish Potato Botanical name : Solanurn ruberusum Linn. Family : SoIanaceae Commonname: Alu n = 12 14.2.1.1 Origin and distribution : Potato is a gift of the New World. It was not known in the Old World before the sixteenth century. It originated in the Andes mountains of South America and dominated the life ofthe people in this region. It was not known in Cerltral and North America when Columbus reached the New World. Potato was introduced to other parts of the world only after the sixteenth century. This is called the Irish Potato because in 1845-46 the worst famine in Ireland and many other parts of Europe occurred because orthe failure of potato crop due to Phytophtl~orainfection. Box 14.1 : Ireland Famine.

tuberous plants. About 1845 disaster struck, when Potato blight, caused by a fungus Phytophthora infestans reached Europe, and within 5 years, virtually all the Irish (and British) potato crops were destroyed. It is estimated that during this period people (some say 2 million) died of starvation and over another million emigrated. This was the worst famine in the history of the western world, followed by an unparalleled I The cultivated potato is a tetraploid. It may have originated by a doubling of the chromo- Vegeta bles somes in an ancient diploid species, or it may have been derived by hybridization between two ancient diploid species followed by amphidiploidy. The potato is cultivated all over Europe, Russia, Asia, Africa and America. In , potato is an important crop in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu and some other states. It is mostly grown for local consumption. 14.2.1.2 Cultivation : The potato grows in cool moist climates in temperate regions. It requires warm days alternating with cool nights when tuber formation takes place. Rainfall or irrigation for 3-4 months promotes tuber formation. Frost is harmful for the crop. Short days or nitrogen deficiency also promote tuberisation. The crop can be grown in a variety of soils. Porous, well drained acid soils (pH 5.0) are good as they enhance tuber growth. The crop is propagated vegetatively from small tubers (called seed potato) or from parts of large tubers. These parts must include 'an eye' or axilliary buds which develop into new plants. The crop is harvested after about 4 months. 14.2.1.3 Botany : The potato plant is a hel-baceous perennial but is cultivated ns an annual. It has a well-developed adventitious fibrous root system and undergrourid stolons which bear the tubers. These underground stenis are short and thick structures having scale like leaves. In the axils ofthese scale-like leaves, there are axillary buds whicll are called the "eyes" of the potato. The scale-like leaves are shed and a leaf scar is formed near each "eye". The "eyes" actually represent axillary branches (Fig. 14. I), These are arranged spirally around the tuber. The potato tuber is a typical stem in its anatomical structure. The outermost layer is the peridelm and this encloses the cortex, Inside the cortex is a ring of vascular bundles which surrounds the central pith. The tuber stores starch. The shape, size and colour of the tubers vary in different varieties.

,Ter~ninal bud

I UWl6 bU-A e-;y.._..I' Sprouting "eye"

Eyebrow Inner medulla (pith)

Patches of inner phloem (d)

Fig. 14.1: Solanurn tubersourn The Potato. a) A tuber of potat; b) diagrammatic represehtation of tuber formation in potatoes. c) External feature of potato tuber d) C.S. of potato tuber. The aerial branches may be up to 1 rn tall. They have spirally arranged leaves. The first few leaves near the base of the stem are simple, but other leaves are pinnately compound. These compound leaves have leaflets of varying sizes and there may be some very small leaflets called pinnules (folioles) between the longer leaflets also. E,cunomic Botany Flowers may or may not be produced. When flokers are produced, they arise in terminal inflorescences. The flowers are typically solanaceous and the fruits are small inedible berr (called seeds or potato ball) which look like small green tomatoes. They contain numerous seeds. 14.2.1.4 Uses : The potato is the most widely grown vegetable crop and plays an imp01 tant role in the world's food economy. Potatoes have a high nutritional value. A tuber consists of about 80% water and 20% solid matter. Of the later starch is up about 85% and the rest L mostly protein. Potatoes are excellent source of vitamin C. They also contain minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium a~dsulphur. The tubers are used in many ways, both as a fresh vegetable and as processed food. Fresl potatoes may be eaten after boiling, roasting, frying or baking. They may also be cooked with other vegetables. The tubers may be processed as potato chips, crisps, and wafers 01 may go into the production of starch, alcohol (Vodka) or glucose.

Green potatoes contain a poisonous glycoside, solallin, which inappreciably high concentration may cause , Inflorescence - sickness and even death in both humans and livestock.

Terminal leaflet Foliole

Lateral leaflet

Vodka, a Russian alcoholic beverage, is prcpared by the fermentation of cooked potatoes

Tuber

Fig. 14.2: Sofatrum ruberosutn A potato plant.

14.2.2 The Sweet Potato Botanical name : Ipomoea batatrrs (LBn.) Lam, Family : ~ohvolvulaceae Cornmon name: Shakarkandi ri = 45 14.2.2.1 Origin and Distribution : The sweet potato plant is known only in cultivation. probably originated in tropical America, and was grown in Mexico, Central and South America and the West lndies in preColumbian times (before Columbus' discovery of America). It has now spread to other parts of the world. This plant reached the Old world before the Irish potato and became popular. Vegetables lpomoea butorus ir m hiexag!oid (2n - 90). J; could Rave arisen as a hybrid by a~npl~idiploirty from a tetraploid (2n = 60) and a diploid (2n = 30). 14.2.2.2 Cultivation : Sweet potatoes are cultivated throughout the tropics. The: major producers are Africa, China, Indonesia, India, Korea, Japan, southern United States, Poly- nesia and New Zealand. It grows best where the mean temperature is around 25O C or higher. There must be plenty of sunshine and a rainfall of atleast 300 mrn over a growing period of 4 months. The crop can be grown in a wide range of soils. A well-drained sandy loam with a sunny climate and a Iiberal supply of moisture in growing season, is ideal forcullivation of the sweet potato. This is a short day plant and a photoperiod of 1 1 hours or less promotes flowering. Sweet potatoes are propagated by stem cuttings or portions of the tuber. The plant needs little care and the tubers are ready for harvesting after 4-6 months. The tubers are stored or they may be sliced and sun-dried. 114.2.2.3 Botany : The sweet potato plant is actually a perennial herb, but like the Irish potato, it is cultivated as an annual crop. It is a vine-like plant with trailing or twining stems. These grow up to 1.5 m in length, and all parts of the plar~tcontain latex. The plant has an extensive fibrous root system. The tubers are secondary thickenings of some of the adventi- tious roots. Each plant produces about 10 tubers in the upper crust (25 cm) of the soil. Each tuber consists of large amourits of parenchymatous cells, the l~asculartissue and latex vessels (Fig. 14.3, c). The outer region is called the periderm and it replaces the ruptured epidermis. About 70% of the weight of the fresh tuber is due to moisture. The solid matter consists of starch, sugars, proteins, vitamins A and C, small amounts of far and minerals. The tubers vary in shape, size arid colour. Individual tubers generally weigh 206 to 500 grams, although exceptionally large tubers weighing several kilograms may also be produced.

Xylem

Cam biurn

Phloem

Sweet potat3 (cB

In Japan and Taiwan, sweet potato is regarded as a 'typhoon or hurricane insurance', where rice or other starchy crops are destroyed it will be still available for food.

It Fig. 14.3: Ipnmoea batatas. a) A plant ofsweet potato b) Most nf the shoot sprout kom the top of the storage root. c) Cross section of root. 14.2.2.4 Uses : Sweet potato is a vegetable with large, fleshy edible roots. These tuberous roots are used as.an important source of food in , many parts of the world. They can be eaten after boiling or roasting. The tubers are also used for. manufacturing starch, flour, glucose, or alcohol. They are also given to livestock. Economic Botany 14.2.3 The Cassava or Manioc Botanical Name: Munilrof esculettfus Crunfz {Synonyms: M. ufilissimus Poh I; M.~ipiPohl; Mdulcis-Pax; M. Pnlmntn Muell Arg.] Family: Euphorbiaceae. Commor~name : Tapioca, sagu n = 16

14.2.3.1 Origin and distribution : EAanihotesclrlenta has been known to man only ill cultivation and does not occur in the wild state. It is known to have been domesticated independently in Central Americaas well as in South America but introduction fro111South to Central America seems more likely. This plant was introduced in other parts of the wo~.ld after the sixteenth century. It has now spread to all tropical areas. South and Central ,America, West and Central Africa and South East Asia are the main regions where cassava is cultivated. The first record of its introduction in India is in 1794 when it was brought to the Indian Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Calcutta. In India, this crop is mainly cultivated in Kerala, According to a Tupi legend. there Tatnilnadu, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Assam. was once n motlier with no fbod who had to watch her starving 14.2.3.2 Cultivation : Cassava is a lowland tropical crop which grows best in sandy or child die. Sadly, she buried the sandy foam soils of moderate fertility. High fertility of the soil leads to excessive vegetative child under the floor ofher hut. growth and less tuber formation. The crop cannot withstand water-logging, cold or frost. That night, a wood spirit, or "mani". came and transformed The cassava crop is grown from stem cuttings which sprout shoots and roots producing the child's body into the roots 01' new plants. Short season varieties can be harvested in 6-1 0 months after planting. Long a plant that grew up to feed season varieties ofcassava are grown for about 2 years. The crop is mostly harvested by future generations of Ind ians. hand. Individual tubers are dug out from the soil for consumption. The plant was called "mani" "oca" (root) for the root that the 14.2.3.3 Botany : The Cassava plant is ashrub growing 1-5 m in height and has latex in all wood spirit brought. its pafls. The edible tubers are swollen adventituous roots. Each plant produces 5- 10 cylindrical tubers. The extensive parenchymatous pith region of the tuber stores large aniounts of starch. The erect stem shows pronlinent leaf scars in the lower region. The leaves are spirallyarranged, and petiolate. The lamina is deeply palmate with 3-9 (usually 5- 7) lobes. The leaves are usually green, but variegated leaves or red, purple or yellow leaves also occur (Fig. 14.4).

Roots

Fig. 14.4: Mnr~ilrotrscrikr~to a Cassava plant with roots. I Vege ta hl~s 14.2.3.4 Uses : Cassava is the staple food of many people. These people generally belong to the weaker sections of the society and cannot afford to consume cereals as staple food. The root tubers are rich in carbohydrates and used as an important food in many tropical regions. There are two types of cassava-sweet and bitter. The sweet tubers have low amounts of hydrocyanic or prussic acid. This alongwith other che~nicalsubstances is usually present in the cortical region of the tuber. In the bitter cassavas, large amounts of hydrocyanic acid are present. This is distributed throughout the tuber. Sweet tubers can be eaten raw after peeling. Bitter cassava must be washed, boiled, roasted or specially treated to destroy the hydrocyanic acid. High grade starch is prepared from the tubers. It can be used as food for making puddings, biscuits, and confectionery. This starch is also used in the manufacture of adhesives, cosmetics, paper, and in laundering. Cassava tubers are also used as livestock feed or for manufacturing glucose and sodii~~nglutamate. 14.2.4 The Onion Botanical name: AIIirrnz cep!yrr Linn. Farnily: Alliaceae {earlier the genus Alliun~was classified either in the family Liliaceae (because of the superior ovary) or in the Amaryllidaceae (because of the str~rctureof the inflorescence) but now they are considered to belong Alliaceae a family which is intermediate between these two.) Common narne: Piyaz n = 8 14.2.4.1 Origin and distribution : Onions have been cultivated since ancient times in India and the Middle East. Al'lium cepa is not known with ce~tainityas a wild plant. It is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions of Iran or . There are refrences to this plant in ancient literature and it was used in religious ceremonies. It is now widely cultivated in all parts of the world. Large quantities of onions are produced in the Asian countries. China, Japan and India are leading producers. India also exports large quantities of onion. The United States, Turkey, Spain, Italy, and the Netlierlands are other onion growing areas. In India onions are grown in Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab. 14.2.4.2 Cultivation : Onions can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. Most varieties are adapted to grow in the colder parts of the temperate region. A warm dry season is necessary for maturation of the bulbs and harvesting. They should not be grown in regions having heavy rainfall. The crop can be raised in different kinds of soils which do not retain water. Fertile loam soi 1s having a pH between 5.8 and 7.0 is good for crop. The crop is ready for harvest after 3 to 5 months of sowing the seed. Bulb formation is controlled by photoperiod and temperature. Bulbs vary in shape from flat to globose, oval or even spindle shaped. The colour also varies from silvery white to brownish, purplish or reddish. The intact onion is odourless, but when it is cut or injured, organic sulphur compounds are released due to enzymatic changes. This releases the characteristic odour and pungent flavour-of the onion. Onions may be mild, pungent, or sweet and these features besides shape and colour, are used for classification. 14.2.4.3 Botany : The onion plant is a biennial herb, storing food in the bulb during the first year of growth and flowering in the second year. For commercial production of bulbs, the crop is cultivated as an annual. The plant has a superficial, shallow, adventitious root system. The stem is short, flattened and produced at the base of the plant. It increases in diameter as growth continues. This is the actual bulb of the plant and it gets surrounded by the concentric layers of fleshy leaf bases which store the food material thus making the bulb an important storage organ (Fig. 14.5 d). The leaves are produced in succession from the broadening stem apex. Each leaf consists of 2 parts: a tubular or ring-like sheathing base and a hollow, linear, cylindrical or flattened blade. The outer leafbases of the bulb are dry, thin and fibrous. They form a protective covering around the inner fleshy leafbases. The formation of the bulb and thickening of the leaf bases are controlted or regulated by dayleugth and temperature. Under very short photoperiod or at low temperatures, bulbs are not formed. When the bulbs have attained Economic. Botany ma,irity, the meristem stops producing rew leaves and instead produces a termin2 1 inflorer- cence(Fig. 14.5).

Fig. 14.5: Alhm cepn. a) A young onion plant. b) onion inflorescence c) onion flower d) onion bulbs e) Fleshy leaf base of onion that store nutrients. A leafless flowering stem, called scape pushes out through the bulb. The developing inflorescence is protected by a membranous spathe, a feature Allium shares with members o the family Amaryllidaceae. The inflorescellcemay have 50-2000 greenish white flowers. 14.2.4.4. Uses : The immature and mature onion bulbs are eaten raw or they may be cookec and eaten as a vegetable. They are used in soups and sauces and for seasonilig many foods. Onioas also flavour food and are used in canned meat products. They form an important component ofrnany pickles and chutneys. Small bulbs are pickled in vinegar or brine. They may also be fried and used in preparation of different kinds of snacks. Onion leaves are also used as a vegetable. Onions are also reported to warn off heat stroke.

114.2.5 The Garlic Botanical Name: AIlium salivum Linn Family : Alliaceae Common name: Lahsuin n=8 14,2,5.1 Origin and distribution : Garlic originated in the eastern Mediterranean region is known in cultivation in India and China since ancient times. India is the largest produc of garlic in the world. It is also an important crop in Spain, Egypt, Korea, Argentina, Italy, China and U.S.A. 14.2.5.2 Cultivation : Garlic can be cultivated in a variety ofsoils. Bulb formation requi longer days and high temperature. But once bulb initiation takes place, it can progress e Vegetables at low temperatures. It is propagated vegetatively by planting single "cloves". Mosr of the crop is grown in irrigated regions. The crop ~espondsto fertilizer applicatioa!and is ready for harvest 4-6 months after planting. The bulbs are dried in the fieids for about one week. 14.2.5.3 Botany :The garlic plant is a herbaceous annual resembling the onion plant in many ways. It differs f~omonion in having flattened solid leaf bases producing a composite or con~poundbulb. The erect herb has a superficial and adventitious rootsystem. The fiat disc like stem has a varying number ofsmaller bulbs or bulblets called "garlic cloves". These are formed from the axillary buds of the younger foliage leaves. The buib ofgarlic iea thus a composite structure consistitlg of several small densely crowded bulblets. The entire compound bulb is enclosed within a multilayered protective sheath formed by the sheathing bases of the storage leaves. Each bulblet also has its own protective single layered sheath. The bulblet consists of a single thickened storage leaf sheath and a small central bud. Sometimes, a single large solid "clove" is formed in each plant (bulb). This is due to either the crop being grown on poor soils, or grown from very small "cloves" (Fig. 14.6).

Bulb

Fig. 114.6: Allilrm salivun~.(a) Garlic plant (b) Garlic bulb wit11 clovcs. Some cultivated varieties of garlic do not show any floweritig \vI~ilr:otllers do. The inflores.. cence is termrnal as in onion. A leafless smooth white scape grows a~rtthrough the centre ot' the bulb. It is coiled at first but then becomes erect, and bean a rne~nbranoirsspathe. 'Ihis encloses eirher small bulbleas only 01. both bulblets and flowers. The llowers of garlic are whitish to pinkish. 14.2.5.4 'uses : Closely related to the onion, this is the second most widely cultivated species of the genus Alliurn. It is used as a condiment for ilavouring food. Garlic is an important constituent of curries in India and also in Chincsc food. Many medicinal proper- ties ofgarlic are ~nentionedin different systems of medicine. Ciarlic has medicitla1 value as an antiseptic and bactericide. Both garlic and onions contain compouncls such as ajoene that reduce the tendency of blood to clot and some what improves one's odds against arterioscle- rosis and heart attack. Inriict bulbs contain an amino acid called allinine. When the bulb or "clovc" is cut or injured, enzyme allinase acts on allinine to produce allicin. This compound is responsible for the pungent slnell ofgarlic. The pungent quality co~nmonto all alliums is linked with the corn- pound that makes us cry when cutting onions. These are volatile sulphur col~lpounds (including methyl di - and trisulfides and n - propyl di -and trisulphide). l'he bulblets may be dehydrated or made into "garlic pearls". These can be used in place of the fresh garlic. Garlic has a strong flavour and its smell stays in the mouth for a long time.

14.2.6 The Beetroot, The garden beet Botanical name : Beta vulgaris Linn. Family : Ckenopodiaceae Common name : Chukander n-9 Scvcra! cr~ltivatedvarieties of Beta vrrigaris are ecunomically important. T'he beetroot ol gardenbeet is grsrvn for tile large red roots which are eaten as ;i vrl:s~ab!e. Anotlic~variety Economic Botany with white or Irght brown roots called sugarbect is an important source of sugar. Both these and other varietie, arc cultivated commercially in different parrs of the world. 14.2.6.1 Origin and distribution: The cultivated beetroot as well as the sugarbeet are both classified as Befa vulgaris. They have been derived from a wild ancestor Beta maritima which grows naturally on sea shores in Britain, throughout Europe, and Asia to India. The different varieties of the cultivated beets have evolved by continuous selection. 14.2.6.2 Cultivation : The beet is mostly cultivated in temperate regions. So~netirnesit may be grown in tropical areas at higher altitudes. 'They require cool nights during the growing season. Beets grow best in friable deep, moist loamy soils; it does not tolerate water logging, therefore the soil must have good drainage. They are grown from seed and thin~ling of seedlings is necessaiy to provide sufficient growing space. It is a labour intensive crop. 14.2.6.3 Botany : The beetroot plant is a true biennial. This glabrous herb has a conspicu- ously swollen fleshy root which is the economically most ilnportal~tpart of the plant. The plant produces the conspicuously swollen root with deep red colour due to pigment betacyanin and a rosette of leaves during the first year of growth (Fig. 14.7). The leaves are simple, large and often with a thick midrib. Red pigments may be present in the leaves. So~rle varieties of beetroot, especially the little beet or beet leaf (Beta vulgaris var. heng~~lrnsis)are cultivated for the leaves which are eaten like spinach.

Bece

(e) Fig. 14.7: Brln Vulgnris. a) A plant of beet root b) The plant of sugar beet c) T.S. beet root. , 14.2.6.4 Uses : Different varieties of beetroots are used in different ways.

A. Beta vzrlgaris var. vzrlgaris is the comlnon beetroot. It is also called the garden beer. The red roots provide a low-calorie, low-cal bohydratc food contair~ingiron, calcium and the red pigment betwyanin. These are eater1 as a vegetable or as a salad, and arc sweet to taste. They'may be eaten raw, boiled or baked. Red beetroots may also be pickled and canned. The crop is harvested after 3-4 months of sowing the seed to , obtain sweet tender roots. B. Beta vulgut~isvar. rapa is known as the sugar beet. 'This has light brown or white roots and is an in~portalitsource of sugar. The roots are smaller in size than the gardell beet. In USA, sugar beet provides half of the sugar produced. The sugar content may be as high as 15 to 18%. The roots are washed and cut into thin strips. These are put in hot water to extract the sugar. The solution is the11 purified, filtered and boiled to for111 crystals of sugar. C. Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis is the beet green or beet leaves or Indian spinach. The tender succulent leaves and young shoots are cooked as a green lea@ vegetable and are an excellent source.of calcium, iron and vitamin A.

14.2.7 The Carrot Botanical Name :Daucas cnrotn Lbln Filn~ily: Apiaceae (Umbelliferse) Common name: Gajar n=9 14.2.7.1 Origin and distribution : Carrot has beerlcultivated since ancient rimes in the Mediterranean region. It was first used as a lnedicinal plant by the ancient Romar?s and Greeks. The cultivated carrot originated from wild relatives which occur naturally in Europe, Asia and Africa. It has now spread throughout the world, and Europe is the largest producer of the crop. North and Central America and Africe are other areas where carrots are culti- vated. Different kinds of carrots are grown in different parts of the world. In India also, there are the common orange carrots with hard roots, the softer more juicy reddish carrots and the purplish or almost black carrots. These are grown in different parts of the country. . 14.2.7.2 Cultivation : Carrot grows best in well-drained, loose loamy soil. It requires wet climate for the proper development of the roots. Large amounts of potash are required for proper growth of the crop. The crop is grown from seed which is sown in raised beds or on ridges. Thinning the crop at the seedling stage promotes good growth and the crop call be harvested after 3-4 months. The young roots are harvested and can be stored for several moliths without loss in quality. Being a labour intensive exercise, carrot cultivation is expensive. 14.2.7.3 Botany : The carrot plant is a herbaceous biennial but is cultivated as an annual for , its thickened taproot. The root may be short and stumpy or long and tapering. The colou~of 1 the root ranges from pale white to yellow, orange, purple, deep red or almost black. The colour and growth of the root valy with the temperature and age of the crop. The broad , cortical region stores the food material and the pigments especially carotenes. The human body uses carotene to produce vitamin A. Carrots also contain vitamins B,, I3, ant1 C, sugars ' and iron. The stem forms a plate-like crown above the root and this bears acrown of leaves. In the second year of growth, the stem elongates and hears the terminal inflorescence. The leaves are long-petioled and pinnately compound. The segments are pinnatified with lanceolate lobes (Fig. 14.8). The fruits are oblong-ovoid schizocarps 3-4 mm, long. Each schizocarp consists oftwo mericarps. The primary ridges of each rnericarp are ciliate while the secondary ridges have hooked spines. These characteristics of the fruit help in identification of the plant. The I pericarp contains essential oil canals because otwhich the seeds are aromatic. 14.2.7.4 Uses : In recent times, carrots have become a widespread human food. The roots are used as vegetables, in soups, curries and other dishes. They can be eaten raw in salads or cooked in various ways. Tender roots can also be pickled alongwith other vegetables. Juice can be pressed out from fresh roots and it is consunled as a refreshing drink either alone or mixed with orange juice. 'Grated carrots can be boiled in milk and made into a delicious sweetmeat (called 'Gajar Ka Halwa'). The roots bking a rich source ofcarotene are used for obtaining colouring for butter and other foods. Carrots can also be canned in syrup or dehydrated. In North India, "black" carrots are used to prepare an appetising beverage called "Kanji". Ecttnomic Botany

Root

(ill 2 (c) Carrot

Fig. 14.8: Dnrtcus cornrcf.a) Carrot plant with soots 61) ti leaf c) T.S. of carrot.

SAQ I 1. Write the botanical name ofthe following plants and the family to which they belong a) Potato

...... b) Sweet Potato

...... c) Cassava

...... , . d) Onion e) Garlic Veget~bles ...... f) Gardenbeet ...... g) Carrot

2, a) Which of the above are specialised roots? ......

b) List the plants in which the stem is modified and describe the modification in each case.

I 3. Mention T or F to indicate whether the following statemetlts are true or false respectively. a) The potato and the sweet potato can be classized as "true root crops". 0 I b) Cassava produces tuberous roots. 0 C) The tubers of potato differ in structure from the tubers of Cassava. n d) The gardenbeet is rich in calories, iron, calcium and anthocyanins. 0 Bulb formation in onion is regulated by daylength and temperature. .... f) Allicin is acted upon by tlie enzyme allinase to produce Alliinine. 0 ..... 4. Fill in the blanks a) The pigments are present in carrots in large amounts. ..,.. b) Beta vulgaris var. rapa is a rich source of ...... c) Hydrocyanic acid is present in the tubers of d) The pungent odour of onions and garlic is due to compounds...... e) Potatoes and sweet potatoes can be classified as foods. Economic Botany 5. Classify the crops obtained from underground organs into Old World and New World the basis of their centres of origin. a) old world crops b) New world crops

...... ,..,-. .- ...... 6. Define the term vegetable and write a note on the importance of vegetables in the hum; diet.

14.3 LEAFY VEGETABLES

The leaf is an irnportant organ of the plant. It is the chief region of pliotosynthesis and manufactures food not only for the plant itself, but also for all other organisms. I-lerb~vorou animals depe~idon plant leaves for their food. Man has also used leaves of different plants for obtaining his nutritional requirements. Leaves contain adequate amounts of minerals such as iron, calcium, potassium and several vitamins. The arnount of vitalnilis A and C increases with the green colour of the leaves. Thc energy value of leaves is low bccausc of high water content. However, their large surface area provides roughage in the diet. This is very essential for the proper funclioning of the alimentary canal. About 100 granis of leafy vegetables are recolnlnended for daily consu~nptionin a balanced diet. l'llis can bc obtainec froni raw leafy vegetables eaten as salads, or from cooked leafy vegetables. The more important and well-known leafy vegetables are cultivated lnostly for local con- sulnption as fresh vegetables. Some plants growing in wild state arc used as leafy vegeta- bles by the economically weaker sections ofthe society especially in rural area. Irl India leafy vegetable largly contributeto the vegetable portion of food. In winter season palak, methi, sarson, bathua, cholai arethe major 'sag' used as vegetable. Besides Icaves, young tender shoots and flowerbuds are also eaten as vegetables.

14.3.1 Cabbage Botanical Name :Bmssicn olcrncen Linn. var. cnpitntn Linn. Family : Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) Common name : Bandh gobhi, Pattagobhi n=9 14.3.1.1 Origin and distribution :-The cabbage has been cultivated in Europe since ancient times. It is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean region and sprcad to other parts of Europe. It is closely related to cauliflowel., kale and broccoli, and thcse are called "Cole crops". They are all different varieties of a single species Bramica o/er*ncea,and have originated from a wild cabbage called colewort. Cabbage is now cultivaled thoughout the world. The major producers of this vegetable are Europe, Japan, USA, Korea, hrkcy, India, and China. 14.3.1.2 Cultivation : Cabbage is cultivated in ternperate regions having acool nlclist climate. It is grown mainly as a winter crop in the plains ofNorthern India. It is grown Tram seed and the cabbage "head" develops in 2 to 4 months after transplaniilig ot'tlie scedlillgs which must establish themselves properly. Tlle harvested crop is either sold imnbodiately TQI corisu~nptionas a fresh vegetable, or it may be put in cold storage. I / 1.6.3.1.3 Eotaray : 'Tht ~:abhageplant is a bierinial but is cultivated as i?n annual. It has a 1 well-developed taproot system which supports a very short slo11t stem. .l'lre stelrl is closely I i packed with thick fleshy overlapping leaves, l'liis forms a conipacl "hcad" of the cabbage. ! I Different kinds of cabbagc are recognised by the shape, size, colour and testure (Fig 14.9). : Sol~lecabbages are white or red. They have smooth leaves wit11 pi.onlirlerlt veins. Savoy ; cabbages have wrinkled or crinkled leaves. The white cahbnge which actually has palc green 1 leaves is the lrlost popular. The plant is not allowecl to flower and the "head" is harvested for

! usc as a vegetable.

Fig. 14.9: Brr~ssic~r~Ie~~'e(~.va~~.k(~~)if(lf~~.;I) Corn1)acf llcail ofcabbiig~ b) A half cut of a cabbage. 14.3.1.4 Uses : Cabbage may be eaten raw as a salad or it !nay be cooked as a vegetablc. It is a rich soulxe of nzinerals and vita~nins,andhclps in digestio!].

Botanica I Name : Lactulacrr sdltirrrr Linn. Family : Asteraceac (C:onrpositae) Cornmon name : Silad n=9 ; 14.3.2.1 Origin and distribution : Lettuce has been known in cultivation since ancient ! tiltles. There are records of lettilce leaves in Egyptian tombs dated 4500 B.C. It was also I j grown by the ancient Ronznns and Greeks. 'The ct~ltivatedlettuce is believed to have evovled i from a wild species called Lacl~rcaserr-iolu 1,iun. This is cornmon in Europe, Western Asia i and Northern Africa. There is atso a second vicw on the origin ofthe cultival.ed lettuce. On j the basis of cytological and genetic studies, 1,undqvist (,a Swedish botaniit) suggested that i L~lcf~rcnsaliva probably originated by hybridization of other species. Although it originated i in the temperate region, lettuce is also cultivatedein the tropics. It is now grown in all parts of : theworld. 14.3.2.2 Cultivation1 : Lettuce is a cool season crop and rcquires adequate irrigation to prevent flowering. It grows better in the higher altitudes in tropical regions. High tempera- ' ture promotes floweringand this makes the leaves bitter. Light, well-drained and properly manured soils prornote good growth of the crop. Lettuce is grown li.0111seed and can be , harvested in about 3 months. S~nalIsowings at regular 2 wed intervals ensures good , s~~ccessof the crop.

; 14.3.2.3 Botariy : The lettuce plant is an annual glabrous herb with milliy latex in all parts of ' the plant. It has a well devcloped taproot, slender at first but becoming extensive later on. At first a short fleshy stern is formed ancl this produces a large nurnber of spirally arranged leaves which form a compact radical rosette called the "lettuce head". The shape and cornl.>actnessofihis "head" vary in diffcre~~tcultivars (Fig 14.10). These lcaves are allnost sessilc, 12 - 25 cm. long, with a broad delicate 01. crisp lamina. These "lettuce heacls" art. harvested for cor~sunipti~rias salad. Economic Botany

Fig. 14.10: Various types of lettuce. (a) leafy variety (b) :I head-forming variety (c) romai~~e variety. After the vegetative phase of growth, if the "head" is not harvested, tlie plant sl-~ows elongation of the stem (bolting). This elongating slem bears a few leaves and a terminal lar; paniculate inflorescence. Each branch of the paniculate inflorescence tcrniir~atesin a capitulum. Bolting and flowering change the chemistry of tlie leaves. They develop a bitte taste arid become unfit for use as a salad. 14.3.2.4 Uses : Lettuce is the most widely cultivated salad crop. The leaves contain vitamins A and E as well as rninerals like calcium, phosphorus, sodiuni: ~nagriesiu~nand potassium. They are eaten raw or they may be boiled. Lettuce seeds are used in plant physiology experiments to study the effect of light on seed germination.

14.3.3 Spinach Botanical Name : Spirrncin olerncen Idinn. Family : Chenopodiaceae Common name : Palak n=6 This plant shows a somewhat superficial resemblance to "beet greens" or India11Spinach - Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis (see 14.2.6). Both plants are members of the family Chenopodiaceae, but are classified in different genera. The two genara differ in tlie foliage and floral structure. The genus Beta has bisexual flowers while the genus Spinacea has unisexual flowers. 14.3.3.1 Origin and distribution : Spinacea oleracea has been cultivated since ancient times in South Western Asia. It probably originated in Iran. It was introduced into North Africa and Europe and is now widely c~~ltivatedin temperate regions of the world. It is a very popular leafy vegetable in USA, Canada and Europe. Spinacea oleracea is cultivatec on a limited scale in the hill stations of India, but Indian spinach (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis) is widely cultivated all over the country. 14.3.3.2 Cultivation : Spinach shows wide adaptability to varying soil and climatic condi- tions. The cool and short day conditions are ideally suited for good leafy growth. Long days and higher temperatures lead to flowering. The spinach crop is grown from seed and is ready for harvest in 6 - 8 weeks after sowing ) Leaves are harvested 3-4 times before the plants begin to flower. 14.3.3.3 Botany : The spinach plant is an erect herb 30 - 60 cm. in height. The vigorous, quick growing plant is a biennial, but is cultivated as'an annual. It bears a very-short plate like stem from which arises a crowded rosette of leaves. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong, simple, smooth, soft and somewhat succulent (Fig. 14.1 I).

Fig. 14.1 I: Leaves of Spinart).

When the plant is allowed to continue growing, an erect stem grows out from the centre of the flat prate-like basal region. 'This bears alternate leaves which are smaller in size than the basal leaves. in the axils of thesc srnaller leaves arise clusters of female flowers. 'The stem terminates in a spike bearing male flowers. 'The flowers are small greenish structures, ' pentamerous and actinomorphic, The fruit is a hard unpressed utricle. It is enclosed in a spinescent capsule like structure. I 14.3.3.4 Uses : In ancient times, spinach was used as a medicine. The large amount of fibre present in the leaves served as a mild laxative. It is now a popular leafy vegetable because of its high vield. The leaves are rich in ~nineralssuch as calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, phosphorus, sodium, copper, vitamins A, B-complex and C, atid carotene. They are also an important source of natural vitamin K. The succuler~tleaves are eaten raw or cooked. They contain Inore protein than any other lcafy vegetable. They are also used it1 soups and I salads.

1 SAQ 2 I. Match column 1 (Plant) with column ii (Family) Column I Column I1 ! I: Cabbage Chenopodiaccae

li ~ettuce Brassicaceae Spinach Asteraceae

2 List three features which tnake leafy vegetables important components of a balanced diet. : i) ...... i ii) ...... *...... iii) ...... Economic Botany 3. Write a note on the cultivation ol'let~ucc,

4. Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or f'zlse (F) a) All leafy vegetables car1 be cultivated in weakly acidic soils Iz

b) Blanched Myvegetables are less nutritious

c) Flowering of Cabbage or Spinach erihances thr: taste of the lenves d) kactucc.r sauiva originaled ehrougll hyhridizatian nfwild species. C

- ---P".------. 14.4 FRUIT AND SEED,VEG'Kl"'ABL,'K,S - ...... ,...... ~~...(-.~..-

You have learnt .in the introduction of this unit, that 3. vegetable is definetl as a nutrit,iaus food obtained from any part of the plant. In this context, ,true botanical fruits of ~nanyplar are also consumed as vegetables. The mejcrity of these, fruits cor~surneda::, veg~:tables act produced on herbaceous annuals. interestingly, in horticultu~.~,true botarlical fruits pro- duced by annual flowering plants are classifietf as vegetables. Following this definition, inany fruits produced by herbaceor~splants have been corlstrnned as vegetables sit~ce ancient times. A large number ofcucurbitaceous plants that produci;-edible liuits are eatel as vegetables. There are also the melons which althougli produced on Iterhaccsus artnual are consumed as fruits (see unit 13.2.8). Besides the c;ucurbirs, tomatoes,, bri~~jalsanal chill! are i~nportantplants of the family Solanaceae whose fruits are used as vegct;rbles. Other important fruits which are grown 6s vegetables, inciudc: thc !tidy's finger (Okra) and variou beans (~eeunit 12). Most vegetables do not have fats or protein but they are source of vitiimins, minerals, roughage etc. They are important as vegetable crops and we will discuss here sonli: impor- tant plants whose fruits are consula7ed as vegetables. 14.4.1 The Cucurbib The family is characterised by tendril bearing herbaceous plants with unisexual flowers and fleshy berry like fruits {Fig. 14.12). We arc Familiar with the gourds, melons, pumpkins and the cucumber whicli are conirnonly consumed in different [I~~ZSofttt country. It would be difficult to descrihc all these in tletail because ofsyace limitations. Fortunately, most ofthe plants ofthis family have simila~~cl~a~~actet.istics(Fig.14.13) ar~d grow in the same kind afclintatic and soil condit~onsalthougl~ they ntay have originated in different parts of the world. The majority have spread to various tropical and subtropical regions where they are cultivated for the fruits. Besides being cons~rmedas food, the fruits of cucurbits are also used for making some utensils for storage, containers, nnd rm~usical instruments. The dry hard shells of the mature fruits are also used in Inally other ways. Sponges are made from the fibro-vagcular network of the ripe fruits of Lz&i~. Seeds of n~arly cucurbits are important constifuents of confectionery and salted snacks. Branched tendl-il

Fig. 14.12: Cucurbitaceae, a) Diagrammatic sketcln of the general structural p1a11 of the cucurbit leaf axil; te~dril,brnct, flower and bud. b) A longitudinal section of a hermaphrodite flower. c) A cross section of a young fruit.

Male flowcr in section Mole flower with perinnth rellloved

Note: Characteristic c~nvolutedstanlens

M Fenlale flower in section

. Ovary in cross-scction

Wit11 periantl~ parts removed

Fig. 14.13: Fruits are formed from inferior ovaries with the rind of the fruit a composite perianth of the ovary wall and lower parts of the calyx and corolla. Economic Botany Some of the more important cucurbits grown as vegetable crops are listed here. 14.4.1.1 Bertincasn lrispirla (Thunb) Logn. (wax or white gourd) Common name : Petha n = 12 This plant originated in Java and is now cultivated throughout tropical Asia. The fruits are large, heavy spherical to oblong with a white waxy coating on the green rind. The white spongy flesh contains numerous flat seeds. The young fruits are eaten as a vegetable. Ripe fruits are candied with sugar and made into a delicious sweet meat. The fruits are also used in religious ceremonies on auspicious occa- sions. 14.4.1.2 CitrullusIat?ntus var.fistulosrrs (Stocks) Uuthie and Fuller. (The squash melon) Common name : Tinda n = 11 Thisvariety ofthe watermelon originated in India and is mostly cultivated in the northern parts of the country. The small rounded (green) fruits are cooked as a vegetable in a variety of ways. 14.4.1.3.a Cucunais melo Linn. var. reticul(llus Ser. (Musk Melon) Common name :Kharbuza n - 12 The musk melon. This has been described in detail in Unit 13.2.8. The fruits of some varieties are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. 14.4.1.3.b C~tcuntismeloLinn. var. i~tjlissirn~rs(Roxb.) Dutl~ie& Fuller (The long melon or snake cucumber) Common name : Kakri n = 12 This is a native of lndia and is cultivated for local consumption in different states. The young fruits are eaten raw as a salad. 14.4.1.4 Cucumis sativrrs Linn. (The Cucumber) Common name : Khira n=7 It originated in northern lndia and has now spread throughyut the world. 'The shape, size and colour ofthe fruit vary considerably in different varieties. The fruits are eaten as a salad vegetable. 14.4.1.5 Cucurbiln maxima Duch. ex Linn. (Thepumpkin or winter squash) Common name: Sitaphal n = 12 This originated in South America (Peru) and has now spread to many parts of the world. The fruit is variable with a soft or hard rind which may be dull or brightly coloured. Tile flesh is of various shades of yellow. The seeds are plump and usually smooth. 1 Bristles are present on the stem and leaves of the plant. i I The mature fruits are cooked as a vegetable. i I 14.4.1.6 Cucurbitamosctttnla (Duch. ex Lam) Duch. ex Poir (The Pumpkin) Common name: Mitha Kaddu n = 12 I This species was widely distributed in North and South America and it may ]lave been first , domesticated in Central America or Mexico. It is 11ow grown in the tropical regions of the , worid. This species is very similar to n~aximaand is distinguished by tl~c

absence of bristles from the stem and leaves. 1 1 The fruit is cooked as a vegetable and a sweet confection is also made from the fruit. Vegetables 14.4.1.7 Cucurbitn pep Cinn. (The marrow or Summer Squash) Common name : Vilaiti Kaddu, Kumra n = 20 This species originated in North America and is now widely distributed. It can tolerate cooler climates, while C. moschata tolerates warnier climates. It is similiarto the other species but can be differentiated by its sharply angular, grooved, hard peduncles and small sized fruits. It is not as popular as the other two species. ' The fruits are consumed as a cooked vegetable. . 14.4.1.8 Lagenaria sicernrin (Molina) Standl. (The bottle gourd) Common riame : Lauki n = 11 The bottle gourd has been known in both the Old and the New World since ancient times. It may have originated in Africaor India (Old World) or in Mexico or Peru (New World). It is now widely spread throughout the tropics. The young fruits are cooked as a vegetable while the older mature fruits are allowed to dry on the plant itself. These form a hard shell in various shapes and sizes. They are used as ' containers (bottles) or made into domestic utensils such as bowls, ladles, spoons, etc. 14.4.1.9 Luffn acutnrrguln (Lin n.) Rox b. The Arrgled Loofa (Ridged or ribbed spongegourd) Comrnon name : Kali torai n = 13 This species originated in North-West lndia and is widely cultivated in our country. Unlike most other cucurbits, this grows well in low-humid tropics. 'The fruits are club shaped, angled and I 0-ribbed. The young tender fruits are cooked as a vegetable. 14.4.1.11 0 Luffa cylindrica (Linn.) M.J. Roem. The smooth Eoofa (Smooth Spo~~gegourd) Common name: Ghia torai n = 13 It may have originated in lndia and is widely cultivated in the tropical regions of the world. The fruit is nearly cylindrical with light stripes, but it is not ribbed or angled. The young fruits are cooked as a vegetable. Mature fruits are allowed to dry on the plant, so that the fibro-vascular network develops completely. This is used as a bath sponge or for other purposes. ' 14.4.1.1 1 Montordicn cltnratrtirr Linn.

I (The Bitter goard) Gon~monname : Karela , n=ll Although its actual centre of origin has not been determined, the bitter gourd originated in the Old World. It is now widespread throughout the tropics. I 'The pendulous fruits are long, fusifor~n,ribbed and with numerous tubercles. The you~lg fruits are eaten as a vegetable. The bitterness is reduced by seeping the cut fruit in salt water before cooking. The bitter principle is believed to help diabetics in reducing the blood-sugar levels. It may be sliced and added to curries or samber etc. 14.4.1.1 2 Triclrosanfl~esatrguitra Linn. (The snake gourd) Common name : Chachinda n =22 It has been known, in the wild state from India to Australia. It is cultivated in India, the far East and in the West Indies. Economic Botany The fruits are slender, long, tapering, greenish-white. The interior is hollow and contains a few thick brownish sculptured seeds.

The young fruits are eaten as a vegetable. . 14.4.1.13 Tricosnnfftesdioica Roxb. (The pointed gourd) Common name : Parwal n = 11 This originated in India and is also ci~ltivatedin South East Asia. The fruits are smaller when compared to the snake gourd. They are more sha~plypointed and spindle shaped. The fruits are compact and contain numerous seeds. The young fruits are cooked as a vegetable. 14.4.2 Solsnraseslps Vegetables The family Solanaceae represents one ofthe most economically important families which provides vegetabte from fruits. These fruit crops are not only botanically related but their cultural requirernents are also same. They are grown as annuals, in warm season. Besides these the potato has been described in section 14.2.1. Typically, the seeds are first sown in nurseries and the seedlings transplanted later into the field when about 15 cm. high.

Botanical name: Lycopersico~lescufefltum Mill. Fanlily : Solanaceae Commotr name: Tamatar n = 12 14.4.3.1 Qrigiu and distribution : The tomato originated in the Peru-Ecuador area of Latin America. It was known in many partsof tropical America in the Pre-Columbian tinies and reached the Old World in the 15th century. Toinatoes are now cultivated througllout the world. The major production countries in the order of in~portanceare the United States followed by China, Turkey, Italy, India, Egypt, Spain, Iran, Greece, Mexico, Russian Federa- tion, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, tile United Kingdom, Chile, Romania and United Arab Emirates. Mdrocco and Portugal are other important producers. 14.4.3.2 Cultivation : Tomatoes can be cultivated under a variety of climatic conditions. This is a warm season crop. Long sunny periods with light evenly distributed rainfall are very good. Very wet weather and low sunshine enhance vegetative growth thus reducing fruit formation. In tropical areas, 3 cropscan begrown in asingle year under irrigation. In the te~nperateregions, tomatoes are cultivated under controlled glasshouse conditions. Special cultivars have been developed to allow mechanical harvesting ofthe fruits. Totnatoes grow best in rich, fertile loamy soils. Loose texture of the soil is very important for proper growth. The crop is grown from seed. The seeds have to be freed completely from the fruit pulp

because this contains a germination inhibitor. Seedings are raised in nurseries and then , transplanted to the fields. Organic manuring greatly promotes the crop. Tomatoes can also be very successfully cultivated in soil-less cultures using hydroponics.

14.4.3.3 Bota~iy: The tomato plant is a very variable herb. It grows as a.perennial irr tlle , wild state but is cultivated as an annual. The seedling has a strong taproot, but this is : damaged during transplanting and a dense fibrous adventitious root system develops. The . weak stem is profusely bran.ched,first in a monopodial manner, but later in a syn~podial manner. The branches may be erect or trailing. Small capitate, reddish-yellow glandular llnin , and long pointed trichomes cover the stem, petiales and young leavas,

The leaves arespirally arranged, showing a215 phyllotaxy. The inflorescerlce is terminal, b,lt i because of the sympodial branching, the flowers appear to arise in clustels opposite to, or sorneti~nesbetween the leaves (Fig. 14.14). !

I ! ! 122 Qa) v- Root rncristcm Fig. 14.14: Lycopersi~~rzesculenfurn. a) A tolnato plant b) theflower c) Fruit in C.S. I The fruit is a fleshy berry. It is hairy when young, but becomes glabrous and shiny when I I mature. The shape, size and colour of the fruit varies in the numerous ~ultivars.The unripe 1 fruit is green while the ripe fruit is usually red or yellow. The red colour.of the fruit is due to the development of two pigments, carotene and lycopersicin (or lycopene) in the developing ) fruit. The relative amount of these pigments determines the actual colour.of the ~ipefmils. In /. the yellow fruited varieties, lycopersicin does not develop. Tho fruit contains numerous

I small: light brown seeds. , 14.4.3.4 Uses : The tomato is a very important vegetable crop and ranks second only to I potato. It is the most important canned or processed vegetable due to its special nutritive i value. The fruit is a rich source of minerals and vitamins A and C, The fruits are eaten raw as I salad or are cooked. They are an important constituent of curries. Tomatoes are also used i for making soups, sauces and ketchups. Processing of tomatoes into paste, puree and soups has now become an important industry. Tounato seeds (obtained from the pulp and residues) I I contain a semidrying oil. This is e.dible and used as a salad oil, or in the manufacture of 1 : margarine and soap;

I 14.4.4 The Brinjal or the Eggplant or Aubergine

, Botanical name: Solanurn melonge~taLinn. , Family.: Soianaceae I Common name : Baigun nE12 : 14,4.4.1 Origin and distribution : The brinjal plant originated in India. It is believed that ' this was first cultivated as a vegetable crop in the north east where wild plants of many types i occur even today. Gernlplasm collections of the brinjal have been made by the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources from many parts of India to study the biodiversity of this vegetable crop. From India, this plant spread to other parts of the world. Brinjal is cultivated lapan. Economic Botfly in the tropics, subtropics and warm temperate regions. It is an ilnponant TGrkey, Italy, Egypt Iraq, besides India and South East Asia- 14.4.4.3 Cultivation : The agro-climati~requirements for cultivating fhebrinjal are very ,imiliar or the same as for tomato it however requiresa longer 6wwingseason for the fruits to mature. This is a warm season crop and does not tolerate frost It is a hardy plant and can be gmwn on different kinds of soils. The crop grows best on well-drained loalny soils. The seeds are geminated in nurseries and the seedlings 3% trans~lanted.The crop is labour intensive. The fruit is harvested when it attains a good size and coiollr Fruit set can be increased by Using chemical growth regulators when flowering hegins. The wed may be treated with the growth regulators before sowing. 14.4.4.3 ~~t~~~ : In its wild state, the brinjal plant is a perennial, but it is cultivated as an annual. It has a strong, deep penetrating taproot systen1 sup~oflingthe erect branching herb. The plant grows 0.5 to 1.5 in height with spines and a grey tomenturn on all Pafir. The stem is much branched and spreading (Fig. 14-1 5 a). There are different types of flowerr in brinjal on the basis of the length ofthc style Only flowers having long or medium sized styles set fruit. The fruit is a large berry valging ill and colour. ~tis smooth, shiny and firn~fleshed. The fruit is a large, smooth. aolossy, firln-fleshed, pendant berry (up to 15 em long). Usually avoid. oblong or obovoid (Fig. 14.13, ranging from white or yellow to deep purple or black, or even striped. Numero~l sinall light brown seeds are embedded in the flesh of the fruit. ' 14.4.4.4 uses : Fresh brinjal fruits are rich in minerals and vltl min B. They arc cooked as i vegetable in a wide variety ofways, Small fruited varieties can be sliced a~ldfried or cooke Large fruited varieties can be roasted also. Slices of brinjal can also be deep fried after coating tlre~nwith a batter of gram flour to provide a tasty snack. 7 Stigtna ( Pistil

Fig. 14.15: Solflnun melot~genn.a) twig of brinjnl b) Plower c) irllit d) ('.S. & I..S, of frllil Vegeta bles 14.4.5' Chillies

I Botanical nnnre : Capsicum onnuurn Linn. Capsicumfrca~escens Linn.

I Family : Solmrnaceae

I Common name: Mirch I n-12 ' There are various kinds of chiilies commonly used as vegetables, or as a spice or condiment j for flavouring and seasoning food, either fresh or dried, whole or powdered. Those used as vegetable are called red or sweet peppers, bell pepper, capsicum, green-pepper, pimento, I while the pungent varieties are referred to as capsicum-pepper, cayenne-pepper, chill i-pepper, long pepper and red-pepper. Some botanists recognise only one species, Cq.xicurn 1 ,frutescens (synonym C annuum) with different varieties. 'The plants show distinct character- istics and are also considered to be different species of the same genus. Thus Capsicurn frutescens Linn. and C. annuuln Linn, are now recognised as distinct spetieS which are widely cultivated throughout the world. There are also other species which are cuitivated , only in South America. Plants of Capsicurn annuum are annual herbs bearing solitary fruits in leaf axils while those of C.f,.utescens are perennial and bear two or more fruits in groups in the leaf axils. The fruits of C. annzturn are of various shapes and sizes as well as of different colour. They are mild in their pungency. The fruits ofC.frutescens are small, conical, red or I yellow and rnore pungent. The two species also do not interbreed easily, and when crossed, I the hybrids are sterile. Both species are cultivatcd and C. arlnzrum has numerous varieties. d- Also study the Llnit 17 Spices of Blocks 1 I I B. 14.4.5.1 Origin distributioh.: The genus Capsicum originated in the New World and many wild species exist in America. Cultivated capsicums have been known since ancient times in Peru. There are also evidences ofthese peppers being cultivated in Mexico in pre- columbian times. This region also has a great diversity of cultivated C. annzrlrm and no wild plants are known. The genus Capsicur~rspread to the Old World when Columbus took back the fruits to Spain after 1492. Interestingly, 50 years later, by 1542, three distinct cultivated racesof C, annuum were recognised in India. Today India is the biggest producer of chillies. Other countries where th~scrop is grown include Thailand, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria and Sudan. Besides these areas, chillies are also grown in eastern and Southern Europe and Southern United States. Large quantities ofchillies are imported by Sri Lanka, USA and Malaya. In India, the crop is grown in all parts of the country. About 75% of the entire crop is pro- duced in 4 states namely Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Other states where chilli is cultivated are Madllya Pradesh, Punjab and Bihar. . 14.4.5.2 Cultivation : Chillies are grown in tropical and subtropical regions and require a iuni warn1 humid climate. They do not tolerate frost. Water-logging can result in defoliation and rotting of the plant. Prolonged rain fall leads to poor fruit set and rotting of the fruit. The crop can be grown in different kinds of soils which are well-drained and well-aerated. Light loamy soil rich in calcium is best for cultivating the crop. The seeds are gerniinated in nurseries and the seedlings are transplanted. Organic manures promote good growth of the plants. Harvesting oftlie fiuits is determined by the purpose for which the crop is cultivated. They may be harvested when green and fully grown or when they are red and fully ripe. 14.4.5.3 Botany : Capsicum annulrm is a variable herb which may become very large and shrub-like. Larger plants are sometimes woody at the base. The plant is grown as an annual and attains a height of 0.5 - 1.5 m. The strong taproot of the seedling is generally damaged during transplantation and numerous laterals develop. The fruit is an indehiscent berry containing many seeds. The shape, size and colour of the fruit varies considerably in different varieties (Fig. 14.16). Economic Botany

Fig. 14.16: n) flowering shoot of C. frulcscms b) flower c) flower in L.S. d) fruit & fruit ir e) C. annrcum fruit RL fruit in L.S. r-d, C; frl~lescertse; C?; anrrrrurn)

14.4.5.4 Uses : Mildly pungent.var/eties with large fruits are eatera as a vegetable and salads. The large unripe dark green berries of C. annuurn var. grossun (called Simla m N. Jndia) are used as a vegetable. 'They may be cooked after slicing or whole with difT kinds of stuffings. 'They are also added as "toppings" on pizzas. Other vi~rietiesare e raw or pickled or even added to flavour food. When the fruits are allowed to ripen on the plant itself, they become red. These are dri powdered. This is called Cayenne pepper and it is used for seasoning of curry powdc alongwith other spices. The pungency of these peppers is due to an alkaloid called capsaicin which is present placentae. Tlie red colour is due to a pigment called capsnnthin. Chillies also contain amounts of vitamin C. Vitamin A and minerals are also present in tlie fruits.

14.4.6 Okra or Lady's finger Botanical name :Abeltnasclrus esci~lerrtus(Linn.) Mocnch Family : Malvaceae Commo~lname: Bhindi n = 12 14.4.6.1 Origin and distribution : Theokra plant originated in tropical Africaand wilc plants can be found along the river Nile in Egypt and Ethiopia. It has now spread widc throughout the world and the crop is grown for local consumption. It is also cultivate vegetable crop in the subtropics and in the warm parts ofthc temperate regions. The Q cultivated thl'oughout India in different months in different states. 14.4.6.2 Cultivation : The okra is a warm season vegetable crop. The crop can be cu in any type ofsoil, but it grows best in well-manured loarns. Young fruits are harvcste

' 2-3 months. The crop continues to produce fruits for 2-3 ~nontlisusually on every set third day, 14.4.6.3 Botany : The lady's finger plant is an erect annual herb, 1-2 m.tall, The entir is covered with epidermal hairs. The stems are green or sometimes tinged red. The flowers are solitary and axillary with short peduncles. They liave the typical organisa- Vcgctrbles ' tion ofthe family Malvaceae. These is an epicalyx made up of 8-10 narrow bractcoles which usually fall offbefore the fruit matures. The calyx splits longitudinally as the flo~rveropens. It faHs off with the petals after anthesis. The fruit is a pyra~nidaloblong capsule. It is longitudi- nall~f~rrowed and tapers to a beak-like end (Fig. 14.7). It may be nlabrous or hirsute. The I mature capsule splits (dehisces) longitudinally. The seeds are dark green to dark brown, rounded and tuberculate.

I 14.4.6.4 Uses : Fresh young fruits are consumed-as a vegetable. They contain vitamins A,B 1 and C, as well as minerals especially iodine. They are cooked in various ways after slicing or , splitting them. They may also be deep fried. Mucilage can also be obtained from the stem. It I is used industrially in the manufacture ofjaggery (Gur) in India. It is also used in sizing paper , in China. Fibre of inferior quality is obtained from tlie sten1 and very large mature fruits. This ' is used in the manufacture of paper and textiles. The ripe seeds contain an edible oil.

i and'

I n the,i lrge ! I

Itivatd Fig. 14.17: Abelmoschus esculerrtus. r) A flowering and fruitirlg branch h) flower c) flower in L.S. d) fruit in L.S. :d nftC ;and e plan1 Economic Rotany SAQ 3 1. Narne six cucurbitaceous plants used as vegetables which originated in India.

...... ,,,,..,....,, 2, Name four fruit and seed vegetables which originated in the new world.

3. Indicate whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). a) The bright red colour ofchillies and tomatoes is due to anthocyaniri pigments. [ b) An alkaloid is responsible forthe pungency of chillies. c) The deep purple colour of the brinjal is due to the presence of iodine in the fruit.[ . d) The mucilage in the fruit of Lady's finger provides the flavour to this vegetable [ e) All fruit vegetables are produced from flowers having a superior ovary. C

114.5 SUMMARY

Q fnformation about different vegetables has been provided to you in this Unit. Differe parts of the plant provide nutritious food for mankind and these vegetables are impor in many ways. Many plants used as vegetables have been cultivated since ancient ti1 and this information has helped us to know about the origin and distribution of these crops. It is possible to group these plants on the basis of their origin, their botarlical classification, morphological nature of the part used, and other features. Fro111 this knowledge, it has been possible to know about some common properties of different vegetables. e Detailed information on some ofthe more wel1:known vegetables has been provided. The vegetables have been grouped into three categories on the basis of ll~anio~pllolo cal nature of the edible part. In each case, the data have been presented to enrich you knowledge about the origin and distribution, the cultivation, botanical aspects and us of the plants. The botanical name and the family to which the plant belongs has also been provided. The following Table summarises some important information you have obtained Table1 4.1 : Vegetables

Botanical name - Family Common English Name Common Name Part Used Botanical Characteristics

Solanurn Solanaceae Potato or Irish Alu Specialised herbaceous plant with underground stolons bearing tuberosum Potato underground tubers: rich source steam called of starch, vitamins and stem called tub? minerals tuber - Ipomoea batatas Convolvulaceae Sweet Potato Shakar Kandi Adventitious Vine-like herbaceous plants with adventitious tuberous roots, tuberous roots rich source of starch. sugar. proteins, vitamins and minerals. Manihot Euphorbiaceae Cassava or Manioc Shakar Kanda Adventitious Shrub with latex in all parts of plant, 5-10 large tubers. esculenta swollen tuberous roots starch and tuberous roots hydrocyanic acid present -

Alliaceae Onion Piyaz Bulb with concentrically Herbaceous bulbaceous plant; food stored in concentric arranged fleshy layers of fleshy leaf bases; enzymatic changes due to injury leaf bases or cutting of onion result in the characteristic odor and pungent flavour. Allium sativum Alliaceae Garlic Lahsun Bulb with numerous Herbaceous bulbaceous plant: food stored in thickened. small bulblets storage leaf which bulblets forms the -bulblet': pungent smell due to allicin formed from alliin. Beta vulgaris Chenopodiaceae Beetroot or Chukander Swollen root with Herbaceous plant showing anamoious var. vuigaris var. vulgaris Gardenbeet hypocotyl secondary growth producing the large beetroot; large amounts of betacyanin pigments and sugar present - Beta vulgaris var. rapa -do- Sugarbeet -do- Large amounts of sugar, no pigments - Beta vulgar is -do- Beet greens or Palak Young leavesused Herbaceous plant with a "head" of vat. leaves; leaf var. bengalensis Indian Spinach as vegetable in place sheaths contain some pigments, leaves contain minerals of true Spinach and vitamin A. The flowers are bisexual while in Spinacea oleracea they are unisexual. Daucas carota Apiaceae Carrot Root Herbaceous plant with conical taproot rich in carotenes, vitamins, sugar and minerals. Brassica Brassicaceae Cabbage Bandgobhi Leaves Herbaceous plant with thick -fleshy over-lapping leaves oleracea var. or Pattagobhi capitata forming a compact"head3 Leaves are arich dapitata source of minerals and vitamins. Asteraceae Lettuce Salad Leaves Annual glabrous herb with a compact radical rosette of leaves forming the lettuce head. Leaves are a rich source of minerals and vitamins - Spinacea Chenopodiaceae Spinach Palak Leaves This plant shows a superficial resemblance to Beet greens oleracea or Indian Spinach (Bern vltlgaris var. bengalensis). It differs in its foliage and floral structure. The flowers are unisexual. The leaves are a rich source of minerals. \ itnmins and carotene. Botanical name Family Common English Name Common Hindi Name Part Used Botanical Characteristics

Benincasa Cucurbitaceae Wax gourd or Petha Fruit All cucurbitaceous plants are herbaceous tendrillar hispida White gourd climbers or runners. They have unisexual flowers and '3 fleshy berry like fruits. The shape. size and colour of the fruits vary considerably. Cilnriius Squash Tinda Fruit lanatus var. j?stulosus melqn Long melon or Fruit Snake cucumber

-do- Cucumber Khira Fruit

Cucurbita maxima -do Pumpkin or Winter Squash Sitaphal Fruit Cucurbitaceae Pumpkin Mitha Kaddu Fruit

do- The marrow or Vilaiti Fruit Summer Squash Kaddu Lagenaria Bottle gourd Lauki or Fruit siceraria Ghia Kaddu Luffa acutanpfa Angled Loofa Kali Tori Fruit

Smooth Loofa. Ghia Fruit Vegetable sponge, Tori Dishcloth gourd Momordica churantia -do- Bitter gourd Karela Fruit do- Snake gourd Chachinda Fruit

Trichosarz!hesdioicu Pointed gourd Fruit Tomato Fwit Herbaceous plant with weak profusely branched stem and compound leaves. Fruit is a fleshy berry containing the pigments carotene and lycopersicin. They are rich in minerals and vitamins. Botanical name Family Common English Name Common Hindi Name Part Used Botanical Characteristics

Solanurn melongena do- Brinjal or Egg Baigun Fruit Herbaceous plant becoming woody near base; large densely plant or Aubergine hairy leaves. Flowers purplish violet with distinct yelow stamens. Spines present on calyx which is persistent Fruit a berry rich in minerals and vitamins B. Capsicum ann uum Solanaceae Mirch, Herbaceous plant with profusely branched stem; leaves Capsicumfruiiescens Lal Mirch variable, Sirnla Mirch flower solitary; fruit berry of Simla Mirch variable shape, size, colour and flavour. An alkaloid capsaicin and a pigment capsanthin are present besides large amounts of vitamin C.Minerals and vitamin A are also present. Abelmoschus Malvaceae Lady's finger Okra Bhindi Fruit Erect annual herb becoming woody at base; leaves long esculentus petioled and palmately lobed. Flowers bright yellow with' reddish spot near base of petals: fruit is a pyramidal oblong capsule containing seeds. C

Economic Botany From the above Table and from your study of the material in this Unit, you have learnt that large number of plants have been used by mankind as sources of vegetables for food. The majority are cultivated for local consumption, although some .like the tomato are processed different ways. A large number of the plants are dicotylednous, but a few are monocotylednous. Garlic an onion are important rnonocotytednous vegetables. 'The families Solanaceae, and Cucurbitaceae have many plants which are consumed as vegetables. All these plants provide valuable vitamins and minerals in the diet and are thus important for healthy living

14.4 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Define the term vegetable and describe the different kinds of vegetables in botanica terms. Mention the important properties of vegetables in general.

2 List the plants you have studied in which the fruit is used as a vegetable. Describe any two of these which are very popular in your region in detail. Mention the varic uses of these fruits.

3. Name the various underground plant parts serving as food storage organs. Mentic the features by which you cao differentiate a stem tuber from a root tuber. Describe one of these in detail under the headings: Origin and distribution; ecology; botany and uses.

4. In what ways are leafy vegetables important in human diet? How are blanched leaf vegetables obtained? List the leafy vegetables popular in your region. Mention th important features of these 14.7 ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Questions

SAQ 1 1. Vegetable Botanical Name Family a. Potato Sofanurn tuberosum Solanaceae b. Sweet Potato Ipomoea batatas Convo lvulaceae c. Cassava rManihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae d. Onion Alliurn cepa ~lliaceae e. Garlic Allium salivzim Alliaceae f. Gardenbeet Beta vulgaris Chenopodiaceae var. vulgaris g. Carrot Daucas carota Apiaceae 2. a. The sweet potato, cassava, gardenbeet and carrot are specialised roots. b. i) Potato - Special underground branches called stolons bear branched outgrowths which are storage organs. These tubers,have an anatomical organisation typical of a stem as described in 14.2.1.3. ii) Onion - The actual bulb consists of a short flattened disclike stem produced at the base of the plant. It increases in diameter as growth continues and gets bus surrounded by concentric layers of fleshy leaf bases. iii) Garlic - As in onion, the actual bulb consists of a flattened disc-like stem. This I has a varying number of smaller bulbs or bulblets formed from the axillaty buds of the young foliage leaves. Thus the bulb of garlic is a composite structure.

4. a) Carotene b) sugar ,n , C) cassava

c e) starchy

... I 5, a) Old World crops

04. i) onion ... ii) garlic iii) Beetroot, sugarbeet iv) carrot

..a I b) New World crops YI e i) potato ii) sweet potato

.*., iii) cassava ... 6 Referto 14. I - Introduction

... 1. Column I Column I1 ... Cabbage Brassicaceae ... Lettuce Asteraceae Spinach Chenopodiaceae Economic Botany 2. ij! Adequate amounts of minerals and vitamins are present ii) High water content and low energy value iii) Large surface area provides roughage in the diet. This is essential for the proper functioning ofthe alimentary canal. 3. See 14.3.2.2

SAQ 3 I. a) Cifrulluslanatris var. fislulosus b) Cucumis melo var. utilissimus c) Cucumis sativus

e) Lliffa cylinderica f) Trichosanfhesdioica

b) Cucurbita moschata c) Cucurbira pep0 d) Lycopersicon esculentum e) Capsicum .annuldm 3. a) Lux0 acutangula has club shaped, angled and I0 ribbed fruits; while Lufla cylindr has nearly cylindrical fruits which are not ribbed or angled. They have light colour stripes b), Cucurbita maxima has bristles on the stem and leaves of the plant. These structures a absent in Cucurbita moschata. c) Capsicum annuurn is an annual herb with solitary fruits in the leafaxils. C.frutescens i perennial and produces 2 or more fruits in groups in the leaf axils. 4. a) F b) T

C) F d) T e) F Terminal Questions 1. The vegetables obtained from true botanical fruits show the following similarities wit1 leafy vegetables. i) They contain large amounts of moisture. ii) They cqntain minerals and vitamins iii) They add necessary flavour and variety of food. iv) They are not very rich in proteins, fats and carbohydrates

and Refer to the Introduction 14.1 ; SAQ I - 6. I 2. Referto 14.4 - Fruit and Seed vegetables. The list is provided in the surnrnaly also (1 4.5). Describe the two plants which are popular in your region as per the pattern followed in this unit. 3. Refer to 14.2 - vegetables obtained from roots and underground parts. The list is also Vegetr bles provided-in the summary (14.5). A stem tuber is a specialised tuberous outgrowth from an underground branch called the stolon. Anatomically this tuber shows the typical features of a stem. A root tuber is a swollen tuberous structure storing food. It is adventitious in its development and shows anatomical features ofa root. Describe any one in detail as required in the question. 4. Refer to 14.3. Leafy vegetables. Their importance has been listed in the answer to SAQ 2,4 Blanching of leafy vegetables is a common cultural practice. The leaves or leaf stocks are covered with earth or wrapping paper to exclude light. This leads to non-development of chlorophyll so that the leaves become pale white. Prepare the list of popular leafy vegeta- bles in your region and mention the important features of these.