l48 PRINCIPES [Vor.36

Principes, 36(3), 1992, pp. 148-155 BorassusaethioPum, a Threatened Multiple Purpose Palm in

BrrxvnNu SeMsou,r Jones E. LAwESSoN,'ANDANDERS S' Bennoo2 t[Jniuersit6 Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, FacuJtE des Sciences, Institut des Sciencesd'e l'Enoironnement, Dakar, Senegal and' zBotanical Institute, Uniuersity of Aarhus, Nordlandsaej 68, DK-8240 Risskotl- Denmark

B ora,s su s aethiopum is an economically ern treatmentsl €.g.: Flore du S6n6gal and ecologicallyimportant palm tree of the (Berhaut 1967), Flora of West Tropical Sahelianand Sudanianzones in (Gif- Africa (Hepper, 1968), Flora of Tropical fard 1967, Gschladt I972). This majestic East Africa (Dransfield 1986) and, Flore representativeof the subfamily Coryphoi- illustr6e du S6n6gal (Vanden Berghen deae is often found in dense populations I98B) the position of B. aethiopurn is in periodicallyinundated depressions in the maintained. We have accePted B. Iandscapeor along rivers and lakes (Cheva- aethiopurn in this paper basedon the dif- lier 1949, Chevalier and Dubois i938)' ferences given by Dransfield (1986). Bor- aethiopurn was originally assusaethiopurn is accordingly more mas- describedby C. F. P. von Martius (1838) sive than B. f.abellifer. The are who separatedit from the widespreadand more rigid, less deeply folded and greater closelyrelated Asian species, Borassusfla' in number. Along with the ventricosestem' bellifer, based on a description of Thon- this gives a different appearancefrom B. ning in Schumacher(1829). Accordingto f.abellifer. this, B. aethiopum'ischaracterized by the Borassus aethiopum plays an impor- ventricose stem (Fig. l) of old individuals tant role in Senegaleserural life where it and the five to sevenmale flowers in each is the sourceof a number of products(Niang cluster (cincinni) as opposedto ten 1975, Diouf 1982, Sambou1985). It is flower "ron" fifteen in B. The number of called in Wolof dialect from which to f'abetlifer. "r6nier" flowers per cincinni is variable and in B. the French is derived. Destruc- aethiopum it is typically B-10, thus it is tive agricultural practicesand lack of man- not a good distinguishing character. In agementis now threatening populationsall other and older works, B. aethiopum' is over the country (Bellouard 1950, Diallo either cited in slmonymy with B. f'abellifer 1987, Sambou 1989). Densepopulations or retained as a variety under this. The of Borassas aethiopun't'are {ound in the only existingmonographic treatment of the southernand southeasternparts of Senegal genusBorassus is that of Beccari(1924} closeto rivers and lakes where the ground- This work includes seven speciesand rec- water level is high. Natural populationsof ognizesB. aethiopum with three variants: Bora,ssusaethioputn are rare in the north- vat. senegalensis,var. bagamojensisand ern part of Senegal,but the palm is often the typical form. B. aethiopurn is distin- planted in fields (Fig. 2). The best climatic prevail in the mid- guished from B. f'abellifer by having a conditionsfor this palm calyx that is connateto the middle and not dle part of the country where large pop- split to the baseas in this species.In mod- ulations once occurred. r9921 S.{\IBOUET AL.: BORASSUSIN SENEGAL t49

l-4' Borassus aethiopum- i. Old individual. Note the swollenor ventricose stem. 2. palm tree planted in mixed cropping system. Note the male inflorescence and the persistent sheaths characteristic of yourg ' 3' Cross section of immature . Note the fleshy -".o"urp and the three pyrenes that each contain the gelatinous endosperm. 4. Roof thatchei with the leaves. 36 t50 PRINCIPES [Vor.

Overexploitation and habitat degrada- Tabte1. TheDffirent Porls olfBorassus Man tion is threatening this palm so seriously aethiopum Used bY that Senegaleseauthorities are now trying to protect it. It is illegal to exploit the wood I. Uses based on structural properties and other laws foi commer"ial purposes O Stem (timber, boards) resulate its use in the common lands of O Leaves thi villages(Government of SenegalI973). - (fences, fibers) -blade mats, rugs' Despitethese efforts the destruction seems (roofs, baskets, furniture) to 6e continuing. This paper will first describesome of the many usesof Borassus [. Uses based on nutritional and medicinal aethiopum and then mention the various properties threats to which it is exposedin Senegal. O food -endosperm Uses -cotyledonarY haustorium -palm heart All parts of Borassus dethiopum are -mesocarp exploited and used for a wide array of -sap tapped from near the shoot apex pnipot"t (Table i). The products can b9 (alcoholic beverage) airnid"dinto three major groups which will O medicinal be treated shortly in the following: ligneous -room (wood, fibers, etc.), food, and -male rachillae products -stamens medicine. -mesocarp A number of parts of the palm are edi- -hypocotyl ble. The young gelatinousendosperm is a -sap tapped from the trunk or near highly esteemedand nutritious snack (Fig. the shoot apex g). The mesocarp is fleshy when ripe and can be prepared and consumed in many ways: grilled, boiled, or mixed with sugar or honey. The.cotyledonaryhaustorium of of the the germinating seedis soft and sweet and used to heal wounds' The mesocarp against highly appreciated.The premature folded ripe fruit is usedas a stimulant and leaves of the seedling are collected from tetanus. It is said to be a very efficient too. The below the soil and eaten. TheY have a remedy againstintestinal parasites and fleshytexture and are very tasty. The palm eophyil (the first leaf) of the seedling The heart of Borassus aethiopum is also the sap are also used as stimulants. to exploited although the difficulties involved sap tapped from the stem is believed in extracting it somewhatlimit its impor- stimulate the growth of teeth in children' tance as a food source. A sap' which is The stemof Borassusaethiopurndeliv- very high in sugar content' is tapped from ers a hard wood that is resistant to decay The near the apical meristem at the base of and the damagingeffects of seawater. the palm heart (Bismuth and Menage durablewood is rarely attacked by i961). and funei and is said to have excellent Borassus aethioputrl is also used for a working-properties. It is used extensively number of medicinal purposes (Giffard by local carpenters for multiple purposes' in 1962). An infusion of the roots is used to to mention just a few: furniture, timber and treat miscellaneousailments such as stom- heavy construction such as bridges ach ache, throat infections, bronchitis and houses,boards for making floors, walls and of syphilis. The flower-bearing branches or roofs in houses. The soft swollen part (Fig. rachillae of the staminate inflorescences old trunks serves other purposes 5)' are used to treat venereal diseases.The A rich cottage industry is based on the stamens are mixed with Shea-butter and extraction of the leaves. The blade or seg- r9921 SA}IBOU ET AL.: BORASSUSIN SENEGAL r51

. - ". I I l

1,,t::

trunk. 6. Baskets 5-8. Borassus aethiopum. 5. A beehive made of the swollen and soft part of the snack' The chairs and braided from the major veins of the leaves- ;. The fruit mesocarPofers a nutritious related to table are made from leaf petioles. 8. The death of some old palm trees such as these is probably droueht. ments of the blade are used with great from an agricultural point of view. Its ingenuity for making thatch, mats, rugs, fibrous root system forms a dense mat in baskets (Fig. 4), bathtubs, etc. The leaf the surface Iayers of the soil which helps fibers are extracted and used for brooms to prevent soil erosion. It has been dem- and baskets (Fig. 6). The leaf petioles are onstrated that the staminate rachillae skillfully exploited in arts and crafts (Fig. release potassium upon decomposition 7) and are used to build fences around thereby enhancing soil fertility (Maydell houses and pastures. In the North, where 1983). These beneficial effects are the vegetation is sparse, leaf petioles often exploited in many parts of Senegal where serve as firewood. agro-forestry systems are based on man- Several aspects ofthe ecology of Boras- aged natural populations of Borasszrs sus aethiopum make it an interesting aethiopum. r52 PRINCIPES [Vor 36

9 12. Borasus aethiopum. 9. Male (left) and female of Oryctes monoceros Ol. (family Scarabei- I0' The 4""). signs of an Oryctes attack in a juvenile palm. II. Tapping of sugar from the crown. Exploitation has caused the death of the palm tree at the left. 12. Borassui aethiopurn must give way for the cultivationof millet.

Threats where age distribution becomesprogres- sively more skewed. This process may The destructionof Boras susaethio pum eventuallylead to a completelack of young is either a result of complete removal of stagesin the population which can prevent natural populationsor a slower process future regeneration. The factors respon- r9921 SAMBOUET AL.: BORASSUSIN SENEGAL I53 HUMANFACTORS I V

Fire Exploitation ol leaves Exploitation oi wood Exploitationof sap lrom stem

monoceros "tii:x'l:: 8:il[: "ti';:'Hi""*v / [l n'n"" ffi-/ Z:l::::il::"""'"" Il 3i::T;, Exploitation M oryctes gigas Fungi ol sap from stem I Fire Asriculrure Exploitation | + oi green fruit * > t| NATURALFAcroRS \{ I Fire Agriculture @Exploitation Wkili:i:: 3*:.""'"' ol nut

/

Exploitationof eophyll

tI

t3. Naturaland hman factorscausing degradation of Borasszsaethiopum populations in Senegal.

siblefor destructionof Borassusaethiopum decadeshas causedhigh mortality among can be dividedinto two major groups:nat- older palm trees that are sensitiveto fluc- ural and anthropogenic(Fig. l3). tuations in the ground water level (Fig. 8). The most important natural factor Destructive insects also represent a seri- threatening populations of Borassus ousthreat to Borassusaethiopum (Castel- aethiopumis probablydrought. A steadily Brancoand Tordo 1956, Lepesme1947). growing rain deficit during the last two After the apical meristem has appeared t54 PRINCIPES [Vor. 36 from below the soil, it is exposed to the Conclusion attack of three speciesof Oryctes Ildtger Borassus aethiopum, a genuine mul- (Scarabeidae)in particular.The two most tiple purpose palm tree, is a victim of its common speciesare Oryctes rrlonoceros own high utilitarian value. Both human and Olivier (Fig. 9) and.Oryctes boas Fabri- natural factors are threatening the natural cius. The third species,Oryctes gigas Cas- populationsin Senegal.As long as the use telneau, is rare but is found in the humid of this valuable palm is not regulated, the southern part of Senegal.All three beetles situation will probably worsen. Only strict dig into the base of the apical meristem managementof the remaining natural pop- (Fig. I0) and suck the sap which often ulations will save an important plant results in the death of the palm tree. They resourcefor future generations. can reproducein the swollensubdistal part of the stem of old individuals. The partly decomposeddead stems offer ideal con- Acknowledgments ditions for the development of larvae. Soecialthanks are due to the inhabitants Man's activities have had a severe of the villagesof Tchankoumalal, Baghan- impact on natural populationsof Bora,ssus gha, Tendouck and Pire Goureye for their aethiopum in Senegal.The main factors kind assistancein the field and for provid- contributing to the destruction are agri- ing much valuable information. We are (Fig. of culture I2), fire and, exploitation thankful to A. Goudiabv. Dakar who took sap wood, and use of palmheart and sugar the photographs.R. Roy, Dakar who near the apical meristem. The tapped from determined the collected insects and K. latter is a very destructive practice where Tind and A. Sloth who assistedskillfully (Fig. a hole is drilled through the leaf bases with the preparation of illustrations. I l) and a sap is tappedfrom the soft and fleshy tissues near the apical meristem. Usually the palm dies after having been LrrnReruRn Crten exploited in this way. It should be noted Beccaru, O. 1924. Palme della Tribir that in India and SE Asia, inflorescences (ed. Martelli). G. Passeri,Firenze, Vol. I, pp. 1- of Borassusflabellifer are tappedwithout tt. damaging the plant. Btrroue.nl, P. 1950. Le r6nier en A.O.F. Boiset For6ts des Tropiques I 4. In some Borassus aethiopum popula- BERHAUT,J. L967. Flore du S6n6gal.Clairafrique, tions, the age-distributionis so skewedthat Dakar. certain developmental stages are com- BISMUTH,H. eno G. MENAcE. 1961. Les boissons pletely lacking. What appearsto be - alcooliquesen A.O.F. Bull. IFAN 23 (s6r. B, lings are in fact very old individuals, that I-2):60-II8. Cesffi-Bnenco, A. J. F. eNo G. C. ToRDo. 1956. remain small due to agricultural practices Acerca do equilibrio bioecologico dos povoa- "cibes" such as burning of the ground cover. mentos de Borasszs sDD.na Guin6 Por- Adult individualsof Borassusaethiopurn tuguesa.Minist6rio do ultramai Junta de Inves- deliver a number of productsthat are highly tigacoesdo Ultramar, pp. 53-59. CHrv,trrnR, A. 1949. R6partition g6ographiqueet appreciatedby village people and they are exploitation des palmiersBorassus. Revue inter- consequentlythreatened by overexploita- nationalede botaniqueappliqu6e et d'agriculture tion. Thus. reoeated collection of leaves tropicale 325 326; 585-592. may severely limit the growth of the palm Cnrvetton,A. ANDR.DuBoIs. I938. Lespalmiers and excessiveextraction of green , Hyphaene et Borasszs de l'Afrique occidentale. Revue internationale de botanique appliqu6e et germinated seedsor young seedlingsmay d'agriculturetropicale I98: 93-I03. impede the potential of natural regenera- DIALLo, M. 1987. Le comportement du r6nier tion. (Borassus aethiopum Mart.) dans les r6neraies r9921 SAMBOUET AL.: BORASSUSIN SENEGAL 155

paysannes des r6gions de Fatick et de Thi6s MenrIus, C. F. P. voN. 1848. Historia naturalis (S6n6gal).Univ. Laval, M6m. de maitrise. palmarum. Miinchen, Vol. 3, pp. 219-222. DIour,S. I982. Ler6nierauS6n6gal.Dijon, ENS- MeYonrt, H..J. von. I983. Arbres et arbustesdu SAA, M6m. d'6tude. Sahel.Leurs caract6ristiqueset leurs utilisations. DRexsrrnto, J. 1986. Palmae. In: R. M. Polhill Eschborn, GTZ. (ed.). Flora of Tropical East Africa. Balkema, Nmnc, M. 1975. Le r6nier dansla r6gionde Thids. Rotterdam,pp. l8-2I. Notes africaines,IFAN 147: 77-82. Grrreno, P.L. 1962. Utilisationde quelquespro- SAMBou,B. 1985. La r6neraie class6ede Baghan- duits forestiers dans la sorcellerie et la phar- gha, une formation sp6cifique i usages multi macop6edu S6n6galoriental. Bois et For6ts des ples-6tude de la r6g6n6ration naturelle, inven- Tropiques84:3-12. taire et 6laborationd'un tarif de cubaeedu r6nier. 1967. Le palmier r6nier. Extr. du Univ. Dakar. I.S.E..M6m. de D.E.A. Bull.d'informationdu C.T.F.T. 5. 1989. R6nier (BorassusaethiopumMart.) Govrnnurnr oF SENEGAL.1973. D6cret no. 73" et r6neraies au S6n6gal:6tat actuel et conditions 327 du 3I mars 1973 portant modification des de restauration. Univ. C.A,D.. Dakar. Thdse 3e taxes d'exploitation forestidre et instituant de Cycle. nouvelles taxes. J.O. no. 4292. Juornal Officiel Scxultecnrn, F. C. 1829. BekrivelseafGuineiske de la R6publique du S6n6gal, I18d ann6e, pp. Planter, Andet Stykke. Kongel. Danske Vidensk. 1022-1024. Selsk. Naturvidensk. Math. Afh., 4 rekke 4: GScHLADT,W. 1972. Le r6nier au Dallol Maouri, 217,219. Niger. Bois et For6ts des Tropiques I45. VeNlrn BnRcHrN, C. l9BB. Flore illustr6e du HrppnR, F. N. 1968. Flora of West Tropical Africa. S6n6gal.Clairafrique, Dakar, Vol. 9, pp.77- The Whitefriars Press, Ltd., London and Ton- 79. bridge,Vol. 3(l), pp. I68-169. LEPESME,P. 1947. Les insectes des palmiers. P. Lechevalier. Paris.

Principes,36(3),1992, pp. 155 162

Biogeographyof the Coconut Cocosnucifera L.

HucH C. HeRnros National Coconut Deuelopment Programne, P-O. Box 6226, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

The coconut, like the calabashand the ABSTRACT bottle-gourd.is used as a convenientcon- The conditions under which cocontt (Cocos nucif tainer wherevermodern man has not yet era L.) evolved can be quite precisely specified. Thoie brought the ubiquitous benefits of plastic. conditions still exist today and the coconut palm can Unlike the calabashor the gourd, the coco- be found growing in its original habitat where it will continue to thrive, with or without human interven- nut comes already filled with a drinkable tion. The coconut can be considered as perhaps the liquid. This liquid is pure, it is palatable most successful member of the world's oldest and and it is portable. Unlike a plastic con- most durable ecosystem. Yet the major component tainer the coconut fruit is non-returnable, of that ecosystem, the coral reef, is constantly chang- absolutely disposableand totally recycla- ing its form. As a result the precise location of a center of origin for the coconut will probably never ble. Thesequalities are found in the imma- De Known. ture coconut and they are well known